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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
SEVENTH EDITION.
r
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
OR
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE.
SEVENTH EDITION,
WITH PRELIMINARY DISSERTATIONS ON THE HISTORY OF THE SCIENCES,
AND
OTHER EXTENSIVE IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS;
INCLUDING THE LATE SUPPLEMENT,
A GENERAL INDEX,
AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
VOLUME V.
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH;
M.DCCC.XLII.
\
.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
Boring.
> ORING, generally speaking, is the art of perforating a
„ J solid body. In the present article we propose to give
some account of the boring of Cannon, of Cylinders, of
Muskets, of Portland Stone, of Rocks, and of Wooden
Pipes.
1. Boring of Cannon is performed by placing the can¬
non on an axis, which is turned by a very strong power, whilst
a steel cutter, in form of a drill, is pressed against the me¬
tal, and excavates the cylindrical cavity which is required.
Boring may be considered as a branch of the art of turn¬
ing, which, in general, is the formation of cones, cylinders,
and other figures that have an axis, by making a straight
line or curve revolve round the axis on which the material
is fixed, or by making the material revolve whilst the ge¬
nerating line remains at rest. In turning bodies of no great
degree of hardness, and where it is required to take off
only a small portion of the surface at once, a small power
is sufficient to put the turning machine in motion ; and the
longer the edge of the cutter which is applied to the metal
is, and the harder the metal, the greater force is required
to turn the machine.
Cannon, at first, were frequently made of bars of malle¬
able iron, placed longitudinally, and these bars covered
with iron hoops, the whole welded or brazed together.
Ordnance of this construction was not sufficiently strong
to resist the explosion of the powder, and did not admit
of the cylindrical cavity being formed with much accu¬
racy. Its use was, therefore, gradually laid aside, and
guns of cast-metal were employed. And before the cast¬
ing of cannon became general, guns of cast-metal were
leserved for the most important situations; thus the ships
of the admiral and vice-admiral alone had cast-metal can¬
non, the other ships of war being armed with wrought-iron
guns only.
Copper, without mixture, has been employed to cast
guns, as appears from two large cannon made in the time
of Henry VIII. and bearing his name, in the armoury of
the lower of London. But the only two materials now
used for cannon are bronze, which is a mixture of copper
and tin, and cast-iron. In modern times the use of cast-
iron cannon has become more general, as that metal has
the advantage of not being softened by the heat of the
inflammation of the powder; whereas brass guns, when
fired many times in rapid succession, become heated so
vol. v.
nearly to the melting temperature of the metal, that the
muzzle of the gun droops. '
The first cannon made of cast-metal were cast hollow,
with a cavity as nearly cylindrical as could be executed
by casting. The surface of this cavity was then smoothed
on a boring machine by steel cutters set in a copper head,
and disposed so as to describe a cylinder terminated by a
half spheroid. These cutters (in French alezoirs, and the
operation alezer) are represented in the French Encyclo¬
pedic—planches, Fonte. This method of making guns
has long been laid aside on account of the holes and ine¬
qualities in the cavity thus formed, and the difficulty of
casting the cavity so as that its axis shall coincide with the
axis of the piece. Cannon are now always cast solid, and
the cylindrical cavity is formed by boring in this solid mass.
The power employed for boring cannon ought to be in
proportion to the hardness of the metal of which they are
composed, and to the size of the pieces. For the boring
of guns of brass, as it is called, that is, a metal composed
of ten parts of copper, one of tin, and two of brass, or of
these metals in other proportions, a metal softer and more
easily bored than cast-iron, horses are frequently employ¬
ed as a moving power; but the strong moving powers of
water or steam must be had recourse to for boring large
guns of cast-iron, which is the material used for making
the largest guns now in use, and is also the hardest sub¬
stance used in their manufacture. Indeed some kinds of
cast-iron are too hard to admit the action of the borer;
and for the making of guns it is necessary to melt pig-iron
of different qualities together, in order to have a metal that
shall possess no more than the required degree of hardness.
The quality of pig-iron is known by the appearance
of its surface, but more decisively by the appearance
which its fracture presents. To obtain this fracture, a
man takes one end of a pig in each hand, and lifting it as
high above his head as he can, throws it with force, so
that the middle of the pig shall fall across another pig
placed on the ground. In this way the pig thrown down
is broken. Soft or grey pig-iron, which is the most valu¬
able, breaks with difficulty, and the surface of its fracture
is of a grey colour, composed of pretty large crystalline
grains. Hard or white pig-iron breaks easily; the surface
of the fracture is white, and not sensibly granulated, the
grains that compose it being small. The pig-iron here
Boring.
BORING.
Boring, spoken of is that smelted by the coak of pit-coal. Pig-
iron smelted with charcoal of wood has a fracture of a
different appearance, sometimes lamellar, like the fracture
of metallic bismuth. Formerly guns used to be cast from
the blast furnace; that is to say, immediately from the
ironstone. This was attended with uncertainty in respect
to the nature of the metal; for the nature of the metal
given by the blast-furnace varies frequently and suddenly,
from causes either unknown, or not under the command
of the iron-master. For this reason guns are no longer
cast from the blast-furnace, but pig-iron already formed is
taken, of such qualities and in such proportions as to form
a metal neither too soft nor too brittle and hard for guns.
The different kinds of pig-iron thus selected are melted
together in a furnace, called in iron manufactories an air-
furnace, and by some writers a reverberatory furnace, by
the flame of pit-coal; the flame being impelled by a strong
current of air produced by the rarefaction of the air in a^
chimney of thirty or forty feet in height. The column of
the atmosphere of which the air in the chimney makes a
part being lighter than the unrarefied columns of the at¬
mosphere next it, its equilibrium with these columns is
destroyed. The neighbouring columns, theiefore, rush
through the grate of the furnace, which is the only aper¬
ture by which they can attain the bottom of the rarefied
column; and they carry the flame of the coal against the
pig-iron, which is thereby brought into fusion. From the
iron thus fused only one large gun is cast at a time, the
furnace not being capable of melting more metal than is
requisite for that purpose.
The gun is cast with two appendages, which are to come
off before it is finished and ready for use. The one is a
square piece beyond the cascabel, for fixing the gun so as
to revolve with the axis of the boring-mill; and the other
is the head.
The head in cast-iron cannon is a mass of cast-iron two
or three feet long, and somewhat bell-shaped. It is a pio-
longation of the mass of metal beyond the muzzle ring, and,
in the position in which the gun is cast, the head is the
top of the whole mass, the square beyond the cascabel be¬
ing the lowest part. After the metal has cooled, the upper
surface of the head is cavernous, as is the case with the
surface that is uppermost during the casting and cooling
of any large body of cast-iron. The sides of the cavities
in the head are frequently formed of cast-iron crystallized
in a fern-leaf form. The intention of the head is to pre¬
vent these cavities, which are formed most abundantly at
the upper surface of the cooling cast-iron, from forming
in the gun itself. But, notwithstanding the precaution of
casting the gun with a large head, and ot mixing proper
kinds of cast-iron in the air-furnace, it frequently happens
that small cavities occur in the guns. .
Vertical The gun with its head being cast and allowed to cool, it is
boring. conveyed to the boring-mill, where the head is to be taken
off, the cylindrical cavity or bore is to be formed, and the
outside of the gun is to'be turned. Formerly the boring
of guns was done in an upright position; the gun being
placed above the boring-bar, was fixed in a frame sliding
vertically in grooves. This frame was suspended on each
side by a block and tackle, and the end of each of the two
ropes was wound round a windlass. By turning these
windlasses the gun might be raised or lowered, and by
this means might be allowed either to press with its whole
weight on the boring-bit, or with any part of its whole
weight. A figure of this apparatus may be seen in the
French Encyclopedic—planches, Fonte. Another veiti-
cal apparatus for boring cannon is represented in llinman,
Bergwerks Lexicon, Stockholm, 1789, tab. iv..
Horizontal The practice which has long been followed in this coun¬
boring. ^y is to place the gun horizontally in the boring-mill; and
it is fixed on the axis of the mill by means of the square Boring-
piece at the cascabel. _
In a boring-mill constructed by Smeaton, one gun is
placed on the horizontal axis of the water-wheel itself,
and, consequently, revolves with the same velocity. On
this same axis is a toothed wheel with seventy-eight teeth,
which works two wheels, one placed on each side of it,
and each having twenty-nine teeth. On the axis of each
of these a gun is placed ; their power is Jffths of the power
of the centre wheel. (See Smeaton s Reports, vol. i.) On
the axis where the power is least, smaller sized guns are
bored; on the axis of the greatest power the large guns
are bored. A crane, movable on a vertical axis, with a
sweep that extends over all the carriages, with a tackle
hanging from its beam, and wrought by a windlass, serves
to place the gun on the carriage where it is to be bored,
or to refnovC it from one carriage to another if required;
and afterwards, when the gun is bored and turned, the
crane serves to remove the gun from the boring-mill.
The gun, when placed on the machine, has the square
at the cascabel fixed in a square iron box (G, Plate
CXI. fig. 5) on the axis. This box has a screw pass¬
ing through each of its sides, and by the operation of
these screws the square of the gun is adjusted, centred,
and fixed; the chace of the gun is also fixed in a collar
N, in which it is to revolve. (The collar in the figure is
represented too near the muzzle ring.)
The axis on which each gun is fixed maybe set in gear,
or put in connection with the revolving axis of the ma¬
chine, so as to move round with it; or taken out of gear so
as to remain at rest, although the other parts of the ma¬
chine continue in movement. There are various methods
of doing this. One is given by Smeaton in the work above
cited. After the gun is fixed on the axis, and before be¬
ginning the operation of boring, the head, which has been
described above, is cut off near the muzzle ring. For this
purpose the gun is set in gear so as to revolve on its axis
with the moving power; and a bar of steel, in shape
and size like the coulter of a plough, is applied at right
angles to the axis of the gun. The narrow side of this
bar is sharpened to a cutting edge, so that it has the form
of one tooth of a very large saw; and this cutting edge
is opposed to the direction of the revolving motion of the
gun, and held strongly on to the gun by a screw pressing
on the bar ; the cutter takes off an angular portion at right
angles to the axis, till the cylindrical part connecting the
head with the gun is so much diminished, that the head
is made to fall off by the blow of a hammer applied on it.
In brass guns, cast with a core, the head was sawed off by
hand with a blade of steel, whose edge was toothed as a
saw, while the sides were toothed as files. See the French
Encyclopedic—planches, Fonte.
A great degree of heat is generated by the violent fric¬
tion of the steel-cutter on the cast-iron during the opera¬
tion of cutting off the heads of guns. The quantity of
this heat has been estimated by Rumford in one of his
Essays on Heat.
After the head is taken off, the workmen proceed to
bore the gun. This is done by exposing the revolving
gun to the action of a steel-cutter, fixed on the end of a
bar, which bar is placed on a carriage, and impelled con¬
tinually towards the gun. The operation of boring is done
on the same axis on which the head was cut off, if the
power be sufficient; if not, the gun is removed, by means
of the crane, to an axis, where it is made to revolve by a
stronger power.
The boring-bar is fixed on a carriage sliding in iron
grooves, which are truest when made triangular. The
carriage, which, in the apparatus represented at fig. 5,
consists merely of the bar on which the rack is, is pressed
BORING.
Boring, forward by a pinion P, whose gudgeons are on a fixed frame
BB ; and this pinion works into a rack R. The axis of the
pinion has mortised holes in it, through which one end of
a lever L is passed; and the other end of this lever is load¬
ed with a weight W, which causes the pinion to propel
the carriage and boring-bar towards the gun. In many
boring-machines there are two pinions on the same axis,
acting on two racks; in others, the carriage is propelled
by two upright levers, on the end of one of which acts a
weight, hanging from a rope, that passes over a pulley;
the lower end of the upper lever acts on the upper end
of the lower, whilst the lower extremity of the lower lever
presses forward the carriage. This method, which is free
from any inequalities that may arise from the teeth of the
rack, is figured by Smeaton in his Reports, vol. i. p. 396.
Another method of propelling the carriage of the boring-
bar, is by a screw acting on the end of the carriage. See
Meyer in the Transactions of the Academy of Stockholm,
1782, tab. ix.
The boring-bar is a very strong piece of wrought iron, of
less diameter than the intended calibre of the piece, in
order that the boring dust or shavings detached by the
cutter may be got out. The boring-bar is increased in
diameter near the end, for some inches, see fig. 6, B; in
this part there is a superficial groove for receiving the
sides of the steel-cutter or bit, which is to be firmly fixed
in the bar. The bit T, fig. 6, is made from a rectangular
piece of a steel bar, in which the two upper angles are cut
off obliquely, so as to form two cutting edges like an ob¬
tuse-angled drill; the side of the rectangle, opposite to
the point of the drill, is then hollowed out in the form of a
pigeon hole; and this hollow fits into and embraces the solid
part of the boring-bar, whilst the sides of the pigeon hole
fit into the grooves of the bar. The point of this obtuse-
angled bit is pressed against the revolving metal of the
gun, by the force which propels the boring-bar; and the
edges coming in contact with the revolving metal, a coni¬
cal cavity is produced; so that, by taking off successively
a multitude of similar shells or shavings, the cylindrical
bore, with a conical termination, is formed. The diameter
of the pointed bit first used must be less than the intend¬
ed calibre of the piece, as the boring is to be repeated
again at least once, in order to make the internal cylin¬
drical surface as smooth as possible, by taking off any in¬
equalities that have been left" by the first cutter. In
finishing the bore, a cross bit may be employed. It is a
rectangular piece of steel, ground to a cutting edge at
each end, and put^ through a hole in the boring-bar, in
which it is fixed. The edges of this cutter, in revolving,
describe a cylindrical surface. After the cylindrical sur¬
face of the bore is made sufficiently true, and of the re¬
quired calibre, a bit without a point, and rounded off to
the desired curve, is used to form the bottom of the
chamber.
Some recommend that the boring-bit for cast-iron
should have its cutting edges brought to an acute angle,
by being filed hollow; but in this case the two edges can¬
not be brought into one point; for the obtuse-angled edge
formed by the thickness of the metal of the bit joins the
two cutting edges crossways, and forces itself forwards by
being neai the centre, requiring, however, a considerable
pressure. These hollow-edged bits are not so well adapt¬
ed to continuance of grinding as the plain ones, but they
make amends by their much less frequently wanting sharp¬
ening. It does not appear, however, that these hollow-
edged bits have been found advantageous in gun-boring.
I he howitzer appears to have had its origin in Ger¬
many. This piece of ordnance, the mortar, and the car-
ronade, in all of which the diameter of the chamber for
the powder is smaller than the diameter of the rest of
3
the bore, are first bored all through, nearly to the intend¬
ed calibre of the chamber, and then that part of the bore
that requires it is enlarged.
The cutters in gun-boring become magnetic, in conse¬
quence of being continually rubbed in the same direction,
so that the boring dust is seen adhering and hanging from
their edges when they are withdrawn from the gun.
It is required that the bore shall be a Cylindrical cavity
whose axis coincides with the axis of the gun: for this
purpose, care must be taken to place the axis of the bor¬
ing-bar, and that of the gun, both in one horizontal line,
and it is requisite that these two lines continue in this
position during the whole operation of boring. The
centring of the boring-bar for this purpose requires to be
done by an experienced workman, and an accurately-con¬
structed boring-machine is necessary for the continuance
of the right position.
Whilst on the axis of the mill, the gun has a smooth
outer surface given it by turning tools, which are applied
in the way usual in turning metals; a wooden gauge, or
cut-out profile, of the gun, with its intended mouldings,
being applied to know when the turning has been con¬
tinued to a proper depth. When this is done the gun is
taken out of the boring-mill; the square at the cascabel
is cut off by the chisel; and the trunions, and other parts
which are not susceptible of being turned, are dressed by
the chisel. The cyphers and arms which had been cast
on the gun are finished by the chisel.
A cannon is said to constitute the ultima ratio regum,
the last argument that governments have recourse to ; and
even this severe kind of argument has sometimes been em¬
bellished. Amongst ornamented cannon, the brass three-
pounder in the Tower, brought from Malta, is a master¬
piece ; it is covered with carving in a good taste by a
sculptor of Rome.
The touch-hole is drilled by stock and bit, or by drill
and bow; the drill being propelled by a lever placed on a
carriage, movable on wheels. A figure of this apparatus
is given in the Encyclopedic—planches, Fonte. Another
apparatus for this purpose is figured in Rinman, Bergwerks
Lexicon, table xiv. fig. 9, 10. See also Monge, De¬
scription^ de lArt de Fabriquer les Canons, in 4to, Paris,
1794. This work was published by order of the revolu¬
tionary government, and distributed to the iron-masters
and founders in different parts of France, for their instruc¬
tion. It contains, amongst others, figures and descriptions
of two kinds of vertical boring machines, of three kinds
of horizontal boring machines, of a machine for turning
the trunions, of two different machines for boring the
touch-hole, of a machine for putting copper boshes in
brass guns, and of various instruments for examining and
proving guns.
Before the gun is sent off, it is examined and proved in
various ways. And first, to ascertain whether the bore is
free from holes, an instrument is employed, consisting of
several elastic steel prongs disposed in a circle, and with
their sharp points turned outwards. This being fixed on a
pole, is introduced into the bore of the gun, and drawn to
and fro; the points of the prongs press against the sides
of the bore, and the presence of a hole is known b}^ one
of the prongs getting into the hole, and preventing the in¬
strument from being drawn out directly, unless by the use
of a ring that is pushed over the prongs to unbend them.
There is another instrument, composed of a board twice
as long as the bore of the piece. Along the middle of the
board is a groove proceeding in a straight line.' In this
groove a button is movable, and on the button, as a centre,
are fixed two radii or arms ; the two ends of these arms
within the gun describe a line on the inside of the bore when
the button is pushed inwards, whilst the extremities of the
Boring.
BORING.
Boring, arms on the outside describe two similar lines on the part
of the board that is situate without the bore. In this way
the outline of a longitudinal section of the bore is describ¬
ed, and its sinuosities or deviation from the axis are ren¬
dered sensible. This instrument is seldom used; it re-
quires to be made by a workman skilled in the construc¬
tion of mathematical instruments, or in watchmaking.
A lighted wax-candle is introduced into the gun for the
purpose of seeing any defects there may be in the bore,
or the light of the sun is reflected into the bore by a mir¬
ror. The strength of the gun is proved by firing it with
a large charge of powder; and by forcing water into the
bore by a powerful forcing pump, the touch-hole being
stopped, and also the mouth of the piece, so that watei
forced in by the mouth cannot return that way.
Cylinders. 2. Boring of Cylinders for steam-engines, and for
blowing machines, and the boring of the working barrels
of large pumps, and other hollow cylinders in which pis¬
tons are to work, is performed by making the steel-cutters
describe a cylindrical surface on the inside of the cylin¬
der, whilst the cylinder remains fixed. I he fiist steam-
engine cylinders in this country were of brass, or of a mix¬
ture of copper and tin. This was the case with the cylin¬
der of the steam-engine erected in the early part of the
eighteenth century for lifting water from the colliery of
Elphinston in Stirlingshire. But since that period the
construction of steam-engines, and the manufacture of
cast-iron, have been greatly improved ; the uses of both
have been much extended; and cast-iron has now for a
long time been the only material employed in making
cylinders for steam-engines, and other large cylinders in
which pistons are to move.
In the boring of cylinders the steel-cutters are fixed in
a cutter-head, which revolves with the boring-bar at the
same time that it is impelled along the interior surface of
the cylinder by a rack, with a pinion moved by a lever and
weight as already described. The axis or boring-bar em¬
ployed for cylinders is a hollow tube of cast-iron, and has a
groove passing through it; the length of this groove being
proportioned to the 'length of the cylinder to be bored.
The cutter-head consists of two cast-iron rings, the first
of which is accurately fitted on the boring-bar, which is
turned truly cylindrical, so that this ring may slide along
the boring-bar ; the second ring is fixed round the first by
wedges, its diameter being proportioned to the diameter of
the cylinder to be bored; and on its circumference are
eight notches to receive the steel-cutters, which are fixed
in by wedges. The firstring is fixed on the boring-bar so as
to make the whole cutter-head move round with the bor¬
ing-bar, by means of two small iron bars, which go through
notches in the first ring, and pass through the groove of
the boring-bar. These small bars have each a round hole
in the part which passes through the geometrical axis of
the boring-bar; through these round holes there passes a
bolt, which forms the end of the rack; a key is put
through the end of the bolt, which prevents the rack from
being drawn back by the lever and weight; and by this
means the rack, impelled by the lever and weight, pushes
forward the cutter-head, which is at the same time i evolv¬
ing with the boring-bar ; while the connection of the rack
and cutter-head being round, and in the axis of motion,
the rack is thereby.free from the circular motion of the
cutter-head. This mode of constructing the boring-bar
was invented in the works of Mr Wilkinson, at the time
when accurately-bored cylinders came to be required in
consequence of Mr Watt’s improvements in the steam-
engine. In the machines about to be mentioned the cut¬
ters are made to advance by a train of wheels deriving
their motion from the power that turns the boring-bar.
An apparatus of great merit was contrived and describ¬
ed in 1802 by Mr Billingsley, engineer of the Bowling Boring,
iron-works, near Bradfor d. (See Repertory of Arts, second
series, vol. ii. p. 322.) According to his method the cy-
linder is placed with its axis perpendicular to the horizon. cl£ne 1
The object of this is, first, that the boring-dust may fall
out, and not remain on one side of the cylinder, wearing the
cutters; so that in this way the cylinder may be bored
through without changing the cutters, by which means a
more regular bore is obtained. Secondly, That the cylin¬
der may not deviate from its cylindrical form by its own
weight, a deviation which is found to take place in large
and slender cylinders when laid on their side ; the verti¬
cal diameter being then less than the horizontal diameter.
A similar loss of shape may happen to cylinders that are
improperly wedged and strapped down for the purpose of
being bored. In this method the cylinder is fixed with
screws by the flanges, where it is most capable of resist¬
ance, and the screws are disposed so as to press the cylin¬
der equally all round. Thirdly, That the operation may
be sooner completed, which is effected in consequence of
less time being employed to fix the cylinder in this me¬
thod. In the usual mode of propelling the cutters de¬
scribed above, the attendance of a man is necessary to
change the position of the bar on the axis of the pinion,
and to raise the weight. This attendance is dispensed
with in the machine under consideration, the mechanism
for propelling the cutters being as follows: A leather strap
passing over the boring-bar communicates the revolving
motion of the boring-bar to a wheel, which communicates
a slow motion by a train of wheels and pinions to an axis,
bearing two pinions which work into two racks; and these
racks push the boring-head and cutters slowly forward on
the boring-bar, at the same time that the boring-head is
revolving with the boring-bar. The velocity with which
it is required that the cutters shall advance varies as the
diameter of the cylinder varies, the moving power re¬
maining the same. And by altering the train of wheel-
work, the cutters may be made to advance with any velo¬
city required.
Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4, Plate CXI., are different views Murray’
of the machine for boring cylinders, invented by Mr
Murray of Leeds. Fig. 1 is an elevation, and fig. 2 a
plan, of the machine. W, figs. 1 and 2, is the spur wheel,
deriving its motion from water or steam, and communi¬
cating a revolving motion to the boring-bar. The toothed
wheel A, fig. 1, moves round with the boring-bar B on
which it is fixed; it gives motion through the wheels D
and E, and to the screw S, whose threads act on the two
racks, which racks are fixed to the cutter-head H, and
revolve with it. The velocity with which the cutter-head
is impelled along the cylinder depends upon the number
of threads of the screw in a given length, and on the pro¬
portions of the wheels A, C, 1), and E, to each other. By
varying the velocity of the screw, the cutter-head maybe
made to move in either direction up or down the cylinder.
F is a pinion whose axis ends in a square, which may be
wrought by a key, so as to bring the cutter-head out of
the cylinder, or push it home by the hand when that is
required. The cylinder is fixed in its bed by screws
passing through two iron rings, as represented at fig. 4;
and in this way the cylinder is equally pressed in the dif¬
ferent parts of its circumference. Fig. 3 is a transverse
elevation of the collar in which the end of the bar at A,
fig. 1, turns; X is the gudgeon in which the spindle X,
fig. 1, turns. In fig. 3 are also seen the two apertures
through which the two racks pass. By this machine also
the flanges are turned truly plane, so that the lid of the
cylinder may fit on exactly.
The patent granted in 1799 to Mr Murdoch, engineer,
Redruth, for new methods of constructing steam-engines
BORING.
Boring. (See Repertory of Arts, vol. xiii.), contains some articles
relative to boring. He employs an endless screw, which
Murdoch’s js turned by the moving power, and works into a toothed
,a en ‘ wheel, whose axis carries the cutter-head; and this me¬
thod, he says, produces a more smooth and steady motion
than the usual mode of fixing the boring-bar immediately
on the axis turned by the moving power.
Another article in Mr Murdoch’s patent that relates to
boring, is his method of forming the cylinder and steam-
case. He casts them of one solid piece, and then bores
a cylindrical interstice, by means of a boring-tool, made
of a hollow cylinder of iron, with steel-cutters fixed to its
edge, and acting like a trepan.
The chambers of brass pumps, whose diameter does not
exceed a few inches, are fixed within iron rings, by means
of screws, in the manner described above when speaking
of Mr Murray’s apparatus. The rings are made accu¬
rately cylindrical by turning, as is also the boring-bar.
The boring-bar has four cross arms on its outer extremity,
to one of which a handle is fixed, whereby a workman
makes the boring-bar revolve. The cutter-head is made
to advance along the boring-bar by a screw.
Muskets. 3. Boring the Barrels of Muskets and other
Small Arms. Rectangular pieces of iron are forged of a
proper length and breadth ; these are heated in the fire,
and the two long edges, which had been previously thinned
off, are welded together on a mandril. The barrel thus
formed is fixed by a screw on a carriage that moves in
iron grooves; this carriage is propelled towards the boring-
bar by a rope which passes over pullies, and has a weight
hanging from its end. The boring-bar is turned by the
power of the same mill that turns the grinding-stones for
polishing the outside of the barrels. (See Encyclopedic—
planches, Arquebusier ; and Rozier, Introduction aux
Observations sur la Physique, tom. i. p. 157.) Water is
thrown on the barrels whilst boring from a trough placed
underneath. After the barrel is bored, the interior sur¬
face of the bore is polished by the action of the boring-
bar. The barrel is tried during the operation, by an iron
gauge of an inch and a half in length, and of a diameter
equal to the intended diameter of the musket. When the
barrel is bored, it is held to the light and looked through,
and if it contains any flaw, the place of that flaw is mark¬
ed on the outside with chalk, and the barrel is put on the
mandril again, and the defective place heated and ham¬
mered ; the workman also examines with a gauge whether
the barrel is crooked. When the bore has no flaws, the
barrel then undergoes the operation of the grinding-mill,
to the effect of polishing its exterior surface.
Rifled barrels are put on a bench twelve feet long. The
boring-bar is guided by a matrix or female-screw, whose
spiral curve is similar to the spiral of the rifles intended
to be made ; the boring-bar being fixed to a male-screw,
which passes through the female-screw, and fits it exact¬
ly. The female-screw is fixed to the bench, and has four
threads and as many furrows; and these threads, in general,
return to the point of the circumference from which they
set out, or make a revolution in the length of two feet.
The male-screw, which fits into the female-screw, has at
one end an iron bar attached to it, by which it is put in
motion ; at the other extremity is fixed the boring-bar,
which passes through the barrel to be rifled; and the bor¬
ing-bar has a cutter fixed in it, which forms a spiral furrow
in the barrel when the screw is turned by the handle.
The number of spiral threads in rifle-barrels is from three
to twelve. Sometimes the threads and furrows of the rifle-
barrel are required to be in straight lines ; in which case
a straight-lined matrix is used. In order that the threads
may be placed at an equal number of degrees of the cir¬
cumference from each other, the bench is furnished with
a brass plate, divided in the same way as the plate of the Baring,
machine for cutting the teeth of clock-wheels.
4. Boring of Portland Stone, so as to form pipes.Portlan(1
That kind of calcareous stone called by geologists oolite,stone-
which is quarried for building at Portland, Bath, in the
neighbourhood of the city of Paris, and other places, ad¬
mits of being cut by means of an iron blade, acting as a
saw, with sand and water. The more compact limestones
and marbles are also cut in this way, but not so easily.
The other kinds of stone that can be squared for building,
namely, sandstone and granite, scarcely yield to the saw,
but are formed into the desired shape by the chisel and
hammer. A modification of this mode of working Port¬
land stone consists in forming it into pipes. The method
of Sir George Wright, proposed in 1805, is as follows: A
hole is drilled through the block of stone, in which a long
iron bolt is inserted for the saw to work round as a centre ;
this bolt forms the axis of the cylinder which is to be
taken out, and projects considerably beyond the block at
both ends. Another hole is drilled in the intended circum¬
ference ; and into this the blade of the saw is introduced.
The frame of the saw is so disposed, that when it is
wrought to and fro, the blade is guided, by means of the
centre bolt, so as to describe the intended cylindrical cir¬
cumference. In this way a solid cylindrical core of stone
is detached, and a cylindrical cavity or pipe left in the
block. Or the saw may be made to describe a circle with¬
out drilling a hole in the centre, by drilling a hole in the
circumference, and fixing on the surface of the stone two
metallic concentric rings, so that the hole shall be includ¬
ed in the interstice between the rings. The saw is then
introduced into the hole, and being worked, it cuts in the
circular path formed by the interstice of the rings. See
Repertoi-y of Arts, second series, vol. viii.
Mr Murdoch’s method, for which he obtained a patent in
1810, is preferable in practice to the above-mentioned
method. He employs a cylindrical saw to form the pipe.
A plug of wood is inserted in the centre of the intended
pipe ; this plug receives the lower end of a vertical spindle,
longer than the intended pipe ; and this spindle is square,
with sockets sliding on it. On the upper part of the spindle
is a pulley or toothed-wheel, by which the spindle is made
to revolve. Near the lower end of the spindle is a wheel,
having a circumference like a hoop, three inches broad.
The diameter of this wheel is somewhat less than that of
the pipe to be bored. It regulates the motion, and fits
in the inside of a tube of metal attached to the spindle.
The diameter of the tube is nearly equal to that of the in¬
tended pipe ; but its length is greater by two feet. On the
lower edge of the tube is a rim of metal, so much thicker
than the tube that the groove cut in the stone by the rim
may admit the tube to move freely in it. This rim has
an edge like that of a stone-cutter’s saw, and in fact per¬
forms the office of a saw. The tube is caused to make a
reciprocating circular motion round the spindle. There
is a cistern placed above the tube, for the purpose of con¬
veying a mixture of sand and water into the cylindrical
groove formed in the stone, whilst the machine is working.
Stone pipes, made in the above described way, have
been tried for conveying water in London. They were
joined by means of Parker’s cement, which consists of clay
ironstone, burnt, and ground to a fine powder. This was
the best material that could be got for forming the joints ;
but these joints cracked and allowed the water to escape,
in consequence of the motion of the carriages on the streets
under which the pipes were laid; and the adventurers
found that they “ had hewed out unto themselves broken
cisterns, that could hold no water.”
5. Boring of Rocks, for the purpose of splittingthem by Rocks,
means of gunpowder. We have already treated this sub-
t)
BOR
Boring, ject under Blasting, and shall only add here the mode of
W’'Y'',W' boring for this purpose practised in the mines of Germany.
A boring bar of steel is applied to the stone by its
lower end, whilst its upper extremity is struck with a ham¬
mer of two pounds in weight. The form ot the lower end or
the boring-bar is various ; some were fashioned like a swal¬
low’s tail, ending in two points ; but this form is no longer
in use. Another kind has the end formed by the inter¬
section of two wedge-shaped edges, with a point at each
corner, and one in the middle. A third kind has the end
composed of four pyramidal points, with cavities between
them. A fourth kind, which is that most frequently used,
has the end in form of a wedge. (See Itinman, Berg-
werks Lexicon. Stockholm, 1789, tab. ii.) Three sizes of
boring bars are employed to make one hole, the first is
tire shortest and thickest, the second is longer and less in
diameter, the third is the longest and the least in diame¬
ter. When a hole is to be made, a small opening is first
formed with a pick in the place where the boring-iron
is to be applied, and all pieces of the rock are removed
that might impede the action of the powder, then the
workman uses the first boring-iron, which he drives wit
blows of the hammer till the boring-iron can reach no
farther ; he then employs the second and third boring-bars
in like manner ; and after each stroke of the Jiammer, the
boring-bar is turned round a portion of the circumference.
The stone, pulverized by the action of the boring-bar, as
it hinders the progress of the operation, must be remov¬
ed from time to time by means of an iron-rod, terminated
at right angles by a small round plate. From the different
diameter of the boring-bars, it follows that the end of the
hole is of a smaller diameter than that of the beginning.
The depth to which the hole is bored is proportioned to the
nature of the rock. It varies from 10 to 15 and 20 inches.
When the rock is solid a great way round, a deep hole is
not used, because the resistance at a considerable depth,
in such a situation, is too great; so that the explosion does
not split the rock round the powder chamber, but acts up¬
wards against the ramming, where it meets with less re¬
sistance. But if the rock be laid bare on one side, a deep
hole is advantageous. Water is poured into the hole dui-
ing the operation, to facilitate the action of the boring-iron.
When the hole is perpendicularly downwards, it is kept lull
of water ; when the hole is driven from below upwards, no
water can be used. The water must be taken out, and
the hole dried, before the cartridge be introduced. I he
most frequent case is, that one man performs the work,
holding the boring-iron in his left hand, and striking on
it with the two-pound hammer in his right. Sometimes
two men are set to do the work, one holding the bormg-
iron, whilst the second strikes it with a hammer of four or
five pounds : this is done where it is required to make the
hole thirty or thirty-six inches deep. When a still deeper
hole is wanted, two men strike alternately with heavier
hammers. . , , i
Wooden 6. Boring of Wooden Pipes is done by means ot a long
pipes. auger, beginning with one of small diameter, and proceed¬
ing to employ successively spoon-formed augers of larger
diameter. Notwithstanding the frequent employment ot
cast-iron pipes, some wooden pipes are still used lor con¬
veying water in London: they are of elm, which is the kind
of tree most frequent in the neighbouring country. A
pipe is bored out of one trunk of elm, and the bark is
left on. When a tree is to be bored, it is fixed on a car¬
riage, with a rack on the under part. 1 his rack fits into
a pinion, the axis of which passes through gudgeons on a
fixed frame. On the.axis of the pinion is a ratchet wheel,
moved by two catches, which derive their motion fro’‘n
the wind or water power that turns the auger; and the
pinion is moved in a direction that brings the tree toy ards
BOR
the auger. See a figure in Belidor, Architecture Hydrau- Boring
lique, i. 1, 341. This apparatus is the same as the one BorJuIn
employed in saw-mills. In the boring of pipes for the
water-works in London, the tree is made to advance by
ropes, which pass over a windlass wrought by men, whilst
the auger is turned by a horse-mill. Wooden pipes are
frequently bored by an auger having at its outer end a
wooden drift or handle, which is put in motion by the
workman. The trees are placed on tressels, and there are
also tressels of a convenient height that support the auger ,
there is also a lathe to turn one end of the tree conical,
so as to fit into a conical cavity in the end of the adjoin¬
ing tree, and thus form a water-tight joint. The end of
the tree which receives the adjoining pipe within it has
a surface at right angles to the axis of the pipe. Into this
surface is driven an iron hoop, the diameter of which is^
some inches greater than the diameter of the aperture ot
the pipe. This precaution prevents the tree from splitting
when the conical end of the next tree is driven home.
When the tree is crooked, a bore is driven in from each
end, and the two bores meet, forming an angle. An
auger whose stalk is formed spirally for some way up^ is
figured in Bailey’s Machines of the Society of Arts. The
objects of this is that the chips may be delivered without
taking the auger out of the hole.
There is a patent granted in 1796 to Mr Flowed, coal-
master, of Oswestry, for boring wooden pipes by a hollow
cylinder made of thin plates of iron, about an inch less
in diameter than the hole to be bored. lo one end of
this cylinder is fixed a flange about a quarter of an inch
in breadth, and one part of this flange is divided, so that,
being of steel, a cutter is formed thereby. The object
of this method is to bore out a solid cylinder of wood,
capable of being converted into a smaller pipe, or of being
applied to some other use in carpentry. (Repertory of
Arts, vol. ix.) This kind of borer is like the trepan,
which is a hollow cylinder of steel, saw-toothed on the
edge, and, when made to revolve rapidly on its axis in
the hand of the surgeon, it saws or bores out circular
pieces of the flat bones of the head. (b. b.)
BOKISSOGLEBSK, a circle of the Russian govern¬
ment of Tambow, extending over 2412 square miles, with
a population of 65,400 persons. The chief place, a city oi
the same name, on the river Khoper, contains about 500
houses and 3300 souls. Long. 42. 1. E. Lat. 51. 23. N.
BORISTHENES, or Borysthenes, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, the largest river of Sarmatia Europaea, and de¬
scribed by Mela, after Herodotus, as running through a
cognominal people,; as the pleasantest of ail the rivers in
Scythia, calmer than any of them in its course, and very
agreeable to drink; as producing rich pastures, and large
fish, of the best flavour, without bones; as flowing a great
distance, and rising from springs unknown; and as being
navigable for a course of about forty days. It is now call¬
ed the Dnieper or Nieper.
BORKEN, a circle in the Prussian government of
Munster, and province of the Rhine. It is on the fron¬
tiers of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and extends over
307 square miles, or 196,480 acres. It contains four small
cities, nine villages, and forty-four hamlets, with 5703
houses and 36,170 inhabitants. It is an undulating but
heathy and moorish district, yielding chiefly buck-wheat
and flax. Some little iron, much wood, and some coarse
wool, are the chief productions. The capital, of the same
name, situated on the river Aa,»contains 450 houses and
2437 inhabitants. The whole district belonged formerly
to the family of Solm Solm, now mediatised.
BORKUM, an island of Hanover, on the coast of East
Friesland, situated between the mouths of the East and
West Ems, and included in the bailiwick of Grutsiel. It
BOR BOR
Borlase. is about twelve miles in circumference, and so low in the
^middle that it is separated into two parts at high water. A
considerable proportion of the inhabitants consists of sea¬
faring people, and the remainder draw their support from
the rearing of cattle, or in picking up the fragments of
vessels wrecked on their coast. It has a governor, a
minister of the Calvinistic faith, and a schoolmaster.
BORLASE, Dr Edmund, an eminent physician and
English writer in the seventeenth century, was the son of
Sir John Borlase, master of the ordnance, and one of the
lords justices of Ireland in 1643. He studied in Dublin
College, and afterwards at the university of Leyden, where
he took the degree of doctor of physic. He afterwards
practised physic with success in the city of Chester, and
was incorporated doctor of the faculty in the university of
Oxford. Among the books which he wrote and publish¬
ed are the following: 1. Latham Spaw in Lancashire, with
some remarkable cases and cures performed by it, Lon¬
don, 1670, Bvo; 2. The Reduction of Ireland to the crown
of England, London, 1675, 8vo; 3. The History of the
Irish rebellion, London, 1680, 8vo ; 4. Brief Reflections on
the Earl of Castlehaven’s Memoirs, relative to the part
which he took in the Irish War, London, 1682, folio. The
precise time of his death is uncertain.
Borlase, William, a learned antiquary and naturalist,
was descended of an ancient family in Cornwall, and born
at Pendeen, in the parish of St Just, on the 2d February
1695-6. He was put early to school at Penzance, and in
1709 removed to Plymouth. In March 1713 he was en¬
tered of Exeter College, Oxford; and in June 1719 he
took his degree as master of arts. In 1720 he was ordained
as priest, and in 1722 instituted to the rectory of Ludgvan
in Cornwall. In 1732 Lord Chancellor King presented
him to the vicarage of St Just, his native parish ; and this,
with the rectory already mentioned, were all the prefer¬
ments he ever obtained. In the parish of Ludgvan are
rich copper works, abounding with mineral and metal¬
lic fossils, which, being a man of an active and inquisitive
turn of mind, he collected from time to time, and thus
was led to study at large the natural history of his native
county. He was also much struck with the numerous mo¬
numents of remote antiquity that are to be met with in
Cornwall; and therefore, enlarging his plan, he determin¬
ed to gain as accurate an acquaintance as possible with
the learning of the Druids, and with the religion and cus¬
toms of the ancient Britons before their conversion to
Christianity. In 1750 he was admitted a fellow of the
Royal Society; and in 1753 he published in folio, at Ox¬
ford, his “ Antiquities of Cornwall,” a second edition of
which was published, in the same form, at London, 1769,
with the title of “ Antiquities, Historical and Monumen¬
tal, of the County of Cornwall; consisting of several essays
on the ancient inhabitants, Druid superstition, customs
and remains of the most remote antiquity in Britain and
the British isles, exemplified and proved by monuments
now extant in Cornwall and the Scilly islands ; with a vo¬
cabulary of the Cornu-British language.” His next pub¬
lication was “ Observations on the ancient and present
state ot the islands of Scilly, and their importance to the
trade of Great Britain.” Oxford, 1756, 4to. This was
merely an extension of a paper which had been read to
the Royal Society in 1753. In 1758 appeared his “ Na¬
tural History of Cornwall,” Oxford, folio. After these
publications, he transmitted a variety of fossils and remains
of antiquity which he had described in his works, to be
deposited in the Ashmolean Museum ; for which, as well
as other benefactions of a similar kind, he received the
thanks of the university, in a letter from the vice-chancel¬
lor, dated the 18th November 1758; and in March 1766
the degree of doctor of laws was conferred on him. He died
in 1772, at the age of seventy-seven, leaving two sons but Bormio
of six, whom he had had by a lady he had married in 1724. II
Besides his literary connections with many ingenious and B°rn-
learned men, he had a particular correspondence with Mr
Pope ; and there is still extant a large collection of letters
written by that poet to Dr Borlase. He furnished Pope
with many of the materials, consisting of curious fossils,
which formed his grotto at Twickenham ; and Dr Borlase’s
name in capitals, composed of crystals, might be seen in
the grotto. It is with reference to this circumstance that
Pope says in a letter to Borlase, “ I am much obliged to
you for your valuable collection of Cornish diamonds; I
have placed them where they may best represent yourself,
in a shade, but shining.” Besides the works above men¬
tioned, he sent many curious papers to the Philosophical
Transactions, and had in contemplation several other
works.
BORMIO, a town of the Austrian kingdom of Lom¬
bardy, in the delegation of Como. It is situated at the
foot of a lofty hill of the same name, is well built, and
contains about 2000 inhabitants. Long. 9. 51. E. Lat. 46.
28. N. 1
BORN, Ignatius, Baron Von, counsellor in the aulic
chamber of the mint and mines at Vienna; of considerable
eminence in the scientific world as a mineralogist and me¬
tallurgist, and a promoter of science ; was born of a family
that had the rank of nobility, at Karlsburg, in Transylvania,
in 1742; and died in 1791. He was educated in a college
of the Jesuits at Vienna, and afterwards entered into that
order, but continued a member only during sixteen months.
He then went through a course of study in law at Prague,
and afterwards travelled into Germany, Holland, and
France. On his return to Prague he engaged in the study
of mineralogy.
The mines in the dominions of the house of Austria are
very important, and give livelihood to a numerous popu¬
lation, more particularly in Hungary, Transylvania, and
the Bannat, and in Styria and Carinthia. Idria produces
mercury ; Bohemia, tin and cobalt; and the other metals
are obtained in sufficient abundance, not only to supply
the internal trade of the nation, but also for export, either
in the form of raw metal, or manufactured into various
instruments. A revenue accrues to the public treasury
from the mines in various ways. Some, as those of Schem-
nitz, Cremnitz, and Idria, are wrought on account of
government. A tenth part of the prdduce of all mines
wrought by private adventurers goes to government as a
royalty. Government has a right of pre-emption of all
metals, and an exclusive right of buying all gold and sil¬
ver, the produce of the country, at a stated price. The
annual quantity of gold and silver got from the mines of
Hungary and Transylvania, and coined into money at the
mint, during the reign of Maria Theresa, amounted in value
to about L.300,000 sterling. The mines in other parts of
the dominions produced likewise a considerable quantity.
Maria Theresa, seeing their importance, did much for the
regulation of the mines ; and, with a view of diffusing the
knowledge of mineralogy amongst the nobles, many of
whom were proprietors of mines, she had lectures on that
science delivered in the universities. The administration
of the revenue arising to government from this source is
conducted by a board composed of managers, overseers,
assayers, and other officers, who are brought up in the
knowledge of metallurgy and mineralogy, and reside at
the mines. The operations of these functionaries are un¬
der the control of the aulic chamber of the mint and
mines at Vienna, which keeps a set of books, in which all
the transactions, relative to the mines, and their situation
and state, are digested and registered. An administration
thus constituted offers a field of some preferment. Von
BOR
BOR
Born. Born chose to devote himself to this line of life, and was
received into the department of the mines and mint at
Prague in 1770.
About this time he met with an accident which nearly
proved fatal. In the course of a mineralogical journey
through Transylvania, he came to Felso-Banya, wheie the
gang is rendered brittle and detached from the i ock, by
exposing it to the flames of wood heaped up in the mine
and set on fire. Having gone into the mine soon after the
combustion had ceased, and whilst the air was hot, am
charged with arsenical vapour, and returning through a
shaft which was occupied by a current of this vapour, he
was deprived of sensation for fifteen hours, and after re¬
covery continued long to suffer from a cough and genei al
pain. Some time after this accident he was affected with
violent colics, which a large dose of opium removed, but
left him with a numbness of the lower extremities, and
lame in the right leg. In the latter part of his life he was
deprived of the use of his legs. All these calamities,
which, however distressing, did not repress the activity of
his mind, were considered as the consequences of the
arsenical fumes he had inhaled at Felso-Banya.
One of the chief objects of his exertion was to intro¬
duce amalgamation in Hungary, in place of smelting and
cupellation heretofore used in that country, for extracting
silver from the ores. Pliny and Vitruvius speak of the
use of mercury in collecting small disseminated particles
of gold. On the arrival of the Spaniards in America, the
Peruvian's extracted the silver from the ore by smelting-
furnaces, exposed to the wind on the tops of hills. I he
quicksilver mines of Guancabellica in Peru were discover¬
ed in 1563, and three years thereafter the Spaniards be¬
gan to employ amalgamation. Alonzo Barba, an Anda¬
lusian, further improved the process by dm addition of
heat. Amalgamation had been practised m Europe tor
collecting silver and gold when they existed in visib e
metallic particles, but not in the case of ores where the
o-old and silver are invisible even with the aid ot a micro¬
scope. Soon after its application to ores in America, an
attempt was made by a Spaniard to introduce this opera¬
tion for extracting silver from the ores in Bohemia, but
without success. Gellert, Walerius, and Cramer, had
written against the use of amalgamation when applied to
ores. But Von Born seeing its advantages, particularly in
the saving of fire-wood, which had become scarce in many
parts of Hungary, set about examining the accounts given
by authors of the different processes used in Mexico and
Peru; repeated these processes experimentally, first in
the small way, leaving out the ingredients that a know¬
ledge of the chemical action of bodies showed to be un¬
necessary; and afterwards had the process earned on m
the great way for several months near Schemnitz, under
the inspection of Ruprecht. At this time he published
his book On Amalgamation. It contains a history of a.mal-
gamation, and extracts from different authors describing
the South American methods. This occupies nearly one
half of the volume. He then gives the chemical theory
of operation in its different steps, describes the method he
had adopted at Schemnitz, and gives figures of the ma¬
chinery employed. . . .
Von Born met with much opposition in his attempts to
introduce amalgamation. He says that some book-learn¬
ed chemists, who never had handled a retort, and some
mine overseers, when he first set about his experiments,
declared that it was impossible to obtain silver by that
method. After he had succeeded in getting silver from
the ore publicly at Vienna, his detractors came forward
with doubts and long calculations, showing that the pro¬
cess was inferior to that already in use. At last his pro¬
cess was tried successfully in the great way by orders o
Joseph II. at Schemnitz; and then the calculators and
doubters shrugged up their shoulders, saying, “ It is only
the old Spanish process of amalgamation.”
He obtained from the emperor an order that his method
should be employed in some of the mines belonging to
government, and that he should receive a thud Par^
the savings arising from the improvement during the first
ten years, and four per cent, of this third part of the sav¬
ings for the next twenty years. t
He was a satirist, without possessing the qualities ot
style that are necessary to attain a high rank in that class
of writers. The Staats Peruche, a tale, published without
his knowledge in 1772, and an attack on Father Hell, the
Jesuit, and king’s astronomer at Vienna, are two of his
satirical works. The satirical description of the Monastic
Orders, written in form of an academic inaugural disser¬
tation, entitled Monachologia, is generally ascribed to
Von Born. In this piece the monks are described in the
technical language of natural history. Von Born, however,
was not deeply versed in the phraseology of Linnaeus ;
and it is the opinion of some good judges of the subject,
that the language at least was furnished by Herman, pro¬
fessor of medicine in the University of Strasburg, and
author of the very ingenious work on the mutual affinities
of animated beings, entitled Tabula Affinitatum Animalium
Commentario illustrata. But although the technical Ion-
cruagG may not be Von Born s? the sentiments are such as he
was'known to profess ; for the topic was so great a favourite
with him, that he found room for invectives against the
monks even in his book On Amalgamation. The monks
in the Austrian dominions were not then in a situation to
obtain redress against this lampoon ; for it was published in
1783,‘when Joseph II. had suppressed many of the monas¬
teries in different parts of his dominions, and transferred
their property into his treasury, allowing but a scanty sum
for the subsistence of the members of these communities.
Von Born was well acquainted with Latin, and the
principal modern languages of Europe. He also possessed
information in many branches of science not immediately
connected with metallurgy and mineralogy, which were
his professed pursuits. He had a good taste in the gia-
phic arts, and his printed works are ornamented in a neat
manner with vignettes illustrative of the subject.
His inclination led him to engage in politics ; and, in
particular, he took an active part in the political changes
in Hungary. After the death of Joseph, the diet of the
states of Hungary passed a great many acts, rescinding
the innovations of that scheming ruler, which tended to
force upon them German governors and laws, and even
the German language. This diet conferred the rights of
denizen on several persons of distinction who had been
favourable to the cause of tne Hungarians, and, amongst
others, on Von Born. At the time of his death he was
employed in writing an historical work in Latin, entitled
Fasti Leopoldini, probably relating to the prudent con¬
duct of Leopold II., the successor of Joseph, towards the
Hungarians.
He was of a middle size, slender make, and dark com¬
plexion ; his eye was penetrating, and his countenance
agreeable. His constitution was delicate even before his
accident. He was a pleasant companion, and fond of so¬
ciety. He lived in splendour, and his house at Vienna
was resorted to by scientific men of all nations. It is
likely that his profits from the process of amalgamation
were not considerable, at least they were not sufficient to
put his fortune to rights, as his affairs at his death were
in a state of insolvency. His family consisted of a wife
and two daughters, who survived him. (See Townson’s
Travels in Hungary; and Pezzil, Ostreich Biographien,
1792.)
Born.
9
BOH
BOR
Born.
The following is a list of his published writings, and of
the works of others which he edited.
Lythophylacium Borneanum, 1775, 8vo. This is a ca¬
talogue of his collection of minerals, which collection he
afterwards sold to Mr Greville ; and it forms a part of
the magnificent Greville collection of minerals purchased
from the heirs of that gentleman by parliament, and de¬
posited in tbe British Museum. This catalogue is ar¬
ranged according to the system of Cronstedt, with the
nomenclature of Linnaeus.
Index rerum naturalium Muscei Ccesarei Vindobonensis.
Pars. I. Testacea. Vindob. 1778, fol. maj. This splendid
volume, which contains the description and figures of the
shells in the museum at Vienna, was composed by order
of the Empress Maria Theresa. The shells are arranged
according to the method of Linnaeus. Von Born’s know¬
ledge in this department of Natural History was not pro¬
found, so that he needed some assistance in composing
the work. The shells only are described ; of the animals
to which they belong little is said. Joseph II. coming to
the throne, and being fully occupied with a multitude of
innovations and vast schemes for the aggrandisement of
the house of Austria, the project of continuing the work,
so as to form a description of the whole museum, was laid
aside.
On the Amalgamation of Ores containing Gold and Sil¬
ver, in the German language, published in 4to in 1786.
Of this work something has been already said above.
There is a translation of the work into English, by Raspe,
a Hanoverian, once professor at Hesse-Cassel, and who
afterwards resided in Britain, where he was sometimes
employed as a viewer of mines.
Catalogue methodique et raisonne de la Collectiqn des
Fossiles de Mademoiselle Eleonore de Raab, a Vienne, 8vo,
1790. This catalogue is drawn up so as to form a system
of mineralogy, each species of mineral being carefully
described, and arranged systematically. It was much es¬
teemed, and cited by mineralogical writers in its time, but
has been superseded, like other treatises, by more recent
works, on account of the great additions that have been
continually making to the science.
He edited the Jesuit Poda’s description of the machines
used in the mines of Schemnitz.
Ferbers Letters from Italy were written to and edited
by Von Born. Ferber and he were in habits of great in¬
timacy ; and Ferber, in return, published the letters that
Von Born addressed to him during his excursion in Tran¬
sylvania, &c. in 1770, entitled Briefe uber mineralogische
gegenstande auf seiner reise durch das Temeswarer Bannat,
Siebenburgen, Ober und Nieder Hungarn. Frankf. 1774.
To this work is prefixed a well-engraved portrait of Von
Born. There is an English version by Raspe, and a
French one, with notes, by Monnet.
He lent his assistance to the first three volumes of a
work published in German, entitled Portraits of Learned
Men and Artists, natives of Bohemia and Moravia.
There are some papers of his in the Abhandlungen der
Bbhmischer gesellschaft den Wissenchaften.
The Transactions of a Private Society at Prague, in Bo¬
hemia, for the improvement of mathematics, natural his¬
tory, and the civil history of the country, contains several
papers written by him. He was the founder of this so¬
ciety.
He published an annual periodical work in German, en¬
titled the Philosophical Transactions of the Masons' Lodge
of Concord at Vienna. This masons’ lodge, of which Von
Born was the founder and patron, employed a part of its
meetings in scientific pursuits. This, as well as other
societies of a similar nature, was tolerated by Joseph II.
for some time; but he afterwards imposed restraints that
VOL. v.
caused their dissolution. Von Born was alsoa zealous mem¬
ber of the Society of Illuminati; and when the Elector
I alatine of Bavaria suppressed the masonic societies in
his dominions, Von Born being a member of the Academy
of Sciences at Munich, was required to declare, within
eight days, whether he would withdraw from the masonic
societies. He returned an answer, in which he praised the
principles of the free-masons, and resigned his place in the
academy, by sending back his diploma.
He wrote some articles in the German work published
by Trebra, mine-director at Zellerfeld in the Hartz, enti¬
tled a System of Instruction in the Art of Working Mines,
4to ; also Observations in support of the Metallization of
the Alkalis, in Crell s Annals, 1790, 1791. Ruprecht and
Tondi thought at that time that they had reduced the
alkalis and barytes to a metallic state, by the strong heat
of a furnace urged by bellows; but it was afterwards
found that the metallic substance thus obtained was phos¬
phate of iron, proceeding from their crucibles and fluxes.
Sir Humphry Davy was the first who obtained any of the
alkaline class of bodies in a metallic state ; and this he ac¬
complished by the intense heat excited by a galvanic bat¬
tery, many years after the time here spoken of.
Relatio de Aurilegio Dacice Transalpince, 1789, in the
Nova Acta Academia Naturce Curiosorum, tom. viii. p. 97.
This is an account of the method employed in Transylva¬
nia in collecting gold from the sand of the rivers. The
auriferous sand generally contains iron, attractable by the
magnet. It is washed on a sloping board seven feet long
and three feet broad, covered with a woollen cloth, having
a dish-shaped cavity at the upper end, and inclined to the
horizontal plane at an angle of twenty or twenty-five de¬
grees. Only a very scanty livelihood can be gained by
this employment. It is carried on by the poorer classes
of the country people, and in some districts by bands of
the people called gipsies. The king’s collectors buy the
gold from the gold-washers at a stated price, to the
amount of more than 800 pounds weight annually, (b.b.)
BORNEO, an island forming part of the great East In¬
dian Archipelago. Next to New Holland, which maybe
considered as a species of continent, it seems indisputably
the largest in the known world. It reaches from about 7°
north to 4° south latitude, and from 109° to 118° east lon¬
gitude. Its length may be estimated at 750 miles, its
greatest breadth at 600, and its average breadth at 350.
It exhibits the usual insular structure, a mass of loftv
mountains in the centre, sloping gradually down to level
and alluvial tracts along the sea shore. It is watered by
many fine rivers, of which those of Borneo Proper, Banjar
Massin, and Passir, are navigable for more than fifty miles
above their junction with the sea. All these rivers were
understood by Dr Leyden to be derived from an immense
lake in the interior, called the Sea of Manilla. It is more
piobable that they all rise from the mountainous district
of greatest elevation. The interior of Borneo is covered
with immense forests, filled with wild animals, particularly
ourang-outangs. A great part of the coast is marshy, so
that it is in portions only that it displays the exuberance
of tropical fertility. Of all the East Indian islands, Borneo
ranks lowest as to civilization and improvement. Nothing,
perhaps, has tended so powerfully to check its progress
as the solid and unbroken form of its coasts, destitute of
those large bays or inland seas which have always proved
the nursery of commerce.
The Portuguese discovered Borneo in 1526, though,from
the superior wealth promised by the Spice Islands, it at¬
tracted comparatively little attention. Yet they, as w^ell as
the Spaniards, the Dutch, and the English, formed esta¬
blishments on different parts of the coast; but the small
force defending them, and the fierce animosity of the na-
B
#
Born
H
Borneo.
10
BOR
Romeo.
tives, made their tenure generally of very short duration.
The physical structure of Borneo, the vast forests, moun¬
tains, and jungles of the interior, obstruct communication
between the different parts of its coast, as completely as if
an extent of sea had intervened. It is thus split into a
number of petty districts, entirely detached from each
other, and which cannot be satisfactorily described, unless
in detail. In this manner, therefore, we shall consider
the principal states, beginning with Borneo Proper, and
thence making the circuit of the island; after which we
shall attempt some general views of its population and
commerce.
Borneo Proper occupies the northern coast, and is reck¬
oned a state of great antiquity. The soil is comparatively
fertile, supplying rice sufficient for the consumption of the
inhabitants, as well as most of the camphire for which the
island is celebrated. The city, called also Borneo, is built
upon alluvial ground, about ten miles above the mouth of
the river of the same name. It is compared to Venice ;
canals are conducted through every street, and all busi¬
ness is conducted in boats, usually rowed by women. The
houses are built upon posts, and ascended to by ladders.
The river is navigable for large vessels considerably above
the town; but there is a bar at its entrance, oyer which
there is scarcely a depth of seventeen feet at high water.
The sultan is treated with those marks of peculiar respect
which in this part of the world usually indicate an ancient
dynasty; but the chief power rests in the council of the
nobles. This state has little communication with Euro¬
peans ; and the English, who were accustomed to deal to
a small extent in piece-goods, have in a great measure
discontinued the traffic. The commerce of this city and
district is almost entirely engrossed by the Chinese, who
bring annually from Amou four or five junks, of about 500
tons burden. As the neighbourhood abounds in excellent
timber, they frequently build their junks here, and carry
them away loaded with the commodities of the country.
On the eastern coast of Borneo, Mangedava and Pappal
are populous, fertile, and well-watered districts. Malloo-
doo possesses these advantages in a still superior degree,
and grows also a large quantity of rattans. Tiroon pro¬
duces sago in abundance, and birds nests more copiously
than any other part of the eastern Archipelago. None of
these states, however, are much frequented by or known
to Europeans. The chief state on the (Eastern coast is
Passir, situated about fifty miles up a river of the same
name. This district is very low and flat; and, were i t not
cooled by the sea breezes, would be intensely hot. Being
marshy and filled with woods, it is extremely unhealthy.
The town is said not to contain above 300 wooden houses,
which are built along the river. The sultan has a palace
and wooden fort along the northern bank. The people of
Passir have an extremely bad reputation as to their con¬
duct in mercantile transactions. They use false weights
and measures, manufacture counterfeit articles, and em¬
brace, in short, every opportunity of cheating that offers.
The English East India Company made an attempt, in
1772, to establish a factory here, but it did not succeed.
Banjar Massin is the principal state on the southern
coast of Borneo ; and, like the others, it owes its prosperity
to a large river, on the banks of which it is situated. Ibis
river is five or six fathoms deep; but, unfortunately, the
bar does not allow above twelve or thirteen feet of water,
and requires the aid of the tide to produce even^ that
depth. Ships, however, may anchor in the port of fom-
bangou or Tombornio, near the mouth of the. river, where
they are well supplied with water and provisions. Banjai
Massin, in 1780, was estimated to contain a population
of 8500 Mahommedans, chiefly Javanese, with a consider¬
able proportion of Bugis, Macassars, and Malays. The
BOR
Chinese are also pretty numerous. The sultan resides at Borneo.
Martapura, about three days’ journey up the river, to
which place he is attached by the circumstance of its being
an uncommonly fine hunting station. T-he district of Ban-
jar produces gold and diamonds, both of superior quality
to those found in other parts of the island. Pepper is so
abundant that, in a commercial view, it may be consider¬
ed as the staple commodity. The iron is very excellent,
and peculiarly fit for steel; though Dr Leyden asserts
that the inhabitants do not themselves understand the art
of manufacturing it. In 1700 the English East India Com¬
pany formed a settlement at Banjar Massin. A rage then
prevailed for multiplying establishments, and the present
one was soon so far extended as to equal that of Calcutta.
But the expectations of extensive trade, which prompted
to such an enlargement, were in a great measure illusory;
a thousand tons of pepper being the most valuable article
drawn from the settlement. Before the company could be
fully aware of its unproductive nature, however, this settle¬
ment was brought to a premature end. An attack was
made by the natives on so great a scale, and with such
fury, that, though repulsed, it seemed to leave no choice
but the immediate evacuation of the factory, without even
removing the stores. Jhe damage sustained on the oc¬
casion is estimated at 50,000 dollars.
Succadana, or, as Dr Leyden calls it, Sacadina, was
anciently the most powerful state on the western coast of
Borneo. The Dutch began to trade there in 1604, but
they soon afterwards attached themselves, in preference,
to Sambas. In 1623 they abandoned their factory at Suc¬
cadana. In 1786 they united with the sultan of Pontiana
in an expedition against this place, which they took and
entirely destroyed. It appears to have been since rebuilt,
but is entirely in the hands of the Malays, and scarcely
ever visited by Europeans. Pontiana is a state of vei’y
recent origin, but it now exceeds in wealth and power all
others upon the western coast of Borneo. This distinc¬
tion it owes to the wisdom of the Arab prince by whom it
was founded. He renounced from the first the pernicious
policy, almost universal in these petty states, of embark¬
ing in trade, and monopolizing its principal articles. He
confined himself to his proper functions, of dispensing jus¬
tice, and securing protection to all, of whatever country
or religion, who resorted to his dominions. Under this
salutary policy Pontiana soon rose to be the greatest em¬
porium in those seas. It is situated on a large river,
formerly called Laua, and the country behind produces
diamonds the most abundantly of any district in Borneo.
The Dutch established a factory here in 1776, and main¬
tained ever after a good understanding with the sultan..
In 1813, after the British force had taken possession of
Batavia, that prince, dreading an attack from Sambas,
solicited the protection of a British garrison, which was
immediately sent; and he afterwards assisted our troops
in the reduction of Sambas. Momparwa, situated a little
to the north of Pontiana, is the best market for opium upon
this coast. The city lies nineteen miles up the river, the
entrance of which is obstructed by a bar and by several
small islands. This is probably the same district called
Mattan by Dr Leyden, who says that the king possesses
the finest diamond in the world, for which a high price
was offered by the Dutch, which he refused to accept.
Sambas is situated about thirty miles up the river of the
same name. Like most other towns in Borneo, it is built
of timber and bamboos, and raised by stakes above the
swampy foundation. Sambas has always been a powerful
state, but for some time past has devoted itself so entirely
to piracy as to render its existence scarcely compatible
with that of its civilized neighbours. Upon this principle
the British, in 1812, undertook an expedition against it;
BOR
BOR
11
Borneo, but they were repulsed with great loss in the attack, and
—•-Y'^ suffered still more from the malignant influence of the
climate. In the following year, however, a new expedi¬
tion was undertaken under Colonel Watson, who, on the
3d of July, carried the fort by storm, and obliged the ra¬
jah to retire into the interior of his dominions.
On a general view of the state of culture and civiliza¬
tion in Borneo, Mr Hamilton estimates the population at
3,000,000, which we should suppose to be rather above
than under the truth. The interior is entirely occupied
by a native race, called variously, according to the parts
of the island which they inhabit, Dayak, Idaan, and Ti-
roon. Those which subsist by fishing are commonly call¬
ed Biajoos. The appellations of Horaforas and Maroots
have also been applied to these races. The whole may
be considered as one, almost savage, and nearly similar to
that which occupies the interior of Sumatra. Some, in¬
deed, cultivate the ground, some display considerable in¬
dustry in fishing, and a few employ themselves in col¬
lecting gold; but their institutions in general indicate
the very rudest state of human society. It has been
strongly asserted that they devour the flesh of their ene¬
mies ; an assertion not noticed by Dr Leyden, and which
has in many instances been made without foundation.
All accounts agree, however, as to the existence of ano¬
ther truly savage custom, by which every man is debarred
from the privilege of matrimony till he has, with his own
hand, cut off the head of an enemy. Those, therefore,
who are desirous of entering into that state form them¬
selves into what Dr Leyden calls head-hunting expeditions.
They make an inroad into the territories of a neighbour¬
ing tribe, and, if their strength appears sufficient, endea¬
vour to effect their object by force; if otherwise, they
conceal themselves behind thickets, till an unfortunate in¬
dividual passes, whom they can make their prey. Some
are also said to immolate human victims on the altars of
their divinities.
The inhabitants of the towns along the coast consist
chiefly of that race so universally diffused throughout the
Indian islands under the name of Malays. This name, to
an European ear, has usually suggested every extreme of
perfidy and atrocity. We have perused, however, a very
different estimate of their character, formed by an intelli¬
gent gentleman, who spent several years in this part of
India. He describes them as honest, frank, simple, and
even gentle in their manners, decidedly superior, in a
moral view, to the degenerate Hindoos. The sanguinary
deeds which have exposed them to so much reproach he
ascribes to a proud and almost chivalrous sense of honour,
which makes them regard blows, or any similar personal
insult, as an offence only to be expiated by blood. The
coarse and unfeeling treatment which they often expe¬
rience from Dutch and Chinese masters drives them to
these dreadful extremities. Piracy, however, is a vice of
which this race cannot be acquitted; and the western
coast of Borneo, situated on the great naval route to China,
may be viewed as the grand field for its exercise. To a
poor and hardy race, who see half the wealth of Asia pass¬
ing along their shores, the temptation is almost irresisti¬
ble. Like the Arabs, they have formed for themselves a
code of morality, in which plunder is expunged from the
list of vices. Yet, though individually brave, they pos¬
sess no skill or discipline which could render them formi¬
dable to the crew of an European vessel. The cowardice
of the Lascars, by whom Indian trading vessels are usual¬
ly navigated, is the only circumstance which has made
our trade suffer so severely from their ravages.
Next to the two classes above enumerated, the most
numerous are the Chinese. These, by the gentleman
above alluded to, are considered as the most valuable sub¬
jects whom an uncivilized state can receive into its bosom.
The difficulty of finding subsistence in their own country
has led them to emigrate in vast numbers into Borneo.
Nothing, perhaps, except the law which prohibits females
from leaving the empire, could have prevented this almost
unoccupied island from being entirely filled with a Chi¬
nese population. From this circumstance, however, the
colonists are composed entirely of men in the vigour of
life, and of the most enterprising and industrious charac¬
ter. Their chief settlement is at Sambas, on the western
coast, where the numbers cannot be estimated at less
than 30,000, composing a sort of independent state. Their
almost sole occupation is that of extracting the gold which
abounds upon this coast. It is found in alluvial soil, and
is purified by the simple process of passing a stream of
water over the ore. The processes employed for this
purpose are daily improving, and it is conceived that the
produce here and at other quarters will be sufficient to re¬
move all future apprehensions of the East proving a drain
upon the gold of Europe.
The commerce of Borneo, though not equal to its ex¬
tent and natural capacities, is by no means inconsiderable.
Gold is its principal export. Mr Milburn estimates the
annual quantity exported at 200 peculs, or 26,000 lbs.
avoirdupois, which would coin into upwards of 900,000
guineas. Like some other commodities, it is divided, by
a grotesque scale, into three kinds, called the head, the
belly, and tbe feet; the first being the best, and the two
others gradually diminishing in value. Camphire is ex¬
ported to the extent of thirty peculs (3990 lbs.), all to
China, where it is more esteemed than that of Sumatra.
The singular Chinese luxuries of hiche de mer or sea slug,
and edible bird-nests, are found in Borneo, as over all the
Indian Archipelago. Pepper to a considerable amount,
canes and rattans of various descriptions, sago, and a little
tin, complete the list of exports. The chief import is
opium to a very great extent, with piece-goods, hardware,
coarse cutlery, arms, and toys. By far the greater pro¬
portion of the trade is in the hands of the Chinese.
(Leyden’s Description of Borneo, in the Asiatic Journal;
Hamilton’s Gazetteer; Milburn’s Oriental Commerce; MS.
of a Gentleman long resident in India.)
BORNOU,an extensive kingdom, situatedin the eastern
part of interior Africa. With the exception of Houssa, now
subject to the sultan of the Fellatahs, it is superior in power
and influence to any other state in that quarter of the con¬
tinent. Major Denham, to whom we are indebted for the
only full and authentic description of this country, places it
between the 12th and 18th degrees of east longitude, and
the 10th and 15th of north latitude, which would fox™ an
extent of nearly 400 miles in every dii’ection. His own
map and description, however, obliges us to restrict these
dimensions to little more than one half. Bornou is bound¬
ed on the west by Soudan or Houssa, on the east by the
lake Tchad, on the north by the Great Desert, on the south
by the kingdoms of Begherme, Loggun, and Mandara.
The grandest natural feature of this countiy consists
in the lake called the Tchad, one of the largest ex¬
panses of fresh water in the world, and well entitled to
the appellation of an inland sea. Its limits have not
been very px-ecisely ascertained, but cannot fall much
short of 200 miles in length and 150 in breadth. A re¬
markable variation, however, takes place, according as the
rivers by which it is fed are swelled by the tropical x’ains,
or their channels reduced by the continuance of the dry
season. At this period the waters on every side recede,
and leave uncovered a tract of many miles in extent, to
be again overflowed when the rains have swelled the
lake. The inhabitants, howevei’, derive little advantage
from the short and precarious interval during which they
Bornou.
12
B O R N O U.
Bovnou. have access to this portion of their territory. There is
neither leisure nor opportunity to bring it under regu¬
lar culture; and the luxuriant fertility derived from the
inundation is wasted in producing a rank vegetable growth
of grass from ten to twelve feet in height, with impenetrable
thickets of trees and underwood. Man scarcely dares to
penetrate into these gloomy regions, which are filled by
numerous and formidable wild animals, elephants, lions,
hyenas, and enormous broods of the serpent species. These
creatures, when the inundation comes on, seek refuge in
the cultivated and inhabited tracts, where their arrival
diffuses consternation and dismay.
The rivers by which this great expanse of water is fed
are the Yeou and the Shary. The former, which enters it
from the west, excited great interest on its first discovery,
from being considered, or at least suspected, to be a con¬
tinuation of the Niger of Park. Further observation has
completely disproved this supposition, and shown it to be
a river of only secondary magnitude. Rising in a range
of hills to the south of Houssa, it flows first north, then
eastward through Bornou, till it falls into the Ichad ; but
it never, unless when swollen by the rains, presents any
great body of water. The Shary is a more considerable
stream, although its origin and early course are known only
by conjecture. After flowing from the south for about
forty miles, through the kingdom of Loggun, it enters at
the south-eastern extremity of Bornou into the great com¬
mon receptacle, where it forms a noble stream, half a
mile broad, and flows with considerable rapidity.
The territory of Bornou, extending along the wdiole
western and part of the southern and northern shores of
the great lake, is generally level and fertile. The climate,
especially from March to the end of June, is oppressively
hot, rising sometimes to 105 and 10/, and even during
most of the night not falling much below 100. In May
the wet season commences, with violent storms of thun¬
der and lightning. In the end of June the rivers and
lakes begin to overflow, and for several months the rams
are almost incessant, accompanied with damp, cloudy, and
sultry weather. The inhabitants at this season are severe¬
ly afflicted with fever and ague, which carry off great
numbers of them. In October the rains abate ; cool, fresh
winds blow from the west and north-west; and for several
months the climate is both healthful and agreeable.
No mention is found of Bornou among the geographers
of antiquity, although it may be conjectured that the great
lake of Nigritia, placed by Ptolemy in the centre of Africa,
was perhaps the Tchad. Edrisi, however, in the twelfth
century, describes this country under the appellation of
Kuku, which is still borne by its capital. He represents
the king as absolute and powerful, with a numerous army
and many attendants ; the people as martial, though rude ;
and the merchants as carrying on an active trade and pos¬
sessing great wealth. Leo, who visited it about two cen¬
turies after, gives a description nearly similar. I he people
are represented as Pagans, and extremely rude, though
numerous, and the country well cultivated. The mer¬
chants from Barbary supplied the king in his expeditions
with arms and horses, while he made an annual expedi¬
tion to procure slaves to be given in payment.
No further relations respecting Bornou were communi¬
cated to Europe during a very long period; yet it is re¬
markable that, in the maps of Sanson, Dehsle, and others of
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, there is found a
lake of Bornou, and in some of them a large lake with the
name of Guard ia, which does not sound very dissimilar to
that of Tchad. It is difficult to conjecture the ground
upon which these features were delineated; yet their coin¬
cidence with those recently discovered seems to show that
they were founded upon some information with which we
are now unacquainted. D’Anville, however, proceeding Bornou.
upon his rigid principle of admitting no object for which Y'"*'
he could not find a positive authority, expunged these
names from his map, and has been generally followed by
modern geographers. _ . , . .
When the African Association m 1788 commenced their
operations, they early received some information, collected
by Mr Lucas at Tripoli, with other particulars related by
Ben Ali, a Moorish merchant resident in London. From
these sources were derived pretty copious notices, both
concerning Bornou and Cassina ; the former being de¬
scribed as what it then appears to have been, decidedly
the ruling power in the interior of Eastern Africa, all the
kingdoms of which it had reduced into a state of vassalage.
In arranging these accounts, however, a considerable error
was committed as to the position of thiscountiy. Mr Lu¬
cas had been informed that it was fifty journeys, or about
six hundred and fifty miles, south from Fezzan ; but his
informant added that it was only twenty-five journeys west
from the Nile. To meet this statement Major Rennell
conceived it necessary to extend the route, not due south
as it really was, but south-east, so as to place it in the
heart of the desert, seven degrees north and eight degrees
east of its real position. Kuku, likewise believed, from
the statement of Edrisi, to be a separate kingdom, was
placed in tbe same quarter, still nearer to the Nile; and
thus the desert tract to the west of Nubia was filled with
countries which, in that quarter, have no existence.
The expedition sent out by the British government in
1822, under Denham and Clapperton, completely adjust¬
ed the geography of this part of the continent. It was
discovered that Bornou, instead of being so far removed,
as our maps represented, from Houssa and Cassina, was
close on their eastern frontier, and formed a continuation
of that extensive, fruitful, and finely watered plain, which
extends from the mouth of the Senegal across Central
Africa. Its relative political circumstances had also un¬
dergone, during this interval, a very complete change.
Instead of holding all the surrounding states in vassalage,
it had been itself completely subjected to the dominion of
the Fellatahs, who, after subjugating all Houssa, had in¬
vaded Bornou, and committed the most dreadful ravages,
destroying its capital and other large cities, and bringing
the whole country into a state of entire bondage. There
was still, however, among the people a strong spirit or
valour and independence. A mere private individual,
in the northern province of Kanem, pretending to, and
perhaps himself trusting in, a celestial mission, hoisted
the green flag of the Prophet, and, under the title of the
servant of God, undertook a series of struggles for the de¬
liverance of his country. The Fellatahs appear to have
been taken verv much by surprise, and, being defeated
in successive encounters, were in ten months driven com¬
pletely out of Bornou. They seem to have now given up
all attempts at reconquering it, although a hostile spirit
still reigns between the two countries.
The conqueror, called, from his native province, El
Kanemy, having the army wholly devoted to him, might
probably have with little difficulty assumed the sovereign
power. More moderate, and perhaps more prudent, he
drew forth the nearest heir of the ancient sultans, and
invested him with all the appearance and pomp of sove¬
reignty; reserving only for himself, under the title of
sclmik, all its reality. The court of the sultan was esta¬
blished at New Bornou, which was made the capital, in¬
stead of the old city, which had been entirely destroyed
during the Fellatah invasion ; while the scheik, in militaiy
state, resides at the city of Kuku or Kouka.
The Bornouese throne in former times had been elec¬
tive, £it least among the members of the same family; and
B O R N O U. 13
Bomou. the nobles possessed this and other high privileges: but
at present the scheik possesses a power nearly absolute,
which he exercises with salutary vigour. Bands of rob¬
bers who desolated the country have been nearly extir¬
pated, and travelling and property rendered secure, at
least in the interior. Justice within each city is admi¬
nistered, as in other Mussulman countries, by the cadi,
with an appeal to the scheik. Murder is punished, on
conviction, by delivering the offender to the relatives of
the deceased, who dispatch him with clubs. A young
thief is buried in the ground up to the head, which being
covered with butter and honey, is exposed under the burn¬
ing sun to the attack of innumerable flies and mosquitoes.
Insolvent debtors are rather hardly dealt with. But the
scheik’s zeal was peculiarly directed against moral offences,
of which conscience and public opinion have been gene¬
rally considered as the most appropriate guardians. Such
were the non-observance of the Mahommedan fasts, upon
which severe and relentless penalties were levied. He
was also most strict in punishing those failings in the fe¬
male sex which are elsewhere considered as sufficiently
visited by disgrace and exclusion from society. Here not
only the most ignominious punishments, hut often death
itself, awaited them. On one occasion sixty of these un¬
fortunate offenders were brought before him, of whom
five were hanged, and four whipt so severely that two af¬
terwards expired ; an outrageous virtue, which seems with
reason to have been branded as almost diabolical. The
most frivolous female offences, as talking too loud, and
walking in the street with the face unveiled, were consi¬
dered as ground of public indictment at this severe bar.
Even the spending in courtship or otherwise a larger sum
than a man was supposed to be able to afford, gave ground
for dragging him before the national tribunal. Major
Denham saw one thrown into prison for presenting to his
bride two robes or turkadoes, when his station was consi¬
dered as not authorizing more than one ; although he
proved that the lady had refused her consent on any other
terms; which, however, drew upon her also a severe ani¬
madversion.
The sultan of Bornou is surrounded by a mounted
body-guard, who likewise compose his principal nobles
and chiefs. Their attire and equipment is the most gro¬
tesque and unwieldy, perhaps, to which fashion in any
country has given rise. It is indispensable to the chief
of rank that he should possess a huge belly, the singular
importance attached to which is probably founded on the
idea of its being an indication of plenty and luxury; and
it is held so essential, that even when high feeding can¬
not produce the effect, stuffing is employed to give the
appearance of it. Again, even in this burning climate,
the body is enveloped in successive robes, amounting
often to ten or twelve, the number being always consi¬
dered as indicating the rank of the wearer. The head like¬
wise is inclosed in numerous successive turbans, which
are supposed to be rendered more ornamental by leaving
only one side of the face uncovered. The sultan studies
to he still more protuberant and more loaded with cloth¬
ing than any of his courtiers. Yet in this attire he and
they advance together into the field; but of course they
can have no real efficiency in the duties of active warfare.
The last sultan had fallen in consequence of the impossi¬
bility, caused by his ponderous equipment, of flying with
sufficient speed before a victorious enemy.
The military force of Bornou consists almost entirely
in cavalry, amounting to about 30,000, who are mounted
on small but active steeds, which, as well as their riders,
being cased in iron mail, present a very formidable ap¬
pearance. They also manage their horses with the ut¬
most skill, and perform all the manoeuvres of the field most
rapidly and dexterously. Their only defect is, that when Bornou.
placed in the field against an enemy at all formidable,
they can by no impulse be induced to fight. They look
on as spectators till the contest issues in victory, when
they engage eagerly in pursuit and plunder, in both of
’which they excel; whilst, in case of defeat, they take to
flight with the utmost rapidity. As, however, the cavalry
of the armies with which they contend are nearly on a level
in point of prowess with themselves, the match is tolerably
equal. There are usually on each side about a hundred
chiefs, raised to distinction by bodily strength and prow¬
ess, who engage in single combats, and display often the
most desperate valour. Barca Gana, the scheik’s general,
had obtained the reputation of possessing charms that
rendered him invulnerable. The main dependence of that
prince is upon a body of 9000 spearmen from bis native
territory of Kanem, who rally round him with the most
enthusiastic attachment. Though almost naked, and
equipped only with shield and spear, they display a discip¬
line beyond that of almost any other African army. They
march by tribes, and keep in front of their line a regular
chain of piquets, with sentinels, who every half hour pass
the war-cry along it; precautions very rarely employed in
barbarian armies. All the sovereigns of Central Africa
likewise consider themselves fortunate if they can engage
the services of even a small party of Arab caravan follow¬
ers, who, being brave and armed with muskets, an instru¬
ment yet almost unknown in this region, are objects of
something like supernatural dread.
The territory of Bornou is fertile and well watered,
yielding large crops even under very imperfect cultiva¬
tion. The labour is chiefly performed by female slaves,
who, at the commencement of the rainy season, scratch
rather than turn the ground, and scatter rather than sow
the seed. They are also obliged to watch the growth, in
order to guard against numerous animal depredators ; a
very perilous occupation, in the course of which they are
liable to be carried off by the wild beasts, who are roam¬
ing about in every direction. The rice and wheat are
inferior, and grown in small quantity. The grain which
forms the staple food of the people is a species of millet
called gussub, which they form, not into bread, an article
here entirely unknown, but into a species of paste, that,
by the addition of butter and honey, forms the highest
boast of Bornou cookery. Cotton and indigo are also
valuable productions, affording the material for the cloths
finely dyed with blue stripes, which form the staple fa¬
bric of the country. All the domestic animals are reared,
and very numerous herds of oxen are possessed, chiefly
by an Arab tribe called Shouaas. Major Denham reckons
20,000 on the shores of the Tchad, and double that num¬
ber on the banks of the Shary. The empire, however,
is remarkably destitute of the products of horticulture.
There is neither a fruit nor a vegetable, except some
onions in the vicinity of the large towns, and a very few
limes and figs reared with great difficulty in the garden
of the scheik.
The wild animals are very numerous, finding both
food and cover in the extensive woody and marshy dis¬
tricts. Lions prowl about in considerable numbers, ap¬
proaching even the walls of the towns. The Bornouese
delight in taming and even making a pet of this noble ani¬
mal. The scheik, as a special favour, sent Major Den¬
ham a present of a young lion, which he very prudently
returned, lamenting the want of space for his accommo¬
dation. Elephants, in herds of fifty to four hundred, wan¬
der over the tract inundated by the Tchad, and are hunt¬
ed and killed both for the flesh and the ivory. Hyenas
also, in huge and formidable bands, invade the cultivated
fields, and are with difficulty prevented from penetrating
14
Bomou.
B O R N O U.
into the towns. The tall form of the giraffe is not un-
frequently seen cropping the leaves of the dense forest.
The waters abound with crocodiles and hippopotami, and
the flesh of both is valued for food; that of the former,
indeed, is described by naturalists as extremely delicate.
The country is filled with swarms of bees, which often
obstruct the passage of the traveller; and the honey,
though only partially collected, forms one of the chief
Bornouese delicacies. Antelopes, gazelles, ostriches, and
various other (juadrupeds and feathered animals, are pui-
The population of Bornou is calculated by Major Den¬
ham at 5,000,000; but, considering its limited extent,
and the imperfect state of agriculture, this number must,
we think, be considerably exaggerated. The leading
people, called Bornouese or Kanowry, present a complete
specimen of the negro form and features; having large
mouths, thick lips, broad noses, an unmeaning face, but
o-ood teeth and high foreheads. Ihe females heighten
their want of beauty by a most extensive and injudicious
system of puncturing and tattooing. 1 he people are peace¬
ably disposed, friendly and courteous in their manners,
and distinguished by a sort of good-natured heaviness.
Though endowed with a slender degree of courage, they
are resentful, and addicted to petty larcenies. The
law allows of polygamy, but the richest have seldom more
than two or three wives, and the rest of the community
only one. The favourite amusement is wrestling, not
performed in person, but viewed as a spectacle while per¬
formed by slaves taken in war from the neighbouring na¬
tions, particularly the Beghermes and Musgows. The
displays of strength made by these men are said to be
often very extraordinary. A powerful wrestler sells at a
high price, and the masters place extraordinary pride in
the performance of their slaves, cheering them during the
combat, and, on its successful issue, often presenting them
with valuable robes. Even the ladies of Bornou engage
occasionally in public contests, where they often throw eac i
other with violence to the ground. Another favourite
amusement consists in a rude game bearing some resem¬
blance to chess, played with beans and holes in the sand.
The Mahommedan religion is universally professed in
Bornou, and even with violence and bigotry. Throug
recommendations brought with them, the English travel¬
lers secured good treatment; but, as unbelievers, they were
viewed with the deepest horror, and almost as a species
of monsters. Even from those who showed at first the
most friendly disposition, the disclosure of their creed
drew forth deep groans, sometimes screams, and usually
arrested all progress to intimacy. A man who had serv¬
ed them for two or three weeks, although he pleaded that
it was only under the most extreme necessity, was declar¬
ed unfit on that ground to be received as a witness in a
court of law. There are resident in Bornou a considerable
number offighis (writers or doctors), who have visited
Mecca, and are well skilled in Arabic. It is even an em¬
ployment to write copies of the Koran, which are sent in¬
to Barbary, where they bear a considerable price. Its
verses are much used as charms or amulets, in the pre¬
paration of which the scheik was understood greatly to
excel, gaining almost as many victories by his pen as by
his sword. The Bornouese, like other negroes, have songs
relatino- to love or war, some of which are said to possess
merit; but their intellectual character in general seems to
rank extremely low. .
The pastoral districts of this country are occupied by a
tribe called Shouaas, who are accounted Arabs, and speak
that language, though they have scarcely any resemblance
to those in the north bearing that appellation. They have
fine open countenances, with aquiline noses, large eyes,
and a complexion of light copper; and they exhibit a Bornou.
strong though improved resemblance to the European
gipsies. Their deportment, however, is not very favour¬
ably spoken of. They do not want courage, and can fur¬
nish the government when necessary with 15,UUU horse;
but they are arrogant and deceitful, imposing upon the
people by the manufacture of charms, and by pretensions
to prophecy and fortune-telling. Haying thus gained
admission into the houses, they not only sell these gifts
at a high rate, but embrace opportunities of pilfering.
Probably they were observed to disadvantage in the heart
of the cities. One of their tribes, called Dugganahs, who
were visited in their native tents on the Shary, presented
a most pleasing picture of patriarchal simplicity. I heir
countenances were noble and expressive, and the attach¬
ments of kindred and domestic affection were displayed in
peculiar force. Another tribe, called the La Salas, almost
independent of Bornou, inhabit a number of low islands in
the Tchad, covered with rich pasture, and separated from
the continent by channels so shallow as to be fordable on
horseback. A knowledge of the tracts is however requi¬
site ; and those troops who without it attempted to pene¬
trate through them have got entangled in mud, sunk into
deep pools, and signally defeated. _ ,
The towns in Bornou are of considerable size, surround¬
ed with walls thirty-five or forty feet in height, and twen¬
ty feet in thickness, having at each of the four corners a
triple gate, composed of strong planks of wood, with bars
of iron. The abodes of the principal inhabitants form an
inclosed square, in which are separate houses for each of
the wives ; whilst the chief himself resides in two or more
elevated structures resembling turrets, connected together
by terraces. These are well built, of a reddish clay, highly
polished, so as to resemble stucco; whilst the interior roof,
though composed only of branches, is tastefully construct¬
ed. The horns of the antelope and gazelle are employed
to fasten together the different parts, and have suspended
from them the quiver, spear, and shield of the owner. 1 he
ordinary houses are small, being built partly of mud and
thatched, partly only of straw or coarse grass mats. Major
Denham was accommodated in one of eight feet diametei,
having a hole two and a half feet high, by which he crept
in and out; but this deficiency of aperture was rendered
almost necessary by the crowds of tormenting insects who
would otherwise have made good their entrance. 1 hough
New Bornou and Kouka were the residences, the one of the
sultan and the other of the scheik, neither is equal m
magnitude to Angornou, estimated to contain m_
habitants, who, on market days, are swelled to 80,000 or
100 000. On the Yeou are seen the ruins of Old Uornou
andGambarou, which appear to have been greater and
better built cities than any now in the kingdom ; but they
had been so entirely destroyed by the Fellatahs in their
late invasion, that the very site is in a great measure
covered with shrubs and vegetation. The vicinity is al¬
most laid waste by the inroads of the Tuancks; and, in¬
deed, all the kingdoms of Central Africa suffer the disad¬
vantage of having their frontier exposed to the ravages of
predatory tribes who occupy the rude and desert borders.
1 The English travellers have held out favourable hopes of
the commerce which might be opened with Bornou. They
observed the increased and increasing demand, a
numerous population, for goods which Britain either does
or could produce cheaper than any other country; and
these goods were found selling at an advance of 300 per
cent, above their price at Tripoli. On the other hand, i
must not be forgotten that the route from that city,
though the nearest of any from the coast, greatly exceeds
a thousand miles, through the most dreary and desolate
tracts, amid the domains of numerous predatory tubes.
-BOR BOR 15
Borodino The merchant has to encounter, therefore, not only ac-
II cumulated hardships, but all the perils of famine, battle,
Borough. an(j pestilence. It would be vain, therefore, to expect
that any one would conduct such a trade without very
high profits. It is at present carried on by merchants,
or rather chiefs, each with a large body of armed follow¬
ers, alike prepared for commerce or war. The European
who should engage in such a trade would be obliged to
follow this example, and might expect to encounter their
enmity and rivalry. It seems doubtful, therefore, how far
such a trade could now be carried on by any other than its
present channel.
Amongst the commodities which find a market in Bor-
nou are mentioned writing paper, beads, coral, silks and
cottons of gaudy patterns, turbans, small carpets, brushes,
caftans, and shirts readymade ; brass basons tinned, small
mirrors, pistols, and other arms ornamented, but cheap.
The commodities taken in return are almost exclusively
slaves, obtained by purchase or capture; and we fear it
will be more difficult than Major Denham supposes to di¬
vert the trade from this bad channel. Neither gold nor
silver are seemingly to be procured in Bornou. Elephants’
teeth, ostrich feathers, raw hides, musk, indigo, and senna,
are mentioned as commodities suited to the market of
Europe. (e.)
BORODINO, a village in Russia, near the river Mosk-
wa, about ninety miles west of Moscow, remarkable for
the terrible battle fought there on the 7th of September
1812, between the French and Russians, in which the
latter were defeated.
BOROMiEUS. See Borromeus.
BOROUGH, Burrough, Borow, or Burgh, is a term
frequently used for a town or corporation which is not a
city.
Borough, in the original Saxon borge or borgh, is by
some supposed to have primarily meant a tithing or com¬
pany consisting of ten families, who were bound and com¬
bined together as sureties for one another. Afterwards,
as Yerstegan informs us, borough came to signify a town
that had something of a wall or inclosure about it; so that
all places which amongst our ancestors had the denomina¬
tion of borough, were one way or other fenced or fortified,
being, as it were, ‘xvgyoi. But in latter times this appel¬
lation was also bestowed on several of the villa; insigniores,
or country towns of more than ordinary note, though not
walled.
The ancient Saxons, according to Spelman, gave the
name of burghs to what in other countries were called
cities. But different canons being made for removing the
episcopal sees from villages and small towns to the chief
cities, the term city came to be attributed to episcopal
towns, whilst that of borough included all the rest, even
although they had the appearance of cities, as being go¬
verned by mayors, having bye-laws of their own making,
sending representatives to parliament, and being fortified
with a wall and castle, and the like.
Royal Boroughs or Burghs, in Scotland, are corpora¬
tions originally created for the advantage of trade, in virtue
of charters granted by several of their kings, and having
the privilege of sending commissioners to represent them
in parliament, besides other peculiar privileges. The royal
burghs are not only so many distinct corporations, but also
constitute one entire body, governed by, and accountable
to, a general court, anciently called the court of four bo¬
roughs, which was held yearly, to treat and determine con¬
cerning matters relating to the common interest. The four
burghs which composed this court were, Edinburgh, Stir¬
ling, Roxburgh, and Berwick ; but the two last falling into
the hands of the English, Linlithgow and Lanark were
substituted in their room, with a saving to the former
whenever they should return to their allegiance. But Borough-
this court not being sufficient to answer the necessities of English
the royal burghs, they were all empowered under James !*
III., in 1487, to send commissioners to a yearly convention
of their own, which was then appointed to be held at In-
verkeithing, but is now held at Edinburgh, under the de¬
nomination of the Convention of Royal Burghs, which was
vested with great powers, and had for its object the benefit
of trade, and the interest of the burghs generally.
BoROUGH-English, a customary descent of lands or
tenements, in some ancient boroughs and copyhold manors,
by which the youngest son, and not the eldest, succeeded
to the burgage tenement on the death of his father.
BOROUGHBRIDGE, a borough and market-town in
the parish of Aldborough and west-riding of Yorkshire,
208 miles from London, on the river Eyne, which is navi¬
gable to this place. The market is held on a Saturday.
The number of inhabitants in 1801 amounted to 680, in
1811 to 745, and in 1821 to 860.
BOROWITSCHI, a circle of the Russian government
of Novogorod, extending over 18,796 square miles, con¬
taining one city and fifty-four parishes, with 91,720 inha¬
bitants. The chief place is a city of the same name, on
the river Msta, containing two churches, 860 houses, and
3500 inhabitants, amongst whom are many pilots employed
in interior navigation. Long. 33. 5. E. Lat. 58. 16. N.
BOROWSK, a circle in the Russian government of
Kaluga, 614 square miles in extent, with 78,400 inhabi¬
tants. The chief place is the city of the same name on
the river Protwa, a manufacturing place for linen goods,
with a population of about 7000 persons. Long. 36. 5. E.
Lat. 55. 14. N.
BORRELISTS, in Ecclesiastical History, a Christian
sect in Holland, so denominated from their founder Borrel,
a person of much learning in the Hebrew, Greek, and La¬
tin tongues. They rejected the use of the sacraments,
public prayer, and other external acts of worship; af¬
firming that all the Christian churches of the world have
degenerated from the pure apostolical doctrines, because
they have suffered the word of God, which is infallible, to
be expounded, or rather corrupted, by doctors, who are
not infallible.
BORRICHIUS, Olaus, one of the most learned men
of his age, the son of a Lutheran minister, was born in
1626, at Borchen in Denmark. He was sent to study
physic in the university of Copenhagen in 1644, and he be¬
gan to practise during a terrible plague which made great
havoc in that city. In 1660, although appointed profes¬
sor of botany and chemistry, he visited Holland, England,
and France ; was received as doctor at Angers; and visit¬
ed Rome in 1665. In the course of his travels he attended
the most celebrated schools, and was selected by Queen
Christina as her master in chemistry. He returned to
Copenhagen in 1666, and discharged the duties of his
office with great assiduity, as his works abundantly testify.
He was raised to the office of member of the supreme
council of justice in 1686, and to that of counsellor of the
royal chancery in 1689; and he died of the operation of
lithotomy in 1690. The following is a list of his works:
1. Dokimasia Metallica, Copenhagen, 1660, 8vo; 2. Be
Ortu et Progressu Chemice Dissertatio, ibid. 1668, 4to; 3.
Hermetis, JEgyptiorum, et Chemicorum Sapientia, ibid.
1674, 4to; 4. Lingua Pharmacopceorum, ibid. 1670, 4to;
5. Cogitationes de variis Linguae Latinoe JEtatibus, ibid.
1675, 8vo ; 6. De Causis diversitatis Linguarum, ibid. 1675,
4to; 7. De Somno et Somniferis, Francfort, 1680, 1683,
4to; 8. De Usu Plantarum Indigenarum in Medicina,
Copenhagen, 1688, 1690, 8vo; 9. Dissertationes V. dePoe-
tis Greeds et Latinis, ibid. 1676; 10. Conspectus Chemico¬
rum Scriptorum Illustriorum, ibid. 1696, 4to; 11. De An-
16
BOR
Borromean tiqua Vrbis Roma Facie, ibid. 1697, 8vo; 12. De Urbis
Islands. Roma Primordiis, ibid. 1687, 4to; with some trines not
worth particularizing.
BORROMEAN Islands. Not far from the south-east¬
ern termination of the Alps there is a lake called Lagodi
Locarno, or Lago Maggiore, extending above fifty miles
in length by five or six in breadth. It contains several
islands, amongst which are the Isola Bella and Isola Madre,
situated in a large bay towards the west, and designed the
Borromean Islands. Towards Switzerland the lake termi¬
nates in a canal, which is of much utility for commercial
purposes ; and near Cesti, which is ten leagues from the
city of Milan, it discharges itself into the river licino,
with a current rapid and dangerous to the navigation of
small vessels. The Borromean Islands he about fifteen
miles distant by water from Cesti, and the passage to
them displays a succession of curious and interesting ob-
iects, some of which are connected with their own history.
Amongst these may be mentioned a colossal bronze statue
of San Carlo Borromeo, above the small town and port of
Arona, which is sixty feet in height, and stands on a pe¬
destal of proportional dimensions. This gigantic image
was cast at Milan, and brought hither in pieces. Ihe
Borromean Islands are of inconsiderable size, hut the aiti-
ficial decoration they have received has been the admira¬
tion of spectators since the middle of the seventeenth
century, when both were barren and unprofitable rocks.
About'this time Vitaliano, Count Borromeo, a nobleman
of illustrious descent, and master-general of the ordnance
to the king of Spain, resolving on their embellishment,
directed that they should be covered with earth from the
neighbouring banks of the lake. His injunctions were
fulfilled, and, at an immense expense, the islands were
converted into two gardens. Isola Madre appears m ten
successive terraces, rising one hundred and thirty feet
above the level of the water, each regularly decreasing in
size from the base to the summit, which is an oblong sur¬
face, seventy feet by forty in extent, payed and surround¬
ed by a balustrade. The whole are environed by gigantic
marble statues of gods, goddesses, and horses, or other
fieures; and the walls are clothed with the finest fruit trees
and evergreens, many of which belong to the southern cli¬
mates. There is, besides, a magnificent palace towards the
western end of the island, close to the lake, which almost
washes its walls. It is built on arches, which are formed
into grottoes, with a floor of Mosaic, representing various
obiects, and decorated also with shell-work and marble.
The palace itself contains a profusion of marbles and paint¬
ings ; and some flower-pieces, executed on marble, have
been particularly admired, as also busts and statues. At
the angles of the garden, which has a southern exposure,
there are two round towers with lofty chambers adorned
with red and white marble ; and in the vicinity are groves
of laurels, orange-trees, lofty cypresses, and other odonfe-
rous plants, rendering it a delightful retreat. But much
of the embellishment is lost by the immediate neighbour¬
hood of a miserable hamlet. .
Isola Madre, which is the larger of the islands, is be¬
tween one and two miles from Isola Bella; it consists of a
superstructure of seven terraces, apparently lovyer, but not
less beautiful, than the other. _ However, it is of equal
height in reality, the base being a perpendicular rock,
rising considerably out of the water, and on that ac¬
count not requiring so much covering. Here also there
is a palace embellished with paintings and different orna¬
ments; and in the gardens are groves of citrons, cedar,
and orange-trees, besides a summer-house close to the lake.
But all the decorations, as before, are necessarily on a li¬
mited scale, from the size of the island ; and it excites the
wonder of the spectator, that in a space thus restricted so
BOR
much has been done. Pheasants were formerly bred in Bom-
this island, as they were deterred by the vicinity of the mens.
water on all hands from attempting to escape. I here were
some hydraulic exhibitions in Isola Bella,^ and large cis¬
terns or reservoirs to preserve them in action. W hen any
foreign prince visited these islands in the night, or resided
upon them, they were illuminated with various coloured
lights. Their decorations were not only completed at an
enormous expense, but to keep them in the same state
since 1671, about which time they seem to have been
finished, the charge has proved equally great. They are
frequently called the “ Enchanted Islands.’ Keysler, a
learned traveller, says, “ these two islands can be com¬
pared to nothing more properly than two pyramids of
sweetmeats, ornamented with green festoons and flowers.
And a later tourist, Coxe, who borrows largely from him,
in speaking of the Isola Bella, observes, “ if any thing
justly gives this island the appellation of enchanted, it is
the prospect from the terrace. Ihe gradual diminution of
the mountains, from the regions of eternal snow to the
rich plain; the sinuosity of the lake; its varied banks; the
bay of Marzozzo, bounded by vast hills; the neighbouiing
borough of Palanza, and more distant view of Laveno, the
numerous villages, the Isola Madre, and another island
sprinkled with fishermen’s huts, form a delightful assem-
blage.”
These islands, after passing from the family of Borro¬
meo, appear to have come into possession of the emperor
of Germany. More recently, both of them, together with
the western coast of the bailliage of Locarno, are said to
have been ceded by the empress Maria Theresa to the
king of Sardinia, in consideration of the assistance she had
derived from him. Ihe whole lake is envboned by lulls,
covered with vineyards, and interspersed with summer¬
houses; beautiful rows of trees traverse its banks, and the
scene is still further embellished by cascades failing fiom
the mountains. .,
BORROMEUS, St Charles, cardinal, and archbishop
of Milan, was the son of Gilbert Borromeo, count of Are¬
na, and of Mary of Medicis, and was born at the castle of
Arona, upon the Lago Maggiore, in the Milanese, on the
2d October 1538. When he was about twelve years old,
Julius Caesar Borromeus resigned to him an abbacy, which
was considered as an hereditary appurtenance of the fami¬
ly • and Charles accepted the benefice, but applied the re¬
venue wholly in charity to the poor. Having acquired
a sufficient knowledge of the languages at Milan, fie stu¬
died the civil and canon law at Pavia; and derived great
advantage from the company and conversation of trancis
Alciat, one of the most learned men of the age. In the
year 1554 his father died, an event which recalled him to
his native place, Arona, where, although he had an elder
brother, Count Frederick, he was requested by the family
to take the management of their domestic affairs, wine
he at length consented to do. .
After a time however he resumed his studies, and, m
the year 1559, being then just twenty-one, he took his
doctor’s degree. The promotion of his uncle Cardinal e
Medicis to the pontificate, by the name of Pius IV. which
happened the year following, seemed to have little efiect
upon him; but he was soon made prothonotary, intrusted
with both the public and privy seal of the ecclesiastical
state, and created cardinal deacon, and soon alter arch¬
bishop of Milan. In compliance with the wish of his uncle
the pope, he lived in great splendour, haying a bril¬
liant retinue and a large number of domestics; yet his
own temperance and humility were never brought into
question. In order to render even his amusements useful,
he established an academy of select and learned per¬
sons, each of whom was to write on some chosen subject.
BOR
Borro- either.in verse or in prose, and to communicate to the
meus. others in frequent conferences the fruits of his studies.
-"T"-' The works produced by this society have been published
in several volumes, under the title of Nodes Vaticance,
printed at Venice in 1748, because these useful assem¬
blies were held at the Vatican, in the evenings, after the
business of the day had been concluded. About this time
he also formed a design of founding a college at Pavia,
and in prosecution of this design raised a large edifice
upon the foundations of several houses which belonged to
the Borromeo family in that city. He also obtained from
the pope several benefices, which he attached to his esta¬
blishment ; he provided it, out of his own private income,
with every thing necessary for the young scholars; and
he dedicated the college thus founded to Justina, virgin
and martyr.
Upon the death of his elder brother Frederick, his re¬
lations, friends, and even the pope himself, advised him
to change his state, quit the church, and marry, that his
family might not become extinct. Contrary to this advice
and the expectations of the world, however, Charles ad¬
dressed the pope in these terms: “ Do not complain of
me, holy father, for I have taken a spouse whom I love,
and on whom my wishes have long been fixed.” From
this time he became more fervent in the exercises of piety,
and more zealous for the advancement of ecclesiastical
knowledge.
A very intimate friendship subsisted between Borro-
meus and Don Barthelemy des Martyrs, archbishop of
Prague, and author of a book entitled Stimulus Pastorum.
This work falling into the hands of Borromeus, inspired
him with an earnest desire to become a preacher, more
especially as he was now convinced that predication was
one of the principal duties of a prelate. Multiplicity of
business, ill health, a feeble voice, and a difficult pronun¬
ciation, formed no inconsiderable obstacles to the success
of his design, yet he at length surmounted them all; and
although his beginnings were weak, perseverance enabled
him ultimately to attain the object of his ambition. Mean¬
while a change in the state of his relations with the holy
see was at hand.
Pius IV. died on the 7th of January 1566, and twenty-
eight days thereafter Cardinal Alexandrine mounted the
papal throne under the title of Pius V., the skill and dili¬
gence of Borromeus having very materially contributed to
stifle the cabals of the conclave. As soon as this event
took place, and tranquillity had been re-established at
Rome, which was generally disturbed by such elections,
Borromeus gave himself wholly up to the reformation of
his diocese of Milan, where the most flagitious irregulari¬
ties were openly practised, and where, from the ignorance
of the secular clergy, the insubordination of the regulars,
the superstitious practices introduced into public worship,
the scandalous negligence exhibited in the administration
of the sacraments, and the gross abuse of all the functions
of the holy ministry, matters had fallen into a most de¬
plorable state. The archbishop began by making pastoral
visits in his metropolis, where the canons were by no
means distinguished for the purity of their manners. By
a variety of wise and necessary regulations, he soon re¬
stored proper decency and dignity to divine service. In
conformity to the decrees of the council of Trent, he
cleared the cathedral of the gorgeous tombs, rich orna¬
ments, banners, arms, and in general of all the trophies
with which the vanity of man had disfigured the house of
God ; and in order to give a sanction to his reform by a
decisive example, he spared not the monuments of his
nearest relations. Nor did his zeal stop here. He divid¬
ed the nave of the church throughout its whole length
into two compartments, so that the sexes, being separat-
vol. v.
BOR 17
ed, might perform their devotions without any attention to Borro-
each other, and with feelings and impressions suitable to meus.
the place. From the cathedral he proceeded next to the
collegiate churches, and even to the fraternities of peni¬
tents, particularly that of St John the Baptist. The duty
of this society was to attend criminals to the place of
punishment, and to assist, comfort, and prepare them for
death; but the spirit of the institution had been forgot¬
ten, and the wretches condemned to death were dragged
to execution like beasts, without spiritual assistance or
consolation. The archbishop revived the original fervour
of the order, and persuaded many of the nobility and prin¬
cipal persons of the city to become members of a society
appropriated to so eminent a branch of Christian charity.
The reformation of the monasteries followed that of the
churches; and the vigilance of the archbishop soon ex¬
tended itself from the city to the country round it, which
abounded with irregularities requiring correction. The
great abuses which had overrun the church at this time
arose principally from the ignorance of the clergy. In
order, therefore, to attack the evil at its root, Charles
established seminaries, colleges, and communities, for the
education of young persons intended for holy orders. He
met with many difficulties and much opposition in his en¬
deavours to bring about a reformation of manners ; but by
an inflexible constancy, tempered with great sweetness of
manners, he prevailed against every obstacle, and suc¬
ceeded in rendering the most important services to the
cause of morals as well as religion.
But the governor of the province, and many of the se¬
nators, were apprehensive that the cardinal’s ordinances
and proceedings would encroach upon the civil jurisdic¬
tion, and become inconsistent with the rights of his Ca¬
tholic Majesty, to whom the duchy of Milan then belong¬
ed. And this proved a fruitful source of remonstrances,
representations, and complaints, addressed to the courts
of Rome and Madrid; these, however, in as far as con¬
cerned the king of Spain, Philip II. were referred entirely
to the decision of the pope. But Borromeus had more
formidable difficulties to struggle with, in the inveterate
opposition of several religious orders, particularly that of
the Brothers of Humility. Three provosts of the society
entered into a conspiracy to cut him off; and one of their
confederates, Jerome Donat, surnamed Farina, took upon
him to carry the design into execution. For this purpose
he mixed with the crowd which repaired to the archi-
episcopal chapel, where the cardinal spent an hour every
evening in prayer with his domestics and other pious per¬
sons ; and having watched his opportunity, he fired at his
eminence a harquebuss, loaded with a ball suited to the
calibre of the piece, and with a considerable charge of
leaden shot besides. It is said that the ball struck him on
the spine, but dropped at his feet without doing any other
damage than ruffling his rochet, and that one of the shot
penetrated his clothes to the skin, and there stopped,
without imprinting any wound; which was considered a
miracle, especially as another shot tore away part of a
wall, and went quite through a table. Without having
recourse to such a solution, his escape is certainly won¬
derful, considering that the assassin had taken his station
at the distance of only five or six paces from his intended
victim. At the moment when the shot was fired the
choir were chanting the fine old melody, Non turbetur cor
vestrum neque formidet; and it is said, that after the dis¬
charge of the piece the cardinal archbishop continued the
service without any apparent emotion. The assassin and
three of his accomplices were seized, tried, condemned,
and executed, notwithstanding every effort of the cardinal
to screen them from the punishment which they so well
merited.
c
18
BOR
Borrows- In the year 1576 the city and diocese of Milan were visit-
tounness. e(J by the plague, which swept away great numbers. On this
occasion the behaviour of Borromeus was truly Christian
and heroic. He not only continued on the spot, but went
about giving directions for accommodating the sick and
burying the dead, with a zeal and attention that were at
once ardent and deliberate, minute and comprehensive ;
and his example stimulated others to join in the good
work. He avoided no danger, and he spared no expense;
nor did he content himself with establishing proper regu¬
lations in the city, but went out into all the neighbouring
parishes where the contagion raged, distributing money
to the poor, ordering proper accommodations lor the sick,
and punishing those, especially the clergy, who were re¬
miss in discharging the duties of their calling. But not¬
withstanding the fatigue and perplexity which he suffered
in thus executing his pastoral charge, he abated nothing
of the usual austerity of his life, nor omitted any of his
stated devotions ; whatever approached to luxury or mag¬
nificence he considered as incompatible with the proprie¬
ty of his character ; bread and water constituted his hum¬
ble and daily fare.
But continual labours and austerities at last shortened
the life of this remarkable man. Having gone to Vercal
to put an end, if possible, to divisions which threatened
BOS
Borrowstounness is distant eighteen miles west of Edin¬
burgh, and three north of Linlithgow.
BORSEHOLDER, among the Anglo-Saxons, one of
the lowest magistrates, whose authority extended^ only v
over one free burgh, tithing, or decennary, consisting of
ten families. Every freeman who wished to enjoy the
protection of the laws, and not to be treated as a vaga¬
bond, was under the necessity of being admitted a mem¬
ber of the tithing where he and his family resided; and
in order to obtain this admission, it was necessary for
him to maintain a good reputation, because all the mem¬
bers of each tithing being pledges and securities for one
another, and the whole tithing sureties to the king for tlie
good behaviour of all its members, they were very cautious
in admitting any into their society who were of bad or
doubtful characters. Each tithing formed a little state or
commonwealth within itself, and chose one of its most re¬
spectable members for its head, who was sometimes called
the alderman of such tithing or free burgh, on account of
his age and experience, but most commonly borseholder,
from the Saxon words bor*h, a security, and alder, a head
or chief. This magistrate had authority to call together
the members of his tithing, to preside in their meetings,
and to put their sentences in execution. The members of
each tithing, with their tithing-man or borseholder at their
Borse¬
holder
H
Bos.
themost fetal consequences, he there received a message head, constituted a court of justice in which all the little
from the duke of Savoy, requesting his presence at Turin, controversies arising withm the tithing were determined,
whither he immediately repaired. From Turin he retir- If any dispute of great difficulty or importance happened,
ed to a place called the Sepulchre, on the mountain Va- or if either of the parties was not willing to submit to a
rais, where being seized with an intermittent fever, he sentence given m the tithing-court, the cause was referred
returned to Milan, and died there on the 4th of November
1584, the day after his return. Borromeus was canonized
on the 1st of November 1610, in the pontificate of Leo
XL Besides the Nodes Vaticance, to which he appears
to have contributed, the only literary relics of this intre
or appealed to the next superior court, which was that of
the hundred.
BOR SET, or Borsett, celebrated for its baths, a place
about half a league from Aix-la-Chapelle in Germany.
The abbey is a very magnificent structure. It was for-
to nave contrinmeu, uie umy nteidij ^  -   ^
Pid and zealous reformer are some homilies, discourses, merly a monastery, but now serves as a nunnery, the 4>-
ind sermons, with a collection of letters. Several lives of bess of which is usually a princess of the empire, and lady
him have been published. That by Godeau, however, is of Borset. The waters are warm, and of the same nature
too succinct; that by Touron, a Dominican, is too diffuse; as those of Aix-la-Chapelle ; and they aie only used for
and that by Ribadeneira, a Spanish Jesuit, is filled with diseases m which those last mentioned are recommended,
incredible and ridiculous fables. But through all the and also in dropsical and cedematous cases. The waters
mist of absurdity and superstition in which the character are distinguished into the upper and lower springs. The
and actions of Borromeus have been involved, it is easy to former were found by Dr Simmons to raise the thermome-
discern, that if the Church of Rome had had many such
men, religion might have been spared some grievous
wounds, and the nations of Europe many afflicting and
sanguinary convulsions.
BORROWSTOUNNESS (generally abbreviated to
Bo’ness), a sea-port town of Scotland, in the county of Lin-
ter to 186°, the latter to only 127c
BORSOD, a circle in the Austrian kingdom of Hungary,
the frontiers of which are washed by the rivers Samlior
and Torna. It extends over 1332 square miles, or 852,480
acres, comprehends 12 towns, 167 villages, and 19,650
houses, and contains a population of 156,050 souls. Near-
th"eow is STd on tile southern shore of theW of ly halt' the land is covered with woods; but the remainder
if. » ’, .i • u..-. o...™ own frmv is mnrWfltelv fertile, and produces erood corn, wine, hemp,
Forth, where that arm of the sea is between three and four
miles broad. This is one of the most ancient sea-poit
towns of Scotland, and many of the houses appear to be
of very ancient date. The town is irregularly built; the
streets are narrow and incommodious ; and, from the num¬
ber of public works, whence smoke is profusely emitted,
the houses are for the most part coated with soot. There
is an excellent harbour here, where a patent slip is erect¬
ed for the use of shipping. The trade of this port was at
one time considerable; but of late years it has much de¬
clined, in consequence of the navigable canal between the
is moderately fertile, and produces good corn, wine, hemp,
flax, and some tobacco. The manufactures are chiefly of
a domestic kind.
BORYSTHENES. See Boristhenes.
BOS, John Baptist du, a celebrated author and mem¬
ber of the French academy, was born at Beauvais in 1670,
and finished his studies at the Sorbonne. In 1695 he was
named one of the committee for foreign affairs under M.
Torez; and he was afterwards charged with some im¬
portant transactions in England, Germany, Holland, and
Italy. On his return to Paris he met with rapid prefer-
rivers'Forth and Clyde having gradually transferred the ment, having been made an abbe, and chosen perpetual
trade to Grangemouth, which stands at the junction of secretary of the French academy. He was the aut mr o
- . . .8 . w.  several excellent works, the prmcqial of which are, 1. Cri¬
tical Reflections upon Poetry and Painting, 3 vols. 12mo;
2. The History of the four Gordians, confirmed and illus¬
trated by medals ; and 3. A critical History of the esta¬
blishment of the French Monarchy among the Gauls, 2
vols. 4to, and 4 vols. 12mo. He died at Paris on the 23d
of March 1742.
this canal with the Forth. At present it possesses three
vessels employed in the whale-fishery. Ihe parish con-
tains extensive coal-works. "Ihere are also two distilleries,
a pottery, a soap-work, and a vitriol and sal-ammoniac
work. Besides the established church, there is a dissenting
meeting-house. There are two weekly markets, and an
annual fair. The population in 1831 amounted to 2809.
BOS BOS 19
B is Bos. See Mammalia, Index.
il Bos, in Antiquity, was the name of an ancient Greek
loscawen. sJlver coin or didrachmus, equivalent to two drachms: it
W~v"'w/ was sometimes also struck of gold. This coin was so
called from having on it the impression of an ox. It ob¬
tained chiefly among the Athenians and Delians. Hence
arose the phrase Bos in lingua, applied to those who had
taken bribes to hold their tongue.
BOSA, a city on the western coast of the island of
Sardinia, in a fine valley on the northern bank of the Ter-
mo. It is the see of a bishop, and is somewhat subject to
malaria, but contains about 4000 inhabitants. Long. 8.
25. 31. E. Lat. 40. 16. 40. N.
BOSCAGE, the same with a grove or thicket.
Boscage, among painters, denotes a landscape repre¬
senting much wood and trees.
BOSCAN, Almogaver, Juan, a Spanish poet of the
sixteenth century, born at Barcelona about the year 1500.
He was the intimate friend of Garcilasso de Vega, and
with him contributed essentially to the improvement of
Spanish poetry. He was the first who introduced ende-
casyllabic verse, and transported into the Castilian tongue
the sonnets and other poetical forms consecrated by the
usage of the best Italian authors. His poetry is divided
into three books, the first of which contains only redon-
dillas, while the two others are filled with the pieces
which he composed after he adopted his new method,
namely, canciones, sonnets, tercetts, compositions in the
ottava rima, and some writings in blank verse. Boscan
was tutor to tbe celebrated Ferdinand de Toledo, duke
of Alba, and appears to have died before the year 1543.
His works were printed in conjunction with those of his
friend Garcilasso, at Medina in 1544, 4to, at Leon in 1549
in 16to, and afterwards at Venice in 1553, 12mo.
BOSCAWEN, Edward, a brave British admiral, was
the second son of Hugh Lord Viscount Falmouth. Hav¬
ing early entered into the navy, he was, in 1740, captain
of the Shoreham ; and behaved with great intrepidity as a
volunteer under Admiral Vernon, at the taking of Porto-
Bello. At the siege of Carthagena, in March 1741, he
had the command of a party of seamen who resolutely at¬
tacked and took a battery of fifteen twenty-four pounders,
though exposed to the fire of another fort of five guns.
Lord Aubrey Beauclerk having been killed at the attack
of Boca-Chica, Captain Boscawen succeeded him in the
command of the Prince Frederick of seventy guns. In
May 1742 he returned to England, and married Frances,
daughter of William Glanville, Esq.; and the same year
he was elected representative for Truro in Cornwall. In
1744 he was made captain of the Dreadnought of sixty
guns ; and soon after he captured the Medea, a French man
of war commanded by M. Hoquart, the first ship taken in
that war. In May 1747 he signalized himself under the
admirals Anson and Warren, in an engagement with the
French fleet off Cape Finisterre, and was wounded in the
shoulder with a musket ball. Here M. Hoquart, who then
commanded the Diamond of fifty-six guns, again became
his prisoner ; and all the French ships of war, ten in num¬
ber, were taken. On the 15th of July he was made rear-
admiral of the blue, and commander-in-chief of the sea
and land forces employed on an expedition to the East
Indies; and on the 4th of November he sailed from St
Helen’s, with six ships of the line, five frigates, and 2000
soldiers. On the 29th of July 1748 he arrived at St
David's, and soon after laid siege to Pondicherry ; but
the men growing sickly, and the monsoons being expect¬
ed, the siege was raised, and Mr Boscawen showed him¬
self as much the general as the admiral in his retreat.
Soon afterwards he received news of the peace, and Ma¬
dras was delivered up to him by the French. In April
1750 he arrived at St Plelen’s in the Exeter, and found Boscoi
that in his absence he had been appointed rear-admiral li
of the white. He was the next year made one of the Boscovich.
lords commissioners of the admiralty, and chosen an elder
brother of the Trinity-house. In February 1755 he was
appointed vice-admiral of the blue. On the 19th of April,
sailing in order to intercept a French squadron bound to
North America, he fell in with the Alcide and Leys of
sixty-four guns each, which were both taken. On this
occasion M. Hoquart became his prisoner for the third
time, and he returned to Spithead with his prizes and
1500 prisoners. In 1756 he was appointed vice-admiral
of the white, and in 1758 admiral of the blue and com¬
mander-in-chief of the expedition to Cape Breton, when,
in conjunction with General Amherst, and a body of
troops from New England, the important fortress of Louis-
bourg and the whole island of Cape Breton were taken;
services for which he afterwards received the thanks of
the House of Commons. In 1759, being appointed to com¬
mand in the Mediterranean, he arrived at Gibraltar, where
hearing that the Toulon fleet, under M. de la Clue, had
passed the Straits in order to join that at Brest, he got
under sail, and on the 18th of August saw, pursued, and
engaged the enemy. His ship, the Namur of ninety guns,
losing her main-mast, he shifted his flag to the Newark ;
and, after a sharp engagement, took three large ships
and burnt two, in Lagos Bay, after which he returned to
Spithead with his prizes and 2000 prisoners. On the 8th
December 1760 he was appointed general of the marines
with a salary of L.3000 per annum, and was also sworn a
member of the privy council. He died in 1761.
BOSCOI, or Bosci, in Ecclesiastical History, denotes a
class or tribe of monks in Palestine, who fed on grass like
the beasts of the field. The word is Greek, (Soaxoi, graziers,
formed from ftoMu,pasco. The Boscoi are ranked amongst
the number of Adamites, not so much on account of their
habit as their food. They took no care about provision ;
but when eating time came, they went into the fields, each
with his knife in his hand, and gathered and ate what they
could find.
BOSCOVICH, Koger Joseph, was born on the 18th
of May 1711, at Ragusa, a sea-port on the coast of the
Adriatic, and capital of a small republic of the same name,
then under the protection of the Turks and the Vene¬
tians. It does not appear that our author gave any tokens
of superior genius till he was sent to learn grammar and
philosophy in the schools of the Jesuits, who were at that
time the principal teachers in Ragusa, and indeed through¬
out all Italy. Amongst these shrewd observers his docility
and obedience were sufficient to mark him out as a per¬
son likely to attain future eminence, and consequently to
procure him particular attention. In his fifteenth year,
after he had gone through the ordinary course of educa¬
tion, and when it was necessary to decide as to his future
pursuits, application was made for his admission into the
order; and, for the reasons just mentioned, this was readily
complied with, and the subject of the present notice sent
to Rome in the year 1725. On his arrival in the Eternal
City he entered on his noviciate for admission into the
order; but here his studies changed their character and
direction, although they were still pursued with diligence.
Christian morality, with the rules and constitutions of the
order, claimed his attention for two years; after which he
was instructed in rhetoric, and became well versed in
general literature, particularly Latin poetry, which at that
time was very much cultivated.
From the noviciate he was sent to the Roman college
to study mathematics and physics; and it was in these
sciences that his genius and abilities shone forth so con¬
spicuously, and procured him the admiration of his supe-
20
BOS
Boscovioh. riors. In the course of three years he was able to give
w—y-w' private lessons in the mathematics; and he was then ex¬
empted from the operation of a law, by which the novices
were bound to teach Latin and the belles-lettres for five
years before they commenced the study of theology, inis
exemption was in consequence of his great predilection for
the mathematics, of which he was soon afterwards made
public professor. For this professorship he was eminent¬
ly qualified, as, besides a thorough knowledge of all the
modern productions in the science, he had acquired a
classical severity of demonstration by studying the works
of the ancient geometricians; yet he conjoined withal an
obliging accommodation of his own habits to the defi¬
ciencies of his pupils, and for their benefit composed ele¬
mentary treatises on arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and
trigonometry. But notwithstanding the arduous duties
of his situation, he found time to instruct and enlighten
more than boys; for about this period he formed some
of those refined and original notions which were destined
to grow up into the system that afterwards became so ce¬
lebrated. The animating spirit of discovery and inven¬
tion led him to consider every portion of physical^science ;
and indeed so versatile and vigorous was his mind, that
we should be at a loss to specify any one portion which,
within a few years, it did not comprehend, elucidate, and
advance. In confirmation of this it will be sufficient to
present our readers with an enumeration of the principal
subjects to which he turned his attention, and concerning
which he published dissertations while he continued m
the professorship. These were, the transit of Mercury
over the sun, the spots in the sun, the aurora borealis,
the construction of spherical trigonometry, the figure of
the earth, a new telescope to determine celestial objects,
the ancient arguments for the rotundity of the eart ,
oscillating circles; on infinites and infinitely small quan¬
tities, the motion of bodies in unresisting spaces, the
aberration of the fixed stars, the inequalities in terres¬
trial gravity; on astronomy, on the limits of certainty
in astronomical observations; on the solid of greatest at¬
traction, the cycloid, the logistic curve lines, the vires
vivce, the comets, light, the tides, the rainbow, the calcula¬
tion of fractions, the centre of gravity, the moon s atmo¬
sphere, the law of continuity, lenses and dioptrical tele¬
scopes, the objective micrometer, and the divisibility of
matter. Some of these are short, but all of them contain
curious and valuable matter. It is only by perusing
them that we are able to discover the gradual progress of
his mind, and to understand the manner in which he ar¬
rived at that theory of natural philosophy which is now
known by his name. , . , .
About this time a taste for philosophical poetry was
very prevalent amongst the learned, and some of Bosco-
vich’s acquaintances had laboured in it with success. O
these we may mention Father Noceti, who wrote on the
rainbow and die aurora borealis, and Benedict Stay, whose
poems on the philosophy of Descartes, and on the moie
modern philosophy, are considered as excellent examples
of Latin^composition. Boscovich published the works of
both with annotations and supplements, m which a splen¬
did fund of information and learning is displayed.
By such undertakings his fame was widely diftused, and
he became an object of general admiration. The leained
societies of many countries in Europe conferred on him
unsolicited honours, and several foreign princes invited
him to their courts. His opinions on various subjects of
civil architecture, topography, and hydrodynamics, were
solicited by Pope Benedict XIV., John V. of Pprtuga ,
and others; These applications necessarily required his
presence in different states of Europe, where he never
failed to enhance his reputation, and often terminated dis-
B O S
putes which, but for his judicious interference, might Boscovich.
have had disagreeable consequences.
He was employed to correct the maps of the papal do¬
minions, and to measure a degree of the meridian passing
through them. In this operation he was assisted by an
English jesuit named Christopher Maire. An account of
their expedition was printed at Rome and Pans, and is
interspersed with some curious anecdotes concerning the
opinions which the peasants of the Apennines, formed of
them, and the operations which they had to perform ; but
it is chiefly valuable on account of the detail which is given
of their observations. . .
In the year 1757 he was sent to Vienna by the repub¬
lic of Lucca, to settle some differences which had arisen
concerning the draining of a lake, m which the grand
duke of Tuscany, the emperor Francis I., and that repub¬
lic, were concerned; and it was after he had succeeded
in the object of his mission to that city that he published
there his Theoria Philosophic^ Nuturalis in 1/58.
Another occasion for his mediating powers soon pre¬
sented itself, and move nearly interested him, as it con¬
cerned his native city of Ragusa. The British govern¬
ment having suspected that some ships of war had been
fitted out in that port for the service of France, and
that its neutrality had thus been infringed, this suspicion
alarmed the senate of Ragusa, and required speedy re¬
moval, more especially as the consequences might have
been extremely prejudicial to their commerce. Bosco¬
vich, who had often been successful m similar missions
for other powers, appeared to them the fittest person to
be intrusted with this. Accordingly, having been nomi¬
nated by his countrymen, he repaired to London, where
he effected the object of his mission with honour to
himself and satisfaction to his native state. He visited
the Royal Society, which received him with distinguisxied
marks of respect; and he soon afterwards complimented
it with an excellent Latin poem on the solar and lunar
eclipses. This was in the year 1760 Boscovich was
invited by the Royal Society to be of the party of their
members about to proceed to America in order to ob¬
serve the transit of Venus over the sun s disc. But
the nature of his embassy, and the necessity of return¬
ing home, prevented his accepting the invitation. Soon
after his return from this embassy, he was appointed
by the senate of Milan to the mathematical chair in the
university of Pavia, with the superintendence of the ob¬
servatory of the royal college of Brera. He continued m
this situation for six years, when the empress queen ap¬
pointed him professor of astronomy and optics in the
Palatine schools of Milan, and also requested that he
would continue his attention to the observatory. Ihis
he expected to prove the most agreeable part ot his file.
Admired by the learned, beloved by his friends, and hav¬
ing an adequate income, with a sound and vigorous con-
stftution, he promised to himself happy because usefu
days, in the tranquil cultivation of the sciences.^ But
a cloud long impending now burst over his head, m t ic
edict for the abolition of his order, which took place
in the year 1773. No exemption from the edict could
be procured; all who held offices were dismissed; and
Boscovich sought refuge in the city of Paris. Thither
indeed he was invited by Turgot, through whose means
he was made one of the directors of optics for the
sea service, and received a pension; but it would seem
that his situation proved disagreeable to him; nor is
this to be wondered at, considering the peculiar circum¬
stances which had induced him to take up his residence
in the French capital. Fie remained there, however, tor
ten years, on the expiry of which he set out for Bassano,
in the republic of Venice, and there published, in five vo-
BOS
Roscovich. lumes quarto, a collection of the works which he had
completed in Paris. The following is a pretty accurate
enumeration of their contents: A new instrument for de¬
termining the refracting and diverging forces of diapha¬
nous bodies ; a demonstration of the falsehood of the New¬
tonian analogy between light and sound; the algebraic
formulae regarding the foci of lenses, and their applica¬
tions for calculating the sphericity of those which are to
be used in achromatic telescopes; the corrections to be
made in ocular lenses, and the error of the sphericity of
certain glasses; the causes which hinder the exact union
of the solar rays by means of the great burning glasses,
and the determination of the loss arising from it; the me¬
thod of determining the different velocities of light passing
through different media by means of two dioptric tele¬
scopes, one common, the other of a new kind, containing
water between the objective glass and the place of the
image ; a new kind of objective micrometers ; the defects
and inutility of a dioptric telescope proposed and made
at Paris, which gives two images of the same object, the
one direct, the other inverse, with two contrary motions
of movable objects; masses floating in the atmosphere,
as hail of an extraordinary size, seen on the sun with the
telescope, and resembling spots; the astronomical refrac¬
tions, with various methods for determining them; differ¬
ent methods for determining the orbits of comets and of
the new planet, with copious applications of these doc¬
trines to other astronomical subjects, and still more gene¬
rally to geometry and to the science of calculation; the
errors, rectifications, and use of quadrants, sextants, astro¬
nomical sectoi’s, the meridian line, telescopes called tran¬
sit instruments, the meridian, and the parallactic ma¬
chine ; the trigonometrical differential formulae, which are
of so much use in asti’onomy; the use of the micrometifi-
cal rhombus, extended to any oblique position whatsoever;
the error arising from reflections in using the astronomi¬
cal ring for a sun-dial, and the correction to be made;
the appearing and the disappearing of Saturn’s ring; me¬
thods of determining the rotation of the sun by means of
the spots; the greatest exactness possible in determining
the length of a pendulum oscillating every second of mean
time by the comparison of terrestrial and celestial gx*avity;
a compend of astronomy for the use of the marine, con¬
taining the elements of the heavenly motions, and of the
astronomical instruments, to be explained to a prince in
the course of one month; a method for determining the
altitudes of the poles with the greatest exactness, by
means of a gnomon alone, where other instruments are
not to be had ; the determination of the illuminated edge
of the moon to be observed on the meridian; a method
of using the retrograde return of Venus to the same lon¬
gitude, for determining the less certain elements of her
oi'bit; a method for correcting the elements of a comet,
of which the longitude of the node is given, and the in¬
clination of the orbit has been nearly found; another me¬
thod for the same purpose, and for finding the elliptical
orbit, when the parabolic one does not agree with obser¬
vation ; a method for correcting the elements of a planet
by three observations ; the projection of an orbit inclined
in the plane of the ecliptic; the projection of an orbit in¬
clined in any other plane; the calculation of the aberra¬
tion of the stars, arising from the successive propagation of
light; and some beautiful theorems belonging to triangles,
which are of great use in astronomy, reduced to the most
simple demonstrations.
After the publication of these works, our author quitted
Bassano, and went to Rome to visit the companions of
his youth. From Rome he proceeded to Milan, where
he revised some of his own woi’ks, and prepared for pub¬
lication the two last volumes of Stay’s poems. His death
BOS 21
took place on the 13th of February 1787, in the seventy-Boshuanac.
sixth year of his age.
Besides the different works above mentioned, Boscovich
wrote several others on various subjects, as on the pro¬
ject of turning the navigation to Rome from Fiumicino to
Maccarese ; on two torrents in the territory of Perugia ;
on the bulwarks of the river Ponaro ; on the river Sidone
in the territory of Placentia; on the bulwarks of the Po ;
on the harbours of Ancona, of Rimini, of Magna Vacca,
and Savona ; besides some others, almost all of which were
printed. For an account of the system developed in the
Theoria Philosophic Naturalis, see the article Physics.
BOSHUANAS, called by some Bichuanas, or Bet-
juanas, a numerous people, or rather race, who occupy
an extensive territory in Southern Africa. Their country
is bounded on the south by the Cape Colony, on the east
by the Caffre territoxy, on the north by the Makooas, and
other tribes bordering on the Portuguese settlement of
Mozambique. The western limit is partly unknown, part¬
ly composed of extensive deserts.
Down to the commencement of the present century,
this people were entbely unknown to Europeans. Mr
Barrow, indeed, in his second journey into the country of
the Caffres, obtained some notices respecting them. In
1801, while the settlement laboured under a severe scar¬
city of cattle, two gentlemen belonging to it, Messrs Truf-
fer and Sommei’ville, set out on an expedition, with the
view of procuring a supply. Having passed, first the
Great Karroo or Arid Desert, then the Snowy Mountains,
and the territory of the rude Bosjesmans, they arrived at
an extensive pastoral plain watered by the ample stream
of the Orange river, and inhabited by the Koras or Kora-
nas, who appeared considerably superior to any of the
other Hottentot tribes. Here they met with a Boshuana,
and received from him such accounts as induced them to
accompany him to his own countiy. They soon passed
the frontier, and entered on a fertile and finely-watered
territory, where, after a few days’ journey, they were sur¬
prised to find, in the heart of this nxde and unknown re¬
gion of Africa, what might almost be termed a city. The
houses and streets of Lattakoo were built and arranged
in a manner decidedly superior to any hitherto seen in
the southern districts of this great continent. The king,
a venerable old man, received them with kindness, and
they became to all the natives objects of fx-iendly curi¬
osity. These people appeared to our ti’avellers not only
to have made considerable progress in the arts and in
civilization, but to live together in a patriarchal simplicity
and harmony, which almost realized the fabled pictures of
the golden age.
Lord Caledon, then governor of the Cape, on receiv¬
ing this interesting intelligence, determined to follow out
the career of discovery thus opened. He dispatched Dr
Cowan and Lieutenant Denovan, with a party of twenty,
to endeavour to penetrate through the territory of the
newly-discovered people, and if possible to reach the coast
at Mozambique and Sofala, by which they would throw
important light on a very considei’able extent of the geo-
graphy of Africa. The travellers experienced at Lattakoo
the same fi-iendly reception as their precursors ; they then
arrived at the residence of a chief called Makkx-akka, who
afforded them a still more cordial welcome. A letter was
received from them, dated from the residence of this chief,
in about 24. south latitude, in which they described the
country as increasing in beauty and fertility, and as wa¬
tered by a noble river flowing to the westward. Mak-
ki*akka sent forward his own brother to recommend them
to the Wanketzens, the tribe immediately to the north¬
ward. Here they met at first with a reception altogether
favourable; but this ti'eachei'ous people, seeing them thrown
9-7
BOS
Boshuanas. off their guard, determined upon an attack, for the pur-
pose of seizing all their property. The expedition impru¬
dently separated into three parties, one of which went to
bathe, while another remained in charge of the waggons,
and a third of the cattle. The natives having attacked
successively these three bodies, succeeded too fully in their
atrocious design, and entirely cut off the Enghs .
The government at the Cape did not for some time ob¬
tain any intelligence respecting this party, and the hrs
rumour of the disaster arrived by way of Mozambique.
No official mission has since been dispatched ; yet several
travellers, animated by liberal curiosity, or the benevolent
desire of communicating to the natives the truths oi the
gospel, have penetrated even deeper into the interior of
this region than those now mentioned. Dr Lichtenstein,
after an extensive survey of the country of the ^aftl e®’
ventured, not without some apprehension, to Lattakoo, but
met with a perfectly friendly reception. Leing solicited,
however, to give aid with fire-arms m awar against Mak-
krakka, the traveller, unwilling to involve himself m these
interior African contests, wisely took the first opjoi tu-
nity of returning, after gaining, however, a good deal of
information. In 1813, the Reverend Mr Campbell, at the
request of the Missionary Society, and with a view to
promote its objects, ventured on an expedition into t ns
territory. Although the dispositions of the people were
not altogether such as he could have wished, he had
no personal cause of complaint. Lattakoo was found (a
change not uncommon in Africa, and consequent upon a
schism among its inhabitants) to have been transposed
about sixty miles from its former situation. It appeared
also diminished in size, not containing above 1500 houses
and 8000 inhabitants. Although unable to effect any con¬
versions, he obtained, with some difficulty, permission foi
missionaries to settle here, and a promise of good treat¬
ment In 1820 he returned and found the establishment
in a tolerably flourishing state. The missionaries had
neat houses and gardens built for their use, with a chapel
capable of containing 400 persons, though it was very
thinly attended. Mr Campbell penetrated northwards to
Mashow, Meribohway, and Kurrechane, townslarger than
Lattakoo, and governed by separate chiefs. Mr Burche
afterwards, in the course of an extensive tour thiough
Southern Africa, penetrated beyond Lattakoo, and west¬
ward to Bakarrikarri, on the confines of the Great Desert.
We have thus, from a succession of intelligent travellers,
very satisfactory information respecting this country, and
the tribes by which it is inhabited. . .
The Boshuanas are proved, both by their form and
language, to belong to the same race with the Cafiies ;
but their persons are less vigorous, and in the male sex
less strikingly handsome ; yet many of their females pos¬
sess a great share of beauty. Although they are not o
the whole so fine and manly a race, yet they have made
n greater progress in the useful and even ornamental aits.
AericuUure°fs carried on with considerable dd.gence;
though, as is too common in barbarous tribes, its labours
are devolved entirely on the female sex, who have t e
additional task of building the houses and fashioning the
furniture and dress. The men, on the other hand, take
the entire charge of the cattle, which constitutes their
chief wealth. Cultivation is confined to the spaces sur¬
rounding their towns, which are built on heights for the
purposed defence; and the cattle are driven out ev^y
morning to feed, often at a considerable distance, and
brought back at night within the circuit of the mclosures.
The habitations are neat and commodious, being enc
cled with substantial walls of earth or stone; and some
parts are moulded into pillars, or other ornamental shapes
and carefully painted. At Kurrechane iron and copper
BOS
were smelted in large furnaces of clay; and they hadBoshuana,
well constructed vessels of earthenware for holding their  
grain and stores. The men are dressed chiefly m skins,
often prepared with considerable ingenuity; whilst those
of wild animals are thrown over their shoulders for or¬
nament. The ladies of rank wear ample mantles, pro¬
fusely embellished with beads, rings, and various species
of ornaments. Makaitshoah, the beautiful wife of the
king of Lattakoo, appeared to Dr Lichtenstein, having
her robe trimmed with rich furs, a large bundle of cats
tails hanging from the left shoulder, and one arm loaded
with no less than seventy-two copper rings ; the display ot
which appeared to be an object of peculiar pride. _
In regard to their political situation, they have kings
who rule with a species of patriarchal authority, and chief¬
ly by means of influence and persuasion. When any
affair of great importance is to be decided, a peetso, or
general assemblv of the chiefs and warriors, is summoned.
These assemblages are carried on in a peculiar, and even
extravagant style. The chiefs on their way indulge m
strange gestures and gambols. Before entering on deli¬
beration" they commonly join in a song, whilst the princi¬
pal orator often strikes up a dance. Every speech is pre¬
faced by three tremendous howls or yells, sometimes imi¬
tating the cries of animals, while several of the attendants
dance in unison. As the debate proceeds the female citi¬
zens form an exterior circle, and by loud cheers oi derisive
laughter express their sense of the observations made by
the speakers. - . .
The distinctions of wealth, and even of rank, are pretty
strongly marked in this society; yet they have httle in¬
fluence on the general train ot social intercourse. IV a-
teebe, or Mattivi, the chief whom the travellers call king,
was seen seated on the ground smoking and exchanging
pipes with the most ordinary citizens. He does not 1»-
terfere in private quarrels, even when they proceed to
bloodshed; this is considered to be an affajr between
individuals. He waits till his arbitration is called for, and
then proceeds, often in a very summary manner, execut-
in- with his own hand the sentence pronounced.
A considerable degree of internal union and harmony
prevails among these tribes. Their manners, making no
pretensions to any high refinement, are neither coarse nor
boisterous; their general deportment is frank and COr^’
and a kind and friendly spirit towards one another see
to prevail. But the intercourse of different states with
each other forms a complete scene ^^^^JXir
Commandos, or forays, to carry off the cattle of their
neighbours, and kill all who oppose them, form their most
favourite employment. They seem to consider themselves
born for this purpose; and the number of cattle whic
they have carried off, and of men whom they have slam,
s through life their highest boast. Dr Lmhtens^in even
states, that on returning from a successful expedition they
celebrate a horrid feast^ in which each produces a portion
of the flesh of his slaughtered enemy, which he roasts and
devours. Towards strangers their behaviour has been
generally friendly and hospitable. Mr Campbell s party
were indeed astonished, on arriving at one ot the towns,
to see the warriors rushing forth to meet them, brandis i-
ing their battle-axes, painted red, and dressed m the skins
of wild beasts; but this soon proved to be only a form o
barbarous welcome. After the first ceremony was over
however, they began actively to beg, and even to pilfer
tobacco, a European luxury of which they soon be™
excessively fond. The missionaries have been always
well treated, but have never made much progress in their
main obiect. Engrossed by their tumultuary occupations
and Lr, this people seem tohaeeapeeohar
apathy towards all spiritual and abstract ideas. T y
BOS BOS 23
Bosjes- seem also, from Mr Burchell’s observation, to be familiar
mans with all the forms of superstition prevalent among an ig-
Bo-nia norant People.
In advancing northwards into the interior, the country
seems to improve, becoming more populous, while the peo¬
ple are more industrious, and better skilled in the arts.
Mashow, beautifully situated on a hill, was estimated to
contain 10,000 or 12,000 inhabitants; and it was sur¬
rounded by twenty-nine villages, within a circuit of twenty
miles of cultivated territory. Kurrechane, still larger and
more handsomely built, was supposed to contain 16,000
or 17,000 people.
This country was exposed in 1823 to a most disastrous
invasion, from a predatory and ferocious race called the
Mantatees, or “ wanderers.” They were in fact a col¬
lected multitude of different Caffre tribes, flying before
the attack of the Zoolas, who had formed a dominion on
the coast of Natal. The invaders were estimated at
40,000 warriors, almost naked, armed with clubs, spears,
and battle-axes, and having their legs adorned with nu¬
merous brass rings. They succeeded in sacking Kurre¬
chane; and, after being repulsed from another town, ad¬
vanced upon Lattakoo, where they spread the most dead¬
ly consternation ; the inhabitants not being possessed of
courage sufficient to enable them to face such a formi¬
dable attack. They received, however, the aid of a party
of Griqua Hottentots, who had learned from Europeans
the use of fire-arms ; and after an obstinate conflict turned
to flight this immense multitude, and obliged them to re¬
treat within the Caffre territory. (e.)
BOSJESMANS, or Bushmen, a race of Hottentots
who inhabit the sides and valleys of the Sneuwberg, or
Snowy Mountains, which form the northern boundary of
the colony of the Cape of Good Hope. They are rude
and savage in the extreme, and, perhaps beyond any other
race in existence, deformed and miserable. Their persons
present a caricature of that hideous form which charac¬
terizes the Hottentot; the hollow back, the large belly,
and protruding posteriors, causing them to exhibit nearly
the shape of the latter S. Destitute of cultivation, and
being allowed to occupy only the most dreary and barren
tracts, they find the utmost difficulty in procuring a scanty
supply of the most wretched aliments. Wild animals pur¬
sued across rugged rocks, roots dug from the earth, and the
larvae of ants and insects, form their only regular resources,
io this indeed they add frequent predatory excursions in
order to carry off the cattle from the store-farms in the
plains below; but this involves them in a severe and un¬
equal contest, since their arrows, though tipt with deadly
poison, and shot with surprising dexterity, are not a match
for the fire-arms of the colonists. They are hunted down
like wild beasts, and, wherever they appear, are shot with¬
out the smallest scruple. Mr Barrow met with a young
man who had made a journey along part of their territory,
and who being asked if he had seen any of them, replied
with an air of disappointment, that he had shot only four,
from their mode of life, they derive the power of enduring
fasting for an extraordinary length of time ; though, when
they have succeeded in carrying off a sheep or other ani¬
mal, they devour the flesh without intermission, till it is
entirely consumed. Yet they display nothing of that
sluggish and gloomy deportment which characterizes the
servile Hottentot. 4 hey bound with wonderful agility
from rock to rock, either in flight or in chase of their prey;
and on certain festive occasions, they give way even to an
extravagant gaiety; dancing whole days and nights with¬
out intermission, especially by moonlight. Even the pic¬
tures of animals which they delineate on the rocks are not
altogether destitute of spirit or resemblance.
BOSNIA, the farthest north-east province of Turkey in
Europe. It is bounded on the north by Austria, from Bosphorus
which it is divided by the rivers Unna and Save ; on the II
east by Semendra and Aladschaissar; on the south-east 4>ossu-
by Beldschterin and Dukagin; on the south by Iscan-
dria and Austria; and on the west by Austria. It ex¬
tends over 13,000 square miles. The whole province is
mountainous, many of the summits reaching to the height
of 6000-feet. From the nature of the soil, it is more ap¬
propriate for the breeding of cattle than the operations of
the plough. The chief kind of cattle reared are sheep in
large flocks, some good horses and cows, with here and
there a few buffaloes and goats. There are a few mines
of copper; and formerly some of gold and silver were
worked, especially a very celebrated one at Jlatnizza; but
they are now neglected. There are some quarries of good
marble ; and at Tuzla a very copious and strong spring
of salt water, which is converted into culinary salt. The
manufactures are of the domestic kind, and upon a small
scale, for making leather, cloth, and iron wares. The
number of inhabitants, as in all Turkey, is doubtful. The
country is thinly peopled; some accounts stating the inha¬
bitants at 850,000, others at no more than 600,000, but
all agreeing that the majority are Christians chiefly of the
Catholic church.
BOSPHORUS, or Bosporus, in Geography, a long and
narrow channel running in between two lands, or sepa¬
rating two continents, and by which two seas, or a gulf
and a sea, communicate with each other. In this sense
Bosphorus means a channel or strait, and is synonymous
with what the Italians call faro, the Latins fretum, and
the French pas or manche. The word is Greek, fioifTogof,
being formed of /3ous, an ox, and -rosos, passage, probably
from an idea that an ox or bullock might swim across.
The name of Bosphorus is chiefly confined to two
straits, namely, the Bosphorus of Thrace, commonly call¬
ed the Strait of Constantinople, or Channel of the Black
Sea; and the Cimmerian or Scythian Bosphorus, now
known by the name of the Strait of Jenikale. The origin
of the name is not disputed; but various mythological
legends, some of them absurd enough, were invented to
account for its first application.
BOSQUETS, in Gardening, groves so called, from bos-
chetto, an Italian word which signifies a little wood. They
are compartments in gardens formed by branches of trees
disposed either regularly in rows, or wildly and irregular¬
ly, according to the fancy of the owner. A bosquet is
either a plat of ground inclosed with palisades of horn¬
beam, the middle filled with tall trees, the tops of which
form an umbrageous covering ; or it consists only of high
trees, as horse-chestnut, elm, and the like.
BOSSINEY, a small borough in Cornwall, in the parish
of Tintagel and hundred of Lesneweth. It is sometimes
called the town of Trevenna. The ruins of a castle near
it, according to the local tradition, are said to be those of
the palace in which King Arthur was born, and where
the ancient dukes of Cornwall resided. The inhabitants
amounted in 1801 to 649, in 1811 to 793, and in 1821
to 877.
BOSSO, in Latin Bossus, Matthew, distinguished by
his virtue and his learning, was born at Verona in 1428.
He devoted himself to the ecclesiastical state in 1451, in
the congregation of regular canons of St John de Lateran,
and afterwards taught divinity at Padua. His orations,
his sermons, and his letters, have often been printed. He
was also the author of a sort of an apology for Phalaris,
and other works ; and died at Padua in 1502, aged seven¬
ty-five.
BOSSU, Rene Le, born at Paris on the 16th March
1631, studied at Nauterre, and then entered amono- the
regular canons of Sainte-Genevieve in 1649. After5hav-
24
BOS
Bossuet. ing professed the humanities in different religious houses
  J f0r twelve years, he withdrew into retirement, and died
on the 14th March 1680. His first publication was 1 a-
rallele des Principes de la Physique d'Anstote et de cede
de Rene Descartes, which appeared in 1674. He attempt¬
ed, says Voltaire, to reconcile Aristotle and Descartes ; tie
was not aware that it had become necessary to abandon
both. His next work, entitled Trade du Poeme Ejnque,
was published in 1675, and often reprinted afterwards.
The leading doctrine of this treatise is, that the subject
should be chosen before the characters, and that the ac¬
tion should be arranged without reference to the per¬
sonages who are to figure in the scene; a doctrine which
led Voltaire to observe that every epic poet who followec
the rule of Bossu would be sure of never being read, but
that happily it is wholly impossible to follow it. .Never¬
theless, Boileau, in his Third Reflexion on Longinus, j>to-
nounces the work of Le Bossu “ 1'un des ems 'm-es
de po6tique qui, du consentement de tous les habiles ge s,
aient ete faits en notre langue. In abatement of t
commendation, however, it may be stated, on the autho¬
rity of Le Courayer, that Le Bossu had stepped forwaid
as the champion of Boileau against Saint-Sorlm, by whom
he had been attacked; that Boileau expressed himself ex¬
ceedingly grateful for this service; and that a sense of
obligation, as much, perhaps, as a sense of justice, may
have dictated the commendation bestowed on the work
m BOSSUET, James Benigne, one of the most illus-
trious prelates which the church of trance, so fruitful in
sreat men, has ever produced, was born at Dijon on the
21th September 1627. He was descended from an ancient
and noble family in Burgundy. On the establishment o
the parliament of Metz, his father was appointed one of
its counsellors. Being destined by his parents for the
church, the young Bossuet took the clerical tonsure be¬
fore he had completed his eighth year. At first he was
placed under the care of his uncle, the first president of
the parliament of Metz; and he used to rebte thaVwhde
a mere boy, under his uncle s roof, he read the Old le
tament with a relish and delight far exceeding any p < -
sX he afterwards felt on the perusal of any other wo£
His uncle afterwards placed him at the college of the Je¬
suits at Dijon, where he applied himself to his studies
with such labour and success that they desired to attach
him to themselves; but in 1642 his uncle sent him
Paris to the college of Navarre. Here, under tbe direc¬
tion of the celebrated Nicholas Cornet the principal, Bos¬
suet made rapid progress in Greek and philosophy, le-
Heving his studJfrom time to time by reading the best
works of antiquity; but the Scriptures and religious books
always occupied 1 large share of his time. At the age of
sixteen he supported his first thesis in a manner which
gave indications of his future greatness, and which caused
him to be already regarded as a prodigy. An extempore
sermon which he shortly afterwards delivered, at the Ho¬
tel of Rambouillet, in presence of an assembly partly com¬
posed of the most celebrated men of the time, excited
SeHer was admitted into the corporation of the college at the
a^e of twenty, on which occasion he chose for the subject
of his thesis a comparison between the glory of t ns woi
and that which awaits the just in the next. Duiing the
delivery of this discourse, the great Conde, who had just
dazzled France by the splendour of his victories, suddenly
entered the hall, surrounded by a number of his companions
in arms. The orator, without interrupting his harangue,
immediately addressed himself to the young conqueror,
and, in the name of France, paid him a just and appropriate
tribute of admiration and praise; but he told him at the
BOS
same time how vain and perishable was the glory which Bossuet.
he had acquired. Forty years after, Bossuet repeated the
same truths over the bier of the princely warrior. During
the whole of that long period he had enjoyed his fnend-
ship and esteem. . ,
In 1652 Bossuet took the degree of doctor, and received
also the order of priesthood. In thus devoting himself
to the cause of religion, he exclaimed, “ Under thy aus¬
pices, O sacred Truth, I will joyfully approach those al¬
tars, which are to witness the oath I am about to take ;
an oath which our ancestors have often heard; that most
pleasing and most sacred oath, by which I am to bind
myself, even to death, to the holy cause of truth. After
passing some time in the retreat at St Lazarus, under the
discipline of St Vincent de Paul, whose riendship he had
obtained, he went to Metz, in the cathedral church of
which city he had previously obtained the preferment o
a canonicate, and where he was successively raised to the
rank of archdeacon and dean. He now applied himself
wholly to the duties of his ministry, edifying those who
surrounded him by the pumy of his life, and astonishing
them by the splendour of his talents. His first appearance
as an author was in 1655, when he published his Refuta¬
tion of the Catechism of Paul Ferry, a 1 rotestant minister
highly esteemed for his learning and talents. This work
advanced his reputation greatly with his own party, and,
it is said, gained him even the respect of the Protestants.
The affairs of the cathedral rendering his presence neces¬
sary in Paris, he often preached there ; and his sermons
were so universally applauded, that he was appointed to
preach in the chapel of the Louvre before Louis XIV.
during the Lent of 1663. His Majesty signified the
pleasure he derived from his sermons in a letter which his
private secretary wrote by his desire to Bossuet s fathei.
In 1669 he was nominated to the bishopric of Con¬
dom, but being appointed preceptor to the Dauphin the
following year, he resigned his see, because he consider¬
ed his new charge as inconsistent with the duty he owed
to his diocese. For the instruction of the Dauphin he
composed his work on universal history, which he divided
into three parts. The first part is purely chronological;
but it has been well observed that it scarcely contains a
sentence in which there is not some noun or verb that
conveys an image or suggests a sentiment of the nobles
kind. The third part, which is historical, contains the
most profound reflections on the rise and fall of empires.
“ But in the second part of it,” as one of his biographers
observes, “ the genius of Bossuet takes its highest flight.
Fie never appears on the stretch of exertion; he is never
lost in the mazes of argumentation; but, in a continued
strain of sublime eloquence, he displays the truths and
proofs of the Christian religion with a grandeur of thought,
a magnificence of language, and a force of evidence, whic i
nothing can withstand. A nobler work in support of
Christianity has never issued from the press. I his woik
was first published in 1681. Ten years before, he had
published his Exposition of the Doctrine of the Catholic
Church in Matters of Controversy, which was speedily
translated into all the living languages of Europe. Rope
Innocent XL formally approved of it by two successive
briefs on the 22d November 1678 and the 12th July 1679,
and the Gallican clergy in their assembly of 1682 gave it
also the seal of their approbation. It has therefore, we
believe, been regarded as a correct exposition of the
tenets of the Roman Catholic Church.
The publication of the Exposition gave rise to the fa¬
mous conference between Bossuet and M. Claude, one o
the ablest divines of the reformed church m France. As
a specimen of the argumentative powers of both cham¬
pions, we shall select a few sentences from that part of
BOS
BOS
25
Bossuet. the conference which relates to the right of private judg-
ment in matters of faith. On the one hand, Bossuet con¬
tended for an unconditional submission to the authority
of the church; while, on the other, M. Claude only ad¬
mitted a conditional submission to the decrees of the na¬
tional assembly of his own, or those of any other church,
or, in other words, that a conscientious submission could
only be required if the party thought their determinations
were conformable to the word of God. “ Surely,” said
Bossuet, “ this right of individual examination, which you
recognise in each individual, must be accompanied with
the highest individual presumption.” “ That by no means
follows,” replied M. Claude; “ when the synagogue de¬
clared that Jesus Christ was not the Messiah promised
by the prophets, and condemned him to death, would not
an individual who believed him to be the true Christ
have judged better than the synagogue ? Could you ac¬
cuse such an individual of presumptuously believing that
he understood the Scriptures better than all the syna¬
gogue ?” It is impossible to conceive a more able reply
than this. It produced, as it ought, a powerful impression
on the audience, and even staggered the great champion
of the Catholic church. After a short pause, during which
he says he offered up a mental prayer for light and direc¬
tion from above, he thus addressed M. Claude: “ You say
that my assertion, that the individual who sets up his
private opinion in opposition to that of the whole church
must be guilty of intolerable presumption, fixes the charge
of equal presumption on those who believed in Jesus
Christ in opposition to the sentence of the synagogue
which had pronounced him guilty of blasphemy". Most
certainly my assertion proves nothing of the kind. When
an individual now sets up his own private opinion in op¬
position to that of the whole church, he sets it up against
the highest authority on earth, as the earth contains no
authority to which an appeal from that authority can be
made. But when the synagogue condemned Jesus Christ,
there was on earth a much higher authority than the sy¬
nagogue ; to that authority the individual who reprobated
the proceedings of the synagogue might appeal. Truth
herself then visibly existed among men—the Messiah, the
eternal Son of God,—He to whom a voice from above
had rendered testimony, by proclaiming before the whole
people that he was the well-beloved Son of God,—He
who restored the dead to life, gave sight to the blind,
and did so many miracles, that the Jews themselves-con¬
fessed no man had done the like before him,—He, the
Jesus himself, then existed among men, and was the vi¬
sible external authority to whom there was a lawful ap¬
peal from the synagogue. His authority was infallible.
I hear you say that it was a contested authority. I know
that it was contested; but, as a Christian, you are bound
to say that no individual could reasonably or conscien¬
tiously contest it. It was not, therefore, presumption—it
was duty to disobey the synagogue and believe in Christ.
Bring back to me Jesus Christ in person ; bring him teach¬
ing, preaching, and working miracles—I no longer want the
church : but don’t take the church from me, unless you give
me Jesus Christ in person. You say you have his word.
Yes, certainly, we have his holy, adorable word; but
what is to be done with those who understand it in a
wrong sense ? Jesus Christ is not present in person to
set them right: they must therefore obey the church.
Before Jesus Christ appeared among the Jews, they were
bound to obey the synagogue. When the synagogue
failed, Jesus Christ came among men to teach them all
truth, and they were bound to obey his voice. When he
returned to his Father, he left us his church, and we are
bound to obey her voice. There is not—no, there is not
on earth any visible higher authority to which you can
VOL. v.
appeal from her.” This is, no doubt, very ingeniously Bossuet.
argued; but, considered as a piece of mere reasoning, it
proceeds upon an assumption which cannot be admitted
without separate proof, and it evades the case so forcibly
put, by introducing the subject of time, which, in truth,
formed no element in the question at issue. Further, it is
evident that, mutatis mutandis, the same reasoning might
have been employed by the Rabbin of the synagogue, who,
on grounds precisely identical, might have argued in favour
of the divine authority of the church established by Moses.
Having finished the education of the Dauphin in 1681,
the king nominated Bossuet to the bishopric of Meaux,
and he entered with zeal upon the duties of his new
episcopate. He took a very active part in the general
assembly of the church of France held the following year,
and drew up the celebrated declaration of 1682 against
the attempted encroachments of the see of Rome. Bos¬
suet now directed all the energies of his powerful mind
to the most important of all his controversial works, the
History of the Variations of the Protestant Churches, which
was first published in 1688. Gibbon in his younger years
was converted to the Roman Catholic faith by perusing
this work, retiring for a while, like Chillingworth, to use
the expression of Dr Johnson in his Life of Dryden, into
the bosom of an infallible church. It has been remarked
as a singular coincidence, that although no writers were
ever more opposed in sentiment than Bossuet and the au¬
thor of the Decline and Fall of the Homan Empire, yet
the latter (c. 54) adopts and aggravates the charges made
by Bossuet, in his History of the Variations, of the alleged
Socinian tendency of the principles of the Reformation.
During the last years of Iw life Bossuet was much
occupied in the hopeless scheme of effecting a union
between the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches.
The negociation was first carried on with Molanus, who
limited his views to a junction between the Roman Ca¬
tholic and Lutheran churches, a plan which many persons
considered by no means impracticable. But Leibnitz, who
succeeded Molanus on the part of the Protestants, being
desirous of including the whole Protestant churches in the
arrangement, the negociation failed, as might have been
expected, after a correspondence of ten years.
It was the fate of Bossuet to be involved in religious
conti'oversy during the greater part of his life. He en¬
tered the arena at the age of twenty-eight, and during
the fifty years which followed, his pen was in constant
requisition. He composed with ease, but, like Burke, he
laboured hard to improve his writings, and did not cease
to alter them till they issued from the press; yet the
style of both is as free as if it had been quite spontaneous.
Some of Bossuet’s principal writings against the Protest¬
ants have been mentioned. He was also engaged in con¬
troversies with persons of his own communion. That with
the amiable Fenelon is the most conspicuous. The mys¬
tical speculations of Madame Guyon of Port Roval having
found an abettor in the person of the author of 'felemachus,
in a work on the maxims of the saints, Bossuet drew up his
Relationdu Quietisme, in which the archbishop was attacked
with great severity. Fenelon published a reply, in which
meekness, simplicity, and grandeur of mind were admirably
blended. The writings in this controversy are amongst the
finest in French literature; but Quietism being a perish¬
able topic, these writings are now seldom read. In this
contest the eagle of Meaux carried off the palm of victory.
Among the writings of Bossuet, his sermons and fune¬
ral orations are particularly to be distinguished. Of the
latter, the finest is that on the death of Henrietta-Anne,
the daughter of our Charles I. and wife of the duke of
Orleans. As his funeral orations place him in the first
class of orators, so his sermons unquestionably rank him
n
26
Bossupt
Boston.
BOS
in the first line of preachers. It has been observed that
Bourdaloue and Massillon alone can dispute his pre-emi¬
nence. In the opinion of Voltaire, the eloquence of Bos-
suet stands unrivalled. This great prelate died on the
12th of April 1704, in the 77th year of his age. Massillon
and other French writers have eulogised the talents and
virtues of Bossuet in terms of the highest admiration ; and
he is thus noticed by the Reverend Mr Eustace, in his
Classical Tour: “ Bossuet was indeed a great man, and
one of those extraordinary minds which, at distant inter¬
vals, seem as if deputed from a superior region to enlighten
and to astonish mankind. With all the originality of ge¬
nius, he was free from its eccentricity and intemperance.
Sublime, without obscurity—bold, yet accurate-splen¬
did, and yet simple at the same time,—he awes, elevates,
and delights his readei's, overpowers all resistance, and
leads them willing captives to join and to share his triumph.
The defects of his style arise from the imperfection of his
dialect. And perhaps he could not have given a stronger
proof of the energies of his mind than in compelling the
French language itself to become the vehicle of sublimity.
His works, therefore, are superior to all other controver¬
sial writings in his own or any other language. His
works were collected and published soon after his decease
in twelve volumes quarto. The Benedictines of St Maur
published another edition; but a more complete ^ditmn,
in forty-three volumes octavo, was published in 1815-^0.
Cardinal de Bausset wrote a history of the life of Bossuet,
which was published in four volumes octavo. (a.)
BOSSUPT, a town of the Netherlands, in the province
of Brabant. Long. 4. 30. E. Eat. 50. 52. N.
BOST, a very strong town of Persia, and capital of tne
province of Zablestan. Long. 64. 15. E. Eat. 31. 50. N.
BOSTANGIS, in Turkey, persons employed in the
garden of the seraglio, out of whose number are selected
those who row in the grand signior’s brigantines, when he
has a mind to divert himself with fishing, or to take the
air upon the canal. „ , , i
BOSTON, a market-town and borough of the hundrea
of Skirbeck, in the county of Lincoln, 140 miles from
London, on the river Whitham, which divides it into two
parts. The river is navigable, and is joined by a canal
which connects it with the city of Lincoln. It is in a
marshy situation and has a dense atmosphere, but the land
surrounding it is highly fertile. The chief 0^Ject of aJt‘
tention is the church with its lofty tower, 290 feet m
height, which having a lanthorn at the t0P> 18 a ya*uab e
object to ships approaching that flat coast. There is muc
trade carried on in corn with the metropolis and other parts
of the kingdom. The markets are held on Wednesdays
and Saturdays. The inhabitants amounted m ISO! to
5926, in 1811 to 8113, and in 1821 to 10,373.
Boston, the capital of Massachusetts, is the largest
city of New England, and the second in commercial im¬
portance in the United States. It is situated at the
bottom of Massachusetts Bay, at the mouth of Charles
River. It stands principally on a small peninsula ot e‘^‘
vated ground, two miles and three quarters in length y
one in breadth, and is connected with the continent by
an isthmus and by seven bridges. South Boston stands
without the peninsula; and including it, the city covers a
surface of nearly three square miles. The harbour is capa¬
cious, and has a depth of water sufficient to admit the hug¬
est ships of war. The anchorage is excellent, the ship-
ping being protected from storms by numerous islands,
on several of which are fortifications. With one excep¬
tion, all the bridges are of wood. That which connects
Boston with Cambridge, a minor town, is 3483 teet in
length, and is supported by 180 piers. The western avenue,
as it is called, leading across the bay from the western
BOS
part of the city to Roxburgh, is 8000 feet in length and BosweU,
is formed of solid earth supported on each side by stone
walls. It serves the double purpose of a bridge and a
dam, by means of which, and a cross dam, two large basins
are formed, one of which fills at flood-tide, the other is
emptied at ebb-tide; and thus a perpetual water power is
created for driving machinery. The wharfs of Boston
are spacious, and afford ample accommodation to shipping
and storehouses for merchandise. The streets are mostly
narrow and irregular, but well paved. The number or
dwelling-houses is about 10,000, besides the store-houses
and shops, which are numerous. The greater part ot the
buildings are of brick, but some are of granite and siemte.
Many of the dwelling-houses are large and well built. 1 he
principal public edifices are the state-house, which stands
on the highest part of the city; the county court-house;
Faneuil hall; the Massachusetts general hospital; the Ta-
neuil hall market; about forty churches ; ten public school
houses ; two theatres; a house of industry; a house ot cor¬
rection ; and a county jail. The city is divided into twelve
wards. The municipal government is vested in a mayor,
eight aldermen, and a common council of forty-eight mem¬
bers, who are annually chosen by the citizens. I here
are a great number of well-conducted schools, and a va"
riety of charitable institutions, in Boston. Hayard Uni¬
versity, which is the principal literary institution in the
vicinity, is situated at Cambridge, three miles distant from
the city. The Boston Athemeum has two large buildings,
one containing a library of about 24,000 volumes, and the
other a picture gallery, with a hall for public lectures, and
other rooms for scientific purposes. Among the literary
and scientific societies of Boston are the American aca¬
demy of arts and sciences, the historical society, the Mas¬
sachusetts medical society, and a mechanics institution.
There are six newspapers published daily, three twice a
week, several weekly, and a number of other periodicals,
amongst which are the North American Revieio and the
Christian Examiner. The pursuits of the inhabitants are
in a great measure mercantile. They cayry an exteiJ‘
sive foreign trade. The shipping owned in 1828 amount¬
ed to 161,583 tons. The annual imports amount to about
13,000,000, and the exports to about 9,000,000 dollars.
Many varieties of manufactures are carried on here.
Boston was founded in the year 1630, and received its
name from a borough so called in England, from which a
portion of the inhabitants had emigrated. It was the birth¬
place of Benjamin Franklin, and here the war of American
independence began. Since the year 1783 the population
has gone on doubling in about twenty-three yea^ ■“}
1810 the number of inhabitants amounted to 33,250, and
in 1829 to about 60,000. Boston is situated 210 miles
north-east of New York. Long. 71. 4. W. Lat. 42. 22. N.
BOSWELL, James, Esq. of Auchinleck, in the county
of Ayr, whose life of Dr Samuel Johnson entitles him to
a place among those who have contributed to the grea
stock of intellectual wealth, was the eldest son of Alex¬
ander Boswell, styled Lord Auchinleck, one of the judges
of the supreme courts of session and justiciary in Scot¬
land. He was born in the year 1740, and, having re¬
ceived the rudiments of his education, partly in his fa¬
ther’s house, and partly at Mr MundelTs school in Edin¬
burgh, successively prosecuted his studies at the univer¬
sities of that city and of Glasgow. He was destined by
his father for the Scottish bar; a pursuit with which his
own inclinations did not much accord, and instead o
which he would gladly have substituted one of greater
activity and enterprise. His father s wishes, however,
and his own sense of filial duty, prevailed ; and, as the
study of civil law at one of the foreign universities was
then included in the most liberal plan of education for a
BOSWELL.
Boswell, Scottish advocate, it was determined that Mr Boswell
James, should repair for that purpose to Utrecht, with a permis-
sion, before his return, to make the tour of Europe.
Already, however, those traits of character might be
observed which gave a peculiar direction to his after¬
life. He was very early ambitious of being admitted into
the society and friendship of men distinguished by talent
and public estimation, more especially those of eminence
in the literary world; and his natural urbanity, as well as
gaiety of disposition, rendered it no difficult matter to gra¬
tify his propensity. While at the university of Glasgow,
he had formed a particular intimacy with Mr Temple, the
friend of Gray, afterwards vicar of St Gluvias in Corn¬
wall ; and he was known to many of the conspicuous cha¬
racters at that time in Scotland, among others, to Lord
Kames, Lord Hailes, Dr Robertson, and Dr Beattie. But
the most remarkable acquisition which he made of this
kind was his acquaintance with Dr Johnson, which com¬
menced in 1763, and was destined to prove at once the
principal era in his own life, and the means of adding not
a little to the fame of the philosopher.
Mr Boswell had visited London for the first time in
1760, when he accidentally became acquainted with Der¬
rick, afterwards King Derrick, as the master of ceremo¬
nies at Bath was then fantastically titled, and by him was
initiated into the ai'cana of London life. In 1763 he pro¬
ceeded to Utrecht. Having passed a year at that univer¬
sity, he travelled into Germany and Switzerland, was en¬
tertained by Voltaire at his castle of Ferney, and convers¬
ed with Rousseau in the solitudes of Neufchatel. He
continued his route to Italy; but, led by his natural en¬
thusiasm, forsook the common lines of travel, and passed
over to Corsica, which, after a contest of more than thirty
years, was still struggling for independence with the re¬
public of Genoa. He thus describes his feelings while
he approached the island: “ As long as I can remember
anything, I had heard of the malcontents of Corsica: it
was a curious thought that I was just going to see them.”
Rousseau had given him a letter of introduction to the
romantic Paoli; and his tide was suddenly at the full. In
the small court of this simple but dignified chieftain he
found everything to gratify his taste for the virtuous and
sublime in natural character. He became a favourite,
too, in his turn ; was caressed by the islanders, admitted
at all times to the society of their leader, and not only
witnessed the movements of their political machinery, but
appeared to be himself an actor in the scene. Of his visit
to this island he published a narrative on his return to
Scotland, entitled An Account of Corsica, with Memoirs
of General Pasquale de Paoli, printed at Glasgow in 1768.
This book was translated into the Dutch, German, French,
and Italian languages. He likewise printed, in the follow¬
ing year, a collection of British Essays in favour of the
Brave Corsicans ; and made such attempts as he could to
interest the British government in favour of that people,
before they were finally crushed by the pressure of the
French arms. His acquaintance and friendship with Ge¬
neral Paoli were afterwards renewed in London, when
that chief, having escaped with difficulty from his native
isle, found an asylum in the British dominions.
From Corsica Mr Boswell repaired to Paris; and, re¬
turning to Scotland in 1766, he was admitted to the bar.
Soon after, he published a pamphlet, under the title of
Essence of the Douglas Cause ; written while that great
suit was depending in the Court of Session, with a view to
excite the public interest in favour of Mr Douglas. In
1769 he was married to Miss Montgomery, daughter of
27
David Montgomery, Esq.; an accomplished lady, in whose Boswell,
society he enjoyed every domestic happiness.1 t,
In the year 1773 Mr Boswell was admitted into the
Literary Club, which then met at the Turk’s Head in
Gerard Street, Soho, and of which Dr Johnson had been
an original member. Here he had the pleasure of associ¬
ating with Burke, Goldsmith, Reynolds, Garrick, and other
eminent persons.
Dr Johnson had long projected a tour to the Hebrides ;
and Mr Boswell at last prevailed upon him, in the course
of this year, 1773, to put the plan in execution, and be¬
came the companion of his journey from Edinburgh.
During this excursion, they saw whatever was most re¬
markable in the Western Highlands and Isles ; and here
Mr Boswell was again at large in his natural element.
Conscious of the advantages which he enjoyed, and aware
of their value, he improved every opportunity of know¬
ledge and remark, and has preserved a faithful record of
all. His feelings were like those which Dante ascribes to
the pilgrim, who, having paid his vows,
“ Long gazes on the holy fane, and thinks
How he shall paint it when he reaches home.”
Both travellers gave to the world an account of this tour.
Mr Boswell’s Journal was published in 1785. In the
course of this work he has given a simple and very inte¬
resting narrative of some minute circumstances attending
the escape of Prince Charles Edward after the battle of
Culloden, collected from the information of persons on
the spot, and privy to his concealment; particularly from
the celebrated Flora Macdonald, whom they visited at
Kingsburgh, in Sky, and from Malcolm Macleod, who had
been the faithful and intelligent companion of the Wan¬
derer’s flight.
Lord Auchinleck died in 1782; and, a few years after
(1786), Mr Boswell, giving up his law pursuits at Edin-
burgh, removed with his family to London, towards which,
as a great emporium of literature and theatre of varied
life, his inclinations had always tended. He had recent¬
ly before been called to the English bar. He did not,
however, prosecute the profession, but gave himself up to
his natural bent for society and letters. After Dr John¬
son’s death, in 1784, he was occupied for several years in
collecting and arranging, with indefatigable diligence, the
materials for a narrative, which he had long projected, of
that eminent man’s life.2
Besides the works which have been already mentioned,
he was the author of two Letters addressed to the People
of Scotland ; being his only productions of a political cha¬
racter. In the first of these, which was published in 1784,
he appeared as an advocate for the new administration,
then recently formed. The second Letter, written in
1785, was a strenuous appeal against a measure brought
forward under the sanction of the same ministry, for effect¬
ing a reform in the Court of Session in Scotland, by re¬
ducing the number of the Judges.
Mr Boswell died on the 19th June 1795. In his private
character, he was loved by his friends, as well as a favourite
in the circles of social life; and, if his attachments were
often suddenly formed, they were not less durable on this
account. Whatever he has written is favourable to vir¬
tue ; and, during a course of living which naturally dissi¬
pates the mind, his moral principles remained entire, and
his religious faith unshaken. “ Few men,” says his friend
Sir William Forbes, in a letter published in his Life of
Dr Beattie, “ possessed a stronger sense of piety, or more
fervent devotion—perhaps not always sufficient to regu¬
late his imagination, or direct his conduct, yet still genuine,
1 He had a family by her of two sons and three daughters. Mrs Boswell died in 1790.
* Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D, 2 vols. 4to. London, 1791.
28
BOSWELL.
Boswell, and founded both in his understanding and his heart.”
James. His talents would probably have been rated higher if they
had not been obscured by certain eccentricities of charac¬
ter ; yet his writings bear sufficient testimony to his na¬
tural abilities, and to the delicacy as well as aptness of his
intellectual touch. He has described himself as being of
a temperament inclined to melancholy ; but in society he
was remarkable for the gaiety of his disposition, and his
life was full of activity and stir. To be distinguished was
his ruling passion, and he indulged it freely. He sought
those whom the world, on whatever account, held in
honour ; and he was desirous of being known as one with
whom they assorted, and who possessed their friendship.
He was fond of his pedigree and family connections, and
he aspired after literary fame. While some of these pro¬
pensities have been common to the great and good in
every age, others, it must be confessed, are moie fre¬
quently harboured than avowed. Mr Boswell adopted
the latter and more unusual course.1 He fairly owned
his passion, and, it not thus secured from attack, had all
those advantages, at least, which are gained by meeting
an enemy in the field. But, in reality, he has dealt so
openly, and with such candour, on every occasion which
touches himself as well as others, that he wins not only
our forgiveness,but our affection, and maintains, by ingenu¬
ousness and complete truth of character, a kind of superi¬
ority over any person who should feel desirous of assail¬
ing him. Nor was evidence of a substantial sort wanting
to show the independence of his mind. For, however-
attached to individuals of extensive influence, and how¬
ever ambitious of exalted patronage, he was neither an
instrument of party nor a server ot the time. W hat he
gave in attention he received back in kindness ; and, while
he associated with the learned and the philosophical, he
contributed his share to the general stock of enjoyment.
Of Dr Johnson’s sincere attachment to him there are
many and unequivocal proofs in their correspondence.
But it is not on account of his private character, or of
a certain domestic celebrity which he enjoyed during his
life, that he is to be distinguished in a work of this kind.
We commemorate him as an author, and particularly as a
writer of biography. Here he is almost an inventor; he
has at least carried this species of composition to a de¬
cree of accuracy and detail formerly unattempted. Other
writers, as the Abbe de Sade in L?s Memoirs of Petrarch,
and Mason in his Life of Gray, had conducted the comse
of their narratives partly by means of original letters.
But Mr Boswell has, more than any preceding biographer,
made use of all the varied means by which such a history
admits of being dramatized. He paints the whole man,
presents the incidents of his life in their actual order ot
succession, and preserves him as it were entire ; fulfilling
in the history of the moral, what Bacon has assigned to phi¬
losophy as her genuine work in that of the natural, world,
faithfully to return its accents and reflect its image, not to
add any thing of her own, but to iterate only and repeat.
The plan of keeping a Miscellaneous Journal had been
recommended to him by Dr Johnson on their fiist ac¬
quaintance ; and he appears very early to have followed
it, as far as writing down what was remarkable in the con¬
versation of those whom he admired. From his frequent
allusions to the discourses of Selden, commonly called his
Table Talk, as preserved by Lilward, it is probable that
he had the example of that work in his view ; and by
long use he acquired a great facility in this process. Of
his first publication, containing an account of Goisica, t ic
Journal of his residence with General Paoli is by far the Boswell,
most interesting part. It is a sketch remarkable for life
and natural colouring; and is one of those productions i
which, though enhanced by their occasion, do not depend
on this circumstance alone for the attraction which they
possess. In his Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, he
pushed to a still greater extent, and even beyond its just
limits, his favourite style of writing. Carried away by his
natural enthusiasm, and delighting “ to pour out all him¬
self, like old Montaigne,” he indulged in a more ample
and unqualified disclosure, both of his own sentiments and
of the opinions of others, than is consistent with a salu¬
tary prudence, or necessary for the purposes of instruc¬
tion. Of this he himself became sensible on cooler re¬
flection, and not only acknowledged it with candour, but, in
his subsequent and more laboured compositions, profited
by the general opinion, and imposed a greater restraint
upon his pen.
For the task of writing Johnson’s life he was in many
respects peculiarly qualified. He had lived in habits of
intimacy with the sage for a period of twenty years, had
early conceived the plan of such a work, and received
from Johnson himself, to whom his intention was known,
many particulars of his early life and personal history. As
the writer was thus furnished for his undertaking, so there
has seldom been a more fertile or interesting subject for
the biographer. Johnson was not a mere scholar, deep
versed in books, and shallow in himself,” nor was he one
of those unprofitable misers who hoard without expending.
He was a general and a minute observer, and, while he
possessed in a degree seldom equalled “ the stienuous
use of profitable thought,” his talent for communicating
knowledge was more remarkable even than the large ca¬
pacity of his mind, or the accumulation of his learning.
According to Baker’s character of King James, in that
passage which Mr Boswell happily prefixed to his Jour¬
nal, “ he was of an admirable pregnancy of wit, and that
pregnancy much improved by continual study from his
childhood, by which he had gotten such a promptness in
expressing his mind, that his extemporal speeches were
little inferior to his premeditated writings. Many, no
doubt, had read as much, and perhaps more than he, but
scarce ever any concocted his reading into judgment as he
did.” Johnson’s conversation, accordingly, is the matter
and substance of the book; and, as the philosopher did
not, in the midst of his studies, forget to cultivate his
friends, nor gave up the advantages and comfort of society,
there was in his discourse a range and diversity of subject
not often found in combination with classical knowledge
and habits of profound thinking. Nor does this work ex¬
hibit a series merely of witty and sententious sayings. it
is interspersed alike with miscellaneous^ narrative and cri¬
ticism ; and, which constitutes its principal feature, it
contains a mass of opinions on subjects of a more com¬
mon nature, where the powers of reasoning and. illustra¬
tion are applied to familiar topics, and the .01 dinary oc¬
currences of life. Valuable as a deposit of literary anec¬
dote, it is still more so as a collection of ethical discourses,
to which its popular form gives a singular currency and
effect; so that there are few books extant where the reli¬
gious and social duties, as well as the love of science, in
its largest acceptation, are impressed more agreeably, or
with greater force, upon the mind.
Amon" the many circumstances which have conspired
to heighten our interest in this narrative, is the exhibi¬
tion which it affords of illustrious characters in different
„ 1 Tpttpr nublished in 1785, “ are the indigenous plants of my mind: they distinguish it.
I dear i. ofVm, for then X ahouM be no longer as I anr and perhaps there
might be something not so good.”
BOSWELL. 29
Boswell, walks of life. The period was distinguished by an unusual
James, measure of genius and talent; and we are not only intro-
duced to the closet of the philosopher, but carried with
him also into assemblages of the brilliant and the wise,
with whom he associated. The tone of this society,
moreover, is highly pleasing, and in harmony with our
best principles and feelings; in which respect it is impos¬
sible to avoid contrasting it with those more boasted Pari¬
sian societies during the same period, which were suppos¬
ed to be the centre of French literature and wit, as they
are displayed to us by some of the chief actors in that
scene.1 Mr Boswell’s work has not yet, indeed, acquired
all its interest; the period is still too recent; but, to esti¬
mate its value in after-times, we have only to consider
what we ourselves should have gained if such a volume
had been preserved to us from the rolls of ancient life.
In the great attainments of a biographer, which are the
truth and minuteness of his relation, Mr Boswell has been
eminently successful. If, in this species of writing, an
author is exempted from the formality, as well as compre¬
hensive research, necessary in the higher classes of histo¬
rical composition, it is well known that he has his pecu¬
liar difficulties to encounter; difficulties, too, which are
the greatest where, by his intimate knowledge of the sub¬
ject, he is best qualified for the task of writing. Nor
does the partiality to which he is himself exposed consti¬
tute his only danger; since he is no less apt to be led
away by the expectation of gratifying his readers. We
are fond of seeing the picture of character completed ac¬
cording to our fancy, and, whatever be the feeling which
has commenced, we are impatient of any interruption to its
train. In the case of those whom we respect and love,
the disappointment is doubly ungrateful; we dislike being
told of their fraiLies, because we are unwilling to believe
that they were .ail. But such is not the colour nor the
tissue of human characters; and the artist who would re¬
present them truly, must do perpetual violence to his in¬
clination. The fidelity of Mr Boswell’s portrait may be
ascribed, in a great measure, to the form and method of
his composition. Had he given us only the results of his
observation, the effort at impartiality could scarcely have
been preserved; but he has presented us with the whole
materials as he found them, and allows us to work them
up for ourselves.
In the other distinguishing quality of a biographical
work, namely, the minuteness of its information, he is so
little deficient, that his observance of this requisite has
been converted into an accusation against him. And it is
certain, as already observed, that, in his early productions
particularly, he left some room for such a charge ; and
that, while his veracity and candour were unimpeached,
his prudence was not on all occasions equally conspicuous.
Yet it must be remembered that the great use of biography
is to bring instruction home; to give us examples, not of
individual actions and conduct merely, but of that conduct
as displayed in the common paths of life. The history of
nations is too often a species of heroical romance. Its
lessons are, at all events, of a different nature from those
nowin question; and its moral is far too remote to answer
the necessities of individuals. General precepts, again,
when delivered without the aid of story, commonly fail to
produce their effect, either because they fail to excite at¬
tention, or because the power of applying them to parti¬
cular cases remains as difficult as before. Nor do works of
fiction, however excellent, and even where the scene is
laid as it were at home, and the characters are those of a
private station, leave any very permanent impressions on
the mind. I hey do not carry with them a sufficient pre¬
sence and authority; for the writer’s first object is not Boswell,
to instruct, but to please; and, above all, they want that James
great requisite, truth, for which, in the time of need, all ^
others are abandoned and forgotten. A manual ofinstruc- t _
tion for human conduct, which, instead of being couched 1
in general maxims, or calculated for situations of unusual
occurrence, should descend to particular cases, and to the
ordinary emergencies of private life, would certainly be
one of the most valuable presents which philosophy could
offer to the bulk of mankind. Biography makes the near¬
est approach towards the compilation of such a code ; and,
as a commentary on moral duties, it is, when faithfully exe¬
cuted, invaluable. But it is so in proportion only to the
closeness of the resemblance and the exactness of the detail.
Minuteness, therefore, is the characteristic and soul of bio¬
graphical writing, if its proper uses are considered.
That such a plan of delineation may be carried to ex¬
cess, indeed, is undeniable. He who is accustomed to set
down whatever he sees and hears, may become indiscrimi¬
nate in his choice, and forget the value of his store in the
pleasure of collecting it. To ascertain the just medium in
this respect, is one of the many things for which rules are
ineffectual. A sound judgment alone can determine the
limits. As to the license of publication, the biographer is
under one common restraint with authors of every class.
He violates the due boundary if he introduces into his
work what is injurious to virtue, or if he discloses, for the
purposes of general information merely, any thing which
may probably affect the interests or wound the minds of
the living. When that period has arrived which secures
against dangers of the latter description, even individual
characters become, to a certain extent, the property of
mankind at large, and may be employed as a vehicle for
instruction, if exhibited with fidelity. On this score Mr
Boswell, notwithstanding his natural promptness and want
of reserve, has, in his latest and principal work at least,
given little ground for animadversion. His habitual quick¬
ness of feeling and liveliness of fancy appear to have been
corrected, where others were concerned, by his love of
justice, and a general benevolence of mind.
Wfith regard to his style of writing, a progressive im¬
provement in it may be discovered through his different
productions. It is in general well suited to his matter, is
animated and easy where he is himself the narrator, and
bears evident marks of being true to the original, where,
as commonly happens, he is a reporter merely. On the
whole, whatever blemishes maybe found in it as a literary
composition, his Life of Johnson is a very valuable work,
fraught with information at once useful and pleasing.
There are few books which present learning in a more at¬
tractive form ; and few where the seeds of knowledge are
scattered more profusely.
See the Gentleman s Magazine; Chalmers’s edition of
the Biographical Dictionary, 1812; and the writings of
Mr Boswell, passim. (0.
BOSWORTH-Market, a market-town in the hundred
of Sparkenhoe, in the county of Leicester, 107 miles from
London. Near it is the celebrated field of the battle be¬
tween Richard III. and Henry VII., then Duke of Rich¬
mond, by which the crown of England was transferred to
the latter. The market is held on a Wednesday. The in¬
habitants amounted in 1801 to 791, in 1811 to 954, and
in 1821 to 1117.
BOTAL or Botalli, Leonard, physician to the duke
of Alen^on, and to Henry HI., was born at Asti in Pied¬
mont. He published several books in physic and surgery;
and the best edition of his works is that of Leyden, in
1660, octavo, published by Van Hoorne.
1 Particularly in the Correspondence of the Baron de Grimm, and the Memoirs of Marmontel.
30
BOTANY.
General LiNNiEUS divides all natural objects into three g^3;11
Observa- classes, which he calls kingdoms; and the sciences w ic
tions. treat of these are zoology, botany, and mineralogy, botany,
with which we are to be occupied in this place, enables us
to distinguish, arrange, and name all plants or vegetab es.
Some years ago, Baron Humboldt made a calculation as
to the probable number of the different species of plants
existing on the face of our globe. Of late, however, owing
to the many novelties that have reached us from Brazil and
the East Indies, it has been supposed that his estimate is
much under the truth. At least sixty or seventy thousand,
described or undescribed, are scattered through different
collections, and every day brings to light additional species,
so that at present the probable number of vegetable produc¬
tions may not be too highly estimated at nearly a hundred
thousand. To obtain a knowledge of every one of these in¬
dividually, and without relation to any other, would be a
Herculean task, for which the utmost extension of human
life might not be sufficient, and which, though Procured,
could not be imparted to others. The study would thus be
selfish, and the labours of a lifetime useless. \ aluable me¬
dical properties might be observed in some one vegetable ,
but posterity would, in all probability, find similar proper¬
ties in another plant, much sooner than re-discover that
formerly known. Thus many plants whose medical qualities
were highly esteemed by our ancestors, are now entirely un¬
known to is as possessing such. To remedy these evils
means must be resorted to for the classifying or arranging
of veeetables. If we divide them into trees, shrubs, herba¬
ceous, biennial, and annual, we shall have five divisions; so
that supposing an equal number to each, we shall have only
to look into one of those sections for what we are m quest of.
Ap-ain each of these may be subdivided according to the
height to Whi°ch the plant grows, the colour of its flower, or
its capability of bearing an esculent fruit. But this is one of
the rudest systems, and, though used m the earliest state
of the science, was soon found to be subject Jo g«:at va¬
riation, and to want the necessary precision. Other more
philosophical divisions were afterwards adopted, to which,
and the steps requisite for the knowledge of them, we in¬
tend to devote this article. . , . j
The necessity of a classification being once admitte ,
resemblances between individuals, not before °b»e^d,
could not long escape the attention. Thus the affinities
inter se of the different species of pine, of the ash, of the
lime, of the strawberry, or of the rose, must soon have been
admitted ; and in framing a system, care would be taken to
place these by the side of the allied species, whether in
appearance or in qualities. This is what is termed arran-
snL plants according to their species. It would likewise
be foon observed that small groups of these species had
more affinity between themselves thanwith other groups,
aeeneral idea would thus be attached to each of these, which
wouW now form a genus ;-and when these genera were
placed one after the other according to some property o
resemblance real or fancied, we should have the arrange¬
ment of plants by their genera. Whether, then, we pro¬
ceed by making grand primary cuts or divisions a
the known vegetables, and then proceed to subdivide these
until we arrive at genera and species; or commence by
the grouping of species and genera, and mount upwards, we
shall attain the means of more readily distinguishing and
naming plants, and consequently of imparting to others
the result of our observations on their properties and us .
The ad bono in botany is a question that has often been
asked by those who conceive that mere classification is the General
ultimate object of botany; but, from what has already been Ob*m.
said, we trust it will be seen that classification is only the
necessary consequence of a wish to impart our ideas to
others. It is a universal language, without which the ob¬
servations of one can be of no use to another, but by w Inch
the instructed can unfold to each other, at the remotest
parts of the earth, what species or genera of plants have
been discovered to possess remarkable properties. Ihe
standing objection to botany,” says the eloquent author ot
the Natural History of Selbourne, “ has always been, that
it is a pursuit that amuses the fancy and exercises the me¬
mory, without improving the mind, or advancing any real
knowledge; and where the science is carried no farther
than a mere systematic classification, the charge is but too
true. But the botanist who is desirous of wiping ott this
aspersion should be by no means content with a mere
list of names; he should study plants philosophically,—
should investigate the laws of vegetation,—should exa¬
mine the powers and virtues of efficacious herbs,—should
promote their cultivation, and graft the gardener, the plan¬
ter, and the husbandman, on the phytologist: not that
system is by any means to be thrown aside,—without sys¬
tem, the field of nature would be a pathless wdderness,
but system should be subservient to, not the main object ^
of, our pursuit.” Nor ought an objection to be urged
against the pursuit of those parts of botany from which
hitherto no immediate use has been derived. From the
highest organized plant to the lowest, all form a chain, in
which a link lost or broken disconnects the whole, and to
which the recent addition of new links, in the shape of new
species, has tended much to the increase of our knowledge.
What anatomist has not derived delight from the examina¬
tion of the eye of a fly; and what botanist has not obtained
information from the meanest weed! But it is even im¬
portant to attend to the lowest class of vegetables. The
lichens furnish many valuable dyes; the algae afford fo£d °
medicine; and we are all so alarmed at the poisonous effects
of many fungi, that scarcely above two or three species
are eaten in this country, whereas, if attention were paid
to their botanical character, several far supenor m fl^our
to the common mushrooms might be made use of u ith per
feCThe definition of botany here adopted, though easily
understood and perfectly correct, is sometimes of little
value to the practical man. Between mineralogy and t
two other sciences of zoology and botany we believe there
can be little confusion ; but between zoo ogy and botan),
in the subjects belonging to both of which the livingprm-
ciple seems equally to exist, not only are there great points
ofresemblance, but instances occur in which it is nearly
impossible for the eye to determine whether what we see
belongs to the one or to the other kingdom.
The distinction made by Linnaeus between plants and
animals consisted principally in the power of motion m
the latter. Many animals have, however, now been dis¬
covered, which seem to be unable to remove themselves
from the spot on which they first made their appearance ;
and, on the other hand, there are many plants, as the duck¬
weed (Lemna), ball-conferva (Conferva cegagropila), and
others, which, if they have roots, do not send thern into the
earth but float about as if in search of food ; and our dis
tkiguished countryman Mr Brown, whose philosophical
observations all must respect, has within these few years
demonstrated that the component particles or molecules
BOTANY. 31
eneral of all matter whatever, whether organized or not, when
>serva- suspended in a fluid, and viewed with a suitable micro-
ions. scope, are found to be in motion without any visible agency,
r Perhaps the true differences are to be looked for in sen¬
sation and an intestinal canal in the animal kingdom, into
which the food is collected; whilst plants are endowed only
with irritability, and receive the food through many canals
or mouths. But this, although it were universally acknow¬
ledged, is of little service, as confusion is only likely to arise
in the case of the smallest and least organized, and where the
correct knowledge of the anatomical structure is attended
with almost insuperable difficulties. In many zoophytes,
or lower tribes of marine animals, the external horny or cal¬
careous covering so resembles a plant in its mode of ramifi¬
cation, as to cause doubts which are not easily removed; and
there consequently exist many natural objects to this day
that are claimed by both the zoologist and botanist. This
similaritv, combined with the motion to be observed in
all molecules, has, we think, given rise to the singular de¬
lusion under which many celebrated men abroad have for
some years past laboured, when they assert that the minute
aquatic algae were animalcules in the first stages of their
being, but which afterwards took root and became plants.
A rudimentary plant may have often been mistaken for an
infusory animal, and may have even been described as
such; and although there be no absolute practical charac¬
ter of almost any use to enable us to distinguish the two,
yet wre consider their identity as a mere matter of specu¬
lation, that has never been proved, and which is not borne
out by any analogy derived from what are more organized,
and on which observations would be less subject to error.
Subservient to the actual classification and determina¬
tion of plants, and consequently forming branches of the
science of botany, are, Organography, or the anatomy
of plants, or the knowledge of the structure of their parts
or organs; 2rf, Physiology, or the knowledge of the func¬
tions of these parts ; 3rf, Pathology, or the derangements
to which these functions are exposed ; 4<A, Terminology
or Glossology, or a knowledge of the terms employed to
designate the parts or organs ; hth, Phytography, or the
art of describing plants, so that every species may be dis¬
tinguished and recognised; and, lastly, Taxonomy, or the
art of combining all these in such a way as to produce a
systematic arrangement or classification.
What are usually called medical botany, agricultural
botany, and economical botany, do not belong to the sci¬
ence of botany, as one might at first suppose from the
names, but form respectively mere connecting links be¬
tween botany and materia medica, as well as agriculture
and domestic economy. They exhibit the relation existing
between vegetables and the arts, and point out the uses
to which different plants are applied. But although they
therefore must fall under other subjects in this work, a
certain knowledge of their general relation must be of con¬
siderable use to the botanist, inasmuch as it may enable him
to frame a classification that will bring nearer together
plants of similar properties and virtues, as well as of a si¬
milar form and structure.
In the same wav, botanical geography is not a branch
of botany. This exhibits the relation between vegetables
and the soil on which they grow, and the climate in which
they delight, or, in other words, the physical causes, and
the laws of their distribution over the surface of our globe.
This will form a part of Physical Geography.
Horticulture or gardening, or the art of cultivating
plants so as to improve their beauty or ameliorate their
qualities, is dependent on vegetable pathology ; but it has
long been considered as separate from botany, and will be
treated of as a distinct science.
Ihe above six branches of botany are so intimately con¬
nected, that it is difficult to discuss one without encroach- Glossology,
ing on the others. As, how-ever, these are discussed in
other parts of this work, we shall here confine ourselves, Celi¬
as much as the nature of the subject will admit, to the
three latter ;—Glossology, Phytography, and Taxonomy ;
under which last will be found a short historical sketch of
the science.
I.—GLOSSOLOGY.
Glossology, or, as Linnaeus called it, Terminology, gives
us, as has already been stated, the knowledge of the terms
employed, or furnishes definitions of the names applied to
the different parts or organs. The structure of these con¬
stitutes organography or anatomy. An account of the
organs themselves belongs also, strictly speaking, to the
same branch of the subject; but as a mere explanation
of terms might prove useless and uninteresting, without
understanding to what these terms are to be applied, we
shall here exclude the elementary organs, or those which
compose the others, and blend the two together; and
thus, by explaining the organs and their successive deve¬
lopments, endeavour to lay a foundation, without which a
knowledge of the natural system of classification cannot be
acquired. Under Vegetable Anatomy, these organs are
treated of as subservient to physiology. Here we shall con¬
sider them as connected with classification. And as in this
article we do not intend to insert a catalogue or descrip¬
tion of plants, so we shall pass over many terms that are
not essential to a general view of the subject.
The organs of plants not elementary have been divided
by De Candolle into the fundamental and reproductive.
The former are such as are essential to the nutrition of the
plant, while the latter are mere modifications of these.
We shall therefore first proceed to the
FUNDAMENTAL ORGANS.
These consist of roots, stems, and leaves.
Roots (Radices).
We shall suppose a seed put into the ground under fa¬
vourable circumstances. The inherent vital principle com¬
mon to both plants and animals begins to operate; and a
development takes place downwards as well as upwards.
The descending portion is termed the Root; and by it
plants are fixed to the earth, and nutriment absorbed. In
some aquatic plants no root whatever is perceptible. But
in such apparent aberrations from what seems a general rule
of nature, it may be presumed by analogy that roots do
exist even when they have not been observed; in confir¬
mation of which it may be stated, that many plants to which
roots were long denied, have actually possessed them in
some parts of their existence, and are capable of deriving
nourishment either from the earth, water, or air, although
in a few the foliaceous portions of the plant are such as
almost to preclude the necessity of their having any.
There are several characters which distinguish the root
from the stem. The principal are the absence of leaves,
of pith even in those plants in which it is abundant in the
stem, and of spiral vessels.
A root usually consists of three parts: the neck (co/lum),
or line of separation from the stem; the body or middle
portion of the root; and the attenuated fibrous portion, or
little roots through which the nourishment is principally
derived. Keeping this in view, a root of the simplest kind
is, 1 st, what is termed conical, or the principal or tap root
as it is sometimes called ; this tapers downwards, emitting
fibres from various parts of its surface, as in the carrot
(Plate CXH. fig. 1): when the conical root is attenuated
32
BOTANY.
Glossology, towards the neck, as well as below, it is called fusiform
(fig. 2), as the radish: 3c?, when swollen out extremely
PI. CXII. jn tiie Upper part, and suddenly attenuated below, it is
napiform (fig. 3), as in the turnip: Uh, when the fusi¬
form root is as it were cut off suddenly, it is termed
abrupt (prcemorsus) (fig. 4), as in the devil’s bit scabious:
bth, fibrous when the body of the root is so reduced as
not to be apparent, and nothing is seen but simple or
branched fibres proceeding from the neck: m, when
these fibres swell out slightly in the middle, the root is
called fasciculated (fig. 5): 1th, when the fibrous root
bears, either at its neck, or here and there attached to
its fibres, one or more tubers, fleshy, and containing much
starchy feculent matter, it has been often ca\\e& tuberous,
but ought really to be termed tuberiferous, such tubers serv¬
ing for the nourishment of the plant; when two of such
tubers are placed together, as in some species of orchis,
they are said to be didymous (fig. 6); and when these
again are divided up to the middle into diverging lobes,
they are didymous palmate (fig. 7). Some give the
name of tuberous roots to any root whatever that con¬
tains swellings or tubercles on some part of its length;
but in neither sense ought tubers to be classed among
roots. In the one they are more properly short, fleshy,
subterranean stems, containing usually eyes or buds, from
which new plants arise ; and in the other they have a very
different structure, and are generally termed, 8M, granu¬
lated roots. These exhibit a collection of small tubercles
with eyes fit for the reproduction of the plant, without
being enveloped by cellular tissue filled with starchy fecule,
and thus differ essentially from the tuberiferous. In the
same predicament with the tuberiferous isthe root
(fie 8). This consists of a thin, flat tubercle, called y
cultivators of hyacinths the crown, from the lower part
of which proceeds a fibrous root, while above there is a bulb
or peculiar kind of bud, formed of a number of scales (as in
the lily), or coats (as in the onion), closely applied to each
other; such may rather be termed bulbiferous roots, the
bulb being equivalent to a leaf-bud, and the crown to a stem.
With regard to direction, there are only two requiring
any notice. The one is contorted, when bent upwards and
downwards in a zig-zag manner, as may be seen in tie
bistort; the other is a creeping root. The usual direction to
a root is towards the centre of the earth, but it sometimes
happens that one or all of its parts deviate at a right angle
from this, and proceed laterally parallel to the surface.
When this takes place it is said to be creeping. Hoots
of this kind are said to be among the greatest enemies the
agriculturist has to encounter; but they are in a measure
harmless, much confusion prevailing between them and
subterranean branches ; and we would therefore warn the
yomm botanist not to fall into the error. Indeed the num¬
ber of creeping roots is much less than has been generally
thought; for in most cases these will be found to be tiue
branches springing off from the stem above the neck of the
root, but afterwards developed under and even
from different points throwing out radical fibres. Among
these is the couchgrass ( Triticum repens), and the potato,
the fibrous parts of which bearing the tubers are ^ as¬
certained to be branches, as might indeed have been long
ago suspected, from the care found necessary by cultivators
to be paid to the heaping up of the earth on the lower part
of the stem, so as to increase the number of these branches,
and render the crop more abundant. In some plants, as
in Vida amphicarpa, such branches or false roots bear pods
under ground.
Stems ( Caules).
Reverting to the germination of a seed, that part which
springs upwards is the stem: it is therefore the interme¬
diate body between the root and the leaves. When the Glossology
first state of germination is observed, the rising stem is Wjw
surrounded by rudimentary leaves. It is thus similar to VI CXII,
those gems or leaf-buds that are afterwards observed in the
axil]* of all leaves, and which afterwards become branches ;
and it may therefore be stated in general terms, that all
stems are* produced by the successive developments of
^ WTien^he stem of a plant arising from a seed is evident,
the plant is termed caulescent; and when not apparent, or
scarcely so, the plants have received the names oiacaules
or subacaules. These last terms, however, must not be taken
in a rigorous sense ; for although a stem be sometimes ex¬
tremely short, or even entirely under ground, it always ex¬
ists. We may refer here to Gentianaacaulis, Carduus acau-
lis, and many others, said to have no stein, but which really
have one so surrounded by the bases of the leaves, as o
be overlooked until they be planted in a more genial soil,
when the stem becomes more visible. W e have already
stated that the crown of what is called a bulbous root is
the real stem;—and in the genus Cyclamen, what is usually
considered a tuber is an actual stem, from the base of which
fibrous roots are protruded, and from the top, leaves and
It often happens that the stem, instead of ascending,
stretches, either wholly or in part, under ground or on the
surface, emitting here and there roots from below, and
branches or leaves which rise upwards. Such a stem is
called a rhizoma (fig. 9), or, if it do not emit fibres, a cor-
mus. Most of what Linnaeus improperly descrmed as creep-
ing roots are of the former description : of these each ris¬
ing branch may easily be separated, and becomes a new
individual. The jointed roots or scaly roots of botanists
are also subterranean stems; for the knots and scales are
the rudiments of buds and leaves, which no true root pos¬
sesses. Sometimes a plant pushes out horizontally long
stems of a peculiar nature, emitting only from the extre¬
mity roots and leaf-buds, as in the strawberry. Such stems
are termed stolones or runners. , ' , „
Branches as well as stems arise from leaf-buds. Lvery
leaf or modification of a leaf possesses these in their axil-
Ise or the angle formed by the leaf and the branch; and
therefore all leafy stems must likewise be branched, and
without anylimit to the ramification, unless the leaf-bud has
met with injury, or in peculiar circumstances has not been
called into action. As leaf-buds are axillary, so branches
are not elongated, strictly speaking, by means of leaf-buds,
but by a prolongation of the axis of the original leaf-bud
from which it arose. This distinction is, however, very sub¬
tile and unnecessary; for the terminal scaly bud, though
only the undeveloped portion of a leaf-bud, is so similar
to regular leaf-buds in the external as well as internal
structure, that they cannot be distinguished but by their
position. De Candolle indeed calls them all leaf-buds,
and we ourselves feel inclined to admit the idea of a termi¬
nal leaf-bud ; but, while we do so, we must add, that from
the terminal being really only a portion of an axillary one,
it must be viewed as a modification of the axillary ; an
therefore, although appearances be sometimes against us,
we must again repeat that all leaf-buds are axillary. Spu¬
rious leaf-buds, or gemmce as they are called, sometimes
capable of producing branches and leaves, or even new in¬
dividuals, are frequently scattered irregularly on the stem
or branches, as, for example, on the elm, where they are
abundant; but these must not be confounded with true leaf-
buds. The leaf-buds, the development of which depends
on the rise of the sap, have the outer or lower scales or leaves
first expanded ; and this same law ought to hold with re¬
gard also to their successive development. And such is
the case in some trees. But the extremities of the branches
BOTANY.
33
ssology. being almost always more herbaceous than below, and more
liable to be acted upon by atmospherical heat, the buds
towards the summits are usually first evolved, and then,
proceeding gradually downwards, those below them, so
that the lowest buds are the last expanded.
The summit of branches or stems is usually green, soft,
and herbaceous; and when the primary stems do not rise
above the surface, but only the tender branches, that plant
is termed herbaceous, in opposition to those with n. 'perennial
stem. An herbaceous stem generally dies down to the
ground every year. A perennial stem may be succulent or
fleshy, woody, shrubby, or somewhat shrubby; but these
terms bear their own meaning. Linnaeus devised for ex¬
pressing the duration of plants four very simple marks,
which have been adopted by nearly all botanists. These are,
0, to denote annual; biennial; and If, perennial; while
T2 indicates a shrub or tree. De Candolle, however, has
somewhat changed these and added others. He adopts four
principal signs, O, If, and w The first relates to a plant
called monocarpic, or which flowers and fructifies only once;
the second denotes a rhizocarpic plant, which has herba¬
ceous stems that die down to the ground every year; the
third applies to a caulocarpic one, whose stems are straight
and perennial; and the last marks a climbing plant. The
first, third, and fourth of these, being indefinite, are divi¬
sible into several others: Thus, ©, shows the life of the
plant is only for one year; ©, for two years; 0, that it is
many years before it flowers, but after which it dies.
Again, 5; indicates a suffruticose plant, or one that though
shrubby does not elevate itself more than a foot or two ;
S, denotes a shrub of from two to ten feet high, in
which the branches arise from the base of the stem ; 5,
marks a small tree of from ten to twenty-five feet high,
and whose trunk is without branches at the base ; and ,f,
is a decided tree upwards of twenty-five feet. As to the
symbol for climbing, C marks a plant that climbs to the
right, and 3 one that climbs to the left. To these the
same botanist has added a, to point out an evergreen.1
On examining the trunk or branch of an ash or oak
tree, wre perceive in the centre a mass of spongy cellu¬
lar tissue,2 called pith. Around this, and inside of the
wood, are placed a series of spiral vessels and ducts, con¬
stituting the medullary sheath. This communicates on the
one side with the pith, and on the other with the medul¬
lary rays, leaf-buds, and veins of the leaves. Next we find
the wood, consisting of concentric layers, one of which is
formed every year. These layers are composed of cellular
tissue, woody fibre, and ducts, and are traversed by the
medullary rays composed of cellular tissue, and connecting
the centre with the circumference. The fully formed or
central layers are called the heart-wood, and the exterior
the alburnum. The bark surrounds the wood. This may be
seen to have the same number of concentric layers as the
wood, but of these the hardest or most fully formed is ex¬
terior, and the youngest interior. The liber is that portion
of the bark which is successively formed next the wood.
Each concentric layer, whether of wood or bark, consists of
two strata, the one of woody fibre and ducts, the other
of cellular tissue, of which the latter in the wood is inte- Glossology,
rior, and in the bark exterior; so that wood and bark may
be viewed as similarly constituted of woody fibre and pith ;
which last, however, in the bark, is on the outside. Betwixt
the liber and alburnum is formed in spring a viscid secretion
called cambium. The matter which causes such plants to
increase in diameter has been found by experiment to de¬
scend ; but the investigation of this subject belongs more to
vegetable anatomy and physiology. Suffice it to say, that
such an appearance as we have above described takes place
in a very great proportion of vegetables; and from the cir¬
cumstance of their receiving the annual increase between
the outside of the old wood and inside of the old bark, some
botanists have termed such plants Exogenous (Exogenw).
There are other plants, however, in which no such distinc¬
tions exist, and where the stem is formed of bundles of ducts
and spiral vessels interspersed through a cellular tissue; and
this is surrounded by a stratum of cellular tissue and woody
fibre, different from bark, inasmuch as it cannot be separat¬
ed from the stem itself. Such plants have their diameter
increased by the addition of central vascular tissue and
ducts, and are therefore called Endogenous (Endogence).
Both Exogense and Endogenae containing spiral vessels,
are called vascular, in opposition to another division of
vegetables, the celhdar (cellulares), in which they do not
exist; but as these plants do not spring from seeds, we
shall pass them over at present.
Occasionally, projections from the medullary sheath
reach the circumference of the stem and branches, forming
what are called nodi, to which are attached leaves aild leaf-
buds ; and the spaces between these nodi are called intei'-
nodia. The tuber of the potato seems to be a collection of
these nodi and leaf-buds (there called eyes), the leaves
being abortive from the tubers being formed under ground.
The stem peculiar to the grasses and other allied tribes is
termed a culm{culmus). This is simple, or rarely branched,
generally hollow within or fistulose, and separated at inter¬
vals by knots or partitions, from which issue the leaves.
The stem may be simple or branched, and with the
branches may be cylindrical or conical; round (teres) or
angled; smooth (Icevis), furrowed, glabrous (free from any
processes), or rough, or pubescent, or hairy. These terms,
bearing the same signification in botany as in common
language, need no definition. Among Endogenous plants,
from the abortion of leaf-buds, the stems are usually cy¬
lindrical and unbranched ; while, from the leaf-buds being
almost always developed in the Exogenae, the stems are
generally branched and conical.
Belonging to the stem we may take notice of two pro¬
cesses. The one is a spine (spina), which always arises
from what was a leaf-bud; it is therefore a kind of branch,
and must not be confounded with the other process, or
prickle (aculeus), which does not spring from leaf-buds, and
is a mere dilatation of the cellular portion of the bark.
Leaves (Folia).
Leaves are those expansions which issue laterally from
the stem and branches of plants. They take their origin
1 The Linntean character $ has been employed by De Candolle to mark a flower or a plant that bears stamens and no pistils; and,
to correspond with it, he has recommended the adoption of $ for a plant with pistilla and no stamens; 5 , according to him, designates
a plant which has flowers containing both.
2 To save our readers the trouble of referring at every step to the article on Vegetable Anatomy, we shall give here an explana¬
tion of the principal elementary organs:
1. Cellular tissue, or parenchyma, is composed of transparent vesicles, variously cohering with each other.
2. Woody fibre is a tissue consisting of elongated tubes, similar to the vesicles of cellular tissue, and is therefore often also called
elongated cellular tissue.
3. Spiral vessels are formed of elastic tissue, twisted spirally into the form of a cylinder, and capable of being unrolled. To these
a’one the name vessels (vasa) ought to be given; and hence they are always to be found in the vascular tissue of plants properly so
called.
4. Ducts are elongated, transparent tubes, composed of a tissue that is not capable of unrolling.
VOL. V. E
34
BOTANY.
Glossology, from the bark, and are always to be observed, either m a
-Y-'—' rudimentary or perfect state, immediately below the leat-
buds. They are originally continuous with the stem and
nodi, but afterwards, from acause thatdoesnot appeal to be
yet well understood, an articulation more or less complete
takes place, when the leaf falls off. Very few instances occur
where there are no leaves on the stem, as in the genera
Orobanche, Lathrcea, and Cuscuta, and even then there are
rudimentary leaves in the shape of scales or tubercles.
Position of The first thing we have to attend to is the position ol
the leaves, the leaves. Those situated near the root are often laigei,
and of a different shape, from those higher up the stem;
and the former are termed radical, the latter cauline leaves.
We usually observe, that as these approach the extre¬
mity of the branches which bear the flower, they decrease
much in size, assume a different form and colour, and aie
termed floral leaves or bracteas. Of these we shall after¬
wards have occasion to speak, when we come to the inflo¬
rescence of plants.
When the stem or branch is cut through, several leaves
are sometimes found in the same horizontal plane. V hen
only two are observed, and these opposite to each other,
they are usually said to be opposite. It has, however, been
lately proposed to term opposite those only, the bases of
whose petioles are connected either by stipules or other¬
wise, reserving to the others the appellation pseudo-op¬
posite ; but this distinction has been hitherto adopted by
almost no systematic writer. When more than two are in
the same plane, they are said to be in whorls, ox verticillate ;
but, strictly speaking, such are of very rare occurrence;
Hippuris and Myriophyllum may however serve as ex¬
amples. But it is improper to apply this term to the leaves
of the genus Galium, in which the two opposite leaves
alone bear axillary leaf-buds, the others being mere foliace-
ous stipules.
When the branch is cut through horizontally, and only
one leaf appears in the section, the leaves were said by
Linnaeus to be scattered(spa?'sa), or alternate, with little dis¬
crimination. More modern botanists have, however, ob¬
served that these are primarily arranged regularly; but after¬
wards so many disturbing causes occur as to render their
true disposition scarcely perceptible. By true alternate
leaves ought to be understood those only which are placed
on two sides of the branch, in such a way that the third
leaf is under the first, and the fourth under the second;
and when such are close together they are said to be dis¬
tichous. But leaves are usually placed in simple spirals, in
such a way that the sixth is under the first, the seventh
under the second, and so on. There are also instances
where the spiral is formed of more than five leaves, and
hence there may be double, triple, quintuple, or sextuple
spirals. The practice, however, still prevails of calling all
such alternate in which the spiral is not very evident.
Of these two systems the type of the verticillate is the
opposite, whil6 that of the spiral is the alternate ; and cases
even happen where the one of these seems almost to pass
into the other. Thus, in Exogenous plants, although the
leaves may be opposite to each other on the lower part of
the plant, they often assume the spiral direction above;
and, in the Endogenae, although the lower leaves be in a
spiral, the upper ones are sometimes verticillate. This in¬
duced Desfontaines to institute a close analysis, by which
he discovered a remarkable relation between the structure
of the stem, the number of cotyledons, and the disposition
of the leaves, from which we are now enabled to derive a
general law, that in all Dicotyledonous or Exogenous ve¬
getables, the leaves are primarily opposite, or verticillate,
but may become alternate, or form a spiral, according to
the mode of growth of the plant; and that in all the Mo-
nocotyledonous, or Endogenae, the reverse happens, the
leaves being primarily alternate, or in a spiral, but after-Glossolog
wards subject to be more or less exactly opposite. Thus, pxil
in the position of the leaves we have an auxiliary to en¬
able us to determine to which of these two great classes
of vegetables a plant belongs.
Some botanists add to the above fascicled leaves {folia
fasciculata); but these are combinations of which both
systems are susceptible. Thus, in Aspalathus, where the
three leaflets appear to arise from one point, this is a de¬
ception caused by the shortness of the petiole. Another
case commonly quoted is, when the leaf becomes abortive
at the same time that a very short branch furnished with
leaves appears from the leaf-bud. Thus, in the barberry,
the thorn is the rudiment of the real leaf; and what we
call leaves are new leaves placed close together on a very
short branch, and belonging to the leaf-bud. In the pine
tribe the sheath is the rudiment of the leaf; white the
two, three, or five leaves within it are the first leaves of
an abortive branch. The cedar exhibits and explains this
very easily; for in the early part of spring, the leaves are
fasciculated ; but in summer, when the leaf-buds or axil¬
lary branches have time to elongate, the leaves become
A leaf consists of the petiole, the lamina or limb, and a Petiole,
pair of stipules; but sometimes only one of these three
parts can be observed. The petiole is that which connects
the lamina with the stem, and through it the bundles of
ducts and spiral vessels pass before they branch out in the
limb. Its form is usually cylindrical or slightly channelled
above; but it sometimes happens that it is flattened, and
presents on each side a foliaceous appendage, when it is
said to be margined, as in Dionwa muscipula (fig. 41, o).
This margin is frequently contracted at regular intervals ;
and from each contraction in a compound leaf springs a
leaflet. We often find, however, that the leaflets are abor¬
tive, in which case the petiole may easily be mistaken for
the lamina; and this is indeed what is called by some a
lomentaceous leaf. But more commonly a terminal leaflet
remains, although the others be abortive, as we see in the
orange tree; and to distinguish the two kinds we must be
much guided by analogy. This confusion is however of
little consequence ; for as we may regard the longitudinal
nerve of the leaf as a prolongation of the petiole, the limb
or lamina itself may be viewed as a margined petiole.
The fibres that pass through the petiole, and which in
Exogenous plants arise from the medullary sheath, and in
the Endogenous from the bundles of vascular tissue, some¬
times in the former class, instead of being united from the
base into a compact bundle, as more commonly happens,
spring side by side from various points more or less round
the branch. The base of the petiole is thus plane, and is
amplexicaul or semi-amplexicaul, or perhaps even sheathing
{vaginans). Before the fibres enter the lamina, however,
they tend to one point, so that the upper portion does not
differ from a common petiole with a rounded base. This
expansion of the base of the petiole is to be seen in a
remarkable manner in the upper leaves of Bupleurum
perfoliatum and some others, where it has all the appear¬
ance of a foliaceous limb.
Towards the summit of the stems of the UmbellifercB, the
lamina and the cylindrical part of the petiole frequently
disappear, nothing remaining but the sheathing base. In
Lathyrus Nissolia this happens to all the leaves, and there
the sheathing base becomes mpre dilated than usual.
The affinity derived from other considerations between
Pyrola and Monotropa shows that the scales of the latter
are petiolar sheaths, and in the Orobanche tribe they must
be viewed in the same manner.
It happens sometimes, especially when the lamina is
not developed, that the petiole, without being sheathing
BOTANY.
35
Glossology- at the base, expands throughout its whole length, and
takes a state intermediate between foliaceous and petiolar.
PI. CXII. 'phis hag received the name of phyllodium ; as in many
species of Acacia from New Holland, some of which when
young present a slender petiole and a bipinnate leaf, but
afterwards lose their leaflets by the dilatation of the
petiole.
Sometimes the petiole is elongated beyond the lamina,
or perhaps in compound leaves the terminal leaflet may
have no lamina but only the midrib, while the petiole or
midrib retains its usual cylindrical figure, becomes very
long, twists spirally, and then constitutes a tendril (cirrhus)
(fig. 37, a). In others, though rarely, the leaves are abor¬
tive, and the petiole remains straight and cylindrical. In
some plants with compound leaves, as in Astragalus Traga-
cantha, the terminal leaflet becomes abortive or is changed
into a spine, when the petiole is said to be spinescent.
Lamina. The lamina of the leaf next claims our attention. This
is an expansion of the parenchyma of the petiole, and
commences where the bundles of vascular tissue that tra¬
verse the petiole begin to diverge from each other and
form what are called the veins of the leaf. The diver¬
gence of these fibres, says De Candolle, is in two differ¬
ent ways. They either separate, making with the base or
its prolongation an angle properly so called, and most fre¬
quently an acute one, when the leaves may be said to be
anguliiierved; or they form on the base or its prolonga¬
tion a curvature, when the leaves may be termed curvi-
nerved. The former structure is essential to the Exogenae,
the latter to the Endogenae. Among those, the nerves of
which form an angle, there are four forms.
1. Leaves penninerved (fig. 14), where the petiole is
prolonged into one longitudinal nerve, which on both
sides sets out lateral nerves, as in the Spanish chestnut.
In a linear leaf these lateral nerves must be all equal in
length; in an elliptic, oval; or orbicular leaf, those about
the middle must be longer than those at the base or summit
of the leaf; in an ovate one, the longer nerves are below
the middle; in an obovate leaf, above the middle. When
the lower pair or two lower pairs of nerves are much larger
than the others, and almost the size of the midrib, as in
the Jerusalem artichoke, the leaves are said to be tripli-
nerved or quintuplinerved.
2. Leaves palminerved (fig. 10), where several nerves
diverge all at once from the base of the leaf.
3. Leaves peltinerved (fig. 11), where several nerves
radiate from the apex of the petiole in a plane different
from the direction of the petiole. It results from this dis¬
position that the lamina does not appear at first to be a
prolongation of the petiole, but rather a disc placed at its
summit. It is evident, when the point of attachment is
near the margin of the lamina, that we should have al¬
most a palminerved leaf; indeed in some plants these two
forms occur promiscuously.
4. Leaves pedalinerved, where the central nerve is very
short, but setting off on both sides two strong diverging
lateral nerves, which, instead of being branched alike on
both sides, present almost no lateral nerves on the outer
side; whilst, in the inside, secondary nerves spring out
almost parallel to each other. This form is of rare occur¬
rence, but may be seen in some passion-flowers.
The curvinerved leaves may either have their nerves con¬
verging or diverging; but these require little illustration.
In Exogenous plants the veins branch in various direc¬
tions, anastomosing, and forming a kind of net-work. In
Endogenous plants they are nearly parallel to each other,
being connected by single transverse unbranched veins.
To this the Coniferce and Cycadecc form perhaps the only Glossology.
exceptions: these have the stems of the Exogenous, but
the same arrangement of the veins as in the Endogenae. Tl. CXIL
The veins of some leaves are capable of producing from
their extremities gemmce similar to those we have describ¬
ed as occurring on the stetn and branches. These gemmae
usually arise from the margin ; but as the vein must be
open, or have a stoma, as it is anatomically called, at the
point of insertion ; and as such stomata, though frequent
on the under side, have been rarely observed on the up¬
per surface; so the gemmae are seldom or never produced
on the upper side.
A leaf is either simple or compound. It is simple when
its lamina is entire (folium integrum), or when, if separated
into several divisions, these segments are not articulated
with the petiole. The position and ramification of the
nerves have great influence in determining the shape of
the leaf. Of those that are entire, the simplest of all
forms is the linear (fig. 12), where the margins are paral¬
lel. By the central position of such a one being slightly
dilated, we have an oblong; when more dilated, an ellip¬
tical leaf (fig. 13) ; and when much so, an orbicular one.
When the dilatation is below the middle, we have an ovate
(fig. 14) ; when above the middle, an obovate1 leaf (fig. 15).
When the oblong tapers gradually into a point at the
apex, it becomes lanceolate (fig. 16). If a leaf be very
narrow, and taper upwards from its base, it is subulate
(fig. 17); and when long, narrow, stiff, and sharp, it is
said to be acicidar or setaceous (fig. 18); when narrow
and very slender, it is filiform. When an elliptical leaf
tapers much bejow, so as to be narrow at the base, and
broad and rounded at the summit, it becomes spathulate
(fig. 19); and when narrow at the base, and truncated or
somewhat squared off at the top, it is cuneiform. Such are
the principal forms. When almost any of these are pro¬
duced at the base, so as to have two lobes on each side
of the petiole, they are said to be cordate or heart-shaped
(fig. 20 and 21) when the lobes are rounded; sagittate
(fig. 22) when acute and scarcely diverging; and has¬
tate (fig. 23) when acute and diverging much outwards.
When an orbicular leaf becomes cordate at the base, it is
called reniform (fig. 24).
Leaves, or rather the lamina of leaves, are either sharp-
pointed or acute, pungent, mucronate, or acuminated, or
they are blunt ( folia obtusa), (fig. 15, 24,); when such a
leaf has a small sinus at the apex, it is retuse (fig. 25);
when the sinus is deeper, as if a piece had been cut out,
it is emarginate (fig. 26); and when still more so, obcordate;
till by degrees we have bifid, two-lobed (folia biloba)
(fig. 27), and bipartite. What is called the appendage
(fig. 41, a) in Dioncea muscipula is a two-lobed lamina.
From the gradual transition of one form into another, bota¬
nists might long ago have learned the little importance to
be attached to any individual shape; unhappily, however,
for science, species have too often been multiplied on such
weak grounds. In studying the phytographical depart¬
ment, we would recommend, that either in describing, or
endeavouring to understand a description, each form should
to be taken with a considerable latitude of meaning, and as
subject to vary into the others on either side.
A divided leaf may be cleft (folia trifida, quadrifida,
&c.), or, if the divisions be deeper, it is lobed (folia triloba,
&c.), and, when deeply cut, partite (folia tripartita, &c.);
but when the divisions are deep and unequal, the leaf is
laciniated (fig. 28). When a leaf is rounded at both extre¬
mities, but contracted in the middle, it is panduriform
(fig. 29) or violin-shaped; and when there are more than
! The te.™s ovate and obovate, although generally adopted, are incorrect; they ought to be oval and oboval. A truly ovate leaf
reiers to thickness as well as surface. It has indeed the shape of an egg, and oval is the longitudinal section of such.
36
BOTANY.
Glossology, one contraction on each side, as in the oak, it is sinuated
30). When a leaf is divided laterally into lobes more
P1.CXIL or less deep, it is (fig. 31); when these lobes
are very narrow and nearly parallel, it is pectinate; when
the lateral lobes are acute and recurved, it is runcinate
(fig. 32); when the terminal lobe of a pinnatifid leaf is
round and larger than the others, the leaf is lyrate (fig.
33); when a leaf is so deeply divided laterally that the
lobes are only connected at their base, it is pmnatipartite;
and when the lobes are completely isolated, it is pinnati-
sect (fi«-. 34). Linnaeus, as well as many modern botanists
of eminence, called the last pinnate, and referred it to a
compound leaf; but the transition from the entire leaf to
the pinnatisect shows distinctly that the latter is but a
simple leaf, of which all the parenchyma has not been
developed. .
A divided leaf may have its lobes again divided, when
it is said to be hi or tri-pinnatifid, &c. .
A compound leaf is when the lamina is articulated with
the petiole. It is either digitate or pinnate. Leaves are di¬
gitate (fig. 35) when all the leaflets start from the same point
at the apex of the petiole, as in the lupines ; in the orange
there is but one leaflet; in other plants three, four, or more.
Leaves are pinnate when the leaflets spring out laterally
from the common petiole, and are oppositely (fig. 36) or al¬
ternately pinnate, according as these leaflets are opposite to
or alternate with each other; and are imparipinnate (fig.
36) or paripinnate when there is, or is not, a terminal leaf¬
let. When there is but one, two, or three pairs of leaflets,
the leaf is said to be unijugate (folium unijug urn), bijugate,
trijugate (tig. 37), &c. A. decompounded eaf is where the
common petiole is divided into secondary petioles, each of
which bears a foliole or leaflet. Of these, when the se¬
condary petioles all spring from the apex of the common
petiole, the leaf is diyitato-pinnate ; or when there are only
two secondary petioles, conjugato-pirmate (fig. 38). When
each of the secondary petioles bears only one pair of leaf¬
lets, the leaf is bigeminate (fig. 39) ; and when the secon¬
dary petioles spring out as leaflets do in a pinnate leaf,
but are themselves pinnate, the leaf is bipinnate (fig. 40).
Decompounded leaves may be again divided, when they
are called supradecompounded (folia supradecomposita).
The margin of the divisions of a simple or compound
leaf is variously modified. It may be very entire (integerri-
mum) or crenulate, when furnished with little projecting
points; or dentated, when the margin presents small ra¬
diating acute teeth, that neither incline to the bottom nor
to the apex of the leaf (fig. 21); or serrated (fig. 14), when
the teeth are inclined; or thorny, when the teeth are nar¬
row, stiff, and sharp (as in the holly); or ciliated, when
there is a series of hairs along the edge, like a person’s
eye-lashes.
With regard to the expansion, surface, pubescence, con¬
sistence, form (we do not mean by this the superficial
shape, but the shape as a mass, of which the other is but
a section), and colour, it is unnecessary to say any thing,
having restricted ourselves to a more general view of the
subject.
Leaves unite very easily either with each other or with
the stem. When two have their margins close together
at the time of their development, they often unite quite
accidentally; but there are some plants in which such a
union is not accidental, but constant. In the honeysuckle
a transition may be observed from the leaves perfectly dis¬
tinct, to those that are joined by their bases. The genus
Bauhinia presents many instances of leaves being united
by their edges: a palminerved leaf may thus be viewed
as composed of several penninerved leaves soldered partly
together. When leaves unite to the stem they are termed
decurrent; and this may be either caused by the middle
nerve coalescing with the stem, as in the floral leaves ofGlossolog;
the lime tree, or by the adherence merely of a prolonga-
tion of the parenchyma of the leaf. ’ "
Some botanists speak of an oppendiculate leaf, in which
there ought to be an extraneous body attached to it; but
the more the structure of the different parts is studied,
the fewer instances are to be recorded. Thus a cirrhus or
tendril is usually an abortive leaflet, or petiole, or stipule.
The supposed appendage of Dioncea muscipida (fig. 41, a)
is the real lamina of the leaf, while the supposed leaf is
the petiole (fig. 41, b). The pitcher of Nepenthes (fig. 42, a)
is also now regarded as the leaf; and the lower portion
(fig. 42, c) the petiole, which is partly margined. This
plant, however, is scarcely yet completely understood;
probably the lid (fig. 42, b) to the pitcher alone is the limb
of the leaf; while the petiole at first consisting (as in the
lower leaves (fig. 43, 44) that arise from the plumule on
germination) of a mere pitcher, afterwards elongates (fig.
42, c, a) into a margined portion, a cirrhus, and a pitcher,
In Sarracenia, said also to have a pitcher-shaped leaf, the
petiole forms a hollow sheath with the lamina or lid at its
apex.
Stipules (fig. 37, b) are those small foliaceous organs stipules,
sometimes situated on each side at the base of the petiole.
They never occur in the Endogenae, nor in any Exogenous
plants that have sheathing petioles, and are rarely found
in genera with opposite leaves. Their presence or ab¬
sence seems to be eminently connected with the general
symmetry of plants, for they exist or are wanting in all of
the same family. They have frequently the same struc¬
ture, and are often transformed into leaves; even leaf-
buds have been observed in the axils of some of them, so
that they may be viewed as rudimentary leaves. Stipules
sometimes change into spines ; but the spines in Acacia
are not stipules, but prolongations of a swelling of the stem
under the leaf, which serves it a'S a kind of support. 1 his is
evident from there being frequently real stipules indepen¬
dent of the spines; but usually, when the spines are formed,
the stipules above them are abortive. Stipules seem occa¬
sionally to change into tendrils, and this is the most pro¬
bable explanation of the lateral tendrils of the gourd and
cucumber tribe. They are in general smaller than the
leaves ; but in Lathyrus aphaca they are remarkably large,
while the leaves are entirely abortive. Those at the base of
the same petiole are not always alike ; one of them even
in some plants becoming abortive, while the other persists.
Stipules that are situated between the petiole and the
branch are intrapetiolar; and, in the case of opposite
leaves, when they are between the two opposite petioles,
they are interpetiolar, or intrafoliaceous. Stipules some¬
times unite together, and when so, if they form a sheath
round the stem, they are called ochreex ; and if the union
take place between the petiole and the s4em they are
termed intra-axillary. They also often adhere to the pe¬
tiole by their margins, and then one must use the great¬
est caution not to confound with them the cellular ap¬
pendages of the petiole itself.
Leaves arise on the young shoots, or already exist Vernatio!
more or less developed ^vhen the shoot begins to ap¬
pear. At this period the external leaves frequently take
the appearance of scales, and serve as a- protection to
the others. The compact mode in which the young leaves
are arranged before expansion is called the vernation or
gemmation, and is determined by different causes, viz.
their position on the stem and mode of adherence, the
disposition of the principal nerves, and the different de¬
grees of separation or union of the parts. All the appear¬
ances resulting from these may be reduced to three classes :
ls£, They are folded or rolled longitudinally on the midrib,
which remains straight; or, 2c^, they are folded or curved,
BOTANY.
1>L CXII.
Glossology.so that the summit touches the base; or, 3c?, they are
1neither curved nor folded in a sensible degree.
The usual state of Exogenous plants is to have the leaves
so folded that the two parts of the lamina on each side
the midrib are applied to each other by their upper sur¬
face ; but this is much modified by other circumstances.
Thus, when two penninerved leaves are strictly opposite,
and another pair at right angles to these, they are only-
half folded, in such a way as to inclose the inner pair ; and
such a vernation is termed opposite (fig. 45). When less
decidedly opposite, one of the sides of each leaf is exte¬
rior and the other interior (fig. 46), and then the verna¬
tion is half-equitant (semiamplexa) ; and when the leaves
are alternate or spiral, they are each of them folded by
themselves, and placed side by side, when it is called
conduplicate 47.) Palminerved leaves being consider¬
ed as composed of several penninerved ones united by
their margins for some part of their length, each of the
divisions has a tendency to be folded, exhibiting a plicate
vernation (fig. 48). The leaflets of palmate leaves present
of course the same disposition. Some penninerved leaves,
although folded together, have the margins rolled outwards,
as in the rosemary, and the vernation is revolute (fig. 49) ;
or they may be rolled in, as in the water-lily, and it is invo¬
lute (fig. 50). These latter peculiarities are very rare
among the Exogenae, but common among the Endogenae.
When the young leaves are so narrow that they are not fold¬
ed, but cover each other without any apparent order, they
are said to be imbricated. Such plants as have a petiole that
embraces the stem for some length (which chiefly happens
among the Endogenae) present a slightly different disposi¬
tion. Here most of the leaves are reduced to a dilated pe¬
tiole, and are simply curved and imbricated the one over
the other, as in the coats of what are erroneously called bul¬
bous roots (fig. 8) ; but there are other plants with a sheath-
ing petiole, that show an inclination to a longitudinally-
folded leaf (as in the Iris) as much as if they had a midrib,
and the vernation is equitant (fig. 51) ; so called because,
as they are alternate, each of them rides upon or em¬
braces by its two margins the two margins of the leaf
that follows it. Another disposition, but almost peculiar to
the Endogenae, is the convolute (fig. 52), as in the scita-
mineae, where the limb is rolled round one of its margins
on an axis. Ihe vernation is termed replicate when the
leaf is so folded that the upper part is applied to the low¬
er, as in the aconite ; and circinal when, instead of being
folued, it is rolled in such a way that the apex serves as
an axis; which last curious structure may be observed in
the genus Drosera, and in the Cycadece.
Cellular Plants.
, The observations hitherto made relate almost exclu¬
sively to Vascular plants, the terms relating to the exter¬
nal forms of which alone can be applied also to the Cellu¬
lar vegetables ; so that, before proceeding to the reproduc¬
tive organs, we may devote a few lines to such as come
under the latter denomination. And here we must draw a
line between such as are furnished with ducts in addition
to mere cellular tissue, and those in which we find an entire
homogeneousness of structure; and, for the sake of distinc¬
tion, we shall call the former ductulosce, and the latter educ-
tulosce.
Ductulosce.
All belonging to this section, on account of the presence
o ducts, and in some instances apparently of stems, more
°ni ayttor of eminence has classed with vascular
-7^ t“?re ar.e no sPiral vessels present, and al-
&1 i is often difficult to distinguish between spiral
37
vessels and ducts, we prefer to make the characters of the Glossology,
two great classes of vegetables depend on the presence or
absence of the former, rather than of the latter ; the more
so because we feel convinced, that, with the aid of spiral
vessels, and not without them, can true seeds be produced.
As ducts are always to be observed in roots, even in the
most fibrous, so there is a presumption that true roots
exist in all the ductulosae. As, however, no spiral vessels
occur above the root, there can be no collum or line of
separation between stem and root, and therefore the
whole plant may be viewed as one uniform body, every
section presenting the same structure. On account of
the appearance of stems, the ductulosie may be said to
have an axis.
1. The Equisetacece xnnst first be noticed. These haveEquise-
little or no resemblance to the other ductulosse, and almost tacese.
as little to the vascular plants. Their nearest affinity is
perhaps with the genus Casuarina (one of the Exogenae).
Their vernation is straight. They have no true leaves, but
a furrowed fistular stem, in which, under the cuticle or
external membranous coating, so much silex is deposited
as to render some of the species of great use in polishing
furniture and other household utensils. The stem is more¬
over articulated, separating at the joints, each articulation
being surrounded by a prolongation of the joint below it
in the shape of a membranous toothed sheath; the num¬
ber of the teeth, if not combined, corresponding with the
number of the furrows on the stem. The stem is either
simple, or has branches articulated like the stem, placed
in whorls at their articulations, each whorl consisting of
as many branches as there are teeth to the sheath.
2. The Filicesox ferns seem to approach very closely toFilices.
some of the Endogense, particularly to the palms, in gene¬
ral habit, and also slightly to the Cycadece, which form
part of the Exogense; but if our ideas be correct, the
affinities that have been traced between them have been
much exaggerated.
In our estimation, an entire fern corresponds only to
a leaf among the vascular plants ; and that part which has
been called a stem or rhizoma under ground, or a stipes or
caudex when erect and above ground, as in the tree ferns,
is, we think, analogous to a mere petiole. Each leafy ex¬
pansion has been termed & frond, without sufficient atten¬
tion having been paid to its origin. But a frond whose
stipes pushes out radicular fibres from its base, is, we
think, similar to a simple leaf; while those species whose
frond is attached to a rhizoma or caudex resembles a
pinnate leaf. Thus the ferns do not resemble vascular
plants, but only a portion of one. The vernation of all, with
the exception of Ophioglossum and its allies, is circinnate
like the Cycadece; but instead of being rolled inwards,
it is rolled outwards, unlike any vascular plant that we
remember. As, however, the views here announced
have not hitherto been adopted by any botanist, we
may, in reference to the terms more generally in use,
mention, that every leafy portion which rises aboveground
is termed a. frond, and its stalk or support a stipes. The
creeping part under ground or on the surface is termed
a rhizoma, and when erect and like the trunk of a tree,
a caudex. Ihe stipes is flattish or concave on the side
con-esponding with the upper surface of the frond, and
convex on the other. It is glabrous, or rough, or prickly,
or scaly (paleaceus), or downy (pubescens), as in vascular
plants. The frond is said to be simple, or lobed, or pin-
natifid, or pinnafipartite, as in a true leaf. It is even called
pinnate when there is no membranous connection between
the divisions, although there be no articulation at the base
of each. In substance also it may vary from rigid and
coriaceous to thin and membranous.
3. Marsiliacece. These are either creeping or floating J
Marsi-
: lacese.
38
Glossology.
botany.
Lvcopo-
diaceae.
Musci.
plants; the former have petioles to what are called their
leaves, with a circinnate vernation like the ferns. I he
supposed leaves are of a coriaceous texture, and either
consist of three or more wedge-shaped divisions, and are
conduplicate when young; or they are entirely abortive,
leaving nothing but the petiole, as in Pilulana. ihose,
again, which float have the leaves closely imbricated and
sessile, and resemble the Hepatica, and appear to be in¬
volute, or folded together in vernation.
4. Lycopodiacece are seemingly intermediate between
the ferns and mosses with which they were formerly con¬
founded. They have either creeping stems or a cormus,
with erect branches, which are either round or angled, and
provided with leaves. The leaves vary from setaceous
to ovate, are acute, undivided (with only one exception^,
smooth, and of a thick texture, resembling often in a
slight degree those of the pine tribe. In several, how¬
ever, they are plain and foliaceous; sometimes they aie
closely imbricated round the stem, or they appear dis¬
tichous, with generally two other rows of smaller o^es>
that are appressed, and may be taken for stipules. T ley
have either a middle nerve or none at all. In one genus,
the leaves are reduced to mere scattered teeth, and in
another they are all radical, long, subulate, channelled
above, and convex below. Their vernation is straight.
They are usually found on mossy ground, sometimes on
trees, rarely in or under water.
Eductulosce.
These are entirely composed of cellular tissue, so that
here we find as much uniformity in their internal struc¬
ture as diversity in the other classes of vegetables ; but,
by a strange compensation, their external forms are even
more varied than in the higher organised plants.
The entire mass of these vegetables appears to be com¬
posed of one substance, which takes different shapes, des¬
tined to fill different functions, without actually consti¬
tuting distinct organs. Persoon, in speaking of the mush¬
room, has named the whole portion that does not serve
for the reproduction of the species a peridium ; Acharius
has called it a thallus in the lichens ; and Lamaroux, frons
or frond in the algae. De Candolle, again, is disposed to
apply the term thallus generically to all the nutritive or¬
gans combined in the true cellular plants, at least to those
of the algae, fungi, lichens, and hepaticae ; and it would be
well if botanists, who have made these tribes their study,
had agreed to drop entirely the terms leaves, stem, or
roots, which have no real affinity with those of vascular
plants, and can be only applied metaphorically. But as
they are generally retained in some of these orders, we
will continue also to employ them.
5. The Musci or mosses have most affinity with the
ductulosae, and approach very closely indeed to some of
the lycopodiaceae. What are called their roots consist of
slender fibres of a brownish colour, more or less branched
and jointed, which spring either from the base of the stem,
as in Phascum, or along it, as in several species of Bryum,
in which great part of the stem is sometimes covered with
these radicular fibres. The stem is cylindrical, but is said
to be compressed, plane, or tetragonal, according to the
disposition of the leaves. It is often very short and sim¬
ple, especially when the plant is annual, but is sometimes
branched, either by pushing out roots near the base, or by
emitting lateral or terminal branches, each of which de¬
notes usually a year’s growth, and they are thus called by
Hedwig innovations. The leaves arise from the stems,
being sometimes collected together at the base, sometimes
at the apex, and sometimes alternate or in a spiral: they Gfasology.
are sessile, and embrace the stem at their base ; and they
have the appearance of oval or elongated scales, rarely
obtuse, generally pointed or acuminated, and the point is
not unfrequently prolonged into a long hair, or twisted like
a cifrhus or tendril. Only one instance is yet known where
the hair-like point is branched. They are usually entire,
but in Diphyscium and Buxhaumia they are lacmiated.
Some leaves are deprived of all appearance of a nerve,
and are entirely formed of a homogeneous cellular tissue ;
others present in the middle a nerve variable in length;
others again two nerves ; and these nerves are formed of
cells, which by their union imitate the nerves of vascular
leaves. The margin is either entire, crenated, toothed, or
serrated; and the serratures are sometimes so fine as to
cause it to be called ciliated; but these appearances are
not occasioned, as in vascular plants, by (as it were) an
incision into the leaf, but arise from a mere contraction of
the marginal cellules, more or less evident in. the same
species, and even specimen, in different states of its growth.
The leaves, as we have said, embrace the stem, but some¬
times in so very oblique a manner as to form two opposite
vertical rows, and thus appear distichous, as in Schistos-
tega pennata. But this must not be confounded with the
structure in that section of Dicranum called Fissidens, in
which the leaf is slightly folded, and the upper portion
on each side of the nerve soldered closely together, while
the nerve itself is prolonged at the back into an append¬
age equal to the half of the leaf. Some botanists seem
inclined to suppose that these leaves, resembling those of
an Iris, may be formed by the partial soldering of two
closely approximated and obliquely placed leaves; blit
we are borne out in our view by an examination of the
young leaves, either at the very base of the stems, or at
the perichaetium, in which they are as in other mosses, the
nerve not being yet provided with its appendage.1
6. The Hepaticce resemble much the mosses, and most Hepatic*,
of all the genus Jungermannia. But here there is no trace
of nerves; and at the base of the leaves are.often to be
found leafy appendages or accessory leaves, falsely called
stipules, sometimes united by the side to the leaf, and.
sometimes distinct from it. There are some species of
this genus without these appendages, having the leaves
vertical, scarcely at all embracing the stem, but having
their margins prolonged down its side, so that the stem
resembles a petiole furnished with distichous segmepts.
When these segments are united by the edges on each
side, we have a foliaceous limb, and such species are
calledyroftffose, the midrib corresponding to what is term¬
ed the stem in the others. Sometimes this midrib is ob¬
scure, as in Jung.epiphyUa ; in Jung, pinguis it cannot be
traced, so that we may pass to the genera Anthoceras,
Marchantia, and Riccia, in which we see only a nerveless
foliaceous disc, representing both stem and leaves; push¬
ing out from below, the roots ; and from above, the organs
of fructification. From the supposed existence of a stem
and leaves, both musci and hepaticae are said to have an
axis.
7. The Algce are principally found in water, and con-Alga?-
sist of expansions, sometimes filiform, sometimes folia¬
ceous, or a mixture of these. Their perfect homogeneous¬
ness has been acknowledged by all who have studied
them, and thus the appellations of frond or thallus has
been given to the whole mass of the plant. They present
different degrees of consistence; some being coriaceous
and of an olive colour, others cartilaginous and of a rose
colour; some membranaceous, and others gelatinous. The
1 Arnott, Now. Disp. dcs Mousses, p. 27-
ANY.
B O T
i ossology. large species, in particular, so subject to be tossed about
by the violent motion of the waves of the sea, are fur¬
nished with a small flat base called a callous disc, by which
they are fixed to the rocks; and others are provided for
the same purpose with short, blunt, and often thick, root¬
like processes. The foliaceous part of the algae is often
traversed with veins similar in appearance to the nerves
in true leaves; but these are merely composed of elon¬
gated cellular tissue ; while other species are entirely des¬
titute of them. The cells of this tribe are variously ap¬
proximated in the same plant; and hence we have fre¬
quently a sort of bark, distinct as it were from the central
portion: sometimes they are arranged so that one cell
constitutes the whole thickness of the frond, which thus
becomes very thin and membranous; in other cases they
are placed end to end, forming threads, as in the Conferva.
These threads are moreover usually furnished with disse¬
piments or partitions at nearly equal distances, bearing a
pretty constant proportion to the diameter of the thread.
The genus Hydrodictyon presents a remarkable structure :
the frond is composed of numerous pentagons, each of the
five sides of which are confervoid threads, that in matu¬
rity separate from each other, and give rise to plants si¬
milar to that of which they formed a part. Chara is sup¬
posed to have an axis, the other algae none; but some
species of the fuci and confervae tribes present as much
an axis as the other.
I [ hens. 8. Among the Lichens the variety of form is still greater.
Some present plane foliaceous expansions, as in the he-
paticae; others are of a substance quite gelatinous, as in
some Alga. Some have cylindrical stems, more or less
branched, of which several are provided with small, plane,
leaf-like processes ; in other species all these different
forms are reduced to so small dimensions that the whole
thallus, or nutritive organs of the plant, consists of a
mere crust, composed either of foliaceous scales, of small
stems compactly placed together, or of a granular or pul¬
verulent matter. The surface presents also much vari¬
ation : sometimes it is quite smooth; sometimes provided
with hairs or ciliae of different kinds; and sometimes it
pushes out fibres, which serve to fix the plant. In many
species the thallus, without the intervention of any fibres
or roots, is so cemented to the rock or tree on which it
grows, that it cannot be detached. In the flat species the
two surfaces are very dissimilar, both in colour and struc¬
ture. But lichens even appear to consist of two distinct
layers of tissue. Of these the interior, which Eschweiller
has termed the living or medullary portion of the thallus,
is imperfectly cellular or filamentous; while the other, the
cortical or exterior, seems to be merely formed of the dead
cellules of the former, and to serve as a protection to it.
* 9. The Fungi present cells, sometimes round and some¬
times elongated, in the form' of hollow threads, which are
either placed closely together or irregularly separated.
Their consistence is variable, being soft or hard, fibrous
or gelatinous, fleshy or coriaceous. They never grow in
water. Their colours are variable, often vivid, but never
truly green. There is scarcely anything that can be term¬
ed a frond or thallus ; but instead of it there is often a
peridium or sporangium, that covers the fructiferous or¬
gans ; indeed, the whole plant may be viewed generally as
a mass of reproductive matter. In the agarics and other
allied genera there is a stipes, metaphorically called a stem,
which arises from a membranous integument, termed a
volva or wrapper, that in the young state envelopes thje
whole. The upper horizontal part of these plants is called
a cap or pikus, which is provided on its under side with
thin radiating expansions, termed gills or lamella, or with
ne tubes. Some have a delicate fringe or veil {velum),
that connects the margin of the pileus at a certain age
with the stem : in a few this veil has the appearance of a Glossology,
ring round the stipes, and is then called an annulus.
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS.
We now come to the reproductive organs, or those or¬
gans essential to the reproduction of the plant; and under
this denomination we comprehend all those parts that are
situated beyond the leaves. Linmeus first made the ob¬
servation, that the parts of a flower were metamorphosed
leaves ; and this will appear very evident from considering
the facility with which any one part changes into another.
Thus, leaves gradually pass into bracteas, and the latter have
often so much the appearance of true leaves as to be only
distinguished from them by their position. Between brac-
teae and bracteolae there is scarcely a limit; and either of
these, when immediately under the flower, is often liable
to be confounded with the calyx, or supplies the place of
a calyx. Again, between a calyx and corolla there is the
closest resemblance; so much so, that when one only was
present, it has been a matter of dispute by what name it
ouglit then to be described ;—Jussieu and his followers
calling it uniformly by that of calyx, but Linnaeus pro¬
nouncing it a calyx only if green, and a corolla if colour¬
ed ; whilst more modern botanists, to avoid a discussion
attended with little good, have adopted instead of it the
ambiguous term perianth. But horticulture shows this
affinity in a still more striking degree ; many of the prim¬
rose tribe in cultivation having the calyx changed into a
corolla placed under the true corolla, and in every respect
similar to it. In a double flower, all are aware, the sta¬
mina change into petals ; and in the water-lily {Nymphaa)
it is no easy matter to draw the respective lines of demar¬
cation between stamens, corolla, and calyx. It is more
difficult to admit at first the connection between the fruit
and the others, instances of the metamorphosis being more
rare. Thus, in halt double flowers, the fruit, or parts of
the fruit, or carpella as they are called, remain often un¬
changed, as in the peony; but in many truly double flow¬
ers, as among the pinks and carnations, every portion of
the fruit is actually transformed into petals. On the other
hand, in Magnolia fuscata, the stamens actually change
into carpels; and we have specimens before us, exhibiting
the same change in the Salix Croweana. In some spe¬
cies of Ononis, and the other genera of leguminous plants,
in which there is usually one perfect carpel, we have seen
it transformed into a leafy process, demonstrating that the
carpel is nothing but a folded leaf.
The parts belonging to the flower, though thus prima¬
rily alike, yet differ much afterwards, particularly in their
physiology. The more foliaceous parts, as the bracteae,
calyx, and corolla, serve for the nutriment or protection
of the others, which are more immediately called the sexual
organs. In several parts of the flower we may distin¬
guish the portions of the leaves of which they are com¬
posed, so as to detect more or less clearly the petiole and
the lamina. Thus, in a calyx the sepals are usually form¬
ed by dilated petioles, although in the roses the lamina
also makes its appearance. Of the corollas, the petals re¬
present in general a dilated petiole ; but sometimes an un¬
guis or claw may be noticed, as well as a limb, conform¬
able to the petiole and lamina of a leaf. Among stamina,
the filament is the petiole, while the anther is produced by
each side of the lamina being rolled inwards, and form¬
ing two loculi or bags. The carpels are formed by the
folding of the lamina of a leaf, the ovules arising from the
extremities of the lateral nerves. Here the petiole is of¬
ten wanting, though in several genera of Leguminosa, in
the caper plants, and others, it is very distinct.
From what we have now said, it may be laid down as an
40
BOTANY.
Glossology, axiom, that a flower is an assemblage of several whorls of
foliaceous origin, arranged above or within each other, so
PI. CXII. closely that the internodia, or distance between each senes,
is not distinguishable. But this will be better understood
when we come to the definition of the particular paits.
Inflorescence.
Inflorescence is the ramification of that part of a plant
intended for its reproduction; or, in other words, it is the
mode in which the flowers of a plant are distributed. I he
organs peculiar to it are peduncles, pedicels, bracteai, and
bracteolee or the accessory envelopes to the flowers.
As leaves are lateral, so must also be the parts ot the
flower, hence we might naturally expect the-floral stem
or branch to be prolonged beyond it; and this indeed
often happens in monstrosities, as in some roses and pear
trees; but otherwise the flower absorbs all the nutument
from the branch destined to that purpose. Thus we may
state as a general law, that a flower is terminal on the
little branch that supports it; and this branch is termed a
peduncle or pedicel. The pedicel with the flower being
thus precisely similar to a branch and its leaves, the
flower-bud which gives rise to such must be analogous to
leaf-buds ; and the great difference between them is, that
the latter elongate indefinitely in the form of branches,
while the former do not elongate beyond the flower.
Flower-buds always, therefore, like leaf-buds, are termi¬
nal, or arise from the axils of leaves, which leaves are
called bractece or floral leaves; and those leaves which ap¬
pear on the pedicel, between the bracteae and calyx, are
called bracteolce. These are often confounded, but are never¬
theless essentially distinct; the former belonging more to
the stem, the latter to the flower-bud. Bracteas and
bracteolae are often beautifully coloured, the more so,
usually, the nearer they are to the flower. When a single
one is rolled together, highly developed and coloured, and
is placed at the base of the form of inflorescence called a
spadix (fig. 53, &), it is named a spatha (fig. 53, a) ; and the
upper ones, arising among the flowers themselves, are term¬
ed spathellce. W’hen several are verticillate, or densely
imbricated around the base of the form of inflorescence
called an umbel or capitulum, they are termed an involu-
crum ; and those at the base of each partial umbel are
called involucella. In the grasses there are usually two at
the base of the spikelets, which receive the name of glumes;
while the small ones surrounding each floret in the spikelet,
called glumellce or palece, may be viewed as involucella.
Small imbricated bracteas are often called scales, as in the
thistle and artichoke. On dissecting the capitulum of
flowers of many of the Compositce, small colourless brac-
tese may be perceived at the base of the florets;—these
have received the name of palece, but they appear to be a
mere continuation or modification of the scales of the
involucrum.
With regard to the axis of inflorescence and its brac¬
teae, sometimes the axis itself, but more usually the
branch which springs from it, is termed a peduncle.
These peduncles often bear bracteae, from the axils of
which arise secondary peduncles. The same may again
happen, and the ultimate support to the flower is then
termed a pedicel. A pedicel may be clothed with brac-
teolee; but these have no flower-buds in their axils, and
therefore each can only, strictly speaking, bear but one
flower. In the honeysuckles there appear to be two
flowers and two fruits to each stalk, but this is caused by
the combination or union of the two pedicels that termi¬
nate the axis. When two or more pedicels spring near
to each other from the axis of inflorescence, the axis is
termed a rachis. Those axes that spring out of the earth,
and bear no true leaves, are denominated scapes. Pe¬
duncles are usually cylindrical or slightly compressed; m Glossology
Xylophyllum it is said to be flat or fohaceous, but this
appearance originates rather from the expansion of the
axis or rachis than of the peduncle itself. In the case of
an umbel, the axis tends to dilate at the apex, and this
dilatation seems to depend on two causes: it is either in
proportion to the number of flowers that ought to be on
the summit, or it becomes the larger the more sessile the
flowers are on the horizontal expansion. I hat kind of
umbel found in thistles and other compound flowers is
a remarkable illustration of this : the expansion on which
the flowers are situated here bears the name of recepta¬
cle ; some few botanists calling it also, in particular cases
phoranth or clinanth. T hese receptacles are sometimes
quite flat, sometimes conical or cylindrical, and some¬
times concave; and in the fig the margins of the recep¬
tacle are so approximated as to represent a bag, on the
interior surface of which all the flowers are seated. By
many botanists the axis of inflorescence is termed the
peduncle, and the peduncles pedicels. But it is impos¬
sible here to lay down any certain rules by which these
may be understood, the same author at different times
using the same terms with a different meaning.
The inflorescence of plants is very various, and depends
entirely on the power of developing the flower-buds in
the axils of the bracteas. I wo points are, however, com¬
mon to all the forms: all must be axillary, or a modifica¬
tion of that, and have the flowers terminal on the pedun¬
cles or pedicels. They may be reduced to two classes;
simple, when it is formed by the development of one bud
and one branch; or compound, when it is formed by the
development of several buds or branches.
Simple inflorescence.—When a flower-bud gives rise to
only one flower, terminal on its peduncle, and the axis of
the plant does not elongate beyond the bud, the flower is
commonly called terminal and solitary. When, however,
the axis continues to elongate, and the bractea retains the
form and size of a leaf, the flower is called axillary and
solitary. But if the buds, instead of giving rise to one
terminal flower, have the axis elongated, bearing several
flowers, and each flower on a peduncle, a raceme is pio-
duced; and when each flower is sessile, or placed in the
axil of the bracteae, without a peduncle, a sjnke is formed.
The difference between these two is very slight, or, more
properly speaking, a spike is a mere conventional term, to
imply those cases where the peduncle is scarcely percep¬
tible ; and, by the aid of horticulture, the one is frequently
made to pass into the other. When the bracteas are
nearly equal in size and closely imbricated, and the spike
articulated with the stem, it is termed an amentum or cat¬
kin : but this articulation is often not to be detected ;
thus, in some willows, the male catkins fall off, while the
female are permanent. The real spikes of the grasses
are commonly termed spikelets or locustee ; and when we
there speak of the flowers being in spikes or panicles, we
actually mean that the spikelets are arranged in spikes or
panicles. The spadix (fig. 53, 6) is a sort of spike, in which
the flowers are closely packed together upon a succulent
axis, which is enveloped in a coloured convoluted bractea
or spatha : the spadix is usually simple, but in some
palms it is branched. A raceme differs, as we have said,
from a spike by having the pedicels that issue from the
bracteas more elongated. When a raceme has its pedun¬
cles spreading, elongated, and bearing bracteae, and pedi¬
cels again arising from these bracteae, a panicle is formed.
Usually in these two the lower peduncles are only slight¬
ly longer than the others; but when they are very long,
and the upper'ones very short, it is commonly termed a
corymb. But this appellation was given before the sub¬
ject of inflorescence was properly studied, and with De
BOTANY.
ilij Glossology. Candolle we feel inclined to adopt here the terms corym-
\ I'TT- vTr' boSe raceme' or corymbose panicle. When the axis of a
i c ' raceme is so very short that all the peduncles issue from
one point at its apex, we have a simple umbel; and when
the same happens to a panicle and to its branches, a com¬
pound umbel is formed. In these frequently the bracteas
fall off early, or are abortive. A capitulum may be either
a spike, raceme, or umbel, in which all the flowers are
placed together in a globular head. Capitula also differ
from each other by the form of the axis, many kinds of
which may be seen among the Compositce. Now, as all
these different kinds of inflorescence spring from a solitary
flower-bud, and as a flower-bud is quite analogous to a
leaf-bud, and as in a leaf-bud the outer or lower part is
first developed;—so in a spike, a raceme, a panicle, an um¬
bel, or a capitulum, the lower flowers are first expanded,
and this mode of flowering or order of expansion is called
centripetal.
Compound infloresce?ice, or when the inflorescence is the
result of the expansion of several buds or branches.—The
most perfect instance of this is a true corymbus. Here the
axis of the plant assumes the appearance of an axis of in-
floi escence, developing flower-buds which follow the cen¬
tripetal order of expansion; but as it is a continuation of
the axis of the branch, and as we have already observed
that those leaf-buds nearest to the summit are first de¬
veloped, so, in a compound inflorescence, the flower-buds
towards the extremity of the axis are first evolved, and
the lower ones the last. In a corymbus, then, each parti¬
cular branch follows the centripetal law, while the whole
mass of inflorescence proceeds in an inverted order. Al¬
though we have only referred to the corymb generally as
a mode of inflorescence, individually it resembles a raceme,
of which the lower flowers have long, and the upper ones
short pedicels. The Achillea millefolium will well illus-
tiate the corymb; each of what is commonly called the
flowers of such a plant being a capitulum. Now, let us
suppose that the capitulum of such an inflorescence is by
some means reduced to a solitary floret,—and approxima¬
tions to this are to be observed in many Compositce,—we
shall then have a cyme, in which the solitary central flower
is first developed, and, lastly, the lower ones. This kind
of expansion is called the centrifugal. Viewing, with De
Candolle and Roeper, the terminal bud by which a branch
is prolonged, as similar in all respects to a true leaf-bud,
and supposing in the same way the existence of a termi¬
nal flower-bud, this kind of inflorescence has received the
name of terminal or dfinite, because the flower bein0- sup¬
posed to occupy the extremity of the branch, no more
can be formed beyond it; while the centripetal inflores¬
cence has been termed indefinite or axillary, because the
axis being never terminated by a flower-bud, it may be
elongated until there be no more juices left for the further
evelopment of the flower-buds. The term cyme is usu¬
ally applied to those cases in which the primary branches
issue from the same point, while the smaller branches are
unequal, starting from different points, but elevating the
flowers so that they may be nearly all in one horizontal
plane, as in the elder or dogwood. But this is not always
tne case : the central portion may be elongated ; and then,
w ien the peduncles and pedicels are relatively opposite to
each other, as in Erythema, we have what are called di¬
chotomous cymes. A fasciculus, on the other hand, is a
contracted cyme, in which the lateral branches are very
short, and the flowers are clustered together, as in many
the pink tribe. A glomerulus is when the cyme is so
it nwCKed’ and 4 ne ramification is so little apparent, that
Thic rT eei? ,usu.a y con^ounded with a true capitulum.
in .nm!P^Sltl0n 18 of rare occurrence, but is to be observed
rhe laSt forra of inflorescence we
41
shall notice is a thyrsus; and this may be conceived to be Glossology
composed of cymes, arising from the axils of the leaves of   -v-C'
a branch as it is successively developed. Thus the sage, Tl- CXII.
the thyme, and the labiate plants, exhibit a thyrsus. The
stem or branch is prolonged indefinitely, of which the low¬
er flowers first make their appearance; but the inflores¬
cence that proceeds from the axil of each leaf is a true
cyme, in which the terminal flowers are first expanded.
If we be correct in what we have stated, the centrifugal
mode of expansion is a reduced form of the centripetal,
combined with the mode of development of branches.
It ought, therefore, to be scarcely distinguished from the
other; and cases do occur only referable by analogy.
Koepei and De Candolle, who admit the existence of ter-
minal flower-buds, observe that the terminal mode has
two opposite bracteae, while the axillary has but one ; and
they apply this test with great ingenuity to the case of a
solitary peduncle and flowers, in order that it may be re-
ferred to one or the other of the two classes.
Torus.
The torus, or the proper receptacle of the flowers, is an
expansion of the pedicel, from which spring the petals and
stamina, and seems to be formed by an abortion or par¬
tial development of one or both of these parts. Although,
therefore, not properly by itself an organ, it is of great
importance in the structure of flowers-; for not only do the
stamens and petals arise from it in the state in which they
usually appear to us, but even when these are transform¬
ed into nectariferous glands, or into those doubtful bodies
sometimes confounded with stamens and sometimes with
petals. These appearances may therefore be met with
either outside of the petals, or inside of the stamina, or
between these. Usually, however, the torus is inconspi¬
cuous, and is reduced to a narrow circular space between
the calyx and the pistil. When this zone is under the
ovary the petals and stamens are said to be hypogy-
nous, and the plants are termed thalamijlorce. But fre¬
quently the external part of the torus extends itself along
the bottom or the interior of the calyx, and the stamina
and petals are said to be perigynous, and the plants are
called calyciflorce. When the inner portion of the torus
expands along the pistil in a greater or less degree, the
stamens and petals then seem to arise from the pistil,
and are denominated epigynous. But there is still ano¬
ther case, when the torus extends both along the calyx
and the pistil at the same time; and a necessary conse-
quenqe of this is, that the tube of the calyx adheres to
the pistil. The petals and stamens thus spring from a
zone round the apex of the fruit, and between it and the
calyx, and seem to be seated on the fruit itself; an ap¬
pearance which has induced botanists to apply to it also
the term epigynous. But if these two kinds of epigynous
insertion were to be considered as but one, so ought in
the same way what is called perigynous to be viewed as
a modification of the hypogynous; for in the perigynous
the torus, though connected with the calyx, was distinct
rom the fruit, and as much under it as in the true hypo¬
gynous ; and, strictly speaking, both the perigynous and
second kind of hypogynous may be regarded as combina¬
tions of the other two. Most modern botanists have,
however, considerably altered the signification of some of
these terms, especially when speaking of the insertion of
the stamens. According to them, when the stamens con¬
tract no adhesion with either the calyx or the pistil, they
are hypogynous ; when they do arise from the calyx, but
are free from the pistil, they are said to be perigynous,
and such does not differ from the view we have taken
above; but when the stamens contract an union with
both the surface of the calyx and the pistil, they are
42
BOTANY.
Glossology, termed epigynotis, while the true epigynous insertion, or
' ^ where the stamina are united to the style, but free from
PI. CXII. the caiyX) receives the name of gynandrous. W e think it
right to state here, that it is in the altered sense that epi¬
gynous is now usually adopted in systematic works. When
the torus is conspicuous, and of a fleshy nature, it is often
known by the name of disc. To those bodies between
the calyx and pistil, unlike either the stamens or petals, ot
the nature of which Linnmus was uncertain, he gave the
general name of nectary.
Floral Envelopes.
These immediately surround the sexual organs, and are
formed of one or more whorls of variously modified leaves.
When there are two whorls, the plants are termed dichlamy-
dece, and the outer is called a calyx, the interior a corolla.
Calyx.
The calyx is usually of a green colour, and foliaceous;
each segment is termed a sepal; those like leaves are
sometimes articulated at their base, when they are either
quite distinct from each other, or cohere m the form of a
lid fas in Eschscholzia) during the flowering of the plant.
But they are often continuous with the peduncle, and conse¬
quently persistent. In such cases they are either distinct,
or are united together by their margins. When the
sepals are distinct, the calyx is said to be hi-, tn-, 01 poly-
sepalous, according as there are two, three, or many leaves ;
and when soldered, it is gamosepalous, or, by the strict
followers of the Linnsean nomenclature, monophyUous;
when only slightly united at the base, it is partite (bi-, tn-,
quadripartitus, &c.); when united to the middle, it is
termed divided (bi-, trifidus, &c.); and when soldered till
near the apex, it is called toothed (bi-, tndentatus, &c.). it
no teeth be perceptible, it is then entire; and in that case
the number of parts must be determined analogically, or by
other means. The cohering portion is termed the tube.
Some sepals in the same calyx may cohere together in a
greater degree than the others, and this gives rise to a
bilabiate calyx. In a few genera with articulated sepals,
the divisions cohere together, but separate from the tube
in the form of a lid or operculum. Sometimes the calyx
is reduced to a mere ring round the base of the corolla.
In the Valerians this ring is afterwards developed into a
pappus, formed of numerous long and fine radiating seg¬
ments. In many Composite the margin of the calyx also
constitutes a pappus, appearing either in the form of a
ring, or bristles, or scales, or rough hairs (pilosus), or
feathery hairs (plumosus). The calyx may be free from,
or unattached to, the fruit; or the tube may be close y
incorporated with it, or adherent (calyx adluerensj.
Corolla.
The corolla is for the most part more or less coloured;
and it exists in the greater part of the Exogenous plants.
Sometimes it is very small, and reduced to the appearance
of mere scales, and even in some genera is quite abortive;
and when this happens, we must proceed with the greatest
caution, and depend much on analogy, so as not to con¬
found those groups of plants in which it ought to be pre¬
sent with those furnished with a perianth, in which a true
corolla is always supposed to be absent. The divisions of
the corolla are called petals. They are almost always ar¬
ticulated at the base, and consequently fall off; and when
this happens at a very early stage, they are said to be cadu¬
cous. When the petals have no articulation, as in Campa¬
nula, they either remain for a long time, or are persistent;
or are marcescent, when they wither away without falling
off. When the petals are quite distinct from each other,
the corolla \%polypetalous; or, when more or less united by
their margins from the base upwards, monopetalous, an in-Glossology,
correct term, which ought to be exchanged fov gamopelu- W-J
lous • and then it may be partite, divided, toothed, or entire,
in the same way as in the calyx. But petals may also unite
in their upper parts, though distinct below. I he vine, and
the keel (carina) of a peablossom, or other papilionaceous
flowers, exhibit this structure. When the lower part
of a petal, as the petiole of leaves, is narrow, and consists
of the union of all the vessels that expand and ramify in
the upper portion, the contracted part is the claw or un¬
guis; the dilated, the limb or lamina. If the ungues be
loner! straight, and closely approached to each other, even
though distinct, a kind of tube is formed; but, propel y
speaking, it is only a tube when the claws are united. 1 he
orifice of the tube is termed the throat or faux ; and this
may be naked (nuda), or furnished with little scales or ap¬
pendages, called sometimes a crown. The shape of the
corolla is frequently of importance in distinguishing natura
groups of plants. When all the petals are equal, it is said •
to be regular : when a monopetalous regular corolla has no
tube, but swells out gradually from the base to the sum¬
mit, it is bell-shaped or campanulate (fig. 54) ; and urceolate
if it is swollen at the base, and contracted at the top :
when there is a tube, and when it is narrow below, but
dilates upwards, so that the limb is campanulate, the co¬
rolla is infundibuliform, or funnel-shaped (fig. 5o): it is
rotate (fig. 56) or wheel-shaped if the tube be very short,
and the limb spreading and nearly plain; hypocratenform,
(fig. 57) when the tube is long, narrow, and cylindrical,
and the limb spreading like a star ; and tubular, when it is
almost entirely composed of a narrow elongated tube,
slightly dilated upwards ; but this may be viewed as a very
slender state of the infundibuliform. When the petals
are unequal in size, or cohere unequally, the corolla is irre¬
gular ; and if such petals unite, we shall have an irregular
monopetalous corolla, which is said to be labiate or bilabiate
(fig. 58) when the tube is more or less elongated, the
throat open and dilated, the limb divided transversely into
two parts or lips (labia'), the one superior, the other m e-
rior, which lips are subject to various modifications, one
of the most curious being wdiere the upper lip is so slight¬
ly developed as to appear to be absent, as in Teucnum.
A personate (fig. 59, 60) or mask-like corolla is when the
tube is more or less elongated, the throat very dilated, but
closed up by the approximation of the limb, which has two
unequal lips, as in the snapdragon; but it is often very
difficult to distinguish between personate and labiate
flowers. When the upper part of the tube of the corolla is
split down on one side, and becomes flat, it is what is called
ligulate (fig. 61), as in the hawkweeds, or exterior flowers
of the daisy. A regular polypetalous corolla is said to be
rosaceous (Plate CXIII. fig. 62) when composed of three,
four, or five, rarely more petals (fig. 62, «)> °1 which t ie
claw is very short, and the lamina diverging from each
other, as in the rose. When there are five petals, t ic
ungues of which are elongated, forming a false tube, and
concealed within the calyx, the corolla is carophyllate,
as in the pinks ; and when there are only four petals, wit i
long straight claws (fig. 63, a), and patent lamina, Rim¬
ing as it were a cross, the corolla is cruciform (fig. 63), as
in the wallflower ; but it is not essential to this last, that
the petals be perfectly alike and equal to each othei.
Of irregular polypetalous corollas, the only one that has
received any particular designation is the papilionaceous
(fig. 64). Here there are five petals; the upper one is
usually larger than the others, and covers them befoie
the flowers expand, and is called the vexillum or standard
(fig. 64, a), from its resemblance to a flag ; the two lateral
ones, like the wings of a butterfly, are the alee or wings
(fig. 64, b); and the two lower ones, usually more or less
BOTANY.
Glossology, united together by their lower margins, representing the
P keel of a ship, have been called the keel or carina (fig. 64,
Pl.CXIII.c)# Such a corolla belongs only to the Leguminosce. In
the case of an irregular corolla, whether monopetalous or
polypetalous, one of the petals is sometimes provided
with a tubular projection, when it is said to be spurred
{corolla calcarata, fig. 60).
Perianth.
The perianth, called also perigonium, as we have already
stated, is that ambiguous form of envelope which partakes
somewhat of the appearance of a calyx, somewhat of a
corolla. The Exogenous plants which possess this are
called monochlamydece ; and it exists in all the Endogente.
One must not confound with these the plants in which
the calyx and corolla is either deciduous or abortive. The
parts of a perianth are strictly termed tepals. A corolla
being never incorporated with the fruit, as many perianths
are, there is a presumption that the latter are more of the
nature of a calyx ; and an anatomical examination of their
external surface confirms this supposition. The internal
and often coloured surface, however, is dilferent, and is
probably either the torus, or a petaloid expansion of the
torus. Not only are the petals often absent, but even in
some cases there is scarcely a rudiment of a perigonium,
as in the genus Euphorbia.
Estivation.
As any law by which sepals and petals are disposed
must obviously be very intimately connected with their
estivation, or primitive arrangement in the flower-bud, so
the estivation, or prccfloration as it is sometimes called,
though long neglected, has of late years been made to
bear an important part in the classification of plants. The
principal modifications are the ra/War estivation (fig. 65),
when the parts of an envelope are either plane or slightly
convex, and merely touch one another by their margins,
without the one covering any part of the contiguous one.
When the parts are each closely folded together, and unite
one to another by their margins into a monopetalous co¬
rolla, as in campanula, it is sometimes said to be plicate
(fig. 66) ; but this is only a modification of the valvular.
When they are slightly concave, and a margin of one
slightly covering the margin of another, while its other
margin is usually in its turn covered, the estivation is im¬
bricated (fig. 67, a) ; but ot this there are several variations.
When an imbricated estivation is spirally twisted, which
seldom happens, except when the parts are more or less
respectively soldered together, it receives the name of ^'s^-
ed (fig. 67, b) or contorted {(cstivatio torsiva, or contortd). In
some plants the petals are folded irregularly, or crumpled,
when their estivation is said to be corrugated (cestivatio cor-
rugativd), as in the poppy; but this last ought rather to
be considered as merely arising from an extraordinary de¬
velopment of the petals. Thus the petals of the Cistus,
independent of being corrugated, are also twisted. When
there are more than one series of parts of the same en¬
velope, as in the water-lily, where there are several rows
of petals, these alternate with those of the adjoining rows ;
each row or series may have its own mode of estivation,
while, as a whole, it is termed alternative (cestivatio alter-
nativa); in the spider-wort ( Tradescantia) the outer row
ot the perigonium has a valvular, and the inner a corru¬
gated and imbricated estivation. Again, when the same
envelope may have two kinds, it will be readily allowed
that the calyx may have one and the corolla another. Thus,
in the mallow tribe, the calyx is valvular and the corolla
msted; m the flax and gum-cistus, both parts are twist-
Mlat of the cdyx 3 t'ViStCd in “ °Pp0site direCt!on “
43
Sexual Organs. Glossology.
Many of the ancient philosophers were well aware that PhcxiH.
there was a difference of sexes in plants as well as in ani¬
mals ; and Theophrastus even states, that the fruit of the
female palm will not germinate, unless the pollen of the
male be shaken over the spatha of the female when both
of them are in flower; but it was not till the time of Grew
that any thing certain was understood on the subject. Pie
was the first who regarded the stamens as the male, and the
pistilla as the female organs. Linnaeus afterwards improved
on Grew s ideas, and has adduced so many proofs from
theory, and, what is of greater importance, from experi¬
ments of a tedious and delicate nature, that none now can
experience the smallest doubt. An account of his argu¬
ments and experiments, and others of a late date, with the
mode in which fecundation is supposed to be accomplish¬
ed, forms one of the most interesting parts of vegetable
physiology.
Stamens or Male Organs.
Each male organ is a stamen ; but the whole taken col¬
lectively forms the androcccum, a term that bears the same
relation to stamens as a corolla does to petals. These are
situated between the petals and pistilla. Although a
calyx and corolla be usually present in flowers, yet we
have seen that they are not essentially necessary; but no
plant can produce seed without the assistance of stamens
and. pistils, or their modifications. When stamens and
pistils occur in the same flower, it is termed perfect or
hermaphrodite ; but, as sometimes happens by abortion or
other causes, the stamens appear in one blossom and the
pistilla in another. Again, according as these are on one
or on different individuals, the flowers are called monoecious
or dioecious ; and, generally speaking, the flowers are im¬
perfect or diclinous (f ores diclines).
I he number of stamens is variable, five or ten being
the usual number among the Exogenae, and three or six
among the Endogenae; but, on the one hand, these are
subject to abortions, and on the other to multiplication.
W hen the last takes place, it is by the addition of one or
more rows similar to the first; so that although apparently
indeterminate, they are actually a certain multiple of the
primitive number.
A stamen consists of a filament (fig. 68, d) and an an- Filament.
ther (fig. 68, b). I he former is the body, which arises from
the torus, and is sometimes cylindrical, or awl-shaped,
or prismatical, and is even at times expanded, as if into a
scale or petal. It is either articulated or contiguous with
the torus. Part of it is often united with the petal, parti¬
cularly when the petals themselves cohere; and the sta¬
men is then called epipetalous. Its length is generally pro¬
portioned to the style, but it is sometimes wholly wanting,
piesenting a sessile anther. In the same flower the fila¬
ments are generally equal in length, and such are called
isostemones, but in many they are unequal. In Geranium
and Oxalis, where there are ten stamens, five are larger
than the other five, and alternate with them. When there
are six stamens, of which four are larger than the other
two, as in the cabbage, mustard, and the other Cruciferoe,
they are called tetradynamous ; and where there are four,
of which two are longer than the other two, they are di-
dymous, but here there is usually the rudiment of a fifth
stamen, dissimilar from all the others. The direction of
the filaments is usually straight, but they are in some plants
bent inwards, in others outwards. In Parietaria (the
pellitory of the wall) they are reflexed; for here the fila¬
ment is bent backwards in such a way that the upper half
lies along the lower, and between it and the perigonium.
W hen the filament is too slender and weak to support the
44
Glossology, weight of the anther, and hangs down, it is pendent; when
it bends towards the lower part of the flower, it is decum-
Pl. CXIII. bent or declinate ; and when to the upper part, ascendent.
The filaments are usually/ree, or isolated from each other;
but they are sometimes united more or less upwards from
their base into a column or androphore. When there is
one androphore or bundle of filaments, the stamens aie
monadelphous ; when two androphores, diadelphous ; and
when several androphores, polyadelphous.
Anther. The anther is a kind of bag borne by the filament, and
corresponds to the lamina of a leaf. It is either sessile, w len
there happens to be no filament, or it is placed at the top
of the filament in three ways: it may be attached by the
middle of its hack to the slender apex of the filament, and
is then oscillating or versatile (fig- ^3) ; or it is attached by
its base to the top of the filament, with which it then seems
continuous, and is then erect (fig. 69) ; or it adheres to the
filament by its back, and is then adnate or adherent, in
which case the filament is often prolonged into an appen¬
dage. When adherent to the inside of the filament, it is
said to be introrse, and to the outside extrorse. Each bag
or cell' of the anther is called a lobe; and the solid sub¬
stance that connects them, and which in fact coiiesponds
to the midrib of the leaf, is the connectivum (fig. 69, a).
Usually the connectivum is very small and inconspicuous,
but in some plants it is prolonged into an appendage, that
may be confounded with an elongation of the filament; in
others it is prolonged below, as in some heaths, into an
awn or crest; in a few it is so broad that the bags of the
anther are at a considerable distance from each other
(fig. 70). Usually each anther has two lobes ; but in a few
plants there is only one, and this may happen either from
some natural conformation of the plant (and only when
the anther is erect), but more generally from the acciden¬
tal abortion of one of the lobes (and then particularly when
the lobes are distant), or by the filament happening to be
split, each half bearing a lobe, and representing a distinct
stamen. The reverse also happens, so that each anther may
appear to consist of four lobes ; but this arises either from
each lobe being divided into two cells, by the back of the
lobe being folded inwards; or it has really four, six, or
more lobes (as in some willows), caused by the adhesion
of two, three, or more stamens into one. The lobes or cells
of the anthers open in different ways, by what is termed
the line of dehiscence. This usually indicates the margins
of the lamina of the leaf out of which the anther is form¬
ed, and therefore the most frequent position of this line
is longitudinally along the middle of each lobe (fig. 71),
in which case the anthers are bilocular or birimose. When
this line does not open during its whole length, but only
above or below, exhibiting two pores, as in the heaths, the
anther is styled biporose (fig. 68) ; or when there is only
one lobe, it is called one-pored (poro simplici). Very rare¬
ly, as in the lavender, the anther dehisces transversely;
but the most singular case is when it opens by valves, as
in the barberry and the laurels (fig. 72), that are free
below, and hinged as it were by their upper edge. The
anther has various shapes ; the principal are globular when
the two lobes form one globe, didymous when each of the
two lobes are globose; the terms linear, sagittate, cordate,
reniform, &c., are also to be applied to it in the same way
as to leaves of plants. When the filaments are united, the
anthers may be so likewise, as in salix monandra; or
they may be free. But although the filaments may be free,
the anthers maybe united to each other by the margins, as
in the Compositce, and such are then called syngenesious.
In Stapelia, where the loculi or cells of the anther are at
a distance from each other, each coheres with the loculus
of the neighbouring anther.
Pollen. An anther contains and frequently emits a matter call-
botany.
ed polle?i, the use of which is to give life to the ovule or Glossology.
yQUj'jg seed. The grams of pollen seem to arise from the
extremities of the veins which are found in the leaf that PhEXIII
constitutes the anther, and are probably formed from the
spiral vessels. When the grains of pollen burst, they again
discharge a multitude of very minute particles, called mol-
lecules or granules. When the grains of pollen easily de¬
tach from each other, they are said to be pulverulent, and
then they may be either perfectly smooth without any vis¬
cous coating, or they may be viscous. Sometimes the vis¬
cosity is not at once perceptible, but may be traced by
means of papillae or small eminences on the surface, which
are in fact secretory organs, giving rise to the viscous sur¬
face. The nature of these grains of pollen seems constant
in each family of plants ; and even the shape of these grains
is sometimes of consequence in distinguishing natural
tribes. In the Asclepiadece and Orchidece the grains are
not pulverulent. Instead of separating readily, all the pol¬
len contained in one cell or bag coheres into what is- then
termed & pollen-mass; or when each of those are divided
into two or four portions, each is sometimes called a mas-
side. When in the Orchidece these pollen masses are formed
of grains united together by means of an elastic tissue,
they are said to be sectile (as in Orchis); but in Epipactis
and others they are granulose ox farinaceous; and in Cb-
rallorrhiza and Malaxis, &c., they are of a solid compact
substance.
Pistils or Female Organs.
The whole female organs in a flower, taken collectively,
have been named gynceceum. This may consist of one or
more pistilla, or distinct portions. Thus, in the primrose
there is truly one, in Ranunculus many pistilla. The
female parts being, like the stamens, petals, and sepals,
formed of modified leaves, each pistillum may arise either
from one such leaf or from the combination of several. These
component parts are called carpels, and are placed in the
centre of the flower. They may be arranged, ls£, round a
real axis or column, which is the abortive prolongation of
the pedicel, and are united to it by their inner angle : this
is evident in Malva and Lavatera, and in Euphorbia. 2d,
They may be verticillate round the central column, but
hanging from its summit, and consequently only attached
to it by the apex of the inner angle, as in Geraniacece. Sd,
They may be verticillate round the summit of the axis, but
erect, and only adhering by their inner angle at its base ;
and then the axis may be extremely short, as in Sedum
or Aconitum, or it may be slightly prolonged, as in some
rutacese. Qtth, The carpels may be placed in a spike round
the central column, as in the magnolias and tulip-tree, and
some ranunculusses. bth, But if the column be very short
and round, the carpels, instead of forming a spike, will form
a head round the column, as in the strawberry, where the
column is fleshy. &th, If the exterior portion of the axis
be prolonged along the inner surface of the calyx, while the
central part is not, we shall have a hollow cup, in the inte¬
rior of which the carpels are seated, as in the genus Rosa
or rose ; and here the expansion of the axis is united to the
tube of the calyx by means of the torus. All plants in
their primitive state seem to have several carpels in each
flower, but they may be reduced to a solitary one by
abortion.
Each carpel (fig. 74?) may be viewed as a folded leaf, of Carpel,
which the petiole seldom appears; but when it does it is
called a thecaphore, or support to the fruit. The ovules
or young seeds arise from the extremities of the veins,
and therefore are usually attached near to the margins of
the leaf, or, as it is folded, to both sides of the inner angle
of the carpel; and the parts to which they are fixed are call¬
ed the placenta. The ovules, like the pollen of an anther
BOTANY.
4o
ilossology. cannot probably be formed without the assistance of spiral
vessels, and therefore are not to be looked for in the ferns,
^l.CXIII. which are destitute of these elementary organs. The por¬
tion above the thecaphore, containing the ovules, is the
ovarium (fig. 74, a). But the summits of the placenta are
prolonged into two thread-like bodies, sometimes long, and
sometimes very short. These are usually combined into
one, which is then named the style (fig. 74, b); and its
glandular apex, fitted for the absorption of the vivifying
part of the pollen, is the stigma (fig. 74, c).
The carpels show a still greater tendency to unite with
each other than even the exterior parts of the flower,
though often this union seems to take place in a very
slight degree. In Stapelia they appear to cohere only by
the stigmas; in Asclepias by the stigmas and styles; in
some by the ovaries alone, in others by the ovaries and
styles; but the most complete is by the ovaries, styles,
and stigmas. When the styles are united there is usually
said to be but one, although the pistil ought more properly
to be then called gamostyle; and in the same way, when
the ovaries are united, there is still said to be one ovary,
called by Linnaeus a germen, consisting of a number of
cells (loculi), although each of the cells is in fact an ovary,
itigma. The number of stigmas is determined by that of the car¬
pels and styles, or their divisions; so that in a compound
ovarium, when we speak of one stigma, we actually mean
several united into one mass (fig. 75, c), as in the prim¬
rose. It is sessile when there is no apparent style, ter-
minal when placed on the top of the style or ovarium, and
lateral when attached to the sides of these organs. In
substance it may be fleshy, glandular, or membranaceous,
and even petaloid when it resembles a petal, as in the
iris. Its form needs no illustration further than, when
several are only partially combined, they are said to be
bifid, trifid, or multfid, as if there were actually a simple
one variously divided. Its surface is either smooth or jm-
bescent; in some plants it is pencilliform (fig. 76), or of
hairs forming a small tuft; in others, as in Anemone, Cle¬
matis, and many grasses, it is plumose (fig. 77), or furnish¬
ed with hairs arranged in a line on both sides, like the vanes
of a feather; and is aspergilliform (fig. 78) when the
hairs are placed in many whirls around the stigma, like a
bottle-brush. In a few orders, as Goodenovece, Sccevolece,
and Brunoniacece, the stigma is enveloped in a peculiar
membranous appendage, called an indusium.
tyk\ The style is in common language said to be simple
(simplex), or single (unicum), either when it is the style
to one carpel (fig. 74, b), or is formed by the union of
several into one body (fig. 75, b), and is divided when
the component parts are more or less adherent. But a
style in its simplest state, being actually formed by the
prolongation of the two placentae of a carpel, is even then
a compound body. What are said to be two styles in the
grasses (fig. 78) is thus in reality but one divided style.
The two stigmas in Compositce indicate the same structure,
as well as those of many Euphorbiacece, where the divi¬
sions of the style and stigmas are double those of the car¬
pels. The style may be included within the flower (m-
clusus), or protruded beyond it (exsertus). It is usually
terminal in a compound ovarium; and lateral, or basilar
(from the base), in a simple one. In some plants with a
deeply lobed ovarium, the individual ovaries are attached
to each other almost only by their bases; and hence the
united style, springing from the point of union, forms as
it were a continuation of the axis. The style is of various
shapes, but the most singular is when it is petaloid, as in Glossologv.
the iris. It may be straight, or declinate, or ascending.
When no union takes place among the carpels, the ova- P1.CXIII.
rium is termed apocarpous, as in Ranunculus; and when 0varium-
there is an adherence, so that a compound ovarium is form¬
ed, it is called syncarpous((\%. 75). In the former case there
may be one or more pistilla, according to the number of car-
pella; in the latter only one. The ovary being formed of
the lamina of the leaf, the edges of which may be sometimes
rolled inwards, it is evident that we may have each carpel
of two cells, as in Astragalus; but the division is very sel¬
dom perfect. When the ovaria are united into a compound
or syncarpous ovarium, the sides of the component leaves
or ovaria (which sides are then termed dissepiments) may
be evanescent, in which case we have a unilocular ova¬
rium with a central placenta (fig. 79); and when the
leaves forming the ovaria are scarcely folded, but nearly
plane, the placentiferous margins touching respectively
the margins of the next ovaria, an unilocular syncarpous
ovarium is produced (fig. 80), having the placenta parie¬
tal, or exhibiting longitudinal lines on the interior surface.
In a compound ovarium, when the margin of the folded
carpel is rolled inwards a little way, so that each ovarium
is almost bilocular, it is evident that the placentas must
be situated nearly in the centre of each division of the
fruit, in which case the two placentae in each cell may
either unite closely together, as in Kalmia or Rhododendrum
(fig. 81); or may diverge from each other (fig. 82), as in
the gourds.1 An apocarpous ovarium may be known from
a syncarpous one, when there is no abortion, by the number
and position of the placentae. Although in every plant
a carpel is present, yet in Cycadece and Coniferce, where
there is neither style nor stigma, the apocarpous ovarium
is plane or spread open like a scale, leaving the naked
ovule, on its inner surface, exposed without any covering
to the pollen; and even, though very rarely, the carpel
may be so modified that the ovary is abortive, and nothing
is visible but the naked ovule.
ihe ovary xsfree or superior when it contracts no adhe¬
rence with the calyx ; or inferior, and then it is syncarpous,
and the tube of the calyx adheres with it. But the in¬
dividual ovaria may be placed inside the tube of the calyx
without being united with a syncarpous ovarium, as in the
roses, when they are said to he parietal. Between an inferior
ovary and ovaries parietal it is sometimes difficult to draw
a distinction; for when there is only one series of the lat¬
ter, they may project so far towards the axis of the fruit
as nearly to meet each other, and thus resemble a syncar¬
pous ovary. But the difficulty is diminished by consider¬
ing that, in a true inferior ovarium, each carpel must so
touch the calyx as to represent a syncarpous ovarium
seated within the tube. Each carpel must therefore
unite laterally with its contiguous one, and at the same
time all must be united at the axis of the ovarium, so
that there must result from the union one compound pis¬
til. A compound pistil ought thus to indicate an inferior
ovary. On the contrary, a separation of pistilla will always
be accompanied with parietal ovaries (as in the rose and
apple); and to these rules there is, we believe, no devia¬
tion. An apparent one is in that section of the genus Rosa
called systyla?, as in the Ayrshire rose, and another in
Cratagus monogyna, in both of which the styles unite into
one ; but even here a slight dissection of the ovarium will
show that the individual carpels are not strictly united at
their inner margins, and consequently that the ovaria are
and inpnn1S •ri >e t le f1.1, 68 °f the carpel or leaf connecting the exterior with the centre of the compound ovarium are extremely thin
induppH t S1'1CU0US> while the innexed margins are remarkably well defined ; hence Seringe and De Candolle have been erroneously
o suppose that here the midrib of the constituent leaf is, by some inexplicable means, placed in the centre of the ovarium."
46 B O T
Glossology, parietal, and the compound ovary apocarpous, or of more
than one pistillum.
n. CXIII. The partially adherent calyx of many saxifrages has
led some botanists to say of them that the ovarium is half
inferior {semi-super uni); but from their being two pistilla,
it is apocarpous. In UnibeUiferce there is but one pistil,
although two styles ; and the ovary is syncarpous and infe¬
rior. To avoid confusion, it might be better to adopt the
terms of syncarpous and apocarpous ovaria, and adherent
or free calyx ; and a combination of these will indicate the
structure of the fruit.
Each simple ovarium is more or less compressed; but
the usual shape of a syncarpous one is ovoid. It is, how¬
ever, sometimes elongated. In most plants it is entire,
but in the borage tribe and labiate plants it is deeply
lobed (PL CXIV. fig. 118).
Ovulum. The ovulum, as we have already explained, is the body
borne by the placenta, and is destined to become a seed
after impregnation. The position of the ovula is of great
importance in determining natural affinities. When it is
fixed by its base to the bottom of one of the cells of the
ovarium, of which it takes the direction, it is said to be
erect, or if it hangs from the summit of the cell it is invert¬
ed; but if the ovulum is attached to the middle portion
of the placenta, it may have an upright direction, and is
called ascendant, or point downwards, and is then suspended
(appensum); or if it appears attached by its middle, so
that one half points upwards and the other half towards the
base of the cell, it is called peritropal. By most botanists,
however, the erect and ascendant ovula are confounded un¬
der one name, and the inverted and suspended are known
by the term pendulous. Either of these may at times re¬
semble the other by an accidental inversion, when the
ovule is said to be resupinate. The ovulum is either ses¬
sile, or on a stalk called a funiculus or podosperm (fig. 83, a),
and in either case the point by which the connection is
formed is usually termed the base of the ovulum, and its
other extremity the apex. The ovulum consists of a nu¬
cleus and two external coats; the outer of which (fig. 83,
81, and 85, each at the letter b) is called the testa or primine
sac; and the inner, the internal membrane, or secundine sac, or
the tegmen (fig. eaed. c.) The base of the nucleus (fig. esed. d)
is always incorporated with the base of the internal mem¬
brane, and their common base is attached at some points to
ANY.
the testa. The junction of the three forms the chalaza. The Glossology,
chalaza is sometimes at the base of the testa, but is moi e pr*^lQTT
frequently at the apex of that external covering, so that the *
apices of the nucleus and tegmen, though in some plants
pointing to the apex of the testa, are more usually directed
to its base. Close to the apex of the nucleus, and conse¬
quently at the opposite extremity from the chalaza, a
small aperture ox foramen (fig. eaed. e) is to be observed in
both the primine and secundine sacs. This foramen (call¬
ed by Mirbel exostome in the primine, and endostome in the
secundine) must always be found near the base of the
ovulum when the apex of the nucleus points towards that
base, and at the summit of the ovulum when the apex of
the nucleus points to that part; and consequently the
situation of this foramen will at once indicate the internal
structure of the ovulum.1 2 And this is of the greatest im¬
portance, as the future embryo is now well ascertained
to be so placed in the nucleus that the radicle points di¬
rectly to these orifices, as do the cotyledons to the chalaSa;
and a means is thus given of discovering even in the ovu¬
lum the future internal arrangement of the seed. In what
we have said, we have presumed the testa, tegmen, and
nucleus, to be straight; but in some plants all or some of
these are more or less bent or curved, in which case we
may have the apex of the nucleus directed towards its
base, as in the Crucifer a; and Chenopodiacece, and even the
grasses ; or towards the side of the testa, as in the Legumi-
nosce?
The testa is usually entire, except at the foramen, but
in two known genera,Banksia andDryandra, it opens lon¬
gitudinally, leaving the tegmen exposed. The surfaces of
the testas of the two collateral ovules in these plants then
unite, putting on the appearance of the dissepiment of a
capsule; and the two cohering ovula seem to be as one
bilocular ovulum. By this means the internal membrane
or tegmen becomes the external envelope of the seed.
When the apex of the nucleus is contiguous to the base
of the ovulum, a connection takes place between the base
of the ovulum and the base of the nucleus, by a bundle of
vessels (fig. 85, f) called a raphe. This raphe is almost
always on the side of the ovule next the placenta, and
even the apparent exceptions to this rule tend to confirm
it. Thus in the tribe to which Euonymus belongs, the
ovules are erect, yet in some species of that genus they
1 Brown and Mirbel term the chalaza the base, and the foramen the apex of the ovule, without regard to the point of attachment
of the ovule to the placenta, which must be attended to in studying their works.
2 Mirbel, as we have already stated, considers the base of the ovulum and seed as at the chalaza, and he divides seeds into ortho-
tropous, anatropous, and campulitropous. The first are attached to the ovary by their base, having a perfectly regular form, and the
axis is rectilinear. The campulitropous are also fixed to the ovary by their base, but their form is irregular, and their axis is
curved, so that the two extremities meet. The anatropous, like the orthotropous, have a rectilinear axis, but they are resupinate
on their funiculus, to which they adhere longitudinally, and by means of which they are attached to the ovarium at a point near their
apex. These variations are explained by Mirbel, by what he denominates the statics of developments, or the force of expansion, or of
inertness, or of contraction of the different parts of the ovulum; and he has endeavoured to show how these causes, acting either to¬
gether or independently, alter or preserve the regularity of the primitive shape. Every ovulum, according to him, has at first a re¬
gular form, and the chalaza close to the hilum or funiculus ; so that if the force of development be equal at all points, the regularity
of shape must be preserved, but if it be greater on one side than on the other, an irregularity must ensue. In this way an equilibri¬
um offerees must have taken place in an orthotropous seed, but not in the anatropous or campulitropous ones. When an ovulum
tends to become anatropous, the chalaza or the inner extremity of the funiculus is pushed forward in a slightly oblique direction, and in¬
verts the ovulum, so that its base is placed where its summit formerly was, and vice versa; a kind of resupination which is stated by Mirbel
to take place in a very short time,—but notwithstanding he appears to have followed the successive changes. By this inversion the vessels
of the funiculus become elongated in proportion to the length of the axis of the ovulum; and such prolongation, united laterally to the
primine sac, and extending from the exostome to the chalaza, is what is termed the raphe. Three characters distinguish the ovule
destined to become in maturity a compulitropous seed : the indissoluble union of the hilum and the chalaza ; the great force of de¬
velopment of one of the sides of the ovule; and the inertness or even contraction of the opposite side, which remains stationary, or
even diminishes, while the other elongates. Had this last side been free in its development, it would have elongated in a straight
line; but it is constrained by the inertness or contraction of the opposite one, and can therefore only increase by turning round the
other as a centre. From this arises that annular form which most of the compulitropous seeds posses’s ; and hence also, in all curved
seeds, the chalaza ought to be constantly opposite to the hilum, and the foramen at the opposite extremity. Although all seeds may
be reduced to these three types, yet by their development being stopped before the ovulum attains to the perfection of the type, and
from similar results arising sometimes from different causes, many anomalies may be expected. Several have been pointed out by
Mirbel himself. Thus, in the pea, the young ovule exhibits the anatropous form ; but afterwards the raphe remains stationary, while
the opposite side expands, and the seed appears compulitropous, but with a raphe.
BOTANY.
lossology. appear suspended, and then have the raphe turned away
from the placenta; but if we consider a moment, we shall
1. CXIII. seej such may arise not only from their naturally
hanging down, but by an erect ovule being as it were
pushed over by some peculiar formation of the plant, and
thus become resupinate. But a naturally erect ovule be¬
come resupinate, must have the part that was formerly
next the placenta now turned away from it; and in the
same way a naturally pendulous ovule must also, when
resupinate, have its raphe turned away from the placenta;
and thus we may conclude, when such is the position of
the raphe, that the ovule is resupinate, and that the op¬
posite apparent direction is the true one, whether erect or
pendulous. This may readily be seen in the genus Pencea.
It was till lately generally supposed that the aura polli-
naris, mollecules of pollen, or by whatever other name
the vivifying influence might be called, after being ab¬
sorbed by the stigma and transmitted through the style,
entered the ovulum at its base, either directly or by means
of the funiculus. The discoveries of Brown and others
have however now proved satisfactorily that the entrance
takes place by the foramens; and Brongniart has ascer¬
tained, that in many, if not in all plants, at the moment
of impregnation, a slender tube or filament is protruded
through the orifices from the apex of the nucleus, for the
more ready absorption of the pollen granules, but which,
after having served the intended purpose, withers away,
leaving only a small projection or papilla, which nearly
closes up the foramens. Until, therefore, it was decided
that the pollen had not access to the nucleus by the funi¬
culus, but by the foramen, the idea of a naked ovule was
inadmissible, and many ingenious but erroneous hypothe¬
ses were made to explain the fruit of the pine, &c. in
which an exposed ovulum exists.
But the nucleus is itself a compound body, and consists
of two parts. The one is a parenchymatous or loose
cellular substance, called by Malpighi the chorion (fig. 85,
<7); and this again includes a little vesicle or cellular
bag (fig. 85, li) termed by the same author the amnios,
originally filled with a mucilaginous fluid, called the liquor
amnios. It is in the interior of this bag that the embryo
is formed. As- the phrases chorion and amnios, having re¬
ference to animals, are objectionable, the former has now
been termed the parenchyma of the nucleus, and the latter
the embryonic sac. In some plants this parenchyma occu¬
pies the great part of the nucleus, but in others it is re¬
duced to a thin transparent membrane, under which the
sac lies.1
To complete our account of the ovulum, of which we
have been obliged to explain the anatomical structure, in
order to lay the foundation of a correct knowledge of the
parts of the seed, we have further to say, that in many,
but not in all plants, a tubular prolongation (fig. 85, k) of
the embryonic sac takes place about the time of impreg¬
nation, from that extremity of it which is next the base
of the nucleus, extending to that base, and connecting it
with the sac. This is very conspicuous in the almond and
yellow water-lily. Malpighi named it the vas umbilicale ;
and Gaertner viewed it as a continuation of the vessels of
the umbilicus, but erroneously, as it is extremely doubtful
if in any case its connection with the base of the nucleus
is completed until the embryo, after fecundation, requires
a considerable degree of nourishment.
Fruit.
47
Glossology.
Fecundation having taken place, the floral envelopes^ CXIIL
usually fade away, the stamens disappear, and the pistil-
lum begins to increase in size and become the fruit.
Although the style and stigma, having fulfilled their func¬
tions, are now nearly obliterated, the fruit ought always to
show some traces of them on its surface, whenever they
were seen on the ovarium. In Cycadece and Conferee,
where the ovulum is exposed to the immediate action of
the pollen, there is neither style nor stigma upon the
scale or open ovary, so neither is there on the fruit, indi¬
cating the existence of naked seeds; but the grains of
corn and wheat and other grasses, having the remains of a
style, are true fruits; the supposed naked seeds of the
borage tribe and labiatae are for the same reason parts of
a fruit. As the pistillum advances towards maturity,
many alterations take place, in consequence of abortion,
non-development, obliteration, or even union of parts.
Thus a compound pistil having a compound or syncarpous
ovary, may have a fruit of but one cell, as the hazel-nut;
or a solitary pistil may, by the involution and divarication
of its placentas, change into a fruit with several cells; or
the placenta itself may expand horizontally, dividing one
true cell into several spurious ones. In all cases, however,
the contrasting the structure of the pistil with that of the
fruit will materially aid us in our investigations.
The base of the fruit (fig. 86, a) is the part where it is
joined to the peduncle. The apex (fig. 86, b) is where
the remains of the style are found.
1 he portion of the pistil called the ovarium is in the
ripe fruit termed the pericarp ; it is sometimes extremely
thin, as in the grasses, the borage tribe, the Composites,
&c. but is often extremely thick, mid even fleshy. As the
leaf of a plant has an upper and under surface, and an
intermediate parenchyma in which the nerves are placed,
so the pericarp consists likewise of three portions: the
outer coating, which often determines the form of the
fruit, called the epicarp (fig. 87, 5); the inner lining or
the endocarp (fig. 87, d'); and the parenchymatous or fleshy
substance between these (fig. 87, c), termed the sarco-
carp or mesocarp. When the ovary is inferior, or united
with the tube of the calyx, as in the apple, the epicarp
becomes confounded with the tube (fig. 87, a), and then
the sarcocarp may be readily taken for the parenchyma
of the calyx; but in peaches and other fleshy fruits not
adherent to the calyx, it is the sarcocarp that consti¬
tutes the flesh. The endocarp is usually a mere mem¬
brane, but it sometimes is incorporated with a portion of
the sarcocarp; and when this portion becomes hard and
osseous, it constitutes what is called a putamen (when it
contains but one seed), or nucules nuculce (when they con¬
tain several seeds). As an ovary may be apocarpous or
syncarpous, so also may be the pericarp. It is therefore
said to be unilocular (fig. 104 and 105) when there is one
cell, and bi-, tri- (fig. 88), or multilocular, according to the
number of cells. These loculi or cells are separated from
each other by dissepiments. By reverting to what has been
said about the ovarium, we shall easily perceive that true
dissepiments can only be formed in one way. Two con¬
tiguous portions of the endocarp are projected into the in¬
terior of the pericarp, and are agglutinated together by
the parenchyma of the primary leaf, now the sarcocarp.
Ktntps -1 T lat ler a (,1^erent view of the subject: he considers the nucleus as a mere envelope, terms it the tercine, and
1 1 1i1C °Se? *W° <luartine, which appears to be attached to the summit of the cavity, and that containing the
pxist q °r e™13r7onic S£Jc5 die last envelope, and adhering at both extremities to the quartine. But each of these parts, if they do-
cession . nu Soen 1” every ovple 5 and in those in which they have been observed, they are not all visible at one time, but in sue*
lv distinmii 6 J8 1most evident, the last are merely rudimentary ; and when the latter are developed, the former are scarce-
y isunguishable. Mirbel even points out five distinct periods of development.
botany.
The dissepiment is thus always of two memb^nes which
must containbetweenthemvessels and nerves, and these t0 ^ a ci',.cular ring „„ the top of the ovary,H-CXlr
again will point out the former junction of the two mem
branes, even although, by the sarcocarp drying up, they
should have lost their adherence, and have separated from
each other. Dissepiments may be complete when they
extend from the base of the epicarp to its apex, and in¬
complete when they permit two contiguous cells to com¬
municate with each other. In the thorn-apple {Datura
stramonium) there appears at first sight to be foui dissepi¬
ments, two complete and two incomplete; but in reality in
this plant there are only two, curiously modified.
The axis of the fruit is that round which the constitut¬
ing carpels are placed. It is sometimes not apparent.
When it actually exists it is usually termed a columella,
as in Euphorbia, Lavatera, &c.; but when tw7o mericarpia
are united together it is called the commissura (fig. 92).
As seeds are inclosed in the pericarp, it is essentially
but afterwards (fig. 99) expands and elongates, and consti¬
tutes a true plumose pappus. \v hen the tube of the calyx
is filled by the seed, the pappus is said to be sessile (fig.
97); but when it is much attenuated at the apex beyond
the seed, a kind of stalk or stipes is formed to the pappus,
and it is termed stipitate (fig. 96), but between these there
are some states that tend to weaken these as characters.
Fruits have been classified in several ways, and have
received various designations. From what we have al¬
ready said of the ovarium, we trust the following division
may be easily understood. A fruit is either simple, mul¬
tiple, compound, or aggregated.
It is simple when it is the maturation of a single carpel-
lary leaf. Fruits of this class may be either indehiscent or de¬
hiscent. Of the former is, 1. the caryopsis, where the peri-
necessary that they, after maturity, have the means of carp is very thm and membranous, and so closely united to
' Sometimes, however, the pericarp does not the solitary seed as not to be distinguished ^a separate
escaping, _ _ .
open naturally, but is either split by the process of germi¬
nation, or rots away by the action of the soil or ot the at¬
mosphere. It is then said to be indehiscent, as in the
body, as in the wheat and barley (Plate CXIII. fig. 100) : 2.
an utricle is similar to the caryopsis, the pericarp being
membranous, but it has no adherence with the seed: 3.
grasses, Composite, &c. But usually it splits open, and is an achenium is also one-seeded, but here (fig. 101) the^m-
then dehiscent; and the pieces into which it divides are- carp is hard and bony, as well as distinct from the pioper
termed valves. In some the dehiscence is incomplete, as covering of the seed, as in the Composite (these, three are
in Antirrhinum (fig. 89), where it is indicated by two pores often confounded): 4. a samara (fig. 102) is a coriaceous,
at the apex, and in many Caryophyllece (fig. 90), where the membranous, very compressed, few-seeded, indehiscent
valves only separate at the apex into teeth. The pericarp is fruit, that is often prolonged laterally or at the apex into
said to be uni-, hi-, or multivalued, as there are one, two, or wings or appendages, but this kind does not perhaps
many valves. When a fruit is in its simplest state, or form- exist in nature in an uncombined state : 5. a drupe is a
edby the transformation of one carpellary leaf (Plate CXI V. fleshy nut inclosing a putamen, as the cherry and peach,
fig. 104), there may be two sutures or lines by which it 6. a nut (nux), in its strictest sense, as now adopted by
may open. The one is (a) where the margins of the leaf Richard and De Candolle, differs slightly from a drupe ;
or the placentae meet, and this is called the ventral suture; it contains a putamen, but the sarcocarp (then called nau-
the other, or the dorsal suture (b), is at the part correspond- cum) is coriaceous instead of being fleshy. 1 he dry de-
ing to the midrib of the leaf. But, in a compound fruit, an hiscent fruits are, 7. the follicle (fig. 103), or a carpel
opening may also take place at the junction of any two dehiscing by the ventral, and having no dorsal suture : 8.
carpels; and from these considerations the various kinds the legume (fig. 104), having both ventral and dorsal su-
of dehiscence may be explained. If the line of opening tures, by either of which, or by both or neither, it may de-
corresponds with the junction of the carpels, the dehis- hisce; rarely the sides fall off, leaving nothing but the
cence is septicidal (fig. 91); so that where there are dis- sutures, which then form a kind of frame called replum.
sepiments, these are divided each into their two consti- The legume is, strictly speaking, unilocular, but in some
tuent membranes, and the cells remain closed at the plants appears bilocular, from an inflexion of the ventral
back; or the valves were formerly said to be alternate suture (fig. 105). In some instances it is separated into
with the dissepiments, or to have their margins turned several parts by horizontal partitions (fig. 106) arising out
inwards. If the opening is by the dorsal suture of each of the placenta, or by contractions of the legume itself, as
carpel, the dehiscence is loculicidal (fig. 86 and 88); so in Hippocrepis or Scorpiurus (fig. 107), at which it falls
that here the dissepiments do not divide into two portions, into pieces, when it is said to be lomentaceous.
but the cells are opened at the back, or the dissepiments A fruit is multiple when the ovarium is apocarpous. It
were said to be opposite to the valves, or the valves to has more than one style, and is formed of more than one
bear septa in their middle. In some plants the cells re- carpellary leaf in the same flower. Ihe carpels may be
main closed, and separate in that state from the axis, either at a distance from each other or slightly connected,
which is then an extension of the peduncle (fig. 92). In but the endocarp does not separate from the epicarp to
others the placentas separate from the dissepiments and form dissepiments. Few individual names have been
adhere to the axis, while the cells open, and, with the dis- given to this kind, botanists having usually contented
sepiments, separate from it (fig. 93). When the dissepi- themselves with saying that it is composed of achenia,
ments adhere to the axis, but separate from the back of drupes, &c. according to the structure of each individual
the valves or carpels, the dehiscence is said to be septfrage carpel. When these are arranged upon or round a real
(fig. 94). When a dehiscence, instead of being vertical or or imaginary axis, the fruit has been by some called, 9.
longitudinal, takes place across the cells, it is called trans- etcerion ; the strawberry (fig. 108), bramble, ranunculus,
verse (fig. 95), as Anagallis. anona, and peony, are examples. 10. The pomum or
The shape of the pericarp may be spherical, or ovate, or melonida also belongs to this class ; here the fruit is
lenticular (like a lens), orprismatical, which terms are easily crowned by the teeth of the calyx, and is formed of se-
understood. It may be acute, or obtuse, or lobed. When the veral parietal carpella attached to the interior of the tube
fruit is inferior it is often crowned by the teeth of the calyx; by the intervention of a usually thick and fleshy expansion
and these teeth in many Composite, as we have already ex- of the torus. Of this there are three varieties. \st. When
plained, are represented by a series of hairs called athe numerous'achenia are attached to the slightly fleshy
which is either (fig. 96) pilose, when each hair is simple, calyx, the fruit is a hip or cynarrhodon (fig. 109), as the
or plumose (fig. 97), when each hair presents on each side rose. 2c?, When the calyx of the hip does not become
BOTANY.
ioii! glossology, fleshy, as in the agrimony, the fruit is called amalthea. The
third variety is the apple ox pomum (Plate CXIII. fig. 87),
PL CXIV. in which there is but one longitudinal series of carpels at¬
tached to a very fleshy calyx, and so enlarged as to appear
to meet in the axis of the fruit. A pomum, then, at first
sight seems to be the maturation of one inferior plurilocu-
lar, instead of several parietal ovaria.
A. compound fruit is derived from a syncarpous ovarium,
and is formed by the union of several carpellary leaves.
In Ranunculus, and other plants with apocarpous ovaries,
more than one series of carpella are often matured. This,
however, happens rarely among the syncarpous, but it
sometimes occurs; thus, inNicotiana multivalvis, where the
fruit is a capsule, two rows of carpellary leaves are united
into one pistillum. 11. A capsule (Plate CXIII. fig. 89 and
90) is a dry, dehiscent pericarp, usually many-celled; but
may, by the placentae being parietal, or by the disappear¬
ance of the dissepiments, be occasionally one-celled. 12.
When a capsule opens transversely, it is called a pyxidium
(fig. 95). 13. When a capsule bursts into achenia, it is
termed a di-, tri-, or polakenium. 14. When the tube of
the calyx adheres to one of this last kind, the fruit is
called cremocarpium (fig. 92), as in the Umbellifcrcc; and
each of the two constituent parts («) a mericarpium. 15.
When a capsule is composed of cocci, or cells that open
elastically by a membranous spring placed at the bottom,
it sometimes has got the name of elaterium or regma, as
in Euphorbia. 16. A siliqua when long and narrow (fig.
110), and silicula when so short as to be almost as broad
as long (fig. Ill), is a dry pericarp formed of four carpels,
the placentae of which are parietal: moreover, the stigmas
and placentae of an opposite pair of these carpels are
abortive, so that the carpels themselves represent valves,
while the two other intermediate carpels are contracted,
and project, from the inner side of each placenta, a mem¬
brane, which unites at the centre of the fruit to the cor¬
responding opposite membrane, the four membranes being
ultimately united into one dissepimental membranous ex¬
pansion.1 In common language, then, a siliqua or silicula
may be defined to be a dry, dehiscent, two-valved fruit, in
which the seeds are attached to placenta? situated at the
sutures of the valves, and which is usually divided into
two loculi or cells by a false dissepiment or prolongation
of the placentae, that is parallel to the valves. After the
valves have fallen, the placentae often remain, with or with¬
out the dissepiment or septum, in the form of a replum.
17. When two samara are applied to each other so
closely that there appears but one (fig. 115), as in the ash
and elm (the compound nature of the fruit, however, be¬
ing still evident rrom the double stigma even when one of
the cells is abortive), the fruit is still commonly called a
samara; but in Acer, where the constituent parts are
readdy distinguished, the fruit is said to consist of two sa-
maroidcarpels. 18. A carcerulus (fig. 116) is dry and inde-
hiscent, with several cells and seeds, as the lime tree. 19.
A gland is a dry, bony, indehiscent, one-celled and one-
seeded fruit, but always the result of an ovarium with se¬
veral cells and several seeds. The pericarp unites closely to
uie seed, and is inclosed more or less in a sort of involucrum.
Inis term is sometimes restricted to the case where the
mvolucrum or cup is coriaceous and scaly, as in the acorn ;
and when it is fohaeeous, as in the hazel, it is called a
Many botanists apply to both of these the name
ut or nux. When the involucrum is entirely wanting, and
the fruit is borne on a fleshy support, it has been termed
a xylodium (fig. 117), as in the cashew-nut. 20. A mi¬
crobasis (hg. 118) applies to the fruit of the Labiatce and
Borraginece. Here it is tetraspermous or four-sided, and
appears to be quadrilocular; and each division, resembling
a distinct achenium, is placed around the slender base of
the style; in reality, however, it is a bilocular fruit, each
cell being divided by a spurious dissepiment into two, each
one seeded, that in general easily separate from each
other. 21. In a sarcobase (fig. 119) the ovary is syncar¬
pous, or of one pistillum; but all the carpels appear dis¬
tinct, and are borne on the fleshy base of the compound
style, as in the Ochnacece. 22. A nuculanium is a fleshy
fruit, not adherent to the tube of the calyx, and including
several distinct putamens or nucules. 23. An osteocar-
pium is a superior fleshy fruit, with several cells, the sar-
cocarp being bony. 24. The balausta is a somewhat co¬
riaceous, plurilocular, polyspermous, inferior fruit, adherent
with the calyx and crowned with its teeth, as in the pome¬
granate and myrtle. 25. A berry (bacca) is a succu¬
lent fruit, with a membranous pericarp, the seeds of which
lose their adhesion when ripe, and lie loose in pulp, as the
gooseberry or grape (fig. 120). 26. The orange or hes-
peridium is a multilocular succulent fruit, similar to a
berry, but having the epicarp, sarcocarp, and endocarp well
defined, and forming a leathery pericarp. The loculi or
cells are filled with pulpy bags or vesicles, which are mere
cellular extensions of the sides of the carpella. 27. A pepo
or peponida is a fleshy inferior fruit, either indehiscent or
bursting irregularly, and consisting of about three carpels,
each of which is divided into two loculi by its placentife-
rous margin (Plate CXIII. fig. 82) being so introflexed as
to reach the dorsal suture. The sides of the carpel, and
even sometimes the introflexed portion, usually disappear
in the ripe fruit; so that at first sight it would be said to
be, and has been so described, a one-celled, fleshy, indehis¬
cent fruit, with parietal placentas that send out sometimes
false dissepiments towards the axis (fig. 121), as the cu¬
cumber and gourd. We do not agree with Richard in
calling the fruit of the Nymphcea or Nuphar a peponida. In
these there is in fact an apocarpus ovarium (fig. 122), each
carpel being merely attached by its back to an expan¬
sion of the torus, which soon decays, leaving the carpels
distinct from each other. The torus also surrounding the
styles and the stigmas, makes the whole assume the false
appearance of one pistillum ; and that part of each carpel
which is directed towards the axis of the fruit is the pla¬
centa,'and not a dissepiment. There is, therefore, little
or no difference between the Nymphceacece and Nelumbo-
nacem, except that the carpels of the latter are monosper-
mous. I he fruit of Hydrocharidece resembles in some
degree a peponida; it is one-celled, and the placentas are
ti uly parietal, but project from the false dissepiments to¬
wards the axis, appearing sometimes as if a many-celled
fruit.
Aggregated fruits are formed out of several flowers.
28. An amentum or catkin exists in those plants to which
there is no floral envelope ; but in place of it there is
a membranous bractea situated below each pistillum, as
in the Salix or willow. 29. When the bractea of an amen¬
tum becomes extremely small, and the carpellary leaf is
a large indurated scale, open at all periods of its growth,
and containing naked seeds, we have a cone or strobilus
(fig. 123), as in the pine tribe; and when this is much re-
eacMhenViy j'6? J}th Parietal Pjacentae and ovules (b\ b\ b, b, V, b\ b, b), and ifV, c, o', c, be the stigmas t<
project each a membrane into thelenTn^nf ^ have the aPPearance in fig. 113; and if, in addition, the placentae b, b
cula, as in fig. 114. ntre ^ie ^ruit’ when these membranes unite we shall have the section of a siliqua or sili
VOL. V. .
49
PL CXIY.
botany.
duced in size, and the scales firmly cohere, it is called a
galhulum (fig. 124), as in Thuja. The term is also
often applied to the fruit of some Proteacece; but in these
there is a perianth, and the indurated scales are real brac-
teas, and it may be sufficient to say of their flowers that
they are aggregated. 30. The sorosus (fig. 125) is w ^en
several fruits (b) are united together into one body by the
intervention and combination of their respective fleshy
and highly developed floral envelopes («), as m the
mulberry and pine-apple. 31. The syconus ox fig is when
the fruit is composed of many small drupes or achema, col¬
lected on the interior of a fleshy and succulent receptac e
formed by the hollow dilated apex of the peduncle, hach
of the achenia belongs to a distinct floret, and therefore,
when the fig is expanded into a nearly flat disc, as m
Dorstenia, it resembles the receptacle of the_ Composite,
and is therefore scarcely entitled to be considered as a
peculiar fruit.
Seed.
Glossology. (
Placenta.
Having thus given a rapid sketch of the different
kinds of fruits, we must now revert to the carpel, ot
which they are composed; and we would again recall to
the recollection of our readers, that this is a modification
of a folded leaf, towards the margins of which, arising
from the extremity of the nerves, are placed the seeds.
The parts to which these are attached must therefore al¬
ways be two (however closely they may be approximated)
in each carpel; they are immediately connected with the
style, and usually of a different texture from the rest ot
the cell; and, as has been explained while describing the
ovarium, they are generally called placentcBy though by
some denominated trophosperms. In a solitary caipel the
placenta is usually at the ventral suture, but, by the margins
being occasionally introflexed, may be either in the centre
of the fruit, or even at the dorsal suture; and therefore,
in a plurilocular pericarp, it may be either at the axis of
the fruit, or in the middle of each cell, or, when each cell
is spuriously bilocular, may be even at the dorsal sutures ;
a one-celled pericarp, that is formed from a syncarpous
ovary, must however have the placentas stiictly parietal,
and placed at the margins of each carpel. A plurilo¬
cular pericarp may present an anomalous appearance by
abortion. Thus there may be a central placenta by the
disappearance of the sides of the carpels, or the placenta
may be parietal (or rather at the dorsal suture), by the
abortion of the sides and introflexed margins. On the
other hand, an unilocular fruit may appear bi- or multilo-
cular, by the placenta projecting membranous expansions
or spurious dissepiments, all which must be carefully
studied while pronouncing on the affinities of different
plants.
Sometimes the placenta presents small prolongations,
to which the seeds are fixed, and which are texmeA funiculi
or podosperms (fig. 127, a). They are very evident in
leguminous plants (fig. 104), in Crucifer(R (fig. 110), and
many others. In some they are very short and thick, but
are in others slender and filiform. When the placenta
or the funiculus expands at its point of attachment to
the seed into a cup-shaped body of greater or less di¬
mensions, this is termed an arillus. In the nutmeg
(fig. 126) this arillus is red and fleshy, and cut unequally,
and is called a mace. In Euonymus it covers the seed
nearly all round (fig. 127); in Polygala it constitutes a
little crown scarcely visible, at the base of the seed. But
arillae must not be confounded with integument of the
seed. Thus the apparent appendage of the seed in Nepen¬
thes (fig. 128), and the fleshy covering in the jasmine, are
actually portions of the testa. An arillus is never deve¬
loped till after the impregnation of the ovulum.
The fruit is formed of two parts, the pericarp and the PL CXIV-
seed. What we have already gone over belongs to the
former; we now proceed to the latter. .,
The seed is that part of a perfect fruit which is found
in the internal part of the pericarp, attached to the pla¬
centa, or to its process, the funiculus. Every seed arises
from a fecundated ovule, and therefore a naked seed can
only be said to exist in those rare cases in M’hich we have
found a naked ovulum. Its essential character is to include
an organized body, which, under favourable circumstances,
is developed, and becomes a plant similar to that from which
the seed was obtained. This body is called the embryo.
The position of the seed is of equal importance with
that of the ovule ; but as the terms are the same, we will
not here repeat them.
In the ripe seed, what was the base of the ovulum be- Coats,
comes the base of the seed, and is called the hilum or
umbilicus ; the expansion of the raphe at the base of the
nucleus becomes the chalaza; and the foramen is then
called the micropyle (fig. 129, a). Ihe testa (fig. 130, a)
or primine sac sometimes disappears, and in otheis be¬
comes thick; the tegmen (fig. 130, b) becomes usually in¬
corporated with the testa, although it also in some plants
disappears, and the two are generally known under the
name of episperm. He Candolle has, without considering
the ovule, but only regarding the ripe seed, followed
Richard, and viewed the episperm as but one coat, the
outer surface of which he has termed the spermoderm,
the inner, the endopleura, and the intermediate portion,
chiefly constituted by the spreading vessels of the raphe,
the mesosperm. But the terms testa, tegmen, and raphe,
are much less exceptionable, as they exhibit a relation to
the structure of the ovulum. In some plants, as we have
already said, the testa is fleshy; in others it is attenuated
(fig. 128) into a long process, both of which may be mis¬
taken for an arillus if proper attention be not paid. In the
cotton-plant the whole surface is covered with hair-like ex¬
pansions, when the seed is said to be wrapt in wool; or such
hairs may be merely placed at one or both ends, when they
constitute a coma. In some plants there are tumours on the
testa, near the hilum, or at its opposite end, called strophi-
olcc ox carunculce (fig. 131), the precise nature of which is
unknown; but in some instances they appear to be dilata¬
tions of the chalaza, and in other cases they seem caused
by a diseased state of the lips of the foramen or miciopyle.
After impregnation, the nucleus undergoes great
changes. The embryonic sac increases rapidly in every
wray, and often pushes back the cellular tissue or paien-
chyma of the nucleus, until this latter is reduced to a thin
pellicle or membrane, and is ultimately filled with nothing
but the embryo; in which case the membrane or sac it¬
self either disappears entirely, or becomes incorporated
with the parenchyma of the nucleus; and such plants are
said to be destitute of albumen. In others, however, nu¬
merous globules are deposited on the inside of the sac,
and these by their agglomeration constitute the endo¬
sperm (fig. 130, c), inclosed in which is the embryo (fig.
130, d). But the almost complete destruction of the pa¬
renchyma of the nucleus, and great development of the
embryonic sac, does not always take place: for in some
plants the sac is only enlarged sufficiently to contain the
embryo, and the parenchyma is to be observed (fig. 130, e)
in the ripe seed filled with globules of a starchy sub¬
stance, and is thus converted into a body similar to the
endosperm; but, from its different situation and mode of
formation, is called by another name in order to distin¬
guish it, viz. the perisperm. In a few plants both the en¬
dosperm and perisperm may be traced, as in the water-
-
I
B O T
ossolotry.lilv. We adopt these terms in conformity with Brong-
—niart; but we must observe that systematic writers use
[ CXIV. these words, as well as albumen, promiscuously. In com¬
mon language these are applied to that body which is to
be sometimes found between the embryo and the coats
of the seed, and whose cellular substance is totally differ¬
ent from the organized embryo; but when botanists dis¬
covered, as in the water-lily, in the Scitaminea, Piper area;,
and some other tribes (fig. 132), not only the albumen,
but a second body more immediately surrounding the em¬
bryo, they gave this the name of vitellus (Brown), or sac
to the embryo (Bindley). Brown, however, aftei wards
showed that the vitellus was a kind of albumen, and that
two kinds might exist in the same plant; and more lately
Brongniart has suggested the propriety of employing ex¬
pressions for each. Perhaps, on the whole, the term albu¬
men, so generally adopted, might be used promiscuous¬
ly for whichever is developed, and when it is necessary
to distinguish both, to employ the terms endosperm and
perisperm. We object to the use of the phrases vitellus,
and sac to the embryo, because in many instances the al¬
bumen is entirely formed of this supposed sac or vitellus,
and that if these words are to be adopted, they ought to
be so constantly, and not in those cases only where both
parts of the albumen are visible.1
ilbumen. The nature of the albumen is of great importance: it
is farinaceous in the grasses; coriaceous and almost car¬
tilaginous in many umbelliferae; ruminated when it is
wrinkled by reason of prolongations of the coat of the
seed into the folds of the albumen, as in the Annonacea;
fleshy in most of the Euphorbiacece ; horny., as in the coftee-
bean; or thin and membranous, as in many Labiates. .
Embryo. The embryo, as we have already said, is that organized
body existing in the perfect seed after fecundation, which
is destined to become a plant similar in all respects to the
parent. It may either have or be without an albumen.
When the albumen is present, and the embryo is applied
to a point on its surface, it is said to be external (exte¬
rior) ; or if rolled round it, is peripheric. If shut up with¬
in the albumen, it is said to be inclosed (inclusus), and
then may be either in the centre of the albumen (centra¬
lis), or not in the centre (eccentricus). Usually there is
but one embryo in each seed; but plants occur in which
there are more than one, as the Allium fragrans, mistletoe
(fig. 133), &c.
As the embryo is already organized in the seed, and
becomes a plant by mere development, so all the parts
of the future plant must exist in it, although in a mere
rudimentary state. It must, therefore, contain the rudi¬
ments of the root, of the stem, and of the leaves.
Radicle. This is the rudiment of the root (fig. 134, a),
and by germination becomes a root. Such may either
happen by the mere elongation of the exposed radicle, or
by its bursting through a peculiar envelope, and protruding
the root from within. Plants which have this cover to the
radicle are termed endorhizee (fig. 135, a), and those which
ANY.
have none exorhizee. Moreover, with very few exceptions, Glossology,
and which are generally attended with other peculiarities, v——'
all exogenous plants are Exorhizae, and the endogenous, PI-CXIV.
Endorhizae; so that the radicle indicates the future struc¬
ture of the stem. The radicle is usually quite distinct
from the albumen ; but in Cycadece and Conifera. there is
an organic connection between them. Hence liichai d
has raised these orders to a distinct class, and called them
synorhizee.
The neck or collum is the line of separation between
the radicle and the portion above it.
The Plumule (fig. 134, c), is what is destined to be¬
come the stem, and is therefore a rudimentary leaf-bud.
It is by some divided into the cauliculus, or the portion
between the radicle and the cotyledons, and the gemmule,
or that which is situated above the cotyledons. If, how¬
ever, our idea of the plumule be correct, the cauliculus
corresponds to the neck or collum, while the gemmule is
all that constitutes the true plumule. The plumule is
often undistinguishable from the cotyledons, as in most
of the exogenous plants that have albumen ; while it is
pretty evident in all exogenae without albumen. Among
the endogenae the plumule is frequently rolled up in the
cotyledon, and is not observable till after germination.
The cotyledons (fig. 134, b) are the primordial leaves
of the plant; and as the plumule corresponds to a leaf-
bud, so the cotyledons must be lateral, and situated at its
base. We have already observed that in exogenae the
leaves towards the bottom of the plant have a tendency .
to be opposite, and in endogenm alternate. In the embryo,
then, where there can be but few leaves, we may natu¬
rally expect this disposition to be exact; and in fact it is
so, exogenae having opposite or verticillate cotyledons,
and endogenae alternate. In the former case they are
usually two in number, whence exogenous plants are also
called dicotyledonous ; but sometimes there are more than
two, as in the pine. These, however, being in a whorl,
are mere modifications of the opposite cotyledons ; and it
has not been thought necessary to distinguish them from
the dicotyledonous. When the cotyledons alternate, it is
obvious that one only can be present at the base of the
plumule ; hence endogenous plants are called monocoty-
ledonous. In some of these the first leaf of the plumule
is at the same time slightly developed, whence botanists
have supposed that some endogenae have two cotyledons.
Their alternating with each other will, however, com¬
pletely distinguish them from the dicotyledonous plants.
Sometimes the two cotyledons of the exogenae are conso¬
lidated into one piece, as in Lecythus; in other plants, in
which the leaves are reduced to mere scales, the cotyle¬
dons are also in a reduced state, and scarcely perceptible ;
but we have no right to infer, as some have done, that
the embryo has none at all, or is acotyledonous. I he
cotyledons are erect, and placed close to each other, con¬
taining between them the plumule; they may be fleshy
or foliaceous, narrow and semicylindrical, or broad and
1 We have already stated Mirbel’s view of the structure of the ovulum, and said that he has pointed out five distinct periods of
development. In the first, the ovulum is scarcely perceptible, being a small pulpy conical substance, without a foramen. In the
second, the exostome and endostome open, and they are to be perceived dilating insensibly until they have attained their maximum.
The primine and secundine are manifest, as is also the tercine ; but this only puts on the appearance of a round oi conical cellular
mass, of which the apex protrudes beyond the secundine. In the third period the primine and secundine, united together, increase
much in size, have their double orifice closed, and consequently conceal the tercine, which becomes a membranous bag. In the fourth
period the quartine arises from the internal surface of the nucleus, and the quintine is elongated into a narrow utricle attached by
the one extremity to the point corresponding to the chalaza, and by the other to that near to the endostome. Ihis 18 t“e period in
which the ovule passes into the state of a seed. In the fifth period the quintine expands, the embryo exhibits the cotyledons as well
as the radicle, and reaches its full size ; and the substance of the albumen is formed either in the cells of the quintine, or in those
of the quartine or tercine, when it is no longer possible to recognise the different envelopes of the ovule. These considerations of
Mirbel, though apparently different, are in "reality much the same as those of Brongniart, the quartine corresponding to the paren¬
chyma of the embryo, and the quintine to the embryonic sac.
52
BOTANY.
Glossology./?*^; they may be plane, or plicate, or conduplicate (fig.
as in the cabbage, or convolute (fig. 139) or wrink-
Pl. CXIV. fed . they may be entire, or lobed, or divided. They are
said to be hypogeous when they remain under ground
during germination ; or epigeous, when, by an elongation of
the collum, they rise out of the ground during that pro¬
cess, as in the bean.
Having thus explained these parts, we have to notice
the direction of the embryo. It may be straight or curv¬
ed. The radicle is the base of the embryo, and the sum¬
mit of the cotyledon the apex. Now, as the hilum is the
base of the seed, so, when the radicle points towards the
hilum, the embryo has the same direction as the seed,
and is said to be homotropous, and if at the same time it
be straight, orthotropous ; and when the cotyledons point
to the hilum, it is inverted, or is called antitropous. When
it assumes a horizontal direction, or lies across the seed, and
lias not the same direction with it, it is heterotropous. And,
lastly, in a curved seed, both extremities of the embryo
may be turned towards the hilum, and it has been then
termed amphitropous (fig. 140) ; but this is a modification
of the antitropous. It has been now discovered that the
radicle, or base of the embryo, is always situated at the
foramen of the ovule or micropyle of the seed, and that the
other or cotyledonary extremity as invariably is directed
towards the chalaza. If, then, the nucleus of the ovule have
a contrary direction to the ovule itself, or if the micropyle
be near the hilum, the embryo is homotropous ; but if the
nucleus be erect, or the micropyle be at the apex of the
seed, it is antitropous; and if the micropyle be at the side
of the seed, it is heterotropous. In a curved seed, where
the micropyle and chalaza are brought nearly into contact,
we have the amphitropous embryo.1
The position of the hilum in regard to the radicle, or,
as one may say, the direction of the embryo with respect
to the seed, is called the spermic direction of the embryo,
and is usually of great importance in defining most natu¬
ral groups. Thus, in the horse-chestnut, wdiere there are
twro seeds in each cell, of which the one is erect and the
other inverted, or rather resupinate, the spermic direction
of the embryo is the same in each. But in some tribes,
as the Proteacece, the situation of the hilum on the seed
appears to be variable; in which case we must resort to
the pericarpic direction of the embryo, or its direction re¬
latively to the fruit; and then, when it has the same di¬
rection as the fruit, it is erect, or the radicle is said to be
inferior ; and when it has an opposite direction, it is in¬
verted, or the radicle is superior.
In a curved embryo, the relative position of the radicle
and cotyledons is of great importance. Upon this De
Candolle has founded his divisions of the cruciferae. Wlien
the radicle is so bent that it touches the back of one of
the cotyledons, it is said to be dorsal, or the cotyledons
incumbent (fig. 137). When it is applied to the edge or
cleft of the cotyledons it is lateral, or the cotyledons are
adcumbent (fig. 138). The same terms are analogically
applied, even when the radicle is very slightly bent, but
where, by a continuation of the bend, it might touch the
back or edge of the cotyledons, as in the genus Poly¬
gonum.
Arrangement of the Organs of Reproduction.
All the organs of reproduction being modified leaves,
it might be expected that their relative position must fol- Glossologj,
low the same law ; but whatever be the causes of aberra-
tion, we know that such is seldom the case. Although
the number of the parts of each verticil, as the calyx, co¬
rolla, &c. be usually the same as that of the leaves of the
plant, yet every sixth real leaf is placed under the first in
a quinary spiral, while in the flower the general rule is,
that the sixth, or the first petal, is placed between the
first and the second leaf of the spiral, or, in other words,
the petals usually alternate with the sepals. In the same
way the stamina alternate with the petals, or are opposite
to the divisions of the calyx; and, lastly, the carpels al¬
ternate with the stamina, and are opposite to the petals.
Such is the general disposition when the parts of the
flower are definite and present; and even although at
times there be a multiplicity of stamina and styles, these
arise from two or more rows of the staminary and car-
pellary leaves being developed, and can scarcely be said to
affect the rule ; and hence this is called the normal ar¬
rangement, and the symmetrical number. But exceptions
nevertheless do occur. Thus petals have been found placed
before sepals, stamens before the petals, or carpels before
the stamens, as well as various combinations of the oppo¬
site with the alternating system ; but no plant is, we be¬
lieve, known in which all the parts are opposite. One of
the most remarkable states is where the calyx and corolla
do alternate, while the carpels are placed opposite to the
sepals, and alternate with the petals. Brown, upon whom
no irregularity of structure, even the most trivial, is lost,
has, from these anomalies, suggested that the full or com¬
plete number of parts in both the stamina and the carpels
is equal to that of the divisions of the calyx and corolla
taken conjointly. In the monocotyledonous plants the
complete number is the most prevalent, while it is rare
among the dicotyledonous. The full number may, how¬
ever, be seen in decandrous and octandrous plants. Most
of the leguminosae exhibit the complete number of sta¬
mens, but all the pistilla are abortive but one. Many of the
genera that have the symmetrical number exhibit some¬
times glands, and sometimes imperfect stamens between
the perfect ones, which tend to show the extreme accu¬
racy of Mr Brown’s suggestion. In distinguishing genera,
or even orders, it is often of importance to examine whe¬
ther the arrangement be normal or not.
But there is another point worthy of consideration, and
that is the relative position of the parts of the calyx to
the axis of inflorescence, or to the subtending bractea.
That part which is next the bractea is said to be anterior
or inferior, while the opposite portion is superior or poste¬
rior. Now, one of the segments of the calyx is usually
posterior, and a petal anterior ; but in a very few groups
of plants this position is reversed. When the symmetrical
arrangement takes place, one of the sepals is, we believe,
always superior, and it is evident that one of the carpels
must be therefore anterior; and when the complete number
is to be observed, one carpel must be also anterior, whatever
be the situation of the sepals. But what is remarkable
is, that though all the carpels be reduced by abortion to
unity, the solitary simple pistil!um that is left is the one
which was inferior; so that in every possible case where
the pistils are reduced to one carpel, that one is situated
next the bractea, and consequently has its placentiferous
margin, which is next the axis of the flower, superior.
1 Mirbel takes notice of an anomaly in the Primnlacctz and Plantagineoe, arising from the unequal development of the parts
of the ovule. Here the primine sac or testa, in consequence of an extraordinary increase on the extensible side of the ovule,
and a gradual contraction of the opposite one, has by degrees the exostome turned towards the chalaza, so that at last, as in other
curved seeds, the two extremities coalesce ; but the extensible side of the secundine, and even of the tercine or nucleus, soon ceases
to increase with the corresponding side of the primine; so that the embryo, of which the radicle remained close to the summit of the
internal envelopes, becomes stationary with the endostome, whilst the exostome has pursued it course and does not stop till it reaches
the base of the ovule.
lossology. The examination, then, of a simple solitary pistillum will
thus, although we may have before us no more than a
flower without the bractea, determine the anterior and
posterior situation of the lobes of the calyx or sepals. In
the same way, when the division of the flower is quinary,
and the carpels are reduced to two, the one is usually
anterior, and the other posterior; or the solitary carpel
being anterior, the addition to it is posterior. The only
exception to this with which Mr Brown (who first laid
any stress upon it) appears to be acquainted, was in some
genera of Dilleniacece. Martius, and following him Bind¬
ley, have distinguished Gentianece from their allies by the
two carpels being placed right and left, and not anterior
and posterior ; but perhaps these able naturalists have not
taken into due consideration the nature of the inflores¬
cence and the consequent position of the bracteas. At
present, therefore, we do not consider that tribe as an
exception. In DilleniacecE even, if we understand rightly
the structure of the order, the apparent exceptions are
caused by peculiarities upon which it were improper here
to enter, nay even imprudent, for no one in Europe has
had the same opportunities of studying the group as the
distinguished naturalist to whom we have alluded.
With regard to the number of parts in each whorl of
the flowers, the symmetrical number is Jive among the
dicotyledonous, or sometimes four, while in the monoco-
tyledonous it is three. When, however, we consider that,
on the one hand, there may be a reduction of parts, by the
sepals, petals, stamina, and carpels, being much subject to
abortion and union, and, on the other, an excess, either by
multiplication, by more series than one of the same kind
being developed, or by the combination of several flowers
into one, we may easily conceive how few plants belong
either to pentandria pentagynia, or to pentandria mono-
gynia with a five-celled fruit.
Some botanists have supposed that the calyx and corolla
form only one envelope; but this question seemed put to
rest till the complete number of stamina and styles were
found each equal to the conjunct number of both the
floral coverings, when we have seen it revived. But we
would suggest to those who may be inclined to adopt such
an opinion, the difficulty of the case when petals are
placed before the sepals. If these formed one envelope,
then we must suppose the alternating petals abortive, and
the apparent one a transformed stamen; and this suppo¬
sition might be true if we never found a real stamen also
opposite to the sepal and petal; but the Berheridece form
at once an exception. We are aware that such a difficulty
might be partly overcome by viewing the calyx of the
Berberidece as a series of bracteolse, so that we should have
but one floral covering, and thus approach them to the
Laurinece; for, by the abortion of some stamens, there is
nothing to prevent the others being opposite to the petal,
provided the petals were not also opposite to the sepals. Glossology.
But we do not recollect that any one has placed the Ber-
beridece among the monochlamydeae ; and as for the theory1
in general, it has been permitted by common consent to
be now almost forgotten.1
CELLULAR PLANTS.
Having now at length explained the reproductive or¬
gans of vascular plants, we cannot pass over the cellular.
In all these, as we have already said, there are no spiral
vessels; and if, as we imagine, such are essential to the
formation of a fecundating pollen, and of an embryo, we
shall have no difficulty of denying to the whole class a
real seed. Some botanists have insisted on the presence
of male and female flowers ; but if these do exist, they are
in so very modified a state, so small, and so obscure, that
all cellular plants have been invariably termed cryptoga-
mous or agamous, in opposition to vascular plants, or those
with spiral vessels in which there.are flowers, and hence
called phanerogamous or phcenogamous, from their sexes
being evident and well formed. From the imperfection
of the pollen and ovula (allowing such to exist) no em¬
bryo is formed, and thus cellulares are by some called ar-
hizce (without a radicle), and by others acotyledonous (with¬
out cotyledons) ; both of these terms, however, from their
allusion to an embryo, are, in our opinion, subject to cri¬
ticism, so that those at one time adopted by Richard, of
embryo?iatce (with sexes, seeds, and embryo), and exem-
bryonalce (without sexes, without seeds, and without an
embryo), for the two grand divisions of vegetables, are
more strictly correct. But if cellular plants have no seeds,
how are they reproduced? Linnaeus has laid down the
rule oinne vivum ex ovo ; but at that time the anatomical
structure and physiology of the ovum was not so well un¬
derstood ; and there does not seem to be any doubt in the
present day, that where spiral vessels are not present, a
new individual may be formed by mere dilatation of some
portion of the parent plant suited to the purpose, remote¬
ly similar to the multiplication of polypi in the animal
kingdom, or even to spurious leaf-buds among vegetables.
The portions thus capable of expansion have been by
some termed seeds, from a general resemblance to true
seeds, but are strictly called sporules. These sporules
appear to give rise to a plant, in many cases, by elon¬
gating at some one point that seems to be only deter¬
mined by contingent circumstances. In the ductulose
cellular plants (we allude chiefly to those ferns with a
rhizoma, for these alone have been examined with sufficient
care) the sporule elongates into what at first has the ap¬
pearance of a short club-shaped body (fig. 141) with two
or three transverse darker coloured streaks. This, then, by
degrees expands into a flat cellular and somewhat folia-
1 Since the above was written, we have received a work by M. Dunal of Montpellier on the floral organs. This distinguished bota¬
nist considers that all the parts of a flower in its perfect state may be referred to three systems, which are respectively composed of
several verticils or series in the following order, the divisions of each verticil constantly alternating with those of the preceding ver¬
ticil. I. Calycinal system, and always sterile. Of this there are three verticils, the first being sometimes called exterior sepals ; the second
is often termed by botanists an outer calyx ; the third is the calyx of authors, and within its segments, and opposite to them, and often
adhering with them, are an equal number of scales or lepals analogous to those in the next system, but which form only a part of this
the third verticil; and these scales cover the whole inside of the calyx in many achlamydeae. 11. Male reproductive system, or androeceum.
This is formed of two ranks, an exterior and interior. Of the former, the first verticil furnishes the petals, in the axils of which are
found scales or lepals, but both only form one series; the second verticil is of an equal number of parts, and alternate with them.
The inner andrceceum has also two verticils. III. Female reproductive system, or gynceceum, consists likewise of two verticils, the first
of which usually constitutes the fruit, and consequently has its divisions opposite to those of the calyx or third verticil of the calycinal
system. Thus, the whole parts of the flower consist of nine series or verticils. The lepals or stamens found in the axils of the petals
or first verticil of the exterior androeceum, as well as the real stamens, are often separated into several, or, as Dunal terms them,
clwristate, as in the almond. The fleshy disoid torus found in some plants he supposes to arise from the abortion of the inner androe¬
ceum ; a perigynous ring or disc, as in the Santalacece, he supposes to be formed by the union of the lepals and filaments of the outer
androeceum. We shall not here enter into a discussion on the merits of this theory, which it is difficult to understand without a
reference to M. Dunal’s figures; but shall merely observe that it is exceedingly ingenious, and, if properly substantiated, may explain
several anomalies in the structure of flowers hitherto involved in considerable obscurity.
54 B O T
Glossology, ceous substance (fig. 142), setting out radicular fibres
from its margin; and these being now capable of deriving
PI. CXV. immediate nourishment from the earth, the body of the
sporule disappears. This flat substance appears by elon¬
gation to become the rhizoma; for soon after it is fixed to
the ground, it emits, from a point on its upper surface
(fig. 143), a thread, which is afterwards the stipes and the
leafy part of the plant. Mosses germinate nearly in the
same way; the clavate, and as if articulated, body arises
from the sporule, and then elongates, branches, and forms
the radicular portion, from some part of which the stem
(as it is called) is projected, bearing the leaves (See Phas-
cum serratum, fig. 144). Many Hepaticce germinate as
the mosses. Conferva (part of the Alga) arise like the
roots of mosses, and these fibres afterwards more or less
unite together. Most lichens germinate like the ferns,
the dilated filament becoming the frond. The Fungi have
not been well observed in this respect; but it seems pro¬
bable that, in the greater number, the whole mass is form¬
ed by the mere expansion of the sporule. How in all
these orders the sporules are formed from the cells of the
parent plant, and how they are endowed with the power
of expansion, is a difficulty not easily solved; but this, as
well as the investigation of the vivifying principle of the
pollen on the embryo in vascular vegetables, is a subject
purely physiological, and does not fall within our limits.
We shall, however, merely state the only analogy, and it
is a distant one, we can trace between these. Sporules
are brought into life by coming into contact with external
moisture, while the granules of pollen may. be viewed as
sporules that require to be fully shaped and fostered by
the juices in the interior of the embryonic sac.
Equiseta- 1. Equisetacea.—The stems, and often the principal
cese. branches, of this tribe, are terminated by an ovate or coni¬
cal spike, or rather raceme (fig. 145), composed of several
verticillated scales (fig. 146), which are pedicellate, pel¬
tate, and angular. From the under side of these scales
several wedge-shaped involucra or indusia project down¬
wards, and burst longitudinally on the side next the pedi¬
cel, and discharge a multitude of globules. These glo¬
bules (fig. 147), when seen under the microscope, consist
of a central green compact spherical body, furnished at
its base with four elongated clavate filaments, slightly
united by pairs of an elastic nature, so that when moist
they twist spirally round the central portion, but when
dry unrol and expand themselves, bearing on them many
minute granules. The use of these parts is unknown.
Hedwig supposed the central body to be a pistillum, and
that each pair of elastic filaments formed one stamen,
whose pollen was the granules. Brongniart, tracing in
these plants a general resemblance to Coniferce and Cyca-
dea, presumes that the central body is a naked ovulum,
and the filaments four grains of poilen united in pairs to
its base. But although we admit either of these theories,
we cannot regard the male organs as perfect; and the
uniform structure of the supposed pistil or ovule militates
against both hypotheses. Perhaps the central body may
be viewed as a short seta or receptacle, analogous to that
found in Ferns; the clavate filaments would then supply
the place of a theca and annulus, while the minute gra¬
nules would be sporules. This view is probable, if we con¬
sider each globule with the filaments as the result of a
transformed frond.
Filices. 2. Filices.—The organs of reproduction, commonly call¬
ed the fructification, of ferns, arise from veins either on the
under surface of the frond, or at its margin. In some
genera the frond, or a part of it, becomes deformed, and
seems entirely covered by these organs. Each cluster of
organs is called a sorus (fig. 148 and 149), and is some¬
times protected by a membrane termed an involucre or
ANY-
indusium (as in fig. 148), which is always attached to the Glossolo •.
veins. This indusium is said to be plane when it lies flat
upon the sorus; or peltate when more or less circular, butPL CX1
depressed in its centre so as to form a kind of small pillar
in the middle of the sorus; or reniform when it is the half
of a peltate involucre, and thus resembling a half circle,
attached by its centre on the one side of the sorus. It is
squamiform or scale-like when it has the appearance of the
scales of the frond. It may be continuous when the invo¬
lucra of several sori are united into one uninterrupted line,
and is single or double according as it extends from the
vein on one or on both sides of the sorus. Thus a peltate
involucrum is double, and consists of two reniform ones.
An involucrum is usually superior, but is sometimes in¬
ferior, or placed under the sorus, and surrounds it. It
may either open outward (exterius dehiscens) in an oppo¬
site direction to the midrib, or inwards (interius dehiscens)
towards the midrib; and when it is inferior, may burst
from the apex into lacinice or into two valves, or the up¬
per part may disappear, leaving the lower cup-shaped
{involucrum pateriforme). Sometimes the part of the
vein to which the reproductive organs are attached is pro¬
jected from the frond into the sorus, and is then called a
receptacle. The sori may be fixed to the middle of a vein,
or at its bifurcation, or at its extremity. They are round,
or linear, or reniform, distinct or confluent, or continuous.
They consist of groups of capsules; these, called more
properly theca (fig. 149), are either pedicellate, with the
stalk passing round them in the form of an elastic ring or
annulus, or are sessile, and usually destitute of such a
ring; the former are called annulata, the latter exannu-
lata. These thecae either burst open irregularly, or into
two valves, or on the opposite side from the ring (fig.
150) when it is present. The sporules seem arranged
without order in the interior. The sori may be considered
as a group of fronds, the stalk of the theca as a modified
stipes, the annulus as the midrib or rachis, and the theca
itself as the transformed frondose portion. This highly
probable view was first, we believe, suggested by Mr
Bindley. Hedwig and others, who have wished to disco¬
ver sexual organs among ferns, have been much puzzled,
each having a different opinion, though none seems as yet
worthy of notice.
3. Marsiliacea.—The fructification is situated at or Marsili-
very near the root or rhizoma; in one plant along the acete.
petiole of the frond or leaf. It consists of a somewhat
globular involucrum (fig. 151 and 152), of a leathery or
membranous texture. This, unlike the ferns, does not
open, and is probably composed of a transformed frond,
the veins of w hich give rise to one or more partitions;
hence the involucrum appears to have sometimes several
cells. Attached to the veins or partitions are small bodies,
apparently of two different kinds. Of these, in Marsilea
(fig. 152), the one (fig. 153, a) is an oval-stalked theca,
containing corpuscles, some large and roundish, others
minute and angular. The other kind are very small bags
filled with minute granules, and attached (fig. 153, b),
several together, to the stalk of the theca. The theca, by
the sexualists, has been considered a pistillum, and the
bags as anthers. In Pilidaria the structure is much the
same, only the supposed anthers occupy the upper por¬
tion of the involucrum, and the thecae the lower. In Sal-
vinia the anthers consist of grains, attached by long threads
to a central column; in Azolla they are angular, and in¬
serted upon a central body that occupies the upper half of
the involucre, while the lower half is filled with a turbid
fluid, and the thecae are placed within a different involu¬
crum.
4. Lycopodiacea. Flere the organs of reproduction are Lycopo-
axillaiy or in spikes, and are composed of roundish cap- diacese.
T1
BOTANY.
lossology-sides or thecce, that are from one to three celled, and one
to three valved, or indehiscent; the thecae are usually
i CXV. 0f tw0 kinds, the one (fig. 154) containing a minute pul¬
verulent matter (fig. 155, and magnified, fig. 156), and
placed towards the upper ends of the shoots; the other
(fig. 157) containing granules or corpuscles (fig. 157, a), of
a much larger size, and situated on the lower parts of the
shoots. In Isoetes, where the leaves are all radical, the
outer leaves contain in their axils the granular, the inner
the pulverulent organs. The pulverulent have been called
by some anthers ; the granular, pistilla. The latter certain¬
ly do germinate, but Willdenow asserts that the former do
so likewise. Gaertner also supposes both to contain seeds
or sporules, and that there is no difference of sex.
Musci. 5. Musci. Here the organs are likewise of two kinds ;
the one, termed by Hedwig and many of his followers
anthers, being cylindrical or fusiform stalked bags (fig.
. 158), that contain a pulverulent matter mixed with others
that are empty and jointed; the other, capsules or thecce
(fig. 159, 160, 161, i62). These latter, when young, are
seated on a receptacle, which, from its being occasionally
provided at the base with several small leaves, called a
perichcetium, may be viewed as a deformed termination of
the stem or branch. This theca is protected by a more
or less membranous substance, called a calyptra (fig. 160 a,
163 b), loose from the theca, but attached around its base
to the receptacle (fig. 161 a); the calyptra has by some
been considered a style. The capsule or theca, at first
green and small, soon begins to swell, and becomes attenu¬
ated at the base (fig. 160 h, 163 c), mto a. pedicel, called a
seta, which is often of considerable length ; but in two gene¬
ra, Sphagnum (fig. 168) and Andrcea (fig. 161), is entirely
wanting. By this attenuation of the theca, and formation
of a seta, and by the increasing magnitude of the theca
itself, the calyptra is torn from its attachment to the re¬
ceptacle, and may be soon perceived resting on the upper
part of the theca (fig. 160). When this in maturity is
split up on the one side (fig. 160), it is said to be dimi¬
diate, and if entire, or with several short clefts (fig. 164),
mitriform; in some, as in Splachnum and its affinities, it
remains entire for a considerable period, but afterwards
splits and appears dimidiate, when it is difficult to say
under which it ought to be arranged; but, notwithstand¬
ing, the nature of the calyptra is now acknowledged by
all to be a good natural generic distinction. The surface
of the calyptra may be smooth, or striated, or sulcate {fur¬
rowed), and may be glabrous, or clothed with hairs. In some
polytricha there is in addition an outer hairy calyptra, but
this is formed of abortive leaves entangled together, and
scarcely attached to the inner and true one. Upon the
removal or fall of the calyptra, the theca presents itself,
sometimes globose, or ovate, or oblong. In some it is straight;
in others, the one side is longer than the other, so that the
theca inclines to one side, and is drooping or cernuous,
which must not be confounded with a pendulous theca,
caused by a curvation of the extremity of the seta. In
a cernuous theca, the shorter or under side, instead of
being uniformly contracted and smooth like the upper, has
sometimes the contraction at one point at its base, and
the protuberance thus caused is then called a struma. In
all but Andrcea, which has four valves (fig. 161), the
theca is entire. Between the seta and the theca is often
a fleshy expansion called apophysis (fig. 159 a), this al¬
ways containing, at least when young, a pulpy mass, but
no sporules, and being a mere dilatation of the top of
the seta. The (heca usually opens (fig. 162) horizontally
near its apex; the upper part is called an operculum or
lid (fig. 162 a): in some genera, however, this lid does Glossology,
not separate from the theca (fig. 161 b), and does not even
show any indication of the suture. The operculum is of^h CXV.
various shapes, but the terms applied are common to other
plants. “ The stoma, or mouth of the theca, is either
naked, as in Gymnostomum and Hedwigia (fig. 162); or
generally furnished with a series of cilia called teeth
{dentes), which may be either in a single series, as in
Splachnum, Grimmia, and Dicranum (fig. 165); or in a
compound or double series (fig. 166), as in Hookeria,
Hypnum, and Bryum. In all mosses which possess a
peristomium, it arises from the surface of the stoma, or
springs from it within the margin and a little below the
summit of the theca. In the latter case the teeth are
generally more or less connected by a membrane, which
not unfrequently rises to a level with the stoma, or even
above it. Sometimes all vestiges of the teeth then disap¬
pear, thus presenting the aspect of a truly membranaceous
peristome, as is seen in Diphyscium (fig. 167) and Lep-
tostomum ; and in such as have a double peristome of re¬
gular teeth, the inner one is formed by this membrane,
split into a fixed number of attenuated segments. Some¬
times, though rarely, the stoma is furnished with a dense
horizontal epiphragma, not accompanied with teeth (as is
the case with the epiphragma of Polytrichum), an instance
of which occurs in Lyellia; or, what is still more curious, is
supplied with a pencil of fine capillary ciliae, as is exem¬
plified in Baivsonia."1 The number of teeth is always
some multiple of four. Outside of the teeth, and between
the edge of the theca and the operculum, is to be observ¬
ed in some plants an elastic ring or annulus (fig. 165 a),
the presence or absence of which, however, does not ap¬
pear to be of great importance. “ Within the theca (fig.
168 and 169), and attached to its sides and base by a
cellular pulp intermingled with very slender filaments, is
placed a membrane which forms a complete lining. Pro¬
ceeding from the stoma or mouth downwards, it is con¬
tinued to the base, when it is reflected upwards, forming
a central column, till on a level with the mouth of the
theca. This part has been generally denominated a co¬
lumella (fig. 161, c), and is very different from the pla¬
centa in cotyledonous plants, to which it has been some¬
times compared. A bag is thus formed between the
columella, and that part of the same organ which lines
the theca, in which the sporulae are situated. The whole
is closed by a very subtile membranous expansion, stretch¬
ing between the summit of the lining and the columella,
which (although in Gymnostomum it is often of a stronger
texture), by the maturing of the theca, and separation of
the operculum, lacerates, and in most instances becomes
evanescent. On the open apex of the columella is fixed
another membrane, more or less of a conical form, and of a
somewhat different texture and colour, which by age often
shrinks to the appearance of a mere lid to its orifice.
Sometimes it is more rigid (as in Splachnum, Tayloria,
and Gymnostomum. Donianum), and is then not unfre¬
quently called an exserted columella. It also in some
cases adheres closely to the summit of the interior of
the operculum (as in Gymnostomum. Heimii, and Hyp¬
num dendroides), which it raises or depresses according
to the degree of dryness or humidity to which it is expos¬
ed. It is this part which we conceive to be the stigma of
Palisot de Beauvois, but which we propose to designate
by the more appropriate name of opercular membrane.”12
Mr Bindley has with great ingenuity lately suggested, that
the calyptra may be understood as a convolute leaf, the
operculum another, the peristome one or more whorls of
1 Arn. and Grev. in Mem. Wern. Soc. vol. iv. p. 121.
1 Hid. voL iv. p. 114,
56
botany.
PI. CXV.
Hepaticae.
Glossology, minute flat leaves, and the theca itself to be the exca-
vated distended apex of the stalk, with which we agree;
but he, in addition, supposes that the cellular substance
of this dilated apex separates in the form of sporules, an
hypothesis started by Richard,1 and agreed in by Brown
and Hooker. To this, however, there are, we conceive,
many grand objections. As to the supposed anthers,
whether the contained powder be imperfect pollen, or, as
others say, a second kind of sporules, too little is yet
known to render them even of use for the characters
of genera. Meese asserts he saw them germinate like
sporules ; and Dr Roth presumes them to be analogous to
the gemmae, or buds of other plants formed by a super¬
abundance of juices. . , Q
6. Hepaticce.—The reproductive organs are here ot se¬
veral kinds, but bear the strongest resemblance to those
of the mosses. The theca is, however, destitute of an
operculum. In Jungermannia (fig. 170) it splits into four
longitudinal valves, and is supported by a delicate mem¬
branous peduncle or seta (a) arising from the frond ; the
whole, when very young, is moreover protected by a deli¬
cate cahptra (b) ; but this does not loosen its attachment
to the receptacle or portion of the frond, but splits at the
apex to permit the elongation of the seta. This calyptra is
placed within another (fig. c) either single or double cover,
less delicate, and more of the texture of the frond, which
may be termed a volva, but is generally, though very impro¬
perly, called a calyx ; and this, which is of different foims,
however insufficient for a generic distinction, is admirably
suited for specific characters. When the theca bursts,
the sporules are found to be intermixed with elastic spiral
filaments or elateres (fig. 170, d). But besides the theca,
minute spherical cellular bodies have been discovered in
many species ; and these are supported by short stalks, and
have been by some termed anthers. Monoclea (fig. 171)
bears a very great resemblance to jungermannia; the volva
is however less distinct, but the calyptra {corolla of some)
is considerably elongated {a), and tubular. The theca
is borne by a seta {b) ; it does not burst into four valves,
but splits up on one side (c), and presents a central fili¬
form body (d), called a columella, about which are the
sporules, mixed with elateres (fig. 172). In Targionia, the
volva arises from the under side of the frond, and of a tex¬
ture between membranous and coriaceous, marked by a ver¬
tical prominent line, by which it separates into two valves :
within this are several slender bodies, supposed by some to
be anthers; and one spherical, covered by a calyptra, which
bursts vertically. Within this, again, is the theca, upon
so very short a stalk as not to be, when mature, protruded
beyond the volva. The theca appears to burst irregularly,
bas no columella, and the sporules are mixed with elateres.
In Marchantia (fig. 173), the volva (here called usually a
common receptacle) is peltate (a) and on a stalk; it is either
flat or conical, and bears on its under surface, not one
calyptra, as in the other genera we have noticed, but se¬
veral, each of which (fig. 174, a), bursting at its apex, that
is, the point nearest the frond, discloses a theca (5), which
opens by eight short teeth or valves, united below, and
contains sporules and elateres. Other peltate volvas or
receptacles, however, occur, having merely oblong bodies
imbedded vertically in the disk, and conjectured to be
anthers ; and besides these there are sometimes little open
cups, sessile on the upper surface of the frond, that con¬
tain minute gemmee. Fimbriaria differs so very slightly
from Marchantia, that we may pass it over. In Anthoce-
ros (fig. 175) there appears to be no volva; the calyptra
(often called a calyx) arises {a) from the frond, and is tu¬
bular; tbe theca, supported by a stalk or seta, is linear, Glossolo*
and splits {b) into two valves exhibiting a central colu-
mella (c), to which the sporules are attached by means of
very short straight filaments (fig. 176). There are no ela¬
teres. The structure of Sphcerocarpus is involved in some
doubt. We have never had the opportunity of analysing
good specimens, but the following seems, from a compari¬
son of the different results of other botanists, to approach
nearly to the truth. The whole upper surface of the frond
is covered with ellipsoidal volvas (called in this genus/o/-
licles or calyces). These are truncated and perforated at
the apex; they are said by some to split into two valves,
but this arises from such botanists having only looked at
Micheli’s figure, in which they are represented cut open
by the knife. The volva contains at the bottom a very few
linear bodies, the supposed anthers, and one other, the
theca, which becomes swollen and spherical, and filled with
sporules, destitute of elateres, according to Micheli, though
others of less note state that they are present; the calyptra,
if present, is closely attached to the theca, and only indi¬
cated by a small point at its extremity. Riccia (fig. 177)
has small excavations in the frond (fig. 178), in which the
volva, often scarcely perceptible, rests, containing the theca
and calyptra, similar to that of Sphcerocarpus: the sporules
are unmixed with elateres. There is thus among the
Hepaticce such a variety among the organs of reproduc¬
tion, that no common character is almost to be derived.
“ The most remarkable point of structure in these plants
is the spiral filament, as it is called, lying among the spo¬
rules within the theca. This consists of a single fibre, or
of two, twisted spirally in opposite directions, so as to
cross each other, and contained within a very delicate
transparent perishable tube. Ihey have a strong elastic
force, and have been supposed to be destined to aid in the
dispersion of the sporules; a most inadequate end for so
curious and unusual an apparatus.”2
7. In the Algce, the sporules, sometimes named granules, Algae,
are variously situated. In some they are contained in dis¬
tinct capsules or thecae (fig. 179) ; in others, in what are j
termed tubercles or conceptacula (fig. 180), which are
either free or imbedded in the frond, or in a leafy pro¬
cess arising from it; or a multitude of these may be col¬
lected close together, into what is then called a common
receptacle (fig. 181); and these receptacles in some as¬
sume the form of a pod {siliqua). The sporules or gra¬
nules are also often naked, and immersed in the frond
(fig. 182); or very rarely external, and surrounded by an
open involucre (fig* 183). Sporules with and without a
covering (theca or tubercle) frequently exist in the same
species, but usually in different individuals. Some genera
are tubular, and have the sporular matter scattered or ar¬
ranged in some determinate manner in their interior
(fig. 184); others are gelatinous (fig. 185), either wholly
or portions of them, containing naked sporules, which are
sometimes mixed with pellucid filaments, and sometimes
arranged so as to form moniliform or beaded threads (fig.
186). We, along with Agardh, unite to the Algce the Cha-
raceae of authors; and in these there are two kinds of organs
(fig. 187). The one (fig. 188) is a nucule, capsule, or theca,
sessile, oval, solitary, and unilocular, of two membranes, of
which the outer is remarkably thin and transparent, and
is terminated by five teeth. The inner one is opaque, and
of a thicker texture, and is formed of five narrow valves
twisted spirally; the interior is filled with minute granules,
but whether these be distinct sporules, or only parts of
one large disintegrated sporule, is not yet determined; but
each nucleus, on germinating, has been observed to give
1 JBulliard, Did. Elem. Bot. p. 67-
9 Lindl. Introd. Nat. Syst. p. 325.
BOTANY. o7
* rlossology. rise to only one plant. The second kind of organs has
' been termed globules. Of these the external tunic is very
1 1. CXV. pellucid and indehiscent; the inner seems formed of thin
triangular scales, composed of radiating tubes, inclosing a
coloured, spherical, pulverulent matter, and the interior of
the globule is filled with a multitude of long, simple, crowd¬
ed filaments, that are diaphonous, and marked with trans¬
verse striae, as in Oscillatoi’ia and Lyngbya. These fila¬
ments appear to be attached to the central portion of the
inside of each scale. Smith has arranged Chara in mon-
andria monogynia, conceiving the globule to be an anther,
and the tubercle a germen, and the five teeth a five-lobed
stigma; but the filaments of the supposed anther show
the absurdity of such an hypothesis. Walroth asserts that
the globules germinate.
Lichens. 8. Lichens.—The organs of reproduction (see fig. 189
and 190) are chiefly of one kind, termed apothecia or
shields, or partial receptacles. These are formed by nuclei
of the medullary substance usually bursting through the
cortical portion, which is often raised up, and forms a cup
or border round the nucleus; the sporules or gongylce are
contained in thecm or small membranous tubes, either
simple, or composed of several placed end to end: these
thecae in some lie free in the nucleus, but in others are
previously collected into other cases, termed asci. The
portion of the nucleus in which the thecae are inserted,
by exposure to the air becomes usually harder, and of a
somewhat cartilaginous nature, and then often separates
from the apothecia. It is called nucleus proligerus if the
whole of the nucleus becomes so, but lamina proligera
(fig.. 191) is applied when only the upper stratum con¬
tains the thecae. The apothecia are either sessile on the
thallus, or connected with it by a narrow neck or stalk
called podetium. The podetia are in some species cup¬
shaped at the apex, and, instead of one, bear several apo¬
thecia on the margin. This cup is then termed a scypha,
and the lichens scyphiferous (fig. 192). When the apo¬
thecia are long and linear, they are by some called lirellce ;
and even a round apothecium may be formed by the plait¬
ing or convolution of a lirella. In a few genera the nu¬
cleus proligerus is not protruded beyond the thallus, but
is contained within it, merely presenting a small opening
or ostiole (fig. 193, 194). Independent of the apothecium,
there are other parts which appear to have the power of
reproduction. These are called soredia when they con¬
tain a mass of free pulverulent bodies, usually of a whitish
colour, that are scattered over various portions of the
thallus; and pulvinuli when they resemble spongy or
amorphous excrescences.
"ungi. 9. Fungi.—This tribe borders on the lichens so very
closely, as tha't part of both have been separated into a
distinct order called Hypoxyla, for which, however, there
does not seem to be any necessity. Indeed Agardh re¬
marks of many fungi, that if they had a thallus, they
would be lichens. We have already said of them, that
the whole plant may be considered as a mass of repro¬
ductive matter; and we shall therefore give as short a
sketch of them as possible ; but, on account of their diver¬
sity of structure, we shall be obliged to take them by
groups. Brongniart regards the fungi as a class, and
divides them into orders; but we are rather inclined to
view them as one order, and will take Brongniart’s sec¬
tions, with a slight change of names, as sub-orders.
1. The first of these, and most nearly related to the
lichens, are the Hypoxula. Here the sporules are immersed
m a hard and ligneous receptacle or peridium, which opens
more or less regularly. Of these there are three tribes.
1. In the Sphaeriaceae (fig. 195) there is a terminal pore
or cleft, by which the thecse escape in the form of a mu¬
cilage (fig. 196): 2. In Phacidiaceae (fig. 197 and 198)
VOL. v.
there are several clefts or valves, and the thecae remain Glossology,
fixed: 3. In Cytisporeae their orifice is round, but the spo-
rules appear naked, and to have no thecae. r • -
2. Agaricoidece. Here the whole plant is somewhat
fleshy or corky, and called a receptacle. • It is partly
covered by a membrane that bears the sporules, which
are rarely naked, and scattered on it, but usually inclosed
in membranous thecae, and inserted in it. There are
three distinct tribes. 1. The Agaracineae (fig. 199) have
the membrane distinct, and limited to a particular part
of the plant, with the sporules almost always inclosed
in thecae, a sub-tribe of which, Clavarieae, has straight,
club-shaped, simple, or branched receptacles, with the
membrane covering nearly the whole; another, the Agari-
ceae, have a pileus, the lower surface of which contains
the sporuliferous membrane constituting lamella or gills in
Agaricus, and tubes in Boletus ; and the Helvellaceae have
a pileus, with the membrane on its upper surface. 2. The
Tremellineae are soft and gelatinous, and of an irregular
shape; they have no thecae, and the sporules are either
scattered on the surface of the membrane, or issue from
below it. 3. In the Clethrineae (fig. 200) the sporules are
mixed with a mucilaginous substance (the sporuliferous
membrane), either inclosed in the cells, or on the surface
of the plant which arises from a volva.
3. Lycoperdacece. Here the naked sporules, at least
when young, are inclosed in firm, or vesicular, or filamen¬
tous thecae, that are again included in the interior of a
peridium of a fleshy or membranous nature. 1. Sclerotineae
(fig. 201 and 202). This tribe has the peridium indehis¬
cent, and filled with a compact cellular substance or
agglutinated thecae, in which are the sporules very indis¬
tinct. 2. Angiogastri (fig. 203 and 204). Here the peri¬
dium, which opens sometimes by means of an operculum,
incloses one or more secondary peridia or peridiola (or
thecae, but by no means of a membranous nature, as
in many other fungi) filled with sporules. 3. Lycoperdi-
neae (fig. 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211), where the
peridium is usually pedicellated and of a determinate
shape, opening regularly, and inclosing the sporules, which
soon burst from the thecae, having the appearance of nu¬
merous filaments mixed with the sporules. 4. Fuligineae
(fig. 212, 213), in which the peridium is sessile, irregu¬
lar, readily decaying or crumbling into dust. The thecae
are filamentous, few in number, and, as in the last, soon
losing their sporules, which appear mixed with them.
4. Mucedines. In these there is no peridium, while the
sporules are naked, and supported by filaments more or less
branched and interwoven, in which it is probable they had
been at some period contained in all the species. There
are five tribes. 1. Isarieae (fig. 214 and 215), where the
filitments are united one with another in a regular and
constant manner, and have the sporules scattered on their
surface. 2. Byssaceae (fig. 216, 217, 218), where the fila¬
ments are distinct, though often entangled, opaque, without
joints, and exhibiting the sporules on their exterior; or
jointed, the joints breaking off and forming thecse contain¬
ing sporules. In some genera of this tribe no sporules
have been yet discovered, which has induced some dis¬
tinguished botanists to suspect several of them to be im¬
perfect states of other plants. 3. Mucedineae (fig. 219,
220, 221). Here the filaments are distinct or loosely
entangled, transparent, fugacious, and often articulated ;
and the sporules are included in the ultimate joints of the
filaments, or in small lateral branches, which afterwards
separate, or even in the interior of the filaments, without
joints, from which they quickly escape, and appear scat¬
tered on their surface. 4. Mucorineae (Plate CXVI. fig.
222, 223). The filaments here are transparent, jointed,
fugacious, and inflated at their extremity into a mem-
H
58
botany.
Glossology, branous vesicle, inclosing the sporules.. 5. Phyllerineae
-Y'*-' (224). Here the filaments are simple, without joints, and
contain sporules which do not readily escape; they form
tufts on the surface of living leaves, and not dead ones, as
in most fungi. .
5. Uredacece. In these the thecae or sporidia are termed
of short, continuous, or articulated filaments, which are
either free, or supported on a very short and simple stalk,
thus scarcely exhibiting the least trace of the filaments
observable in the last sub-order. These sporidia spring
from under the epidermis or its surface, of either living
or dead plants, and are frequently surrounded by a false
peridium, formed by the development of the epidermis,
or supported on a fleshy or fibrous base, produced by the
thickening of the parenchyma of the plant, upon which
it is a parasite. There are four tribes. 1. Stilbosporineae
(fig. 225), where the sporidia are articulated, and arise trom
dead plants. 2. Bactrideae. Here the sporidia are simple
or unilocular, opaque, fixed or scattered, inclosing nume¬
rous extremely slender sporules, which escape towards ma¬
turity. This tribe, however, is scarcely either well under¬
stood or defined, and perhaps belongs to some other sub¬
order. 3. Fusideae (fig. 226, 227), in which the sporidia
are not jointed, are indehiscent, and spring from the epider¬
mis of dead vegetables. 4. Uredinem (fig. 228), where the
sporidia are developed under the surface of the epidermis
of living plants.
We have not given the above as a defined arrangement
of fungi, but with the view of exhibiting the structure of
each of the tribes into which it seems advisable, with
some slight alterations, that this extensive order be di¬
vided. Much difficulty is often created to the student of
these plants, by the diversity of terms to apparently the
same thing. Thus, sporidia and thecse each mean sporule
cases; and, on the other hand, sporidia and sporules seem
confounded. Hence in one tribe it is said, “ though they
are called sporidia, it rarely happens that the microscope is
able to detect the included sporules; the student there¬
fore must expect the sporidia to appear without sporules.”1
But we ourselves are by no means sure that in any in¬
stance do the sporules exist without thecae. They may be
at one time included in filaments, which serve them for
thecae, and must be viewed as filamentous thecae more or
less united to each other end to end; or they may be
contained in the cells of the plant, the cellules thus being
thecae; or the thecae may be so collected as to form a
membrane ;—but we do not conceive the apparently naked
sporules of some species to be any proof of the original
absence in them of sporule cases. In this way we think,
also, the whole order may be considered in two ways,
either as elementary or as compound bodies; the former
including such as have no receptacle, and the whole plant
constituted of filamentous thecae; and the latter with a
receptacle, in which light the peridium of the Hypoxyla
and LycoperdacecR must be regarded. In studying the
epiphyllous tribes with the intention of describing them,
much attention ought to be paid, although almost entire¬
ly hitherto neglected, to the structure of the vegetable
upon which the parasite grows; for colours, of great im¬
portance in discriminating the larger fungi, may be much
influenced by the action of the juices of the plant on which
it is formed, and can be here of little use; and even the
shape of the peridium, and sorus or cluster of plants, must
depend on the texture of the leaf from under the epi¬
dermis of which it springs, and through which it bursts.
Parasitical fungi may thus, by growing on different plants,
assume very different aspects both in colour and form;
and one cannot too much reprobate the manner in which Phyto.
at present many eminent mycologists describe as distinct graphy.
species every different appearance that presents itself,
without previously making themselves masters of the nume¬
rous laws by which cryptogamic plants are caused to vary.
We thus close what we had to say on Glossology. We
have been more particular than we at first intended, in
this department of botany; but it was absolutely neces¬
sary to give a lengthened view of the formation of the dif¬
ferent parts, as well as the names applied respectively to
each. For the Linnsean or artificial system such was not
requisite; but the great difficulty as well as beauty of
the natural system is to view plants analogically,—to con¬
sider them, not in their modified, but in their primitive
state,—not in the imperfect state in which they appear to
our eyes, but in that in which we should see them if fully
developed; thus enabling us to exert our minds, and to
trace affinities, of which the mere practical botanist can
have no conception.
II PHYTOGItAPHY.
Under the head of Phytography, the first thing we have
to notice is the
Nomenclature.
The necessity of some universally received name to
each plant, and of some laws on the subject, has been
acknowledged by every one who has made botany a study.
Without such, every country would give a peculiar name,
and the pursuit would thus become extremely intricate.
This alone gives zoology and botany great advantages
over mineralogy, in which not only is there no classifica¬
tion of genera and species according to the Linnsean
rules, but every species receives a name according to the
fancy of the describer, whether or not it has already re¬
ceived one from others.
To obviate such inconveniences, it was at first in use to
give to a plant the common name by which it was known in
Greece and Italy; but as the knowledge of vegetables
extended, this was found to be almost impracticable, both
because new plants unknown to the ancients were disco¬
vered, and because, from the prodigious number, no person
could recollect them all. When, therefore, some resem¬
blance between each other was observed, botanists began
to say that one was a second genus or kind of such a plant,
as hah alterum genus, or that it was a smaller, or a yellow
Jlowered kind, as circumstances might be ; and as the num¬
ber of species augmented, these distinguishing phrases
were of necessity made longer, so that, as we find some¬
times in Plukenet, a name might consist ot twenty words.
The inability of the memory to recollect them struck Lin¬
naeus forcibly, till at length he proposed that the name ot
every plant should consist of two words ; the one analo¬
gous to the name of a family among mankind, the other
to the baptismal name of an individual ; the former he
called the generic, the last the specific. This ingenious
method has been termed the Linncean nomenclature, and
has been admitted by almost all botanists ever since it
was first published in 1753. By it, not only is the me¬
mory aided, and enabled, to retain the names of many
thousands of plants ; but, by the same generic name being
applied to such as have a certain affinity with each other,
that name must suggest to the mind a relationship of
which we could not otherwise have an idea. Two incon¬
veniences, no doubt, attend this method; first, it holds out,
1 Grev. Flor. Ed. p. xxv.
BOTANY.
Phyto- from its simplicity, a temptation to a young botanist to
.graphy. acquire merely the names of plants, without knowing any
thing of their character; secondly, from every botanist
not viewing the affinity of a plant in the same way, it often
happens that the same individual has been placed in dif¬
ferent genera, and consequently may have possibly re¬
ceived four or five different generic names. Various plans
have been proposed to remove these difficulties; but they
have been each, one after another, abandoned,
ipecies. With regard to what is a species or genus, an order or
a class, perhaps no two botanists of the present day are
at one ; and our limits do not permit us to investigate this
point with the attention that some may think it merits.
All that nature presents to our eyes consists of individuals ;
but when we assert that one individual is the same, or
so similar to another that we think them the same, we
give way to our own thoughts, for others may form a dif-
' ferent opinion. At the same time many resemblances are
so striking as to be obvious to almost $11; and when these
are confirmed by their seed producing others bearing the
same resemblance, we have the idea of what is termed
a species. A species, therefore, is a collection of all those
individuals which have a greater resemblance between
themselves than to other plants, and which may by fecun¬
dation, one by another, produce fertile individuals, which
in their turn reproduce others ; and by reversing this pro¬
cedure, we may infer that all these have arisen at one time
from one individual. Varieties, again, are departures from
the common appearance of the species, and may arise
from the seed growing in different climates, subjected to
greater or less humidity or heat; or various other causes
may be assigned, some of which seem even to produce a
permanent effect on the plant, so that after several gene¬
rations scarcely one seed will reproduce the type of the
species. Some botanists most unadvisedly have amused
themselves of late years by raising these to the rank of
species ; but “ this eternal splitting of hairs is the bane of
natural history, is unworthy of science, and its advocates
will one day have to lament that they stood sponsors to
such a spurious and equivocal offspring. One tithe of the
sagacity they discover in the infinitesimal division of spe¬
cies, directed to other points, would pile up a mountain of
knowledge for future use, and immortalize their own names,
which, under this present puerile system, will perish with
the ephemeral names they are imposing upon undistin-
guishable things.”1
For long it was considered that a hybrid, or cross be¬
tween two species, could not reproduce a plant, or rather,
we ought to say, perfect a seed capable of vegetation;
and this test was considered of importance as to the limit
of species. But it is now supposed to be of little or no
use; the hybrid Pelargoniums, or cape-geraniums, per¬
fecting seed, and multiplying as easily as the parent plants.
These plants ought never to be acknowledged by botani¬
cal writers. They are contrary to nature, and ought not
to be received into any system of nature. They are only
fit to amuse the eye and taste of the vulgar and uniniti¬
ated. And even if a florist wishes to gain any credit, it
were well that he sedulously observed from what the hy¬
brid was obtained; and instead of giving to it an absurd
name, as is too often the case, or even a name as if it were
a species, he ought to give one that is compounded of those
of the two parents. Linnaeus, however, laid it down as
a maxim, that no hybrid produced perfect seed; and he
supported this by many proofs. Those naturalists, there¬
fore, who still adhere to this law, are forced to draw the
conclusion, that the supposed hybrid Pelargoniums and
heaths are mere cross variations of varieties of one species; Phy to-
but whichever be the true theory (and we ourselves, if
our physiological ideas on the subject be correct, can see '—-y'-''
no cause why a perfecting hybrid may not be formed be¬
tween any two plants which have the same anatomical
structure of anthers and pistilla), whether these be hy¬
brids or variations, no one has any right to expect space
to be occupied by them in a botanical treatise. In so far
only as they tend to improve our knowledge of anatomy
and physiology, the man of science has to do with them.
Having formed some conception of a species, we may Genera,
define a genus to be a collection of those species which
have among themselves a more striking resemblance in
their organs, than they have to the organs of others; it
therefore bears the same relation towards species as a
species does towards individuals. But as it is impossible
for all the species of a genus to agree in every organ, so
a selection must be made from those that may be con¬
sidered of more importance than others. But no certain
rule can be laid down, farther than that the organs ol re¬
production being found least liable to variation, are those
alone admitted into a generic character. In some genera
the stamens, in others the petals, calyx, pistilla, or the fruit,
are found to be most convenient for the character; but
upon the relative value of these, even in the same genus,
different opinions are frequently entertained. A genus
may therefore be limited by one in a different way Irom
that adopted by another; and hence we cannot be sur¬
prised to find that one botanist places a species in one
genus, others in another, according as each thinks it suits
best with the collective character. A genus may be
also divided into sections, according to some difference of
structure in its organs; so that when this difference has been
thought of importance, other botanists have raised each ot
the sections to be a new genus. Thus every day we find
that plants, though still retaining their specific names, being
married, as it were, into another house, receive new generic
appellations. Such is no doubt of great disadvantage to
the science, but is unavoidable, from the increasing num¬
ber of known plants. Nor does it appear that the num¬
ber of genera is increased in proportion to the discovery
of new species. Thus Linnaeus, by distributing 7540
species in 1260 genera, ranked on an average only six to
each ; but, notwithstanding the modern subdivisions in the
catalogue of Persoon in 1807, there are about ten to each,
and this only contains the phanerogamous vegetables;
and in Steudel’s Nomenclator Botanicus, published in
1821-24, there are of the phanerogamous 3376 genera,
and 39,684 species, or about eleven to each; and if we
add to these 557 genera, and 10,965 species of crypto-
gamia, we shall have an average of upwards of thirteen to
each genus.
What has been said of genera is applicable to natural Orders,
families or orders, these containing such genera as have a
great resemblance to each other, and are either so closely
connected that they cannot be removed, or are separated
into groups only for the greater convenience of study.
When, however, two or more of these orders bear a closer
affinity respectively to each other than to the others
to which they are also allied, it has been found useful to
term them tribes of one order; but it is then difficult to
distinguish between a compound order of this kind and
a class. The number of genera in each order is ot no
importance. There may be hundreds, and there may
be but one, solitary but forming a connection between
other orders. In general, however, from the considera¬
tion that nature forms one continuous chain, we may ex-
1 Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 65.
GO
BOTANY.
Phyto-
gniphy.
Classes.
Language.
Priority
of name.
pect that links remain to be discovered between such iso¬
lated genera and the others ; and indeed, if the whole of
nature were laid open to us, we might infer, notwithstand¬
ing all our present labours, that the machinery of orders
and genera will be found entirely artificial, and existing
only in our own conceptions. Not that it is of no value;
for it is of the greatest use, to enable us to bring together
in our mind plants resembling each other; and therefore
that system must be preferred which tends most to this
end.
When several natural orders are collected together, hav¬
ing many similarities of structure and appearance, they
form what are called classes. But very little has hitherto
been done as to giving us a knowledge of these. Ihe
Geraniacece (as defined by S. Hilaire), Kutacees (as col¬
lected by Ad. Jussieu), Tiliacece, and some others, may be
adduced as examples. But in botanical systems, where
the order must be placed in a linear series, and cannot be
described, each at their several points of connection, classes,
unless in one or two instances, have been diregarded, and
merely the constituent orders themselves introduced.
As it is essential to natural history that the nomencla¬
ture be universal, so it is indispensable that the names be
written in some language adopted by all nations. The
Greek has been rejected for many reasons, but particu¬
larly that the letters are so very different from those now
used in the civilized world. To the Latin there are no
objections; on the contrary, until within these very few
years, it was the general language among scientific and
learned men. The names, therefore, as well as the terms
of the science of botany, are written in that language ;
and when such names and terms are translated to give
them a more modern appearance, it appears advisable to
adhere as much as possible to the Latin words by giving
them an English termination. This however is often, but
improperly, departed from. In framing names there is a
maxim that is deservedly recognized, that they ought to
be according to the rules of general grammar. Thus, if
the name denotes a property, as thorny-fruited, it is not
permitted to derive half of it from the Greek, while the
other is Latin; aculeatocarpa cannot therefore be retain¬
ed, but may be changed into acanthocarpa.
Priority of names must be strictly attended to, or, if
names be changed, this must not be done in an arbitrary
manner, and without good reasons. But while all agree
to this, a difficulty is sometimes started as to what ought
to give priority. And here we ought to observe that no
manuscript one need be adopted. Farther, no mere name,
though published, is of any consequence, unless accom¬
panied by a sufficient character by which the plant may
be recognized by others. Names, therefore, in a garden¬
er’s catalogue, are of no more importance than manuscript
names, although, when made known to botanists by a dis¬
tribution of specimens, politeness sometimes admits them ;
but the mere circulation of living plants among horticul¬
turists and florists, not botanists, is not even entitled to
this courtesy. Printed names, accompanying collections
of dried plants, are always adopted by those who receive
them; but it seems doubtful how far such might claim
priority, if they were to be first described by others who
had not an opportunity of seeing them. It has been
argued that plates, without written characters, whether of
genera or species, are sufficient to give a priority of name.
But this cannot be admitted by the rules of common
sense. In those few cases in which the figures of the
plant are accompanied with admirably exact and minute
dissections, this is sometimes permitted; but it even then
appears questionable, plates not being intended to charac- Phyto-
terize a species, but as auxiliaries to the character. A graphv.
character may be sufficient without a plate, but a plate is
of no use without a character.
Generic names, giving the idea of a group, have been Generic
by all permitted to stand first, and then the specific name.namcs-
For the same reason they ought to be substantives; Mi~
rabilis, Gloriosa, and some others, being adjectives, may
therefore be changed. No name ought to be allowed
that gives a false idea of the character of the genus ; but,
on the other hand, such names are always to be preferred
as express this character in a precise way; and as it is ex¬
tremely difficult to express the whole character, the most
remarkable points ought to be chosen as contrasted with
other allied genera; care being taken that they apply to
all the species of the genus. No generic name ought to
be derived from the names of places; a few such, how¬
ever, though faulty, have been admitted. Metaphorical
names, derived from ancient history and mythology, have
been sometimes bestowed on plants ; but great care must
then be taken that the allusion is perfect. Linnaeus has
succeeded very happily in one or two instances, particularly
in that of Andromeda, his reasons for so naming which we
shall give in the author’s own words, from the FloraLappo-
nica. Comparing her with the plant in question, he says,
“ virgo haec lectissima pulcherrimaque collo superbit alto et
vividissimo (jpedunculus'), cujus facies roseis suis labellis
(corolla) vel optimum veneris fucum longe superat; juncea
haec in genua projecta pedibus alligata (caulis inferior
incumbens), aqua (yernali) cincta, rupi (rnonticulo) adfixa,
horribus draconibus (amphibiis) exposita, terram versus
inclinat moestam faciem (florem), innocentissimaque bra-
chia (ramos) ccelum versus erigit, meliori sede fatoque
dignissima, donee gratissimus Perseus (cestas) monstris
devictis, earn ex aqua eduxit e virgine factam foecundam
matrem, quae turn faciem (fructuni) erectam extollit. Si
Ovidio fabulam de Andromeda conscribenti haec ante ocu-
los posita fuisset planta, vix melius quadrarent attributa,
qui more poetico ex humili tumulo produxisset Olympum.”1
The ancients were in the habit of giving plants the
names of persons, and this custom has been retained; but
care must be taken to select those celebrated in the
science, or as having paid great attention to some branch
of it. Thus their names will be engraved on our memory
so long as the plants are known; and this honour has
been therefore considered as one of the greatest that can
be conferred on a naturalist. But this is liable to abuse,
particularly when princes and others of rank are concern¬
ed ; plants being often named after persons, who never in
any way contributed to the advance of the study. To one
person no more than one genus must be dedicated, how¬
ever great be their services, for if this were to be allowed
confusion would soon prevail; thus Lessertia and Deles-
seria cannot both remain. As a similarity of sound be¬
tween two generic names is attended with bad effects, so
it ought not to be tolerated, even in the case where we wish
to honour a friend. Thus Belis cannot be suffered, there
being a Beilis; nor Cryphcea, on account of a previous
Cryphia ; so neither can Eschscholtzia, nor Koniga, there
being already an Elsholtzia, and Koenigia. When a per¬
son has different names, that must be preferred which is
best known ; but when such is pre-occupied, another may
be selected. Great care ought to be taken to preserve
rigidly the spelling of names, whatever be the pronuncia¬
tion. Thus Czackia ought not to be written Tschatshia,
nor Grahamia, Grcemia; nor even is Brunonia strictly
admissible, although this alteration was made because there
1 Linn. FI. Lapp. 2d edit. p. 131. See also Linnaeus’s Lapland Tour, vol. i. p. 183.
B O T
;phyto- was another Browne, to whom was dedicated the genus
. rajjhj. Broivnea. Though by following this rule names be often
given not entirely according with the genius of the Latin
tongue ; yet the end being to perpetuate a particular in¬
dividual, if the proper orthography were not kept up, a
pretext would soon be given for changing the name.
When it is found necessary to divide a genus into two
or more, the old name ought to be retained for the group
which includes the greater number of species, or to that
for which the genus was originally constituted. The last is
preferable, but Erica and Ixia both form exceptions, on
account of the great inconvenience of changing the names
of so many, when only one would remain unaltered.
As to generic names derived from the vernacular appel¬
lations of plants, botanists are not yet agreed. Linnaeus,
and others after him, wish to refuse all such, although
they admit that they may be employed specifically: yet
having laid down the rule, the genera Thea, Coffea, Gincko,
&c. are almost universally admitted by them ; and there¬
fore, in the present day, these and similar ones are gene¬
rally adopted if their sound be not too barbarous. Schre-
ber, following the maxims of Linnaeus, altered nearly all
Aublet’s names for the Guiana plants, which De Candolle
and others now restore. However little desirable it may
be to give these names, yet when once given and recog¬
nized, it can serve no good purpose, but lead to confusion,
to change them.
The older botanists were in the practice of marking
allied genera by analogous names, but with a change of
termination ; thus Valeriana, Valerianella ; Limonium, Li-
moniastrum; Beilis, Bellidoides: all so similar were re¬
jected by Linnaeus, who allowed of comparative terms
among species alone. As to the termination aides, it
ought undoubtedly to be laid aside, being an adjective;
but the same reason does not apply with equal force to
the two other instances ; and although we would prefer
not to employ them in framing a name, we would hesitate
about making a change if already given by others. An
anagram, or transposition of the letters of an existing
name, is quite contemptible and undignified, and can on
no account be permitted. Hence Galphimia, made by
Cavanilles, and derived from Malpighia, is quite unsuit¬
able : in the same way Cassini has amused himself, to the
detriment of the science, by splitting Filago into as many
genera as he could form anagrams of that word, Filago,
Gifola, Ifioga, Logjia, and Ofiiga, than which nothing can
be more absurd.
hecific Specific names are less difficult to establish than the
mes. generic, because they are meant to apply to an individual,
and not collectively; and the chief consideration is not
to give one already applied in the genus, or one that has
no relation to the plant itself. Almost no change ought
therefore to be tolerated, unless when one of these rules
be broken through. Thus Astragalus Monopessulanus,
though found not at Montpellier alone, but throughout all
the south of Europe, and even in the western parts of
Asia, cannot be altered, because it is actually found at
Montpellier; and the name even tends to record the fact
of its having been first observed there. But Potentilla
Monspeliaca is a manifest absurdity, being a native of
North America, and merits a change ; thus also Scilla Pe¬
ruviana is inadmissible, being a native of Portugal. Lu-
naria annua may also in the same way be changed to L.
biennis, the plant being not annual, but biennial. There
are some botanists, however, who even dislike a change
for these reasons; contending, that while in the human
race the name George, or rscogyog, is not applied only to
one who is a husbandman, so neither among plants ought
we to care what be the name, provided it suffice to dis¬
tinguish the species; but this is inept, for the above is not
ANY. 61
a specific name, nor even that of a variety or variation* Phyto-
but the appellative of an individual. graphy.
In general the names derived from countries ought to
be given with great circumspection ; and from want of
due consideration on that point, we have accordingly
many absurdities. Thus Linuni Gallicum is actually found
in all the four quarters of the globe. Ajuga Genevensis,
Circcea Lutetiana, are not 'found at Geneva or at Paris
alone, but throughout the rest of Europe; still they can¬
not be now altered. Agave Americana is not the only
Agave found wild in America, for many inhabit also that
country. Names taken from stations of plants, as mariii-
mum or palustre, are frequently good; but such as carn-
pestre, alpestre, or montanum, being very indefinite, ought
to be avoided as much as possible.
Specific names may be either substantives or adjectives.
The former has been usually given when the plant had
received a peculiar appellation from old botanists, as Daria,
Jacobcea, Farfara; and then the initial letter must be a
capital. A substantive is often used in the genitive case
when a reference is made to some other genus, as Pomme-
reullia cornucopice, and then the initial letter is small; or
when it is named after some person, as Ranunculus Gou-
ani, and then the letter is large. As to adjectives, they
must agree in gender with the generic names, and ought
to indicate something remarkable in the species. They
ought always to commence by a small letter, but of late
years botanists have got into a habit of employing a capi¬
tal when the adjective is derived from the name of a place
or person. Adjectives of colour ought to be used sparingly,
because the colour of flowers is of very little importance
to the species, the same often exhibiting two or more co¬
lours. Adjectives of size and qualities are preferable,
although these are gradually rendered less applicable by
the discovery of new species. Those taken from the
agreeable aspect of certain flowers, as pidcher, formosus,
or amcenus, are quite absurd, and ought never to be used.
Names after botanists may either be substantives in the
genitive case, or have an adjective termination. Lyco¬
podium Hookeri is an example of the one, Tulipa Celsiana
of the other.
Specific names may be taken from either Greek or La¬
tin, but they ought to form one word ; whence pes-caprce,
noli-tangere, and still worse noli-me-tangere, ought never to
have been given ; and though some of these from courtesy
may be permitted to stand, they are not to be imitated.
Varieties are usually indicated by the letters of the Names of
Greek alphabet; but when they prove more than usually varieties,
important, a name is attached to them similar to a speci¬
fic name, as Crataegus Aria longifolia. Care ought, how¬
ever, to be taken never to give such, unless the varieties
be nearly as permanent as the species itself. Of late,
however, by cultivation, so many varieties have been made,
and each offering subvarieties or variations, that it were
more dignified for botanical writers to omit them altoge¬
ther, and hand them over for the amusement of florists and
horticulturists.
By those who study the natural system, the names of Names of
families, or orders and tribes, must be also attended to. orders.
The former have been subjected at different times to dif¬
ferent principles. Linnaeus and others, seeking general
and characteristical features, as in the Umbelliferce, Cruci-
ferce, Leguminosce, and Labiatce; and these, if they could
be always obtained with accuracy, are preferable to any
others. But even to the few that are admitted, exceptions
are found; thus, in some Umbelliferce the umbel is so re¬
duced as to appear no longer an umbel; and in some Legu¬
minosce the fruit resembles a nut. Jussieu and Adanson
have therefore usually selected some genus, which is the
type of the family, and derived the name from it, as Rosacece
botany.
I'hvto- from the genus Rosa; find this method is now geneiully
graphy. adopted. Care, however, must be taken that the genus
^**~'(~**J be xiot only one of the best known and most numerous in
species, but one which is to give an idea ot the general as¬
pect and structure. Thus Bixinece is almost inadmissible,
being derived from Bixa, a genus that rather forms a con¬
necting link between the above order and the lilicicecB, and
consequently improperly taken as the type. ^ hen once
the genus is chosen, we must attend to the terminating
syllables, for it would not do to adopt simply the plural, as
Rosce, without some change. The common way is to form an
adjective ending in cece, or inecc, as Tiliacece, Ericinece; those
in oidece, meaning a family analogous to, and not a family
including, are obviously to be rejected. Sometimes, when a
difficulty is experienced in transforming the generic names
into an adjective, some old well known name of the principal
genus may be taken, as Ehymclccs, SalicavicB, and then the
termination may be the mere plural ot the substantive.
When a family is divided into several remarkable groups,
these also receive names in the same way as the orders
themselves. But a difficulty is often experienced in bestow¬
ing names so as not to interfere with that of the family, and
therefore a rule has of late been laid down, that the names
of orders or families be made adjectives by prolonging
the generic name one syllable, as Ranunculus, Ranuncida-
cece,but that the names of tribes be formed of an adjec¬
tive without prolongation, as Ranunculus, RanunculccB /
and this law is now generally followed.
Synonyms.
If nomenclature be indispensable for communicating our
ideas to others, synonyms, or a list of synonyms, are no less
necessary for recognizing the name that ought to be pre¬
ferred to every other, and for reading the works of older
writers, or of those who lived before a systematic nomen¬
clature was adopted. By this means we are enabled to have
recourse at once to the different authors whom we ought
to consult, and from whom we may derive instruction ; and
without such help we might spend days or weeks in seeking
for the information we require, and, after all our labour,
would not be able to impart it to others. The number of
synonyms quoted must vary much, according to the size
of the work. When there is sufficient room, not one ought
to be omitted; but if, on the other hand, it be an elemen¬
tary work within a narrow compass, only the principal syno¬
nyms need be brought forward; and under these we of
course allude to the fullest descriptions, and best figures,
that can be most readily consulted by the readers. A re¬
ference to the original describer of the species ought in al¬
most no case to be omitted: thus, Linnaeus, Bieberstien,
Gunner, and Pallas, have each of them made a Gentiana
ciliata; and it is important to the reader to know of whom
the G. ciliata is. In quoting synonyms, very little attention
is paid to accuracy; and the consequence is that more con¬
fusion is created than if all had been omitted. None indeed
ought to be cited, unless the writer has the strongest reason
for thinking himself correct, otherwise the reference must
be made with doubt (?). De Candolle has recommended,
and with great propriety, that, in every one which the au¬
thor has had it in his power to verify by the inspection of an
authentic specimen in an herbarium, the sign (!) be placed
after the synonym, indicating that such are most worthy of
attention, the others being supposed to be taken from de¬
scriptions, which, however good, are not to be always con¬
fided in. Old figures, being usually executed by artists
not botanists, are of little use except to give a very general
idea of the plant; and even among modern figures, when
there is a difference, as often happens, between them and
the description, greater reliance is to be placed on the
latter than on the former.
Botanical Style.
Phyto-
graphy.
Botanical style is the art of characterizing and describ¬
ing plants, so that they may be ascertained by others.
Before Linnams there were no fixed rules, each person
adopting what to himself seemed best; but in reforming
other points, that distinguished naturalist directed his at¬
tention also to this; and although, by following his views,
one was restricted to a peculiar form of words, yet the
advantages were very readily perceived, inasmuch as his
plan put a stop at once to the many vague and insignificant
descriptions which were too often indulged in by those of
a flowery or poetical genius.
A character in natural history is that peculiar mark by Character,
which one being, or one collection of beings, may be dis¬
tinguished from all others. When this is employed to
distinguish a species, it is said to Jt>e specific; when belong¬
ing to a genus, generic; to an order, ordinal; and so on.
The principal merit of characters is to bring together what
can be most easily compared, and therefore such as are
found in one and not in another are the best.
The characters of classes and orders are very different, Of classes
according as an artificial or a natural arrangement has been and orders,
adopted. In the former case they are very simple; in the
latter, each being as it were one great genus, they must be
still more extended than the character of a genus. Adan-
son and Linnaeus, therefore, thought it impossible to give
characters to a natural order ; but they erred in seeking one
by itself, and not a combination of several. Jussieu made
the attempt, and the example or method which he set to
others is still called the Jussieuan system, in opposition to
the strictly artificial one founded by Linnaeus. It is strange
that the latter botanist, when he discovered that natural
genera could not be defined in few words, did not apply the
same train of thought to natural orders. Had he made the
attempt, he must have succeeded, and another wreath would
have been added to his crov/n, which has shed immortal
honour on that of another. The characters ol orders, when
complete, must embrace a full description of all the organs
of reproduction found in them; but as this is too long for
common use, they are usually presented in a much abridged
form. But even an abridged character may often be much
shortened, and it is then called by Mr Lindley a diagnosis,
comprehending only the distinctive characters of the or¬
ders, reduced to their briefest form, and without reference
to the anomalies or exceptions which are often met with..
For a character in full we may refer to Cruciferce in De
Candolle’s Systema Regni Vegetabilis, vol. ii. p. 139, which
it is unnecessary here to cite. The abridged characters
we shall have occasion ourselves to use.
The characters of genera vary also according to whether Of Genera,
the artificial or the natural system be adopted. Linnaeus,
following the former, found the necessity of giving two
kinds of character. The one, which he named the essen¬
tial, contained no more than what was needful to distin¬
guish the genus from others in the same order, lire
other, which he termed the natural, contained a short de¬
scription of all the parts connected with the flower, and
was necessary for the complete understanding of the ge¬
nus; for without it one could not have the slightest idea
of its true form, nature, appearance, or relations; and in¬
deed his Genera Plantarum, written soon after his return
from a visit to Jussieu at Paris, and containing natural
characters, seems written in an entirely different spirit from
that in which he had executed his Species. We do not
mean that any improper inference should be drawn from
this, but merely mention it as a very striking circumstance.
In the natural system there is no occasion for these double
characters; most of the lengthened character, as given by
Linnaeus, being contained in that of the order which in-
T
BOTANY.
63
l?hyto-
yraphy.
' Species.
eludes the genus. But, on the other hand, If a genus have
a number of peculiar characters, every one must be men¬
tioned ; so that here the generic characters, though not so
long as the natural ones of Linnaeus, must almost always
be a little longer than his essential characters. To the
generic character ought to be added a short account of
the fundamental organs, remarks on its natural affinities
when necessary, or any of its peculiarities, and the deri¬
vation of the name.
Specific characters ought to be the same, whatever be
the system; but in general, those who adopt the artificial
content themselves with making them, as Linnaeus pre¬
scribed, so very short as to contain only the distinctive
marks, and on no account to exceed twelve words. Many
of those who follow the natural method introduce as many
of the peculiarities of the species as they can, so that it
may exhibit a very short description. But, perhaps, with¬
out limiting ourselves to any particular number of words,
it may always be preferable to make the specific charac¬
ters, ovphrases as they are called, as abridged as possible,
without being indistinct, and then, when necessary, to add
what may be denominated the natural character or descrip¬
tion of the species. In this way it is advisable, as was re¬
commended by Linnaeus, that in the phrase, all that fol¬
lows the name, when in Latin, should be in the ablative
case; that it ought to be strictly comparative, and the more
contradictory terms employed in two species the better;
that the characters derived from the different organs
should follow each other in a certain order, beginning with
those that apply to most species of the genus, and ending
with such as may be nearly peculiar to itself. There can
therefore be no such phrase when there is but one species
of a genus. Descriptions may be either abridged or com¬
plete. In the latter case they may contain an account of
the root, stem, leaves, inflorescence, calyx, corolla, &c. in
the order we have followed under Glossology. When
in Latin, the nominative case is to be employed; after a
substantive comes the epithets in adjectives or participles;
but, for brevity, no connecting verbs are allowed, unless
in very peculiar cases, where they cannot be dispensed
with without creating great ambiguity. M. de St Hi¬
laire, in a late report given in to the French Institute, on
a work by M. Moquin on the family of Chenopodiacece,
seems to think that when the characters of the genus have
been given with care, specific descriptions are quite un¬
necessary. “ Apres avoir indique les caracteres de cette
tribu, M. Moquin decrit en termes techniques les plantes
qui la composent. II trace avec detail les caracteres des
genres et se borne pour les especes a de simples phrases.
Nous ne pouvons qu’applaudir a cette methode. Les
descriptions specifiques completes sont fort utiles, sans
doute, dans plusieurs circonstances ; mais lorsqu’un genre
se compose de plantes regulieres,—lorsque, dans des dis¬
sertations generales, on a soumis leurs organes a un exa-
men scrupuleux,—nous pensons, avec un de nos savans con¬
freres (M. de Cassini), qu’il est superflu de redire a peu
pres autant de fois les memes choses qu’on a des especes
a faire connaitre.” To this we subscribe in the case of a
monograph, or of a system of plants, because then we have
the opportunity of reforming the generic character to our
own ideas; but in giving an account of a new or isolated
species, we do not see that, for the satisfaction of other
writers, a detailed description can be uniformly dispensed
with.
With regard to species, the order usually followed is, first
the name, then the specific character or phrase, next the
synonyms, then the locality or habitat, the duration of the Phyto¬
plant, the time of flowering, &c.; after which the descrip- graphy.
tion may be given, with the culture and use; and, lastly,
any critical observations that may present themselves.
We shall here give the following, as illustrations of the
plates, and in some degree of what we have said.
Gen. I.—Calandrinia. Kunth.
Cosmia, Domb. Juss.
Calyx of two persistent, concave, nearly equal sepals.
Petals 3-5, hypogynous, equal. Stamens 4-15, inserted
on the base of the calyx or petals; filaments free; an¬
thers bilocular, opening longitudinally. Ovarium superior
or unilocular; ovules many, attached to the bottom of the
ovary by linear podosperms. Style 1. Stigma clavato-ca-
pitate, tripartite. Capside oblongo-elliptical, covered by
the persistentcalyx, unilocular, three-valved, many-seeded.
Seeds lenticular; testa crustaceous, brittle; tegmen thin
and membranaceous; embryo surrounding a farinaceous
albumen.—Herbs succulent; leaves very entire, alternate
in those with stems; peduncles one-flowered, axillary or
opposite to the leaves, without bracteas ; in those without
a stem bibracteated.
1. C. pilosiuscula; stem nearly7 erect angled, and the
leaves linear spathulate, slightly hairy; peduncles axil¬
lary, somewhat united to the bractea, constituting a ter¬
minal raceme; stamens 10-15.1
C. pilosiuscula. De Cand. Prod. vol. iii. p. 359 ; Hook,
and Arn. in Botany of Beechys Voyage, p. 24.—Talinum
ciliatum.—Hook. Exot. FI. t. 82 (not. Ruiz, and Pav.)—
Tutuca. Feuill. Chil. vol. iii. t. 41.
Hab. Chili. O* Flowers during the whole of summer.
Descr. Stem about a foot or a foot and a half high, erect
or decumbent, weak, angular, reddish, and branched be¬
low, above greenish, scarcely, and only7 here and there
pilose. Leaves scattered, from one and a half to three
inches long, linear, frequently inclining to spathulate,
acute, more or less patent, the extremities often recurved,
the upper surface channelled, the lower subcarinate, es¬
pecially near the base, the margin distinctly ciliated.
Flowers at first in terminal leafy corymbs, at length race¬
mose, of a bright purplish red colour, pedicellated. Pedi¬
cels about half an inch long, thickened upwards, subpilose
at their base, which is decurrent, having a large leaf-like
bractea, and near that generally another much smaller and
appressed one. Calyx of two triangular, thickish, green,
subpilose, waved leaflets, with their margins more or less
incurved, which are erect in the bud, somewhat spread in
the flower, and which at length persist, enlarge, and inclose
the fruit. Corolla of five broadly ovate and slightly notched
petals. Nitawzetts from ten to fifteen in number. Filaments
subulate, purplish, hairy, shorter than the petals. Anthers
extrorse, ovate, bilocular, pale purplish. Pollen yellow.
Pistil almost entirely surrounded and concealed by the sta¬
mens. Ovarium roundish, green, glabrous. Style capitate,
w ith three or four deep purple, velvety, obtuse, spreading
rays or stigmas. Capsule ovate, inclosed in the calyx, open¬
ing with three obtuse valves. Seeds numerous, ovato-lenti-
cular, dotted, black, shining, collected into the centre, and
fixed to the base by as many distinct filaments, incras-
sated upwards, as there are seeds. Embryo cylindrical,
curved, and inclosing the mealy albumen in its centre.
No particular culture is required for this plant. It is
quite a hardy annual, and, like others of the same kind,
may be sown in spring as soon as there is little probability
1 In Latin, C. pilotiuscula ; caule suberecto angulato, foliisque lineari-spathulatis pilosiusculis, pedicellis axiliaribus folio florali sub-
adnatis racemum terminalem constituentibus, staminibus 10-15.
64
Phyto-
graphy.
BOTANY.
of the germination being injured by the frost. It has been
hitherto applied to no use either in medicine or the arts.
The genus belongs to Dodecandria monogynia of Lin¬
naeus, and, like many others referred to it, has no certain
number of stamens. This is even more exceptionable
than some others, for the stamens are in several species
as few as four or five, and, therefore, the artificial system
entirely fails. In the natural method its place is obviously
among the Portulacece, and next to Talinum, with which
some botanists unite it; but from that genus it is distin¬
guished by the persistent petals (in Talinum deciduous),
and ovules attached to the bottom of the ovary by long
filiform funiculi (in Talinum fixed to a central placenta).
As a species its nearest affinity is with Talinum ciliatum,
Ruiz, and Pav., another species of Calandrinia, but there
the stamens do not exceed five in number. The Tal. ad-
scendens, Hort. Berol., seems identical, and even Cal. com-
pressa may be a variety with fewer stamens.
Plate CXVI. Calandrinia pilosiuscida. Fig. 1. Plant,
natural size. Fig. 2, Petal. Fig. 3, Calyx and stamens.
Fig. 4, Stamen magnified. Fig. 5, Calyx and capsule.
Fig. 6, Germen, style, stigma, and detached pollen, magni¬
fied. Fig. 7, Capsule burst open. Fig. 8, Cluster of seeds
on their podosperms. Fig. 9, Seed andpodosperm magni¬
fied. Fig. 10, Seed cut open longitudinally, exhibiting the
embryo and albumen.
gibbous only on the under side, convex on the upper,
green, with a white margin. Stamens five; anthers
nearly sessile, large, yellow-brown, appendaged at the ex¬
tremity. Ovarium obovate. Style one, bent at the base,
filiform. Stigma white, tapering from the style, acute.
Capside oval, three-valved, loculicide ; placenta parietal.
Seeds numerous, with a raphe conspicuous from without.
Albumen fleshy, white. Embryo in the axis of the albu¬
men, straight, orthotropal, or with the radicle pointing to
the base of the seed.
This plant succeeds well in the green-house. Its use is
unknown.
Although placed in the genus Viola, this species differs
from the others by the scarcely auricled bases of the se¬
pals, as well as by the absence of a decided spur. Viola
belongs to Pentandria monogynia, and is the type of the
order Violarece.
Plate CXVII. Viola hederacea. Fig. 1, Plant, natural
size. Fig. 2, Back view of the calyx. Fig. 3, Lower petal.
Fig. 4, One of the upper petals. Fig. 5, One of the side
petals. Fig. 6, Side view of the lower petal. Fig. 7, Back
view of a stamen. Fig. 8, Front view of the same. Fig. 9,
Stipule. Fig. 10, Flower, the petals being removed. Fig.
11, Pistil. Fig. 12, C'ffpszf/e, natural size. Fig. 13, Cap¬
sule burst open, magnified. Fig. 14, Seed, magnified. Fig.
15, Seed cut open to show the embryo and albumen.
Phyto.
graphy
Gen. II.—Viola. Tourn.
Sepals five, auricled at their base. Petals unequal, the
lower one spurred. Stamens five, approximated; filaments
distinct; anthers connate; the two lower ones with pro¬
cesses at their back. Capsule one-celled, three-valved,
opening elastically.—Herbs for the most part perennial,
very rarely annual, some with a very short stem, others
caulescent, and even suffruticose; leaves alternate; pe¬
duncles solitary, axillary, one-flowered, bibracteolate ;
flowers cernuous.
Sect. Leptidium.
Stigma resembling a proboscis, with a minute foramen
at the apex; style flexuose.
1. V. hederacea; stem short, stoloniferous; leaves fas¬
ciculate, reniform, slightly toothed, on long petioles; sti¬
pules subulate; sepals scarcely produced at the base;
lower petal, oval, bifid, gibbous at the base beneath.
V. hederacea. La Bill. FI. Nov. Holl. vol. i. p. 66, t. 91;
De Cand. Prod. vol. i. p. 305; Hook. Exot. Flor. t. 225.
Ttab. New Holland. If.. Flowers in May in the green¬
house.
Descr. Glabrous. Stem, or point from which the
leaves spring, scarcely any, and apparently constituted by
the united bases of the petioles throwing out long filiform
stolones, which again produce clusters of leaves at various
distances, and always at the base of each cluster send
forth a rather strong fibrous branching root. Leaves fas¬
ciculated, from 3-6 in a cluster, an inch broad, when
young almost cuneate and their sides rolled inwards, af¬
terwards reniform and plane, or even convex on the up¬
per surface, obscurely nerved, the margin denticulated,
placed upon slender grooved petioles from two to four
inches long. Peduncles or scapes from the axils of the
leaves erect, longer than the leaves, with an indistinct
groove, and two subulate bracteas near the middle. Calyx
shorter than the corolla, cut into five spreading, ovato-lan-
ceolate segments, scarcely at all produced at the base.
Flowers scentless, purple, marked with deeper stains,
white at the tips. Two upper petals reflexed ; two lateral
ones obliquely twisted, gibbous or bulging near the base,
and pubescent; lower petal oval, bifid, striated, the base
Gen. III.—Loasa. Adans.
Calyx tube adhering with the ovarium, the limb per¬
sistent, 5-parted, equal. Petals 5, alternating with the
calycine lobes, shortly unguiculate, concave. Scales 5,
petaloid, alternate with the petals, 2-3-lobed, converging
into a cone, and furnished within at the base with two ste¬
rile filaments. Stamens numerous, the 10 exterior sterile,
the rest arranged in bundles, 10 to 17 together, each an-
drophore opposite a petal. Anthers erect, bilocular. Style
trifid at the apex. Capside turbinato-oblong, 1-celled,
3-valved at the apex, and crowned with the calyx, the
valves bearing the placenta's at their margins. Seeds oval,
very numerous, reticulated.—Herbaceous, branched, some¬
times twining, for the most part covered with sharp sting¬
ing hairs; leaves alternate or opposite, toothed or lobed;
peduncles opposite to the leaves, axillary or terminal, one-
flowered ; petals yellow, rarely white.
1. L. nitida; hispid; leaves opposite, cordate at the
base, 5-7-lobed, lobes angled and toothed, upper ones
sessile ; peduncles axillary; lobes of the calyx oblong,
acuminated, entire, equal in length to the petals.
L. nitida. Lam. Diet. vol. iii. p. 581; Willd. Sp. PI. vol.
ii. p. 1177 ; Juss. in Ann. du Mus. vol. v. p. 25, t. 2, f. 2;
Tratt. Tabid, i. t. 23; Hook. Exot. FI. t. 83; Bot. Mag.
t. 2372; De Cand. Prod. vol. iii. p. 341; Pers. Syn. PI.
vol. ii. p. 71.
Hab. Chili. ®.
Descr. Stem straggling, weak, succulent, and fragile,
two or three feet high, branched in a dichotomous man¬
ner, and, as well as the whole plant, clothed with longish
hairs (which appear, when seen under a microscope, to
be jointed, and to have short reflexed bristles), and still
larger hairs or stings, seated upon a swollen sac or bag of
poison, similar to what is seen in the stings of the common
nettle. Leaves all opposite, somewhat five or seven lobed,
with the lobes angular and toothed; the lower ones much
the largest, placed on long foot-stalks; the upper ones
sessile, smaller, and less distinctly lobed. Flowers axil¬
lary, generally solitary, pedunculated. Peduncles at first
erect, after flowering bent down, swelling upwards into
the pyriform ovarium. Calyx cut into five, rarely four,
deep segments, lanceolate, acute, green, hispid, at first
BOTANY.
65
Phvto- patent, afterwards reflexed. Corolla of five, bright yellow,
graphy. subunguiculate, concavo-ventricose petals, reddish at the
base, waved at the margin, at first spreading, then bent
back. Crown of five broadly ovate scales, red below,
white upwards, where there are two slight depressions,
and bidentate, somewhat pubescent at the base, where
there are three (one on each side and one in the middle)
subtriangular, toothed, red, fleshy appendages, each at its
upper margin furnished with a yellowish brown, clavate
filament. On the posterior side the margins of these
scales are seen to be curved in, and to contain two fila-
mentose bodies, curved and slightly pubescent at the base,
about equal in length to the scale, and bearing on one side
a purplish filament, which exceeds the scale in height. Sta¬
mens, about ten in each androphore or bundle; at first bent
down at an angle, and concealed within the concave petals
of the corolla, at length gradually springing upwards, and
lying against the style and stigma, between the scales of
the nectary. Filaments purplish. Anthers yellow, ovate.
Pollen oblong when dry, spherical when moist, and always
marked with a central line. Ovarium cohering with the
tube of the calyx, above which it rises and forms an he¬
mispherical hairy head. Capsule, with the persistent ca¬
lyx, opening into three valves in the superior extremity.
Receptacles corresponding with the sutures, rather large,
fleshy. Seeds, several on each receptacle, longish, oblong,
attached on one side, wrinkled, browm. Albumen white,
between wraxy and horny, and inclosing in its centre a
cylindrical straight embryo, slightly thickened upwards.
This belongs to Polyadelphia polyandria of Linnaeus, al¬
though by some erroneously placed in Polyandria mono-
gynia, and forms the type of the natural order Loasece.
Plate CXVIII. Loasa nitida. Fig. 1, Plant, natural
size. Fig. 2, A Leaf. Fig. 3, A Flower. Fig. 4, Calyx,
most of the petals, stamens, and scales, being removed. Fig.
5, Back view of the scale of the nectary. Fig. 6, Front view
of the same. Fig. 7, One of the filaments from within the
scale. Fig. 8, Stamen. Fig. 9, Pollen. Fig. 10, Sting.
Fig. 11, Hair, with its joints and bristles. Fig. 12, Ovarium
cut through transversely. Fig-. 13, Seed. Fig. 14, Section
of the seed, shoiving the albumen and embryo. Fig. 15, Em¬
bryo removed from the seed.
Gen. IV.—Begonia. Linn.
Moncecious. Males. Perianth usually of four unequal
tepals. Stamens eight or more. Fem. Perianth, the tube
adherent with the ovary, the limb divided to the base into
4-9 segments, usually unequal. Styles three, each with
a two-horned stigma; or nine, dichotomously 3-4 cleft, with
simple stigmas. Capsule triangular, three-winged, three-
celled. Seeds very minute and numerous.
1. B. picta; stem short, pubescent; leaves cordate,
acute, wrinkled, doubly-serrated, spotted, hispid ; male
flowers of four, the female of 4-5 divisions, the two inner
the narrowest; capsule with the wings unequal and pu¬
bescent.
B. picta. Smith, Ex. Bot. t. 101; Hook. Ex. FI. t. 89 ;
Bot. Mag. t. 2962; Lodd. Bot. Cab. t. 571.—B. hirta.
Wallich.
Hab. Nipal. TJ.. Flowers, in September, in the stoves
of our gardens.
Descr. Root perennial, of two small, roundish tubers,
together with a few thick, fleshy, simple fibres, mixed with
others which are more slender and branched. Stem short,
slightly branched, thick, succulent, green, more or less
tinged with purple, hairy. Leaves three or four inches in
length, few in number, cordate, more or less inequilateral,
with a deep sinus at the base, and two large rounded
lobes, more or less acute, sometimes acuminated, the mar-
vol. v.
gins unequally and doubly serrated, rugose, waved, hispid
above, downy, and prominently veined beneath, green at
the margins, and axils of the veins stained with dark pur¬
ple. Petioles long, terete, hairy, with a pair of broadly
ovate stipules at the base. Peduncles from the axils of
the leaves, and longer than them, reddish below, green
above, bearing one or several flowers, often in a trichoto-
mous umbel. Flowers large, rose-coloured, drooping be¬
fore and after expansion, especially the female. Male
Flower of four spreading tepals, two large, roundish, cor¬
date, hispid, with short red hairs at the back, two inner
ones obovate. Stamens numerous, and in reality mono-
delphous, the filaments often forked, yellow. Female
Flowers of four or five divisions; the outer ones rotun-
dato-ovate, hispid at the back; the inner rather smaller,
and obovate. Ovarium large, cohering with the tube of
the perianth, turbinate, thickly pubescent, with branched
or rather laciniated, white, reticulated processes, trique¬
trous, the angles extended into alae or wings, of which one
is larger than the others. Styles 3, yellow. Stigma bifid,
each segment twisted something like the shell of a snail.
We have given a short generic character to this plant,
as Begonia is the only genus of the natural order to which
it belongs, and the description of the order will be given
afterwards. In the Linnoean system it is usually placed
in Moncecia polyandria.
Plate CXVIII. Begonia picta. Fig. 1*, Plant, natural
size. Fig. 2*, Style and stigma. Fig. 3*, One of the pro¬
cesses of the ovarium which forms the pubescence. Fig. 4*,
Ovarium cut transversely.
Phyto-
graphy.
Gen. V.—Cuscuta. Linn.
Calyx 4-5-cleft. Corolla urceolate or campanulate, the
limb 4-5-cleft, with as many scales (sometimes very mi-,
nute) inside at the base. Stamens 4-5. Ovarium bilo¬
cular, each cell two-seeded. Stigmas two. Capsule open¬
ing transversely. Cotyledons inconspicuous.—Parasitical,
climbing, leafless plants with filiform stems.
1. C. verrucosa ; flowers pedicellate ; corolla campanu¬
late, five-toothed, segments reflexed, scales fimbriated;
stamens five; stigmas nearly sessile, diverging, elongated,
subulate ; peduncles and calyx verrucose.
C. verrucosa. Sweet, Brit. FI. Card. t. 6.—C. reflexa,
var. verrucosa. Hook. Exot. FI. t. 150.
Hab. East India. If- 3- Flowers in November in cultiva¬
tion at Edinburgh.
Descr. Stem of great length, filiform, branched, leaf¬
less, succulent, climbing from right to left (contrary to
the motion of the sun), shining, glabrous, greenish-white,
spotted and dashed with purple, adhering parasitically
by means of small, fleshy, discoid radicles. From va¬
rious parts of the stems and branches proceed racemes
or compact panicles, formed of a considerable number of
large, pure white, waxy, and slightly pellucid fragrant
flowers, the smell of which resembles that of the prim¬
rose. Peduncles and pedicels sprinkled with many elevated
shining dots or warts, of a deep purple colour. Bracteas,
two or three on the pedicels, or at the base of the calyx,
small ovate. Calyx of five fleshy, white or pale rose colour¬
ed, ovate, obtuse, appressed, warted segments, persistent.
Corolla deciduous, campanulate, or very slightly contract¬
ed at the mouth, five-toothed, the teeth reflexed; at the
base of the corolla, on the inside, alternating with its teeth,
are five short fringed scales. Anthers five, sessile on the
corolla, just within its mouth, and alternating with the
segments, oblong, yellow. Filament incorporated with the
corolla, forming an elevated line between the anthers and
the back of each scale. Ovarium roundish-ovate, superior,
and not at all adherent with the calyx, bilocular; each cell
i
66
Phyto-
graphy.
BOTANY.
with two ovules, tipped with the two, nearly sessile, subu¬
late, white stigmata. Capsule the size of a pea, terminat¬
ed with the style and stigmas, spherical, membranaceous,
opening transversely near the base, imperfectly two-celled;
the dissepiment membranaceous, free, each cell two-seed¬
ed ; one or sometimes both seeds in a cell not unfrequent-
ly abortive. Seeds attached to the base of the cells, erect,
roundish, compressed. Albumen copious, between fleshy
and corneous. Embryo filiform, long, spirally rolled up,
and immersed in the albumen, as in fig. 8, where only poi-
tions of it are visible.
This grows with great luxuriance when plunged in the
tan-pit. It is of no use. .
This genus has been usually described as having no
cotyledons; but, however inconspicuous they be, we are
not warranted by analogy to draw such a conclusion : both
bracteas and a calyx are perceptible, and these we know
to be modified leaves. Although, therefore, leaves and coty¬
ledons do not appear perfect, we may infer that they exist
in a rudimentary state. It belongs to Pentandria digynia,
and Nat. Order, Convolvulacece. As a species, it coincides
perhaps too closely with the C. reflexa of Dr Roxburgh,
but that species has smaller flowers, and the calyx and
peduncle have not been observed to possess the lemark-
able warts of that before us.
Plate CXIX. Cuscuta verrucosa. Fig. 1, Plant, natu¬
ral size. Fig. 2, Corolla cut open, showing the stamens and
scales at the base, magnified. Fig. 3, Calyx and pistil,
magnified. Fig. 4, Capsule opening. Fig. 5, Dissepi¬
ment and two seeds, the upper part of the capsule being re¬
moved. Fig. 6, Ovarium cut transversely. Fig. 7, Seed.
Fig. 8, Seed cut longitudinally, showing the albumen, and
the embryo rolled up and immersed in it.
Gen. VI.—Mvristica. Linn.
Dioecious. Males. Perianth campanulate, trifid. Fila¬
ment columnar. Anthers 3-12, connate. Fem. Perianth
campanulate, trifid, deciduous. Style 0. Stigmas two.
Drupe with a nut covered by an arillus, one-seeded.
1. M. officinalis ; leaves oblongo-elliptical, subacumi¬
nate, glabrous, paler beneath, nerves simple ; peduncles
few-flowered; perianth urceolate.
M. officinalis. Linn. Supp. p. 265 ; Gaert. de Fruct. vol. i.
p. 194, t. 41 ; Smith in Rees' Cycl. ; Hook. Exot. FI. 1.155,
156 ; Bot. Mag. t. 2756, 2757.—M. moschata. Thunb. in
Act. Holm. 1782, p. 45; Wood’s Med. Bot. t. 134 ; Willd.
Sp. PI. vol. iv. p. 869 ; Ait. Hort. Kew ed. 2. vol. v. p. 419;
Spreng. Syst. Veg. vol. iii. p. 64; Flora Med. vol. ii. p. 74.—
M. aromatica. Lam. Act. Par. 1788, p. 155, t. 5, 6, 7 ;
Lam. Diet. vol. iv. p. 385, and III. t. 832 ; Roxb. PI. of Co-
rom. vol. iii. t.267.—Nux myristica seu Pala, Rumph./7er5.
Amb. vol. iii. p. 14. t. 4.—Nux moschata, fructu rotundo.
Pluh. Phyt. t. 219.
Hob. Islands of Banda, a group of the Molucca isles. 5.
Descr. Trunk from twenty-five to thirty feet, much
branched, with a greyish brown, tolerably smooth bark,
that abounds in a yellow juice. Leaves 3-6 inches long sub-
bifarious, penninerved, oblong, or nearly elliptical, somewhat
obtuse at the base, acuminate at the apex, quite entire, gla¬
brous, dark green, and somewhat shining above, beneath
much paler, but neither pulverulent nor pubescent; lateral
nerves parallel, simple, prominent. Petioles of an inch
in length, plane above. Flowers in axillary subumbellate ra¬
cemes, sometimes forked or compound, males and females on
different trees. Peduncles and.pedicels subclavate, glabrous,
the latter having a quickly deciduous bracteole at its sum¬
mit, often oppressed to the flower. Male Flowers from
three to five, or more, on a peduncle. Perianth urceolate,
thick and fleshy, of a dingy pale yellowish colour, clothed
with a very indistinct reddish pubescence, cut into three, or
by luxuriance, and rarely, into four, somewhat erect teeth.
Filaments of the stamens united and incorporated so as to
form a thickened, whitish, cylindrical body, about as long
as the perianth, of which the top is rounded, and the up¬
per half covered by about eleven longitudinal, linear ob¬
long, two-celled anthers, free at their base, opening longi¬
tudinally, and emitting a yellow pollen. Fem. Fl., simi¬
lar to the male, except that the pedicel is very frequently
solitary on the peduncle. Perianth deciduous. Pistil soli¬
tary, shorter than the perianth, broadly ovate, a little ta¬
pering upwards into a short style, and bearing a two-lobed
persistent stigma. Fruit a nearly spherical, pendent
drupe, of the size and nearly of the shape of a small pear;
flesh of a yellowish colour, almost white within, one-third
to one-half an inch in thickness, opening into two nearly
equal valves, exhibiting the nut and mace, which soon
drop out, and the flesh then withers. Arillus thick, some¬
what horny or fleshy, laciniated, folded and anastomosing
towards the extremity, closely enveloping the nut, of a
brilliant scarlet colour. Nut broadly oval; shell very hard,
rugged, dark brown, glossy, about half a line thick, pale
and smooth within. Seed oval, pale brown, quite smooth
(when first deprived of the shell, but soon becoming
shrivelled as it is sold in our shops). Testa and tegmen
thin. Albumen firm, fleshy, whitish traversed with reddish-
brown oleiferous veins. Embryo flesh}^, yellowish white,
imbedded in a cavity at the base of the albumen. Radicle
short, rounded, pointing to the hilum. Cotyledons two,
large, foliaceous, plicate.
The use both of the mace and nutmeg are well known,
whether in a medicinal or economical point of view; an
essential oil is prepared from them by distillation and ex¬
pression. The flesh contains a bitter principle, which may
be much removed by repeated washings, when the fruit is
preserved in sugar.
Myristica belongs to Dicecia monadelphia of Linnaeus,
and to the natural order Myristacece. It was referred by
Jussieu to the Laurineae, but differs in many important
characters.1
Plate CXX. Myristica officinalis. Fig. 1, Male plant,
natural size. Fig. 2, Perianth cut open to show the sta¬
mens. Fig. 3. Anther. Fig. 4, Female flower cut open.
Fig. 5, Young fruit. Fig. 6, Ripe fruit in the act of burst¬
ing and showing the male. Fig. 7, Section of ripe fruit.
Fig. 8, The Nut. Fig. 9, Seed. Fig. 10, Seed cut verti¬
cally. Fig. 11, Nut cut through vertically. Fig. 12 and
13, Embryo.
Phyto-
graphy.
Gen. VII.—Euphorbia. Linn.
Flowers monoecious in the same involucre: the female
solitary and central: the males several, surrounding the
female. Involucre either regular, or more frequently irre¬
gular and cleft on one side, campanulato-turbinate, 4-5
cleft; the segments entire, or fimbriated, or multipartite,
and erect or inflected ; alternating with which are as many
(or rarely fewer) exterior appendages, fleshy, glandulose,
1 We have been indebted for the above descriptions, and the accompanying plates, to the works of Professor Hooker, the most ele¬
gant botanical writer and draughtsman of the present day. All the plates which follow, with the exception of Plate CXXIII., are
also copied from those done after drawings made by the same distinguished botanist; they were originally published principally in
the Botanical Magazine, a work that contains now considerably upwards of 3000 coloured plates, and than which none can better merit
the patronage of the public.
BOTANY. 67
Phyto. or petaloid, entire or two-horned, or (rarely) many cleft, xia cristata. The Russians, into whose service the present Photo¬
graphy. patent, and reflexed. Males consisting of several pedi- Elsholz went, wrote his name Eschscholz by mistake. The
ce]Sj articulated with a filament bearing one anther, genus is now so well established, that the alteration to
usually distinct below, with intervening paleaceous or another generic name might create unnecessary confu-
squamiform bracteas. Fem. Pistil long-pedicellate, naked sion.”—Hook.
below, or (rarely) with an entire or trifid minute peri- Plate CXXII. Eschscholtzia Californica. Fig. 1*, Plant,
anth. Styles three bifid, rarely united into one trifid natural size. Fig. 2*, Base of one of the petals, to which
at the apex. Stigmas six, rarely three and two-lobed. some of the stamens are attached. Fig. 3*, Pistil inserted
Ovarium, three-celled; the cells each with one ovule, in the cup-shaped receptacle, or hollowed extremity of the pe-
Fruit capsular, sitting on the elongated pedicel, and nod- duncle. Fig. 4**, Section of the ovarium. Fig. 5*, Pipe
ding by it being deflexed, smooth or warted, glabrous or capsule, natural size. Fig. 6*, Seed. Fig. 7*, Section of
pilose, tricoccous, the cocci bursting elastically into the same. Fig. 8*, Embryo.
two valves, and deciduous.—Milky plants, herbaceous or
shrubby, erect or creeping, of various appearances. Gen> X.—Janipiia. Kunth.
1. E. hypericifolia, erect, herbaceous, smooth. Leaves
opposite oblique, and half heart-shaped at the base, ob- Flowers monoecious. Perianth campanulate, 5-partite.
long, somewhat obtuse, serrulate; petioles very short, Estivation convolute. Males. Stamens ten, distinct, in-
with stipules at the base; corymbs of flowers dense, axil- serted on the fleshy discoid torus, five of them alternate
lary, or terminal. with the others, and shorter. Fem. Style short. Stigmas
E. hypericifolia. Linn. Amcen. Acad. vol. iii. p. 113; three, of several lobes; the lobes, as if united into one
Hook, Exot. FI. t. xxxvi. mass, marked with sinuose furrows. Ovarium seated on
West Indies. O or 2£. (Humb.) the fleshy torus, three-celled, the cells each with one ovule.
Of this and the following we do not give either detailed Capsule ovate, somewhat acute at the apex, tricoccous,
characters, or a long list of synonyms, but exhibit longer the cocci two-valved.—Trees or milky shrubs; leaves al-
generic characters, that the plates may serve to illustrate ternate, palmate; flowers racemoso-panicled, axillary or
some of the natural orders. terminal; root of some of the sjiecies tubercular and es-
Plate CXXI. Euphorbia hypericifolia. Fig. 1, Plant culent.
natural size. Fig. 2, Involucre with petaloid appendages. 1. J. Manihot; leaves palmate, 5-7-partite, glabrous,
Fig. 3, Involucre cut open to show the insertion of the nurne- glaucous beneath, the segments lanceolate and very en-
roits naked monandrous male flowers, and the single naked tire ; flowers racemose.
female flower, all pedicellated. Fig. 4, Involucre deprived J. Manihot. Humb. and Kunth, Nov. Gen. vol. ii. p.
of the petaloid appendages. Fig. 5, Involucre with ripe 108; Plook. in Bot. Mag. t. 3071.—Manihot utilissima.
fruit. Fig. 6, Stipule. Fig. 7, Stamen and anther burst Pohl, PI. Bras. Icon. vol. i. t. 24.—latropha Manihot.
open. Fig. 8, Fruit, with one of the cocci separating from Linn. Sp. PI. p. 1428.—Physic-nut, bitter cassada, manioc,
the 'columella, and burstmg to discharge the seed. Fig. 9, or tapioca, of English writers.
Seed. Fig. 10, Seed cut open longitudinally, showing the Bab. Brazil. If.. Flowers in July and August in our
fleshy albumen and inverted embryo. collections.
“ Two kinds are especially cultivated in the colonies,
Gen. IX.—Eschsciioltzia. Chamisso. the Sweet Cassada oi Browne s Jamaica (p. 350), and
Lunan’s Hort. Jam. (vol. i. p. 163), Manihot Aipi, Fold ;
Calyx ovato-conical, membranaceous, mitriform, very whose root is of a white colour, and free from deleterious
soon falling off entire. Petals four, their claws short, in- qualities ; and the Bitter Cassada, whose root is yellow-
serted on the expanded hollow apex of the peduncle, ish, and abounds in a poisonous juice. We shall confine
Stamens partly inserted with the petals, and partly at- our observations to the latter kind, which is the one here
tached to their claws, numerous, 6-8 opposite to each figured and described. They seem not to differ in bota-
petal. Anthers terminal, linear, two-celled, the cells burst- nical character.
ing longitudinally. Ovarium free, elongated. Stigmas ses- “ When it is considered that the Manioc belongs to a
sile, four, two of which are longer than the other two, tribe of plants, the Euphorbiacece, which is essentially dis-
which are abortive. Capside siliquiform, cylindrical, mark- tinguished by its acrid and poisonous qualities, and that
ed with ten ribs and ten striae, two-valved. Placentas mar- the root of the plant itself abounds in a juice of this pecu-
ginal. Seeds small, globose, externally reticulated. Al- liar character, it cannot fail to excite astonishment in the
bumen fleshy. Embryo straight, immersed in the albumen minds of those who are not already aware of the fact, that
near the base of the seed, the radicle pointing to the hilum. it nevertheless yields an abundant flour, rendered inno-
—Stem abounding in a yellowish juice; leaves alternate, cent indeed by the art of man, and thus most extensively
multifid; peduncles opposite to the leaves, and one-flower- employed in lieu of bread throughout a very large portion
ed, expanding at their apex into a hollow receptacle. of South America; and that even to our country it is
1. E. Californica. largely imported, and served up at table, under the name
E. Californica. Cham, in Hor. Phys. Berol. p. 74, t. of Tapioca.
15; Hook, in Bot. Mag. t. 2887 ; Lindl. in Bot. Reg. t. “ Such is the poisonous nature of the expressed juice
1168; Sweet, Brit. FI. Card. t. 265. This genus belongs of the Manioc, that it has been known to occasion death
undoubtedly to the Papaveracece of Jussieu, and Polyan- in a few minutes. By means of it the Indians destroyed
dria tetragynia of Linnaeus. We have already said (p. 60), many of their Spanish persecutors. M. Fernier, a physi-
that the name ought scarcely to be retained. It was cian at Surinam, administered a moderate dose to dogs
“ named by Chamisso in honour of Dr Eschscholz, an ex- and cats, who died in a space of twenty-five minutes, passed
cellent botanist and entomologist, who accompanied him in great torments. Their stomachs, on being opened, ex-
as a fellow naturalist in the voyage round the world un- hibited no symptoms of inflammation, nor affection of the
der the command of Kotzebue. It is not, perhaps, gene- viscera, nor was the blood coagulated, whence it appear-
rally known that this gentleman is a descendant of John ed, that the poison acted on the nervous system ; an idea
oigismund Elsholz, a Prussian botanist, author of a Flora that was confirmed by thirty-six drops being afterwards
itarchica, and after whom WiUdenow named the Elshol- administered to a criminal. These had scarcely reached
68
Phyto-
graphy.
BOTANY.
the stomach, when the man writhed and screamed with
the agonies under which he suffered, and fell into convul¬
sions, in which he expired in six minutes. Three hours
afterwards the body was opened, but no alteration was
found, except that the stomach was shrunk to less than
half its natural size ; so that it would appear that the fa¬
tal principle resides in a volatile substance, which may be
dissipated by heat; as, indeed, is satisfactorily proved by
the mode of preparing the root for food.
“ By various processes, by bruising between stones, by
a coarse rasp, or by a mill, the root of the Manioc is bro¬
ken into small pieces, then put into a sack, and subjected
to a heavy pressure, by which all the juice is expressed.
What remains is Cassada or Cassava, which, if properly
dried, is capable of being preserved for a great length of
time.
“ In French Guiana, according to Aublet, cassada flour
is made by toasting the grated root over the fire, in which
state, if kept from humidity, it will continue good for
twenty years.
“ Cassava-cake, or cassava-root, is the meal, or the grat¬
ed, expressed, and dried root of the Manioc, pounded in
a mortar, passed through a coarse sieve, and baked on flat
circular iron plates fixed in a stove. The particles of
meal are united by the heat, and when thoroughly baked
in this manner, form cakes, which are sold at the markets,
and universally esteemed as a wholesome kind of bread.
The Spaniards, when they first discovered the W’est In¬
dies, found this in general use among the native Indians,
who called it Cazabbi, and by whom it was preferred to
every other kind of bread, on account of its easy diges¬
tion, the facility with which it was cultivated, and its pro¬
digious increase. Again, in Guiana, Cipipa is another
preparation from this plant, and is the name given to a
very fine and white fecula, which, according to Aublet, is
derived from the expressed juice of the roots, which is
decanted off, and suffered to rest some time, when it de¬
posits an amylaceous substance, which requires repeated
washing. I know not whether this is exactly analogous
to our Tapioca. The juice, says Sloane, evaporated over
the fire, gives the Tapioca meal. But Lunan tells us, that,
from the roots of the Sweet Cassada, Tapioca is made in
Jamaica, in every respect similar to that imported, which
is done by grating them, washing them, and infusing them
in water, and evaporating the liquor so as to obtain a
sediment like starch, which must be well dried in the
sun.
“ The root of the Manioc is also the basis of several
kinds of fermented liquors; and an excellent condiment
for seasoning meats, called Cabiou, or Capiou, is prepared
from the juice, and said to sharpen the appetite. The
leaves beaten and boiled are eaten after the manner of
Spinach, and the fresh root is employed in healing ulcers.
“ From what has been above stated, it will appear that
the expression of the juice from the root deprives the
latter of its deleterious properties; and that the applica¬
tion of heat to these juices renders the residue also whole¬
some and nourishing. And whilst cassava-bread is, as
Sloane says, in the most general demand of any provision
all over the West Indies, and is employed to victual ships,
the use of Tapioca is still more extended, and throughout
Europe is largely employed for the same purpose as sago
and arrow-root.” (Hook, in Hot. Magd)
Plate CXXII. Janipha manihot. Fig. 1, Branch of a
plant, natural size, with female flowers. Fig. 2, Panicle,
with mostly male flowers. Fig. 3, Pistil. Fig. 4, Stamens,
and discoid fleshy torus. Fig. 5, Anther. Fig. 6, Seed.
Gen. XI.—Anacardium. Jacq. Linn.
Flowers polygamous. Calyx 5-partite, regular, decidu¬
ous, the segments erect. Estivation imbricated. Pe¬
tals five, inserted on the calyx, sessile, longer than the
calyx, equal, patent above. Stamens ten, inserted with v
the petals, included, one (between two of the petals) twice
as long and stout as the others. Filaments connate at
their base. Anthers two-celled, ovato-elliptical, bifid at
the base, attached by the back, longitudinally dehiscing
on the inside. Ovarium free, sessile, one-celled, termi¬
nating in the style; minute in the male flowers. Ovule
one, ascending, situated at the bottom of the cell. Style
subulate, protruded. Stigma capitellate. Discoid torus
wanting. Fruit reniform, cartilagineo-coriaceous, one-
seeded, indehiscent, seated on the enlarged pyriform
fleshy extremity of the pedicel. Seed reniform. Integu¬
ment simple, coriaceous, adhering. Embryo of the same
shape as the seed, without albumen. Cotyledons half-
lunate, fleshy, plano-convex. Radicle hooked, rising up¬
wards from the base of the cotyledons.—Trees bearing
gum ; leaves alternate, simple, entire and very entire, the
primary veins transverse and somewhat parallel; stipules
none; panicles terminal, corymbose, branched, diffuse,
bracteated; flowers fascicled; pericarp cellular within,
abounding in a caustic oil.
1. A. occidentale.
A. occidentale. Linn. Sp. PI. p. 548 ; Jacq. Amer. i.
t. 181. f. 35.—Acajuba occidentalis. Gaert. Fruct. i. p.
192. t. 40.—Cassuvium pomiferum. Lam. i. p. 22.
III. t. 322.
Hob. West Indies, Mexico, South America, East In¬
dia islands. This yields the well-known cashew-hut. It
belongs to the Terebinthacece.
Plate CXXIII. Anacardium occidentale. Fig. 1, Branch
with flowers and fruit, somewhat reduced. Fig. 2, Flowers
not expanded. Fig. 3, Flower spread open. Fig. 4, Sta¬
men and pistil in the calyx, one stamen {fertile) longer than
the others. Fig. 5, Stamen. Fig-. 6, Nut. Fig. 7, Nut cut
open longitudinally. Fig. 8, Seed. Fig. 9, Cotyledons
opened, showing the radicle (a) and plumule.
Gen. XII.—Carica. Linn.
.Mowers dioecious. Ca/ya: (minute) five-toothed. Males.
Corolla infundibuliform. Stamens ten, the alternate ones
shorter. Fem. Corolla deeply five-parted. Stigmas five.
Fruit like a pepo, many-seeded. Seeds covered with a
wrinkled membrane.
1. C. Papaya ; leaves palmate, seven-parted, segments
oblong acute sinuate, the intermediate one trifid; fruit ob¬
long, furrowed.
C. Papaya. Linn. Sp. PI. p. 1466; Lindl. in Bot. Reg.
t. 459; Hook in Bot. Mag. t. 2898 and 2899.—Papaya
vulgaris, Lam. III. t. 821.—Papaya Carica. Gaertn. Fruct.
vol. ii. p. 191, t. 122, f. 2.
Hob. South America. 5*
This, the Papaw tree, yields a milky juice ; and, as
Browne mentions, if water be impregnated with it, it will
make all sorts of meat washed in it very tender; but eight
or ten minutes steeping will render it so soft that it will
drop in pieces from the spit before it is well roasted, or
turn to rags in the boiling. If old hogs and poultry be
fed upon the leaves and fruit, however tough the meat
they afford might otherwise be, it is thus rendered per¬
fectly tender. Even the vapour of the tree serves this
purpose ; hence many people in the West Indies suspend
the joints of meat, fowls, &c. in the upper part of the tree,
in order to prepare them sooner for the table.
Plate CXXIV. Carica Papaya. Fig. 1, Tree, much re¬
duced. Fig. 2, Portion of a panicle or raceme of male
flowers. Fig. 3, Male floiver, cut open. Fig. 4, Calyx.
Fig. 5, Portion of the tube of the corolla bearing young sta-
Phyto..
graphy.
B O T
Phyto- mens, the rest being cut away. Fig. 6 and 7, Anthers. Fig. 8,
.rraphy- Female flowers.
Gen XIII.—Andromeda. Linn.
Calyx five-parted. Corolla gamopetalous, somewhat
campanulate. Stamens tea. two-horned. Style one.
Capsule five-celled, loculicidal, with a central five-lobed
placentiferous column.
1. A. hypnoides ; stem procumbent; leaves imbricated
erect subulate; peduncles solitary; one-flowered, terminal;
corolla campanulate five-cleft, the segments obtuse and
converging; style ovato-acuminate.
A. hypnoides. Linn. Suec. p. 355; Flor. Lapp. t. 1. f.
3; Hook, in Bot. Mag. t. 2936.
Hab. Extreme north of Europe, Asia, and north-west
coast of America. £•
We have already (p. 60) given Linnaeus’s interesting
account of the origin of the name Andromeda.
Plate CXXIV. Andromeda hypnoides. Fig. 1*, Plant,
natural size. Fig. 2*, Flower. Fig. 3*, Back view, and
Fig. Front view of a stamen. Fig. 5*, Leaf. Fig. 6*,
Pistil. Fig. 1*, Section of the ovarium.
Gen. XIV.—Artocarpus. Linn.
Flowers monoecious, in an amentum. Males. Perianth
simple, of one, two, or three segments. Filament solitary,
as long as the perianth. Fem. Perianth of one piece, the
mouth contracted. Fruit a sorosis.
1. A incisa ; leaves cuneato-ovate, lobed in a pinnatifid
manner, glabrous, or nearly so, above, scabrous beneath.
A. incisa. Linn. Fil. Supp. p. 411 ; Lam. III. t. 744;
Hook, in Bot. Mag. t. 2869, 2870, and 2871.—A com¬
munis. Forster, Gen. p. 102, t. 51.
Hab. Ladrone islands, but now cultivated throughout
the tropics. 5.
Of this there are two varieties; one producing nuts,
which is called the Bread-nut (that here figured) ; the
other in which the nuts are abortive, and called the
Breadfruit. This last is well known to all who have
read the interesting voyages of Dampier and Anson.
This genus belongs to the Artocarpece, a section of Urticece.
Plate CXXV. Artocarpus incisa. Fig. 1, Branch, re¬
duced to one third of the natural size, with male and fe¬
male flowers. Fig. 2, Section of an amentum of male flowers,
natural size. Fig. 3, Male flowers. Fig. 4, Single male
flower. Fig. 5, Cluster of female flowers. Fig. 6, Smgle
female floicer. Fig. 7, Ovarium. Fig. 8, Ovarium laid
open to show the ovule. Fig. 9, A variety of the ovarium
with two cells. Fig. 10, Transverse section of the ovarium.
Gen. XIV.—Cycas. Linn.
Flowers dioecious. Males in a very thick amentum:
scales somewhat imbricated, inserted on the common axis,
somewhat triangular, tapering from the apex to the base,
terminated at the apex with a recurved point, on the under
side sprinkled without order with bivalve anthers. Fem.
Arranged in ensiform spadices, which are between foliace-
ous and carnose, and bear the flowers on both margins:
flowers erect, half immersed. Fruit erect, a naked dru¬
paceous seed.—Trees with an erect, round stipes; leaves
pinnatisect, and forming a crown round the stem.
C. circinalis; segments of the leaves linear-lanceolate,
plane; petioles aculeate; female spadices few-flowered,
acuminate, inciso-serrated ; fruit ovato-globose, glabrous.
C circinalis, Linn. Sp. PL p. 1658; Hook, in Bot. Mag.
f. 2866 and 2867; Richard Mem. sur'les Conif. p. 187, t.
24,25,26. ^ ^
ANY. 69
Hab. East Indies. 5. Phyto-
This belongs to the natural order of Cycadece, which, with graphy.
Conferee, is remarkable for having no pericarp farther than
the spadix or its scales.
Plate CXXVI. Cycas circinalis, male. Fig. 1, Plant, re¬
duced to one-twelfth of the natural size. Fig. 2, Male
amentum, natural size. Fig. 3, Upper side of a scale. Fig. 4,
Under side of the same. Fig. 5, 6, 7, Anther. Fig. 8,
Pollen, magnified. Fig. 9, Small pinna from a leaf.
As to the manner in which botanical works may be got
up, whether as Monographs of Orders or Genera, as Floras
of particular countries or districts of a country, as a Hortus,
as a Genera Plantarum, a Species Plantarum, or as a Sys-
tema Vegetabilium, or as Botanical Plates; though each
be subjected to a few rules, yet much is left to the taste
of the author. We shall therefore pass them over, and
proceed to an
Herbarium.
Descriptions and figures, however exact they may be
esteemed by their authors, have so often been found im¬
perfect by others, that some means must be resorted to,
that every one may examine for himself the plant treated
of. This in a measure may be attained by having access
to gardens; but in all our gardens together, perhaps not
more than one fourth of the vegetable productions of the
globe are cultivated, and of these many have not been
made to bear blossoms or fruit, and are therefore useless ;
nor can they be certainly seen in all states at the very time
when we particularly desire them. In a garden, also, the
cultivator is seldom an experienced botanist, and we may
therefore expect many errors in nomenclature. The name,
therefore, so far from assisting us to trace what an author
had in view, may tend to puzzle us still more. In a garden,
likewise, plants are made as showy as possible, to please
the eye, and often depart very much from the type of the
species as taken from its original locality. The necessity,
then, was soon perceived of preserving specimens of every
thing that is described, so that these may be communicat¬
ed to other botanists, examined by them, and criticised;
and as it was impracticable to retain for any length of time
specimens in the fresh state, means were devised to ex¬
tract the juices; and this being accomplished, no alteration
could afterwards take place. Such is the origin of an
herbarium, which is a collection more or less considerable
of different plants, dried as carefully as possible, at a time
when they were in leaf, in flower, and in fruit; while a se¬
parate collection of fruits alone, either dried, or, if they
are fleshy, preserved in spirits or salt water, is called a
granary. The mode of drying plants is very simple.
Paper of an absorbent nature (such as common gray
or brown packing paper, or old newspapers) must be
procured, about seventeen or eighteen inches long, and
twelve broad, and a few strong deal boards of the same
size. The specimens may be gathered in a large tin box,
or in a basket so covered as to exclude the rays of the
sun ; and when one cannot soon after proceed to dry them,
a little water may be occasionally sprinkled over them to
keep them fresh. In order to dry them, take one of the
boards and lay a few sheets of paper upon it. The quan¬
tity of paper will of course depend on its thickness, and
on the nature of the specimens ; for when they are full of
moisture, more paper is requisite than for more tender or
less juicy plants; and when they have thick or knobby
stems, or large hard fruits, a still greater quantity must
intervene between each layer of plants. Having taken,
then, some sheets of paper, spread upon them the plants,
so as not to allow the one to overlap the other; and with
this precaution several may be laid on the same sheet. It
1
JO
Phyto-
graphy.
botany.
is quite useless to spread out or separate the leaves or
flowers with the hand. If the specimen be at all in a fresh
state, its natural appearance is best preserved by allowing
it to take the position which chance may direct. Above
this layer of plants place some sheets of paper, then ano¬
ther layer of plants, and so on till a packet be formed of
a foot, or a foot and a half high. When a considerable
number of woody plants is in the packet, a few thin
boards may be interspersed, to prevent the more deli¬
cate plants sustaining injury; this will a so flatten the
coarse ones more easily. On the top of the packet ar
ther board is to be placed, and on it a large weight or
dry stone when such can be procured, so as to press the
plants, and make them give out their juices to the paper.
The weight need scarcely be less than 50 lbs.; and if
the plants have thick or woody stems, even 80 lbs. or
100 lbs. may be applied. In travelling, it is impossible to
carry about large stones or weights, in which case the
plants may be pressed by means of two or three leather
belts passing round the packet, and pulled extreme y
tight. When plants have been subjected to pressure for
twenty-four or forty-eight hours, the weight may be taken
off, and the paper will be found to have absorbed a con¬
siderable portion of moisture from the plants. _ It must
therefore be now removed, and the specimens laid on dry
paper, and subjected to the same process as before. This
must be repeated until the plants are dry. It may be less
troublesome were the sheets, upon which the plants im-
mediately rest, laid down in a dry situation for a few
hours with the plants on them. The moistuie will quickly
evaporate, and the sheet, without disturbing the plants,
may be laid upon a layer of dry paper. The wet paper,
when thoroughly dried, can be used as often as one chooses.
When the specimens are dry, which may be easily ascer¬
tained by their stiffness, or not curling up when in a dry
situation, they may be packed up (of small ones, fifty or
sixty specimens on a sheet), in very little space ; only one
sheet of paper is then requisite between each layer of
plants. Specimens must be gathered, when possible, in
dry weather. They ought to be both in flower and in fruit,
the latter being obviously as useful as the former to the
scientific botanist; and not less than from twelve or fifteen
specimens of each kind ought to be taken, one specimen
proving frequently of little use. Small herbaceous plants,
not more than sixteen or seventeen inches high, may be
pulled up by the root, and dried entire ; and some that are
even longer, as grasses and ferns, may be doubled two or
three times. Of larger plants, such as shrubs and trees,
specimens are to be taken at least sixteen or seventeen
inches long; and if the leaves on a plantvary much in
shape, a corresponding number of specimens may be dried
of each kind. Those plants which are of a very fleshy or
succulent nature, as tulips, &c. ought to be plunged (all
but the flower) for a few seconds into boiling water. This
deprives them of life ; and when the extraneous moisture
is allowed to dry off, or wiped away with a towel, they may
be dried as other plants. Lichens and fungi may be dried
in the common way, although those of the latter triber sel¬
dom makegood specimens. Mosses grow frequently in
tufts, and are to be a little separated by the hand before
they be pressed. The larger or coarse sea-weeds ought
to be plunged in boiling water, and treated as succulent
plants. The smaller ones, when one is hurried, may first be
partially dried in the open air, in a shady situation, and
afterwards subjected to a very gentle pressure, till quite
dry, when they may be packed up with the other plants;
and, when our time permits, they will be restored to their
original form by washing them in cold fresh water. They
are then to be neatly spread out on pieces of writing paper,
to which most of the species will adhere ; after this they
are to be pressed, and a little attention must then be paid Taxono.
lest the specimens also adhere to the absorbent paper. t Tn^r'
When a packet so prepared is sent from abroad, it ought
to contain at least 100 different kinds, or more than 1000
specimens. It may then be placed in a deal box, which is to
be well closed, so as to prevent injury from water; and if
the box be previously well rubbed or sprinkled within
with oil of turpentine, or any other essential oil, the spe¬
cimens will arrive safe from the depredations of insects.
Small fleshy plants and pulpy fruits may be put in a jar
of spirits, and forwarded in that state. In the case of •
fruits, a piece of wire, with a nwnbcv, should be attached,
so as ’to correspond to the dried specimen of that species.
When plants are either dried by ourselves or received in
that state from others, our next care is to form the herba¬
rium. For this the specimens are to be either glued down
on single sheets of stiff white paper, all of an uniform size,
or, as the glue attracts insects and prevents afterwards a
perfect analysis of the specimen, others prefer attaching
them by means of cross bands. Either of these modes will
enable us to keep our herbarium in order; but, without
assistance, so much time is spent in the fixing them down,
that most botanists now keep the plants loose within sheets
of paper of a softer texture. This enables us quickly to
dispose of our specimens in the collection; and when
turned over carefully, very little damage is afterwards
sustained. No more than one species ought to occupy
a sheet; but owing to receiving the same plant from
different authors and different countries, we must often
devote several sheets to one species. Each specimen
ought to have a label indicating the locality, the name of
the donor, when gathered, or any peculiarities about it;
and every sheet ought to have attached to it the name of
the plant. All the species of a genus may either be se¬
parated from those of another, by being placed within a
sheet of strong paper marked on the outside with the
name of the genus, or by a thin piece of pasteboard, ac¬
cording to the taste of the possessor.
As to the order in which genera are to be arranged, the
alphabetical is the worst, and the Linnaean system next.
The best is according to some one of the variations of the
natural method, it is of little importance which, provided
one adheres to it so much that he can by association go
to the order without having constant recourse to a cata¬
logue.
When it is necessary to analyse a dried plant, we may
expose the flower or fruit to the steam of boiling water,
or those that are of a less delicate nature we may detach,
and allow to remain in warm water until the parts we are
to examine be so softened that we may easily dissect
them under the microscope. Much practice, address, and
even knowledge of the structure of plants, is however ne¬
cessary, so that no appearance exhibited on dissection may
fail to make some impression on us. Every thing must
be observed and theorised on as we proceed. And we
may here remark, that the best instrument for this pur¬
pose, at a moderate price, is Ellis s single and aquatic mi¬
croscope, which is furnished by Jones (Holborn, London),
with five lenses, two of which are reflectors, for three
guineas.
III.-
-TAXONOMY.
As we have already stated, taxonomy is that branch of
botany which has for its object the combination of all our
observations on plants, so as to form a system or classifi¬
cation.
When science was in its infancy, and when few plants Historr
were observed, they were described or treated without any
particular arrangement; or if some method was adopted,
BOTANY.
xono- it was merely empirical, and of little use to others. Theo¬
ry. phrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny, who respectively treated
I N-y-'w' 0f vegetables, may therefore now be justly rejected as
systematists; and we may pass on to a much more modern
date, when the characters began to be derived from the
organization of plants ; for it was only then that botany be¬
came a science. But as the organs of plants were various
in number, so also were the systems, some botanists giving
a preference to one, others to another; some laying chief
dependence on the roots, some on the stems, others on
f -snen the leaves, and others on the inflorescence. Conrad Gess-
ner, born at Zurich in 1516, was the first who demonstrat¬
ed that the characters drawn from the flowers and fruit
were most to be depended on, as these were the most
permanent and unchangeable parts of a plant; he also
pointed out that certain groups possessed particular cha¬
racters in common. His work was published in 1541. It
does not appear that he gave any preference to one organ
C salpi- wore than to another as the basis of a system. Caesalpi-
n . nus, born in 1519, at Arezzo in Tuscany, was a follower of
Gessner, and may be said to have been the first who ac¬
tually invented a system. He set out by distinguishing ve¬
getables into trees and herbs; with the former arranging
shrubs, and with the latter suffruticose plants. He next
divided each of these, the first into two classes, the last
into thirteen, according to the fruit and situation of the
embryo (which he termed corculum) in the seed. This
system, therefore, being a primary approximation to a na¬
tural method, will render him ever memorable.
I’.rison. In 1680 Morison published the second volume of his
Historia Plantarum. In this work a new system is offei*-
ed, but some of the eighteen classes contained in the se¬
cond and third volumes possess no genuine distinctive
characters. His sections or secondary divisions are 108 in
number, and are taken from the figure and substance of
the fruit, the number of seeds, sepals, and petals, the
figure of the root, the direction of the stem, the colour of
the flower, the place of grow th, and one from the medical
virtues of some of the plants that compose it.
1 ir. Ray proposed his method to the world in 1682. It was
founded similarly to Morison’s, and divided originally into
twenty-five classes. But this he afterwards carefully cor¬
rected and improved at different times, so that the plan of
arrangement which at present bears the name of that author
is entirely different from what first appeared. It now was
made to consist of thirty-five classes, the distinguishing
marks of some of which were derived from the habit or
external appearance; of others, from the greater or less
degree of perfection of the plants, from their place of
growth, the number of seeds, fruits, petals, or sepals to
each flower, or from the nature of the fruit or inflorescence.
They were as follow:—I. Herbs. 1. Submarinae or sea-
plants, including Zoophytes and Corals: 2. Fungi: 3. Musci,
including Hepaticae and Lichens: 4. Capillares or ferns: 5.
Apetalae or apetalous plants, comprehending, among other
anomalies, the genus Equisetum : 6. Planipetalae, or those
with semiflosculose compound flowers, corresponding to
the Cichoraceae of Jussieu : 7. Discoideae, containing such
of the Corymbiferae of Jussieu as have a pappus: 8. Capi-
tatae, corresponding principally to the Cynarocephalae of
Jussieu, but more extensive, and including all plants with
tubular flowers that are collected into a scaly involucrum:
9. Corymbiferae, similar to those of modern botanists, but
limited to the species without a pappus: 10. Gyrano-mo-
nospermae, or such as were supposed to have one naked
seed; to this belongs Valeriana and Armeria, and, by
some unhappy chance, Thaliclrum : 11. Umbelliferae : 12.
Stellatae, corresponding to one of the sections of Rubiaceae:
13. Asperifoliae: 14. Verticillatae, or the Labiatae of Jussieu,
andDidynamia angiospermia of Linnaeus: 15. Polyspermae,
71
or those with many apparently naked seeds, as Ranuncu- Taxono-
lus, Malva, Potentilla, and Alisma, a most unnatural assem- my-
blage: 16. Pomiferae, the fruit of which resembled an
apple, and among these the gourds and passion-flowers:
17. Bacciferae, or every herb with a berry, whether a po¬
tato or asparagus : 18. Multisiliquae, such as Aquilegia and
Sedum, that had a fruit of apparently several pods : 19. Di-
tripetalae, containing principally Tillandsia, but seemingly
not understood by Ray himself: 21. Tetrapetalm, with
either a long or a short pod, not however confined to the
Cruciferae of Jussieu, but comprehending Veronica, Euphor¬
bia, Plantago, &c.: 22. Papilionaceae or Leguminosse, in-
c\u&\ngFumaria: 23. Pentapetalae, as Dianthus, Cistus, Hy¬
pericum: 24. Pentapetaloideae, or those with a monopetalous
corolla, so divided as almost to resemble five petals, among
which are enumerated Erythrcea, Apocynum, Oxalis, &c.;
but indeed the 19th, the 23d, and the present classes, are
much confused by the author: 25. Bulbosm, and their
allies, including a great part of the monocotyledones, as
Liliaceae, Asphodeleae, Orchideae, orlrideae: 26. Graminifo-
liae, comprehending the Grasses, Cyperaceae, and Junceae :
27. Anomalae, or those herbs, i\s iVymphcea, Piper, and Poly-
gala, that w^ere not reducible to any of these. II. Trees.
28. Arundinaceae, including the palms: 29. Juliferae, called
also Apetalae, containing those in which the fruit is sepa¬
rated from the staminiferous flower; under which Ray
ranked the Amentaceae and Coniferae, the Elm, the Mul¬
berry, &c.: 30. Aggregatae, or trees with the flower and
fruit collected together into one mass, as the Fig: 31. Um-
bilicatae, with an inferior, fleshy, or pulpy fruit; a hetero¬
geneous set: 32.Non-umbilicatae, or those wdiere the flower
adhered to the bottom of the fruit; these are again di¬
vided into Pruniferae, Bacciferae, and Pomiferae : 33. Vascu-
liferae, or trees with a dry fruit: 34. Siliquosae, or trees or
shrubs bearing a legume, follicle, or any of such elongated
fruits: 35. Anomalae, or such as are not referable to any
of the above. Most authors only enumerate thirty-three
classes, by omitting the 24th and 30th, but which never¬
theless form a part of his arrangement. Ray gives, in addi¬
tion, more lengthened characters of several of these, but
it is quite unnecessary here to notice them. Flis principal
division into herbs and trees is extremely faulty, and se¬
parates plants otherwise very closely allied. His method,
however, being a great approximation to a natural one,
deserves much praise, and we believe that it was the opi¬
nion of the late Sir J. E. Smith, who was wrell qualified to
judge, that Ray as a botanist was eclipsed by few but
Linnaeus.
To pass over several of an inferior note, we come now Tourne-
to Tournefort. This distinguished individual was born atf°rt-
Aix in Provence in 1656. He was professor of botany at
the Jardih des Plantes of Paris, and w^as sent in 1700 by
Louis XIV. to the Levant. He travelled through Greece,
and surveyed the borders of the Black Sea and the islands
of the Archipelago, and returned to Paris, where he publish¬
ed an interesting account of his expedition. But before
he set out, he had already exposed his new system of ar¬
ranging plants in his Institutiones Pei Herbarice, illustrat¬
ed by many plates, and containing a description of 688 ge¬
nera and 10,146 species; and it is difficult to say whether
he deserves most honour for his new classification, or for
the attempt to characterize the genera and species.
The method of Tournefort is composed of twenty-two
classes, of which the characters are derived, ls£, from the
consistence and size of the stem, thus dividing vegetables
into herbs or suftruticose plants and shrubs, or trees ; in
which respect his system is subject to the same fault as that
of Ray, notwithstanding Rivinus, an intervening botanist,
had demonstrated the absurdity of such a division: 2d,
From the presence or absence of the corolla: 3c?, From
72 B O T
Taxono* the flowers being simple or solitar}r, or compound or united
my. into a common involucrum : kth, From the corolla being of
one (or gamopetalous) or of several petals : and, 5th, from
its regularity or irregularity. His classes are :—■
HERBS OR UNDERSHRUBS.
§ 1. Flowers Simple or Solitary.
1. Flowers monopetalous, Campaniform.
2. Flowers monopetalous, Infundibuliform and Rotate.
3. Flowers monopetalous, Anomalous.
4. Flowers monopetalous, Labiate.
5. Flowers polypetalous, Cruciform.
6. Flowers polypetalous, Rosaceous.
7. Flowers polypetalous, Rosaceous Umbellate.
8. Flowers polypetalous, Caryophyllaceous.
9. Flowers Liliaceous.
10. Flowers polypetalous, Papilionaceous.
11. Flowers polypetalous, Anomalous.
§ 2. Flowers Compound.
12. Flowers Flosculose.
13. Flowers Semiflosculose.
14. Flowers Radiate.
§ 3. Herbs without Petals.
15. Flowers Apetalous or Staminiferous.
16. Flowers absent, Seed present.
17. Flowers and Fruit invisible.
TREES AND SHRUBS.
18. Flowers Apetalous.
19. Flowers Apetalous, Amentaceous.
20. Flowers Monopetalous.
21. Flowers Rosaceous.
22. Flowers Papilionaceous.
In the 3d class, the term anomalous means irregular,
but not labiate ; in the 11th, irregular but not papiliona¬
ceous. A liliaceous flower, as the 9th class, he afterwards
explains to be a regular corolla of six or three petals, or
even a monopetalous one with six divisions, but always
having a fruit of three cells. The 16th contains the ferns ;
the 17th the other cryptogamia, which he says were
commonly denied both flower and fruit. Such were the
twenty-two classes established by Tournefort. Each of
them contains sections, of which there are in all 122;
and though at first sight it may appear simple and easy
of reference, it still presents considerable difficulties, from
many of the characters being merely negative, and others
by no means decisive.
Artificial System.
The systems we have already noticed, whether of
Csesalpinus, Morison, Ray, or Tournefort, were all of them
more or less attempts at a natural classification; and such
being the case, their great error was in selecting any one
particular part, and not an assemblage, as the ground of
division. This, indeed, is the grand difference between a
natural and artificial method. The latter has merely in view
the knowledge of the names of plants ; and its only use
being, therefore, to afford an easy means of discovering the
name in books, by as slight an inspection of the plant as pos¬
sible, every one may have an arrangement of his own, and
there can be no fixed rule, for the system is purely artifi¬
cial. The natural method is not solely for the finding out
ANY.
the names of plants ; its grand object is to exhibit, along Taxon)
with the name, the relation which one plant bears to ano- my.
ther, and to class them, as near as we can, in the order
they would stand with regard to each other in the grand
book of nature. To be correct, it ought to be founded on
the immutable laws of nature herself, and not on the will
of man. But although these two are grounded so diffe¬
rently, they ought not to be viewed as in opposition to each
other. “ No person, surely, who has published a natural
system, without knowing all the plants in the world, will
suppose that he has removed every present obstacle, much
less anticipated every future obscurity, so that no insu¬
perable difficulty can occur to the investigator of plants by
such a system; neither can any artificial system claim
such perfection : but they may combine their powers, and
co-operate in instruction. The one may trace an outline,
which the other may correct and fill up. The first may
propose, and the second elucidate; the former may edu¬
cate and improve the memory and observation for the use
of the latter. When they oppose each other, their several
defects and weaknesses appear; by mutual assistance they
strengthen themselves.”1
“ About the end of the seventeenth century, and the
beginning of the eighteenth, the necessity of some bota¬
nical system, of arrangement as well as nomenclature, by
which the cultivators of this pleasing science might under¬
stand each other, became every day more apparent. Nor
was there any deficiency of zeal among the leaders and pro¬
fessors of this science. Systems, and branches of systems,
sprung up over the whole of this ample field, each aspiring
to eminence and distinction above its neighbours. Many of
these, like the tares that fell by the way side, soon wither¬
ed for want of root; others, like the herba impia of the
old herbalists, strove to overtop and stifle their parents ;
and all armed themselves plentifully with thorns of of¬
fence, as well as defence, by which they hoped finally to
prevail over their numerous competitors. This state of
scientific warfare did not, in the meanwhile, much pro¬
mote the actual knowledge of plants, though it prepared
the way for a final distribution of the numerous acquisi¬
tions which were daily making by the more humble,
though not less useful, tribe of collectors and discoverers.
The success of the Linnaean artificial system is not alto¬
gether, perhaps, to be attributed to its simplicity and fa¬
cility, nor even to the peculiar attention it commanded
by its connection with the striking phenomenon, brought
into view at the same time, of the sexes of plants. The
insufficiency, or at least the nearly equal merits, of the
many other similar schemes that had been proposed, be¬
gan to be most strongly felt just at the time when the
great progress and success of practical botany rendered
the necessity of a popular system most imperious. While
the cause of system was pending, some of the greatest
cultivators of science were obliged to have recourse to
alphabetical arrangement. This was the case with Dil-
lenius, the man who alone, at the time when Linnaeus
visited England, was found by him attentive to, or ca¬
pable of understanding, the sound principles of generic
distinction.”2
Linnaeus was born in the province of Smaland, in Sweden, Linnse
on the 23d May, 1707. His father wished him to study
divinity, but he himself preferred the open air and the
gathering of plants. His parent then thought of making
him a shoemaker, and in this might have succeeded, had
not Rothmann, the provincial physician at Wexicoe, in¬
terfered, and persuaded him to permit his son to study
medicine; and had such not happened, Linnaeus’ genius
1 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Sixth Edition, Supp. vol. ii. p. 414.
2 Ibid, u 3J6.
B O T i5
axono- might have been for ever suppressed. After experiencing
my. many hardships, and living in great poverty, the young
naturalist got into favour with Celsius, the professor of
divinity at Upsal; and by his exertions, and those of Rud-
beck, succeeded in obtaining permission to make a jour¬
ney through Lapland at the expense of the academy. On
his return he published the Flora Lapjmnica. In a few
years his fame increased; and, having travelled into Hol¬
land and England, he was appointed professor of botany
at Upsal after Rudbeck’s death, and from time to time
honours were showered upon him. His great merit con¬
sists in having constituted the genera on better principles,
given proper generic and specific names, introduced a
better glossology, described species more accurately and
according to certain rules, and invented a new system,
founded upon the sexes of plants, unquestionably the best
and most simple of all the artificial systems attempted
either before or since.
ystem of The basis of the Linnaean distribution of plants rests al-
innseus. most entirely on the male organs or stamens; and where
no sexes could be distinguished, the proposer of it termed
the plants Cryptogamous, and the class including such, the
twenty-fourth of his arrangement, Cryptogamia. Among
the first twenty-three classes, or phanerogamous vege¬
tables, some have the flowers hermaphrodite or containing
both sexes; others again have them separate, or are di¬
clinous. To the former belong twenty classes, to the
latter three. Again, hermaphrodite or bisexual flowers may
have the stamens either free from the pistillum or unit¬
ed to it, and hence another division ; but as only one class
belongs to the last, there are nineteen to the first. These
nineteen are further divisible, according as the stamens are
free from each other or united together. The former may
be equal or unequal in length; and those again which are
equal may be either definite or indefinite in number.
Upon these considerations Linnaeus founded his classifica¬
tion, which we will presently exhibit, not indeed precisely
as it was left by Linnaeus, but as it is now to be found in
most of our modern works. While we admit slight changes
upon it, the plan or method is unaltered; and it would be
as preposterous to say that what is now adopted is not
the system of Linnaeus, as it would be to assert that the
various sketches of the natural system, whether as given
by Bi-owne, by De Candolle, by Richard, by Agardh, by
Rudolphi, by Hooker, Don, or Lindley, are not variations
of the method of Jussieu. All the natural classifications
now in use are assuredly founded on that of Jussieu, and
differ from each other in a very slight manner, either in
the greater subdivisions of the orders, or in the mode of
following each other, upon which no two botanists can
possibly be agreed; and, in the same way, the artificial
system, whether or not we adopt the changes recommend¬
ed by Smith, or by Withering, or by Sprengel and others,
being decidedly grounded on his principles, is that of
Linnaeus. It is as follows :—
§ 1. Stamens definite and equal.
Cl. 1. Monandria, or with one stamen.
2. Diandria, or with two stamens.
3. Triandria, or with three stamens.
4. Tetrandria, or with four stamens.
5. Pentandria, or with five stamens.
6. Hexandria, or with six stamens.
7. Heptandria, or with seven stamens.
8. Octandria, or with eight stamens.
9. Enneandria, or with nine stamens.
10. Decandria, or with ten stamens.
§ 2. Stamens indefinite.
11. Dodecandria; stamens from eleven to nineteen.
vol. v.
N Y. 73
12. Icosandria; stamens twenty and upwards, perigy- Taxono-
nous, or inserted on the calyx. my.
13. Polyandria; stamens twenty and upwards, hypo-
gynous, or inserted on th e receptacle.
§ 3. Stamens unequal.
14. Didynamia; stamens four, two longer than the
others.
15. Tetradynamia; stamens six, four longer than the
others.
§ 4. Filaments united.
16. Monadelphia; one bundle of stamens, or andro-
phore.
17. Diadelphia; two bundles of stamens.
18. Polyadelphia; several bundles of stamens.
§ 5. Anthers united.
19. Syngenesia; stamens five, united by their anthers,
flowers collected into a common involucre.
§ 6. Stamens united to the pistil.
20. Gynandria.
§ 7. Flowers unisexual.
21. Moncecia; stamens and pistils on the same indi¬
vidual.
22. Dicecia ; stamens and pistils on different indi¬
viduals.
23. Polygamia; hermaphrodite and unisexual flowers,
either on the same or different individuals.
§ 8. Flowers invisible.
24. Cryptogamia; neither stamens nor pistils.
Although we have prefixed sections to the above, that
the method may be understood more readily, yet we must
remark that such a plan is liable to errors. Thus some of
the fifth class have the anthers united, as in the nineteenth;
and the tenth has frequently an inequality in the length of
the stamens; but these are not the faults of the system,
some of which will be traced out in the sequel.
In the first thirteen classes, the characters of the or¬
ders or subdivisions of the classes are derived from the
number of the styles or female organs, the names Mono-
gynia, Digynia, Trigynia, &c. indicating respectively one,
two, three, &c. styles.
In the fourteenth class, or Didynamia, Linnseus took
his ordinal characters from the structure of the fruit.
When this is formed of four akenia situated at the bottom
of the calyx, so as to resemble naked seeds, he called the
order Gymnospermia; and when the fruit was a capsule
containing several seeds, he termed the group Angio-
spermia. Tetradynamia presents also two orders, the one
with a silicule, the other with a siliqua; and hence they
were called Siliculosae and Siliquosae. A third order has
been added, by Sprengel, for such as have an indehiscent
fruit, and De Candolle has proposed to subdivide the class
according to the relative position of the cotyledons and ra¬
dicle. The sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth classes
being according to the union of the filaments, the number
of stamens is made to serve as a character for the orders.
In Syngenesia, where the anthers are united, and there
are almost constantly five stamens, other means were re¬
sorted to. Some florets were observed to be bisexual,
others with stamens or pistils only. In reference, there¬
fore, to the twenty-third class, Linnaeus gave to each of
the orders the name Polygamia', with another epithet to
mark their respective peculiarities. The first he terms
Polygamia aequalis, all the florets being equally fertile and
bisexual; the second Polygamia superflua, where the florets
of the disc are bisexual, but those of the circumference or
K
BOTANY.
Taxono- ray female, both producing perfect seed: the third Poly-
my. gamia frustranea, having the florets of the disc bisexual and
fertile, but those of the ray sterile, from either the total ab¬
sence of a pistil, or the imperfection of the stigmata. In
the second order the florets of the ray were only super¬
fluous, here they are totally useless. The fourth, or Po-
lygamia necessaria, has the florets of the disc bisexual,
but sterile on account of the imperfection of the stigmas :
those of the ray, however, containing only pistilla, are
fertilized by the pollen of the former. 1 hey are thus ne¬
cessary for the continuation of the species, and hence the
name. The fifth, Polygamia segregata, has all the florets
bisexual, but each of them contained an involucre pecu¬
liar to itself; the whole, as in the other orders, being col¬
lected within a common involucre. To these Linnaeus
added a sixth, Polygamia monogamia, wherein the flowers
were not collected in a common involucrum; but this has
now been transferred to Pentandria monogynia.
In Gynandria the orders are taken from the number of
the stamens. Moncecia and Dicecia, including plants that
are monandrous, diandrous, monodelphous, or gynandrous,
have the names of the orders, as Monandria, Decandria,
Gynandria, taken from some of the preceding classes. The
twenty-third class, or Polygamia, containing plants with
bisexual and unisexual flowers mixed either on the same
or distinct individuals, has in consequence been divided
into three orders: Moncecia, in which the flowers are bi¬
sexual and unisexual on the same individual; Dicecia,
when one bears the bisexual and another the unisexual
blossoms of both kinds; and Tricecia, where one has the bi¬
sexual, another the male, and a third the female flowers.
Cryptogamia was originally divided by Linnaeus into
four orders, Ferns, Mosses, Algae, and Fungi; but so little
was then known about the structure and limits of these,
that it is now generally agreed to adopt nearly the same
divisions as are employed in the natural method.
Service “ Linnaeus1 had no sooner published and explained his
rendered method of arranging plants, according to that which is ge-
by Lin- nerally termed the Sexual System, than it excited consi-
n-jeus. derable attention. His elegant and instructive Flora Lap-
ponica could not be perused by the philosopher or the
physician, without leading its readers occasionally aside,
from the immediate objects of their inquiry, into the paths
of botanical speculation, and awakening in many a curio¬
sity, hitherto dormant, on such subjects. But the scope
of that limited Flora is by no means sufficient to show
either the necessity or the advantages of any mode of ar¬
rangement. Linnaeus may be said to have grasped the
botanical sceptre, when, in the year 1753, he published
the first edition of his Species Plantarum ; and the com¬
mencement of his reign must be dated from that period.
The application of his system to universal practice, in this
compendious distribution of all the known vegetables of
the globe; his didactic precision ; his concise, clear, and
certain style of discrimination ; his vast erudition display¬
ed in synonyms ; and, perhaps as much as any thing else,
the fortunate invention of trivial or specific names, by
which his nomenclature became as evidently commodious,
and indeed necessarily popular, as any part of his per¬
formance ; all these causes co-operated to establish his
authority. An immediate impulse was given to practical
botany. The vegetable productions of various countries
and districts were marshalled in due array, so as to be ac- Taxono.
cessible and useful. A common language was established ^
throughout the world of science ; a common stock of know-
ledge and experience began to accumulate, which has
ever since been increasing, and can now never be lost.
Of these partial Floras to which we allude, those of Lap-
land and Sweden, the productions of Linnaeus himself,
were the models of most of the rest, and have never, on
the whole, been excelled.
“ Hence arose the Linnaean school of botany, which, Linnsean |
though founded in Sweden, extended itself through Hol-scfi°o1*
land, Germany, and more or less perfectly in other parts of
Europe, though not without impediments of which we are
hereafter to speak. In Britain it was firmly established,
by the influence of some of the most able pupils of Lin¬
naeus, and strengthened at length by the acquisition of
his literary remains. But these are adventitious supports.
The strength of philosophical, like political, authority, is
in public opinion, and the cement of its power is public
good.
“ As we proceed to trace the practical influence of the
Linnaean system, or rather of the facility which it afford¬
ed in botanical studies, it will be useful at the same time
to observe the effects of adventitious circumstances, which
render botany almost a different sort of study in diffei'ent
parts of the habitable globe.
“ In those northern ungenial climates, where the intellect Botany of
of man indeed has flourished in its highest perfection, butthe JsT°rth
where the productions of nature are comparatively spar¬
ingly bestowed, her laws have been most investigated
and best understood. The appetite of her pupils was
whetted by their danger of starvation, and the scantiness
of her supplies trained them in habits of economy, and of
the most acute observation. The more obvious natural
productions of such climates are soon understood and ex¬
hausted. But this very cause led Linnaeus to so minute
a scrutiny of Swedish insects, as had never been under¬
taken before in any country; in consequence of which a
new world, as it were, opened to his contemplation; and
the great Reaumur declared that Sweden was richer in
this department than all the rest of the globe. Such in¬
deed was its appearance, because it had been more care¬
fully examined. When the ardour and acuteness of the
pupils of the Linnsean school first sought matter of em¬
ployment for their talents, some few had the means of vi¬
siting distant and scarcely-explored countries. But this
could not be the lot of many. The greater part were
confined to their native soil; and it is remarkable that
those who are longest so confined have displayed in the se¬
quel the greatest abilities, and have rendered the greatest
services to science, independently of the accidents which
made the labours of others imperfect or abortive. Such
men as Ehrhart and Swartz were not to be satisfied with
the general productions of the fields or gardens to which
they had access. They had no resource but in the re¬
condite mysteries of cryptogamic botany in the first in¬
stance. To these they directed their microscopic eyes
and more discriminating minds with the happiest success.
When they had derived from hence an ample harvest, Ehrhart.
Ehrhart, limited in circumstances and opportunities, hin¬
dered moreover perhaps, in some degree, by a singularity
and independence of character, not always favourable to
worldly prosperity, opened to himself a new path. The
1 This historical sketch, almost to the commencement of the exposition of the Jussieuan or natural method, is extracted from the
article Botany in the Supplement to the fourth, fifth, and sixth editions of this Encyclopaedia, which was written expressly for that
work, in 181G, by the late Sir James Edward Smith. During these last fifteen years the grave has claimed for its own not only
Sir James himself, but-most of the distinguished individuals whom he here notices as being then alive. . As it was, however, desirable
to retain this sketch entire, the author of the present article has refrained from making those alterations which the lapse of time might
othenvise have rendered necessary.
75
BOTANY.
oxono-
my.
—''
'artz.
lumberg.
native trees of the north, and especially the hardy shrubs tageous in any. This measure neither renders the sys- Taxono-
and arborescent plants of the gardens, had not, as he ju- tem more easy nor more natural, but for the most part "^7-
diciously discovered, received that correct attention, even the reverse of both. We have elsewhere observed (/??£ro-
from his master Linnaeus, which was requisite to make duction to Botany, 3d ed. p. 358), that the amentaceous
them clearly understood. Difficulties attending the study plants are of all others most uncertain in the number
of these plants, the various seasons in which they require of their stamens, of which Linnaeus could not but be
to be repeatedly scrutinized, and the obscurity or minute- aware. ‘ Even the species of the same genus, as well as
ness of the parts on which their differences depend, were individuals of each species, differ among themselves,
by no means calculated to deter this laborious and accu- How unwise and unscientific then is it, to take as a pri¬
vate inquirer. He submitted the supposed varieties of the mary mark of discrimination, what nature has evidently
shrubbery, the kitchen garden, and even of the parterre, made of less consequence here than in any other case!’
to the same rigorous examination, and, for the most part, When such plants are, in the first place, set apart and
with the happiest success. His discoveries have not re- distinguished by their monoecious or dioecious structure,
ceived the notice they deserve, for his communications which is liable to so little objection or difficulty, their
were deformed with asperity and pedantry; and he did uncertainty with respect to the secondary character is of
not always keep in mind"the concise and sober principles little moment; their genera being few, and the orders of
of definition, which his preceptor had both taught and each class widely constructed as to number of stamens,
practised, and to which he owed so large a share of his Linnaeus, doubtless, would have been glad to have pre¬
well-merited fame. Ehrhart died prematurely, but his served, if possible, the uniformity and simplicity of his
name ought to be cherished among those whose talents plan; but if he found it impracticable, who shall correct
have advanced science, and who loved nature, for her own him ? Such an attempt is too like the entomological
sake, with the most perfect disinterestedness. scheme of the otherwise ingenious and able Fabricius.
“ The fate of Swartz has been far more propitious to him- The great preceptor having arranged the larger tribes of
self and to the literary world. Having thrown more light animals by the organs with which they take their various
upon the cryptogamic productions of Sweden and Lap- food, and which are therefore accommodated to their se-
land than they had previously received, and which has veral wants, and indicative of even their mental as well
only been exceeded by the more recent discoveries of the as constitutional characters, Fabricius his pupil would ne-
unrivalled Wahlenberg, he undertook a botanical investi- cessarily extend this system to insects. But nothing can
gation of the West Indies. Carrying with him, to this be more misapplied. Feeding is not the business of per-
promising field of inquiry, so great a store of zeal and prac- feet insects. Many of them never eat at all, the business
tical experience, his harvest was such as might well have of their existence through the whole of their perfect state
been anticipated. Whole tribes of vegetables, which the being the propagation of their species. Hence the organs
half-learned or half-experienced botanist, or the superfi- of their mouth lead to no natural distinctions, and the
cial gatherer of simples or flowers, had totally overlooked, characters deduced therefrom prove, moreover, so diffi-
now first became known to mankind. Tropical climates cult, that it is notorious they could not generally be ap-
were now found to be as rich as the chill forests and dells plied to practice by Fabricius himself, he having, in the
of the north, in the various beautiful tribes of mosses; common course of his studies, been chiefly regulated by
and the blue mountains of Jamaica rivalled its most fertile the external appearance of the insects he described. This
groves and savannahs in the beauty, variety, and singular!- external appearance, depending on the form and texture
ty of their vegetable stores. of their wings, and the shape of their own peculiar organs,
“ Nor must we pass over unnoticed the discoveries of the antennae, affords in fact the easiest, as well as the most
another illustrious disciple of Linnaeus, the celebrated natural, clue to their arrangement and discrimination.
Thunberg, who has now1 for many years filled the pro- “ As we presume to criticise the systematic errors of
fessional chair of his master, with credit to himself, and great practical observers, it cannot but occur to our recol-
advantage to every branch of natural science. The rare lection how very few persons have excelled in both these
opportunity of examining the plants of Japan, and of departments. Hay, Linnaeus, and perhaps Tournefort,
studying at leisure the numerous and beautiful produc- may be allowed this distinction. We can scarcely add a
tions of the Cape of Good Hope, as well as of some parts fourth name to this brief catalogue. The most excellent
of India, have thrown in the way of Professor Thunberg a practical botanists of the Linnaean school have been such
greater number of genera, if not species of plants, than as hardly bestowed a thought on the framing of systems,
has fallen to the lot of most learned botanists; except Such was the distinguished Solander, who rivalled his
only those who have gone round the world, or beheld the preceptor in acuteness of discrimination, and even in pre¬
novel scenes of New Holland. These treasures he has cision and elegance of definition. Such is another emi-
eontemplated and illustrated with great advantage, so far nent man, more extensively conversant with plants, more
as he has confined himself to practical botany. We la- accurate in distinguishing, and more ready in recollecting
ment that he ever stepped aside to attempt any reforma- them, than almost any other person with whom we have
tion of an artificial system. It is painful to complain of associated. Yet we have heard this great botanist de-
the well-meant though mistaken endeavours of so amiable clare, that however he might confide in his own judgment
and candid a veteran in our favourite science; but what with regard to a species, or a genus of plants, he pretend-
we conceive to be the interests of that science must form ed to form no opinion of classes and orders. Men of so
our apology. We cannot but be convinced, and the ex- much experience know too much, to be satisfied with
perience of others is on our side, that discarding those their acquirements, or to draw extensive conclusions from
principles of the Linnaean system which are derived from what they think insufficient premises. Others, with a
the situation of the several organs of impregnation, and quarter of their knowledge, find no difficulty in building
making number paramount, has the most pernicious and systems, and proceed with great alacrity, till they find
inconvenient effect in most respects, without being advan- themselves encumbered with their own rubbish ; happy
1 Thunberg died at Upsal, on the 8th August 1828, in the 85th year of his age, having filled the botanical chair during half a cen¬
tury. °
botany.
New Hoi
land.
Cape of
Good
Hope.
if their doubts and uncertainties will afford them a tole¬
rable screen or shelter ! But we here anticipate remarks
which will come with more propriety hereafter. We re¬
turn from the consideration of the labours of particulai
botanists, to that of the diversities of nature and circum-
stance. ,, . „ .
“ While it is remarked that, in the cold regions of the
north, the skill of the deep and learned botanist is chiefly
exercised on the minute and intricate cryptogamic tribes,
we are not to infer that nature is not everywhere rich in
beauty and variety. Mosses and lichens affoid inex¬
haustible amusement and admiration to the curious in¬
quirer, nor are more gorgeous productions entirely want¬
ing. Even Lapland boasts her Pedicularis Sceptrum,
never seen alive out of her limits; and Siberia otters her
own beautiful crimson Cypripedium, to console for a mo¬
ment the miserable banished victims of imperial caprice.
Kotzebue, though ignorant of botany, did not pass this
lovely plant unnoticed, even in the height of his distiess.
The authoress of the pleasing little novel caWed Elizabeth,
has represented in a just light the botanic scenery of that
otherwise inhospitable country; yet it must be allowed
that its rarities are not numerous, except perhaps in those
microscopic tribes already mentioned.
“ Let us in imagination traverse the globe, to a country
where the very reverse is the case. From the represen¬
tations or accounts that have been given of New Holland,
it seems no very beautiful or picturesque country, such as
is likely to form or to inspire a poet. Indeed the dregs
of the community which we have poured out upon its
shores, must probably subside, and purge themselves, be¬
fore anything like a poet, or a disinterested lover of natuie,
can arise from so foul a source. I here seems, however,
to be no transition of seasons, in the climate itself, to ex¬
cite hope, or to expand the heart and fancy; like a Sibe¬
rian or Alpine spring, bursting at once from the icy fet¬
ters of a sublime though awful winter. Yet in New Hol¬
land all is new and wonderful to the botanist.1 The most
common plants there are unlike every thing known be¬
fore, and those which at first sight look like old acquaint¬
ances, are found, on a near approach, to be strangers,
speaking a different language from what he has been used
to, and not to be trusted without a minute inquiry at
every step.
“ The botany of the Cape of Good Hope, so well illustrated
by Thunberg, and with the treasures of which he scattered
a charm around the couch of the dying Linnaius, most re¬
sembles that of New Holland. At least these countries
agree in the hard, rigid, dwarfish character of their plants.
But the Cape has the advantage in general beauty of
flowers, as well as in a transition of seasons. After the
dry time of the year, when every thing but the jlloe and
Mesembryanthemum tribes are burnt up, and during which
innumerable bulbs are scattered, by the winds and driving
sands, over the face of the country, the succeeding show¬
ers raise up a new and most beautiful progeny from those
bulbs. The families of Ixia, Gladiolus, Iris, Antholyza,
Oxalis, and many others, then appear in all their splen¬
dour. Some of them, the least gaudy, scent the evening
air with an unrivalled perfume; whilst others dazzle the Taxono.
beholder with the most vivid scarlet or crimson hues, as
they welcome the morning sun. > .
4The lovely floras of the Alps and the Tropics contend, Alpine and
perhaps most powerfully, for the admiration of a botanist ,
of taste, who is a genuine lover of nature, without whicn
feeling, in some degree of perfection, even botany can but
feebly& charm. Of one of these the writer can speak from
experience, of the other only by report; but he has had
frequent opportunities of remarking, that the greatest en¬
thusiasts in the science have been Alpine botanists. Ihe
expressions of Haller and Scopoli on this subject go to the
heart. The air, the climate, the charms of animal exist¬
ence in its highest perfection, are associated with our de¬
light in the beauty and profusion of nature. In hot cli¬
mates, the insupportable languor, the difficulty of bodily
exertion, the usual ill health, and the effects of unwhole¬
some instead of salutary fatigue, are described as sufficient
to counterbalance even the pleasure which arises from
the boundless variety, and infinite beauty, of the creation
around. The flowery trees of a tropical forest raise them¬
selves far above tbe human grasp. They must be felled
before we can gather their blossoms. The insidious and
mortal reptile twines among their boughs, and the venom¬
ous insect stings beneath their shade. We who enjoy the
productions of these climates in peace and safety in our
gardens, may well acknowledge our obligations to the la¬
bour and zeal of those who, by arduous journeys and pain¬
ful researches, supply us with the riches of every country
in succession. We do not indeed enjoy them in perfec¬
tion, but we can study and investigate at leisure their va¬
rious beauties and distinctions. We can compare them
with our books, and profit by the acuteness of former ob¬
servers. We can perpetuate, by the help of the pencil or
the pen, whatever is novel or curious. We can preserve
the plants and flowers themselves for subsequent exami¬
nation, and return to them again and again in our closet,
when winter has fixed his seal on all the instruction and
pleasure afforded by the vegetable creation abroad. Yet
let not the sedentary botanist exult in his riches, or rejoice
too heedlessly in the abundance of his resources. A
plant gathered in its native soil, and ascertained by me¬
thodical examination, is more impressed on the memory,
as well as more dear to the imagination, than many that
are acquired with ease, and named by tradition or report.
The labours of its acquisition and determination enhance
its value, and the accompaniments of delightful scenery,
or pleasing society, are recollected, when difficulties and
toils are forgotten. . ,
“ The western continent is, with respect to botany, al-America,
most a world in itself, dhere exists, indeed, a general
affinity between tbe plants of North America and those
of Europe, and many species of the arctic regions are the
same in both; but there are few common to the more tem¬
perate climates of each. A considerable number, commu¬
nicated by Kalm to Linnaeus, which the latter consideied
as identified with certain well-knowrn plants of oui quarter
of the world, prove, on more accurate examination, to be
corresponding but distinct species. Instances occui in
* “ These rare productions,” speaking of palms and arborescent ferns, “ of the vegetable kingdom, are, m all other countries, stnctl,
tropical • and these ‘ weeds of glorious feature’ have no business beyond the latitude of 234° from the equator, and yet here they®
in 341° But this is New Holland, where it is summer with us when it is winter in Europe, and vice versa; where the barometer
rises before bad weather, and falls before good; where the north is the hot wind, and the south the cold; where the humblest house
is fitted up with cedar (Cedrela Toona, according to Mr Brown); where the fields are fenced with mahogany (Eucalyptus robusta), m&
mvrtle trees (Myrtacex) are burnt for firewood ; where the swans are black and the eagles white; where the kangaroo, an animal be¬
tween the squirrel and the deer, has five claws on its fore-paws, and three talons on its hind-legs, like a bird, and yet hoPS °”'tS.
where the mole (Onnthorhynchus paradoxus) lays eggs, and has a duck’s bill; where there is a bird (Mrtiphaga) w\h a broom m i s
mouth instead of a tongue; where there is a fish, one half belonging to the genus Raja, and the other to that of Squalus; where the
pears are made of wood (Xykmiehim pyriforme), with the stalk at the broader end; and where the cherry (Exocarpus cnpressiformu)
grows with the stone on the outside.” (Field’s New South Wales, p. 401.)
BOTANY.
mm
i /
axono- the genera of Carpinus, Corylus, Quercus, as well as in
my. the Orchis tribe, and others. These points of resemblance
are found mostly among the vegetable productions of the
eastern regions of North America. Mexico, and what
little we know of the intermediate space, abound with dif¬
ferent and peculiar productions. So, in South America,
Peru, Guiana, Brazil, &c. have all their appropriate plants,
of which we know as yet enough to excite our curiosity,
rather than to satisfy it. Whatever has hitherto been
given to the world respecting American botany, has had
one considerable advantage. Each Flora has been founded
on the knowledge and experience of some one or more
persons, long resident, and in a manner naturalized, in
the countries illustrated. Those regions commonly com¬
prehended under the name of North America, have afford¬
ed materials for the Flora Boreali-Americana of Michaux,
and the more complete and correct Flora Americce Sep-
tentrionalis of Pursh. Michaux, Wangenheim, and Mar¬
shall, have particularly illustrated the trees of those coun¬
tries. But all these works have been enriched by the
communications and assistance of men who had much more
extensive and repeated opportunities of observation than
their authors, except Mr Marshall, could have. Such are
the venerable John Bartram, the Reverend Dr Muhlen¬
berg, Messrs Clayton, Walter, Lyon, &c. The Mexican
flora has received, for a long course of years, the attention
of the able and learned Mutis, who long corresponded
with Linnaeus, and whose countrymen have prepared the
sumptuous Flora Peruviana; each of the authors of
which has repeatedly traversed, at various seasons, the
rich and interesting regions, whose botanical treasures
make so splendid and novel an appearance in those vo¬
lumes. Of those treasures we have still more to learn
from the unrivalled Humboldt.1 The French botanist
Aublet, after having gained considerable experience in the
Mauritius, resided for many years in Cayenne and Guiana,
for the purpose of studying the plants of those countries, Taxono-
of which his work, in four quarto volumes, gives so ample my-
a history and representation.
“ All the writers just named have been practical bota¬
nists. They have generally excelled in specific discrimi¬
nation, nor have they neglected the study of generic dis¬
tinctions. Any thing further they have scarcely attempted.
It is remarkable that they have all followed, not only the
Linnaean principles of definition and nomenclature, but
the Linnaean artificial system of classification. This same
system was chosen by the veteran Jaequin, in his well-
known work on West Indian plants, entitled Stirpium
Americanarum Historia, as well as by Browne in his His¬
tory of Jamaica ; not to mention Swartz, in his Flora In¬
dice Occidentalis, who only wanders a little out of the way,
to adopt some of Thunberg’s alterations. We cannot but
observe, that in the very department of botany in which
he has most signalized himself, and with which he is most
philosophically conversant, the Qrchickcc, he totally rejects
the ideas of Thunberg.
“ If we now turn our eyes to the oriental world, we shall East
find that the seeds of Linnaean botany, sown by Koenig, Indies,
have sprung up and produced successive harvests among
the pious missionaries at Tranquebar, who still continue
to interweave a sprig of science, from time to time, among
their amaranthine wreaths which are not of this world.
India too has long possessed a practical botanist of inde¬
fatigable exertion and ardour, who has thrown more light
upon its vegetable riches, with the important subject of
their qualities and Uses, than any one since the days of
Rheede and Rumphius. It is scarcely necessary to name
Dr Roxburgh, whose recent loss we deeply lament, and
whose acquisitions and learned remarks are given to the
world by the munificence of the East India Company, in
a style which no prince has ever rivalled.2 That enthusi¬
astic admirer of nature, Colonel Hardwicke, and the learn-
1 Humboldt’s splendid work, Nova Genera et Species Plantarum Americce JEquinoct.ia.1is, in seven volumes, containing several hundred
plates, and descriptions of some thousands of new species, was completed in 1825. Since 1816 many other works on the plants
of South America have been published, particularly illu live of the Flora of Brazil. Of these, PohPs, Martins’, and St Hilaire’s,
are the most eminent.
2 From the period in which the East India Company saw its sovereignty established in India with some security, it undertook,
both for its own interest and that of humanity, as much as it possibly could, the promotion of the study and culture of the vege¬
tables of that vast country. It, in consequence, directed its attention to the establishment of the Botanic Garden of Calcutta ; and it
was in March 1768, and under the direction of Colonel II. Kydd, that this garden commenced. A correspondence with all the Euro¬
peans settled in various parts of India speedily enriched it with some very precious plants, and there were in it about three hundred
species when Dr Itoxburgh took the superintendence, in .the autumn of 1793. This botanist obtained new and more active corre¬
spondents, and visited personally the coast of Coromandel, and some other provinces of British East India. Fie succeeded in collect-
ing together 3500 species into the garden, and of this number 1500 were previously unknown, but described by him. Such at least
we learn from the catalogue of the garden, printed in 1814, at Serampore, by the care of Dr Carey, the friend of Roxburgh. This
catalogue appeared in a very condensed shape; it makes known the botanical name, the Indian appellation, the locality, the time of
introduction, and the period of inflorescence and fructification, of each plant; it is terminated by an appendix containing a list of other
Indian plants, known to the author, but not then under cultivation. Roxburgh sent from time to time to the Company a great num¬
ber of drawings and descriptions, and from these a selection was made and published under the direction of Sir Joseph Banks. This
splendid work, the Plants of .Coromandel, gives the history and coloured figure of 300 of the most beautiful or most useful of the Indian
vegetables. But the very magnificence of this work placed limits to it, and therefore Dr Roxburgh projected a Flora of the East
under a more simple form ; unfortunately, however, his health forced him to leave India and return home in 1814. His Indian Flora
was nevertheless not lost to science; Dr Carey published two volumes of it at Serampore, and added to those described by Roxburgh,
such as were more lately discovered, both by himself and by Dr Wallich, Jack, and other botanists of British India. This only con¬
tains the first five classes of Linnaeus.
After the death of Roxburgh, the management of the garden of Calcutta was intrusted to Dr Wallich, whose talents and activity,
under the auspices of the Company, have raised the establishment to a high degree of prosperity. More than three hundred persons
are employed in the garden, so that the naturalisation of useful objects, and preservation for study of the rare productions of the different
parts of India, are equally attended to. Many assistants traverse the country at the expense of the Company, and.with unwearied
zeal continue to enrich the garden and the herbarium. Dr Wallich himself travelled in 1820 throughout Nepaul, which, situated at
the foot of the great mountains of Himalaya, presents a vegetation of a very different nature from that of Bengal. Since then, not¬
withstanding the severe disorders brought on by fatigue and the climate, he has visited Penang, Singapore, the kingdom of Ava, and
several other parts of India; in addition, he sent collectors into various districts to which he could not go in person; so that, by these
different means, a very considerable number of vegetables has been amassed. Descriptions of several of these have been given in the
Prodromus Florce Nepalensis of Don, and in other publications of a more general nature published in Europe. Wallich himself, as
has been said, inserted many of his discoveries into the Flora Indica, and has besides commenced two other works for the purpose of
making them better known. The one is the Tentamen Florae Nepalensis illu strata;, which presents a detailed description and a litho¬
graphic figure of the principal plants of that country. Two numbers have appeared, each of twenty-five plates ; which, in addition to
their botanical interest, deserve to be noticed, as being the first attempts at lithographic botanical plates in India, and executed by
78
BOTANY.
South
Seas.
ed botanist Dr Francis Buchanan, have also contributed
greatly to increase our knowledge of Indian botany. I he
latter has enjoyed the advantage of investigating, for the
first time, the remote and singular country of Nepaul, so
prolific in beautiful and uncommon plants, that few parts
of the world can exceed it; and yet meeting, in several
points, not only the floras of the lower regions and islands
of India, but those of Japan, China, and even Siberia.
The only systematic work on East Indian plants, is the
Flora Indica of Burmann, which is classed according to
the Linmean artificial method. We cannot but wish that
it were more worthy of the system or the subject; yet, as
a first attempt, it deserves our thanks. In speaking of
Indian botany, shall we withhold our homage from that
great and sublime genius Sir William Jones, who honour¬
ed this study with his cultivation, and, like every thing
else that he touched, refined, elevated, and elucidated it ?
No man was ever more truly sensible of the charms of this
innocent and elegant pursuit; and whenever he adverted
to it, all the luminous illustrations of learning, and even
the magical graces of poetry, flowed from his pen.
“ But we must extend our view beyond the utmost
bounds of India, and, of the then discovered world, to trace
the steps of those adventurous circumnavigators who sought
out, not only new plants, but new countries, for botanical
examination. The names of Banks and Solander have,
for nearly half a century, been in every body’s mouth.
Their taste, their knowledge, their liberality, have diffused
a charm and a popularity over all their pursuits ; and those
who never heard of botany before, have learned to con¬
sider it with respect and admiration, as the object to
which a man of rank, riches, and talents, devoted his life
and his fortune ; who, while he added, every season, some¬
thing of novelty and beauty to our gardens, gave the
bread-fruit to the West Indies, and was ever on the watch
to prompt or to further any scheme of public advantage.1
With the recollection of such men must also be associated
the names of the learned Forsters, father and son, of
Sparrmann, and of Menzies, who have all accomplished
the same perilous course, and enriched their beloved
science. The cryptogamic acquisitions of the latter in
New Zealand prove him to have attended to that branch
of botany with extraordinary success, and at the same
time evince the riches of that remote country. Indeed,
it appears that any country proves rich, under the inspec¬
tion of a sufficiently careful investigator. The labours of
these botanists have all been conducted according to the
principles and classification of Linnaeus. Forster, under
Sparrmann’s auspices, has judiciously pointed out, and at¬
tempted to remedy, defects which their peculiar oppor¬
tunities enabled them to discover, but with no invidious
aim. They laboured, not to overthrow or undermine a
system, which they found on the whole to answer the
purpose of readily communicating their discoveries, but to
correct and strengthen it for the advantage of those who
might come after them. It is much to be lamented that,
except the Nova Genera Plantarum, we have as yet so Taxono. T
short and compendious an account of the acquisitions
made in their voyage. To the technical history of these, ^
however, the younger Forster has commendably added
whatever he could supply of practical utility, and has thus
given us all the information within the compass of his
“ Long since the voyages of these celebrated naturalists,
the same remote countries have been visited, in our own
days, by two learned botanists more especially; these are
M. Labillardiere, and Mr Brown, librarian of the Linnaean
Societv. The former has published an account of the
plants of New Holland, in two volumes folio, with fine en¬
gravings ; the latter has favoured the botanical world with
one volume of a most acute and learned Prodromus of his
discoveries. As his voyage was made at the public ex¬
pense, we may trust that the government will consider it¬
self as bound to enable him to publish the whole of his ac¬
quisitions, in such a manner as to be generally useful. His
own accuracy of observation, illustrated by the drawings
of the inimitable Bauer, cannot fail to produce such a
work as, we will venture to pronounce, has never been
equalled. M. Labillardiere has disposed his book accord¬
ing to the system of Linnaeus ; a rare example in France,
where any thing not French usually comes but ill recom¬
mended. Mr Brown, on the other hand, has written his
Prodromus, at least, on the principles of classification
established by the celebrated Jussieu, the great cham¬
pion of a natural system of his own. On this subject
we postpone our remarks for the present. Before we
can enter on the subject of natural classification, it is ne¬
cessary to consider the state and progress of botany, for
some years past, in the schools, and among the writers, of
Europe.
“ Sweden has continued to maintain her long established Botanists
rank in the several departments of natural science, nor has of Swede:
Denmark been behind-hand with her neighbour and an¬
cient rival. The son and successor of the great Linnaeus
endeavoured to follow his father’s steps, and was ambiti¬
ous of not being left very far in the rear; a commendable
aim, which his short life, to say nothing of his talents or
experience, disabled him from accomplishing. He com¬
pleted and gave to the world, the unfinished materials
which his father had left, for a supplement to his Species
Plantarum and Mantissce ; and having enriched the book
with many communications of Thunberg and others, as
well as a number of original remarks, he felt a strong de¬
sire, not altogether unpardonable, of being thought the
principal author of the work. All uncertainty on this
subject, wherever other helps fail, is removed by the ori¬
ginal manuscript of the Supplernentum Plantarum in our
possession. Ehrhart superintended the printing of this
work, and made some alterations in the manuscript, traces
of which are perceptible in the affected Greek names
given to some species of Carex, Mespihis, &c., as well as
in their sesquipedalian specific characters. But he had
native draughtsmen. The other work by Dr Wallich, much more splendid than the preceding, is destined to present the history and
coloured figures of the rarer plants of Asia. This, the Plantoe Asiatics rariores, will form three volumes.
Besides Roxburgh and Wallich, there are others who have been patronized by the Company. Koenig, Heyne, Carey, Patrick
Bussel, Bottler, Klein, Wight, Jack, Finlayson, &c. have traversed different parts of India with the view of studying its vegeta¬
tion. For about half a century, all the collections of dried plants have been transmitted to England, and preserved in the Com¬
pany’s museum ; and the immensity of these materials has made the Directors perceive that they would be useless without the
co-operation of many naturalists. By a decision remarkable for its liberality, the Court of Directors has, therefore, lately given
instructions to Dr Wallich, at present in London, to distribute these precious collections among the principal botanists of the
present day ; and the East India Company has thus acquired the most honourable claims on the gratitude of the men of science of
every country. But if the thanks of naturalists be due to the Company in the first place, they are scarcely less so to Dr Wallich, who
superintends the operation. F'ar from profiting by his situation to reserve for himself the publication of so much riches, he merely
wishes to distribute them among others in the manner which he conceives most useful for the progress of natural history. His time
in England, which he has a right to devote to his private affairs, and his valuable notes, are wholly at the service of others.
1 Sir Joseph died on the 19th of March 1820. See Article Banks, Sir Joseph.
BOTANY.
axono- introduced his own new genera of Mosses; which the
my. younger Linnaeus thought so alarming an innovation, that
he ordered the sheet containing these matters to be can¬
celled. We are possessed of a copy, which shows the
genera in question to be almost all well founded, and what
are now, under Hedwig’s sanction, generally received,
though by other names. The descriptions of Ehrhart are
precise and correct, though his terminology is exception¬
able, being full of innovations and crabbed expressions.
Two years, almost immediately preceding the death of
the younger Linnaeus, were spent by the latter in visiting
England, France, and Holland, and were employed to very
great advantage, in augmenting his collections of natural
productions, as well as his scientific skill. During this
tour he attached himself strongly, through the medium of
his old friend Solander, to Sir Joseph Banks; and, while
in France, he almost planted, or at least greatly advanced,
a Linnaean school in that kingdom. He had scarcely re¬
sumed his professorial office at home when he was unex¬
pectedly taken off, by an acute disease, in his forty-second
year. Of the talents and performances of his successor
Thunberg, who still1 with honour fills the chair of the Rud-
becks and the Linnaei, we have already spoken. Dr
Swartz is the Bergian professor of botany at Stockholm.
The Transactions of the Upsal Academy, founded by the
younger Rudbeck, are continued occasionally; and those
of the Stockholm Academy, whose foundations were laid
by Linnaeus, are published regularly. Both are from time
to time enriched with botanical communications worthy of
the pupils of so illustrious a school. A veteran in botani¬
cal science, Professor Retzius, still presides at the univer¬
sity of Lund. The worthy and accurate Afzelius, well
known in England, who accomplished a hazardous botani¬
cal expedition to Sierra Leone, is the coadjutor of Pro¬
fessor Thunberg; and the difficult subject of Lichens, un¬
der the hands of Dr Acharius, has become so vast and so
diversified as to be almost a science of itself.
“ Denmark has always possessed some acute and learned
botanists, and has, more than most other countries, been
supplied with dried specimens of plants, as an article of
commerce, from her West or East Indian establishments.
Oeder, the original author of the Flora Danica, and
Muller its continuator, have distinguished themselves;
but their fame is inferior to that of the late Professor
Vahl, who studied under the celebrated Linnaeus, and
is the author of several excellent descriptive works. He
undertook no less than a new Species, or, as he entitled
it, Enumeratio Plantarum; an admirable performance, cut
short by his death at the end of the second volume, which
finishes the class and order Triandria Monogynia. It is
almost superfluous to mention, that Afzelius and Retzius,
as well as Vahl, in all they have given to the world, have
followed the system of their great master. The Flora
Danica, chiefly a collection of plates, with few synonyms
and no descriptions, has come forth, from time to time,
for above fifty years past, in fasciculi, without any order,
and is still incomplete. It wras undertaken by royal com¬
mand, and, in a great measure, at the sovereign’s expense,
though regularly sold, except some copies presented to
certain distinguished men, as Linnaeus,
oji.tussia, “ After the example of Denmark, Sweden, &c. Russia
has been desirous of promoting, throughout its vast de¬
pendencies, an attention to natural knowledge. Nor was
any country ever more fortunate in the possession of an
active and intelligent naturalist. The celebrated Pallas
successfully devoted a long life to these pursuits, and to
c;3en-
the communication of his discoveries and observations.
He prompted the Empress Catharine to offer an unlimited
sum for the museum, library, and manuscripts of Linnseus ;
but, fortunately for their present possessor, the offer was
made too late. A Flora Rossica, on the most magnificent
scale, was undertaken by Pallas ; his imperial mistress pro¬
posing to defray the cost of the whole undertaking, not
merely for sale, but for gratuitous presentation, on the
most princely scale, to all who had any taste or ability to
make use of the book. This well-intended munificence
was the cause of the ruin of the project. The first half
volume was bestowed as the empress intended. But the
second part, instead of following the destination of the
first, got into the hands of interested people, who defeat¬
ed the liberal designs of their sovereign, misapplied her
money, and by the disgust and disappointment which en¬
sued, prevented the continuance of the work. Those who
wished to complete their sets, or to obtain the book at all,
were obliged to become clandestine purchasers, buying
as a favour, what they ought to have received as a gift;
and were, moreover, like the writer of this, often obliged
to receive imperfect copies. In like manner the inten¬
tions of the great Howard, respecting his book on prisons,
were rendered ineffectual by the disgraceful avarice of
certain London booksellers, who immediately bought up,
and sold at a greatly advanced price, the whole edition,
which its benevolent author had destined to be accessible
to every body at an unusually cheap rate. These ex¬
amples, amongst others, show that it is the most difficult
thing in the world to employ patronage, as well as gratui¬
tous charity of any kind, to real advantage, except under
the guidance of the most rigorous discretion. ‘ All that
men of power can do for men of genius,’ says Gray, if we
recollect aright, ‘ is to leave them at liberty, or they be¬
come like birds in a cage,’ whose song is no longer that
of nature and enjoyment. The great and the affluent may
foster and encourage science and literature, by their coun¬
tenance, their attention, and a free, not overwhelming,
liberality; but when princes become publishers of books,
or directors of academies, they generally do more harm
than good. They descend from their station, and lose
sight perhaps of their higher and more peculiar duties,
which consist in promoting the general prosperity, peace,
and liberty of their subjects, under the benign influence of
which* every art, science, or pursuit, that can be beneficial
to mankind, is sure to flourish without much gratuitous
assistance.
“ Several of the immediate scholars of the illustrious 0fGer-
Swedish naturalist were planted in different parts of Ger-many,"
many. Murray, to whom he intrusted the publication of
that compendious volume entitled Systerna Vegetabilium,
and who printed two successive editions of the work, was
seated as Professor at Gottingen. Giseke was established
at Hamburg, and, after the death of Linnaeus, gave to
the world such an edition as he was able to compile, from
his own notes and those of Fabricius, of the lectures of
their late preceptor, on the natural orders of plants. His
ideas on this subject Linnaeus himself always considered
as too imperfect to be published, except in the form of a
sketch or index, at the end of his Genera Plantarum.
The venerable patriarch, Professor Jacquin, still survives
at Vienna, where he and his worthy son have enriched
botany with a number of splendid and useful works. They
have given to the public several labours of the excellent
practical botanist Wulfen, and others, which might, but
for their encouragement, have been lost. The highly va-
^^fthelaUerSont/«^iSWeden ^ t0 b0aSt °f Agardh and Fries’ the former of whom has published many erudite works on the
80
botany.
Taxono. luable publication of Host on grasses is conducted on the
my. plan of Jacquin’s works. His Synopsis of Austrian plan s
v—A ' is an excellent Flora, disposed according to the sexual
system ; as is the more ample Tentamen Florez Germanwa
of the celebrated Dr Roth, one of the best practical Eu¬
ropean botanists, and more deeply versed than most others
in cryptogamic lore. The best Linnsean Flora, as far as
it goes, that the world has yet seen, we speak it without
any exception, is the Flora Germamm of Professor Schra¬
der of Gottingen, the first volume of which, comprising
the first three classes of the sexual system was published
in 1806. The correct distinctions, well-digested syno¬
nyms, and complete descriptions, of this work, are altoge¬
ther unrivalled. If the whole should be equally well ex¬
ecuted, for which the longest life would be scarcely suf¬
ficient, it must ever be the standard book of European bo¬
tany. Its descriptions of grasses are worthy to accompany
the exquisite engravings of the same tribe from the ban
of Leers, published at Herborn in 1 /75, which excel every
botanical representation which we have yet examined.
They will bear, and indeed they require, the application
of a magnifying-glass, like the plants themselves. I he
purchaser of this little volume must however beware of the
second edition, the plates of which are good for little or
nothing. The name of Schrader has long been distin¬
guished in cryptogamic botany. In this pursuit, the in¬
dustrious and accurate botanists of Germany, shut out
from extensive opportunities of studying exotic plants,
have had full scope for their zeal and abilities. In this
field the Leipsic school has distinguished itself. Here the
oreat Schreber first began his career with some of the
most perfect cryptogamic works, especially on the minute
trenus Phascum. Here the same author published his ex¬
cellent Flora Lipsiensis, his laborious practical work on
Grasses, and finally his improved edition of the Gerwra
Plantarum of his friend Linnaeus. But, above all, Leipsic
is famous for being the residence of Hedwig, whose dis¬
coveries relative to the fructification and generic charac¬
ters of Mosses form an era in botanic science. Under the
hands of such an observer, that elegant tribe displays it¬
self with a degree of beauty, variety, and singularity,
which vies with the most admired herbs and flowers, and
confirms the Linnaean doctrine of impregnation, which the
more obvious organs of the latter had originally taught.
Nor must we, in speaking of cryptogamic plants, neglect
here to record the names of Weiss, Weber, Mohr, Schmi-
del, Esper, and especially Hoffmann; the plates of the
latter, illustrating the Lichen tribe, are models of beauty
and correctness. His Flora Germanica is a most conve¬
nient and compendious manual, after the Linnaean system.
Fungi have been studied in Germany with peculiar care
and minuteness. The leading systematic author in this
obscure tribe, Persoon, was indeed born of Dutch parents,
at the Cape of Good Hope; but he studied and published
at Gottingen. Two writers of the name of Albertini and
Schweiniz have published the most minute and accurate
exemplification of this natural order, in an octavo volume,
at Leipsic, in the year 1805, comprising the Fungi of the
district of Niski in Upper Lausatia. If their figures are
less exquisitely finished than Persoon’s, or less elaborately
detailed than Schrader’s, their descriptions make ample
amends.
“ The German school of botany has for a long period
been almost completely Linnaean. This however was not
always the case; for, in the earlier part of his career, the
learned Swede was attacked more repeatedly and severe¬
ly from this quarter of the world than from any other ;
his ridiculous critic Siegesbeck of Petersburg excepted,
who would not admit the doctrine of the sexes of plants,
because the pollen of one flower may fly upon another,
and his purity could not bear the idea of such adultery in Taxono.
nature. Numerous methods of arrangement appeared in
Germany, from the pens of Heister, Ludwig, Haller, and
others, and even Schreber adopted a system like some of
these in his Flora above mentioned. It would be to no
purpose now to criticise these attempts. They cannot
rank as natural systems, nor have they the convenience of
artificial ones. Part of their principles are derived from
Linneeus, others from Rivinus. Their authors were not ex¬
tensively conversant with plants, nor trained in any sound
principles of generic discrimination or combination. They
set off with alacrity, but were soon entangled in their own
difficulties, and were left by Linnaeus to answer themselves
or each other. We here mention these learned systematics;
for learned they were thought by themselves and their
pupils, merely because they will scarcely require animad¬
version when we come to canvass the great question of
natural and artificial classification, they having had no
distinct ideas of a difference between the two. Hedwig
used frequently to lament that his preceptor Ludwig had
never perfected his system of arrangement; but from
what he has given to the world, we see no great room to
suppose that he had any thing very excellent in reserve.
Unexecuted projects are magnified in the mists of uncer¬
tainty. We have ventured elsewhere, in a biographical
account of Hedwig, to remark, that even that ingenious
man ‘ did not imbibe, under Ludwig, anything of the true
philosophical principles of arrangement, the talents for
which are granted to very few, and are scarcely ever of
German growth. We mean no invidious reflections on
any nation or people. Each has its appropriate merits,
and all are useful together in science, like different cha¬
racters on the theatre of human life.’
Germany may well dispense with any laurels obtained
by the very secondary merit of speculative schemes of
classification, when she can claim the honour of having
produced such a practical observer as Gaertner. This in¬
defatigable botanist devoted himself to the investigation
of the fruits and seeds of plants. Being eminently skilled
in the use of the pencil, he has, like Hedwig, faithfully
recorded what he no less acutely detected. The path he
struck out for himself, of delineating and describing in
detail, with magnified dissections, every part of the seed
and seed-vessel of each genus within his reach, had never
been explored before in so regular and methodical a man¬
ner. Botanists of the Linnsean school are justly censu-*’
rable for having paid too little attention to the structure
of these important parts, in their generic characters. In¬
deed it may be said, that if they were able to establish
good genera without them, and, after the example of their
leader, merely preferred the more obvious and distinct
organs, when sufficient for their purpose, their conduct
was justifiable. If generic principles be natural and cer¬
tain, it matters not on what parts of the fructification they
are founded; nor is the inflorescence, or even the herb
or root, rejected by sound philosophers, but because they
are found to lead only to unnatural and uncertain charac¬
ters. It is therefore extremely to the honour of Linnaeus,
Gaertner, and Jussieu, that their conceptions of genera
are almost entirely the same. They meet in almost every
point, however different the paths by which they pursue
their inquiries. Their labours illustrate and confirm each
other. Even Tournefort, who conceived so well, on the
whole, the distinctions of genera, which he could but ill
define, receives new strength from their knowledge, which
does not overturn his imperfect performances, but impiove
them. The accurate student of natural genera cannot
fail to perceive, that where Gaertner differs from Linnaeus,
which is but in a very few material instances, such as his
numerous subdivision of the genus Fumaria, and his dis-
B O T
Xaxono- tribution of the compound flowers, it arises from his too
my. intent and exclusive consideration of one part of the fruc-
tification, instead of an enlarged and comprehensive view
of the whole. In other words, he neglects the Linnaean
maxim, that ‘ the genus should give the character, not
the character the genus.’ Such at least appears to us
the case in Fumaria.1 In the syngenesious family, being
so very natural in itself, the discrimination of natural ge¬
nera becomes in consequence so difficult, that Gaertner
and Linnaeus may well be excused if they do not entirely
agree; and they perhaps may both be satisfied with the
honour of having collected materials, and disposed them
in different points of view, for the use of some future sys-
tematist, who may decide between them. However exact
Gaertner may have been in discriminating the parts of
seeds, we believe him to have been mistaken in distinguish¬
ing the vitellus as a separate organ, distinct in functions
from the cotyledons. His readers will also do well, while
they profit by his generally excellent principles, not to ad¬
mit any of his rules as absolute. They may serve as a clue
to the intricacies of nature, but they must not overrule hex-
laws. Still less is our great carpologist to be implicitly fol¬
lowed in physiological doctrines or reasonings; witness his
feeble and incorrect attack on Hedwig’s opinions, or rather
demonstrations, respecting the impregnation of Mosses.
His criticisms of Linnaeus are not always marked with
that candour which becomes a disinterested lover of truth
and nature ; nor can we applaud in general his changes of
nomenclature or of terminology, especially when he un-
philosophically calls the germen of Linnaeus the ovarium,
a word long ago rejected, as erroneous when applied to
plants.2 These however are slight blemishes in a impu¬
tation which will last as long as scientific botany is culti¬
vated at all. Botanists can now no longer neglect, except
at their own peril, the parts which Gaertner has called into
notice, and to the scrutiny of which, directed by his faith¬
ful guidance, the physiologist and the systematist must
often in future recur.
f Prussia, “ We shall close this part of our subject with the men¬
tion of the Berlin school, where Gleditsch, who, in 1740,
repelled the attacks of Siegesbeck on Linnaeus, was pro¬
fessor, and published a botanical system, founded on the
situation, or insertion, of the stamens; the subordinate
divisions being taken from the number of the same parts ;
so that it is, in the latter respect, a sort of inversion of
the Linnaean method. In the former, or the outline of
its plan, the system of Gleditsch is in some measure an
anticipation of that of Jussieu. Berlin has of late been
much distinguished for the study of natural history, and
possesses a society of its own, devoted to that pursuit.
Its greatest ornament was the late Professor Willdenow,
who, if he fell under the lash of the more accurate Afze-
lius, is entitled to the gratitude of his fellow-labourers,
not for theoretical speculations, but for the useful and
arduous undertaking of a Species Plantarum, on the Lin-
naean plan, being indeed an edition of the same work of
Linnaeus, em-iched with recent discoveries. This book,
left unfinished at the end of the first order of the Cryp-
togamia, by the death of the editor, wants only a general
index to render it sufficiently complete. The Musci,
Lichenes, and Fungi, are systematically treated in the se¬
parate works of writers devoted to those particular, and
now very extensive, subjects, fx-om whom Willdenow could
only have been a compiler. With the Filices, which he
lived to publish, he was practically conversant. His inser-
A N Y. ‘ 81
tion of the essential generic characters, throughout these Taxono-
volumes, is a useful addition, and has now become neces- my*
sary in evei-y similar undertaking.
“ Little can be said of Holland in this review of the bo-of Hol-
tanical state of Europe for a few years past. The Ley-land,
den garden has always been kept up, especially during
the life of the late Professor David Van lloyen, with due
care and attention: we know little of its fate in the sub¬
sequent convulsed state of the country. Botany has long
been on the decline at Amsterdam, though we are in¬
debted to that garden for having first x-eceived, and
afterwards communicated to other countries, such acqui¬
sitions of Thunberg in Japan as escaped the perils of im¬
portation.
“ The botany of Switzerland may, most commodiously,of Switzer-
be considered in the next place. Here, in his native land,
country, the great Haller, after a long residence at Got¬
tingen, was finally established. Its rich and charming
Flora has been illustrated by his classical pen, with pe¬
culiar success. Every body is conversant with the second
edition of his work, published in 1768, in three volumes
folio, and entitled Historia Stirpium Indigenarum Hel-
vetice, with its inimitable engravings, of the Orchis tribe
more particulax-ly. But few persons who have not la¬
boured with some attention at the botany of Switzerland,
are aware of the superior value, in point of accuracy, of
the original edition of the same work, published in 1742,
under the title of Enumeratio Methodica Stirpium Helve-
tice Indigenarum. This edition is indispensable to those
who wish fully to understand the subject, or to appreciate
Haller’s tx-anscendent knowledge and abilities. These
woi’ks ai'e classed after a system of his own, intended to
be more consonant with nature than the Linnsean sexual
method. We can scai-cely say that it is S0j on the whole;
nor is it, on the other hand, constructed according to any
uniformity of plan. The number of the stamens, compared
with that of the segments of the corolla, or its petals, re¬
gulate the characters of several classes, and these are ar¬
tificial. Othex-s are assumed as natural, and are for the
most part x-eally so; but their chax-acters ai'e frequently
taken from Linnaeus, even from his artificial system, as the
Cruciatce and the Apetalce. Lord Bute has well said, that
Haller was a Linnaean in disguise. His classification, how-
evex-, was merely intended to answer his own pui-pose with
i-espect to the Swiss plants; for he was not a general bo¬
tanist, nor had he a sufficiently comprehensive view of the
subject to form a genex-al system, or even to be aware of
the difficulties of such an undertaking. He ought not
therefore to be obnoxious to criticism in that view. His
method has served for the use of his scholars, as the Lin¬
naean one serves English botanists, by way of a dictionary.
Some such is necessary; and those who should begin to
decide on the merits of a system, before they know plants,
would most assuredly be in danger of appearing more
learned to themselves than to others. We cannot excul¬
pate Haller from some degree of pi-ejudice in rejecting
x-eal improvements of Linnaeus, which are independent of
classification; such as his trivial or specific names, by
which evex-y species is spoken of at once, in one word,
mostly so contrived as to assist the memory, by an indi¬
cation of the character, appearance, history, or use, of the
plant. What did the great Swiss botanist substitute in¬
stead of this contrivance ? A series of numbers, bur-
thensome to the memoi-y, destitute of information, accom¬
modated to his own book only, and necessarily liable to
* Most modern botanists view the Linnsean genus Fumaria as a natural order, and have therefore properly adopted Gartner's di¬
visions as distinct genera.
* Notwithstanding the above opinion to the contrary, ovarium is now generally adopted instead oigermen.
VOL. V.
L
82
botany.
Taxono. total change on the introduction of every newly-discovered
my. species! At the same time that he rejected the lumi-
nous nomenclature of his old friend and fellow-student,
who had laboured in the most ingenuous terms to depre¬
cate his jealousy, he paid a tacit homage to its meiit, by
contending that the honour of this invention was due to
Rivinus. In this he was not less incorrect than uncandid,
the short names of Rivinus being designed as specific
characters, for which purpose Haller knew, as well as
Linnaeus, that they w'ere unfit. Useful specific characters
he himself constructed on the plan of Linnaeus, with some
little variation, not always perhaps for the better as to
strictness of principle, but often strikingly expressive.
Here, as in every thing connected with practical botany,
he shines. The most rigid Linnaean, whose soul is not
entirely shrivelled up with dry aphorisms and prejudice,
must love Haller for his taste and enthusiasm, and the
Flora of Switzerland as much for his sake as its own. b.o
wonder that his pupils multiplied, and formed a band or
enthusiasts, tenacious of even the imperfections of their
master. The line of demarcation is now no longer dis¬
tinctly drawn between them and the equally zealous scho¬
lars of the northern sage. The amiable and lamented
Davall strove to profit by the labours of both. The Al¬
pine botanists of France and Italy have served to ama -
gamate the Swedish and the Helvetian schools. Ihe
Flora of Dauphine by Villars is nearly Linnaean in sys¬
tem ; and the principles of the veteran Bellardi of Turin
are entirely so, though, in some of his publications, he has
been obliged to conform to the method of his preceptor,
the venerable Allioni, who, in spite of all remonstrance,
had the ambition of forming a system of his own. His
Flora Pedemontana is disposed according to this system ;
an unnatural and inconvenient jumble of the ideas of Ri¬
vinus, Tournefort, and others. This work is also faulty
in the neglect of specific definitions, so that its plates and
occasional descriptions are alone what render it useful,
nor would it, perhaps, be consulted at all, but for the un¬
common abundance of rare species.1
“ We may glance over the botany of Italy, to whose
boundaries we have thus been insensibly led, as the tra¬
veller takes a bird’s-eye view of its outstretched plains
from the lofty summits of the Alps. We may pass from
Turin to Naples without meeting with any school of dis¬
tinction. The northern states are not without their pro¬
fessors and patrons of botany; nor are their nobles desti¬
tute of taste, in various branches of natural knowledge.
The names of a Castiglione of Milan, a Durazzo and Dine¬
gro of Genoa, and a Savi of Pisa, deserve to be men¬
tioned with honour, for their knowledge and their zeal.
The unfortunate Cyrillo, and his friend Pacifico, of Naples,
were practical botanists. There is also a rising school, of
great promise, at Palermo. But since the time of Sco-
poli, ItaljT has contributed little to our stock of informa¬
tion ; nor are the latter publications of this eminent man,
while he resided at Pavia, commensurate in importance
or njerit with those earlier ones, the Flora and the Ento-
vwlogia Carniolica, which have immortalized his name.
Scopoli, who at first adopted a system of his own, had
the sense and liberality, in his second edition, to resign
it in favour of what his maturer experience taught him Taxono.
to prefer, the sexual system of Linnaeus.2 my.
Spain and Portugal claim our attention ; the former tor
Spain ana roriugai ^ 0f Spain
being the channel through which the gardens of Europe °rnd^
_ ° ^   i. rxH TT-ifr* mon'tr y\c*xxt ~
of Italy,
have, for some years past, been enriched with many
Mexican and Peruvian plants, and likewise as the theatre
of the publication of some important books relati\e to the
botany of those countries. In speaking of American bo¬
tany, we have mentioned the Flora Peruviana, the authors
of which, Ruiz and Pavon* rank deservedly high for their
industry and knowledge. The late Cavanilles, resident at
Madrid, has also communicated to the learned world much
information, from the same source. Spain seems anxious
to redeem her reputation, which suffered so much from
the neglect, or rather persecution, of the truly excellent
but unfortunate Dombey, who, like many other benefac¬
tors of mankind, was allowed to make all his exertions in
vain, and finally perished unknown, in the diabolical hands
of English slave-dealers at Montserrat.3 Portugal is most
distinguished at home by the labours of a learned benedic-
tine, Dr Felix Avellar Brotero, author of a Flora Lusita-
nica, disposed after the Linnaean method, reduced en¬
tirely to principles of number; and abroad by the valu¬
able work of Father Loureiro, entitled Flora Cochinchi-
nensis, in which the plants ot Cochin-China, and of the
neighbourhood of Canton, are classed and defined in the
Linnaean manner, with valuable descriptions and remarks.
It is undoubtedly a disgrace to the possessors ot such a
country as Brazil, that they have not derived from thence
more benefit to the world or to themselves from its natu¬
ral productions. But they are satisfied with what the
bowels of the earth afford, and they neglect its more ac¬
cessible, though perhaps not less valuable treasures. The
jealousy and innumerable restrictions, ot their go\ernment
render what they possess as useless to all the world as to
themselves. A genius of the first rank in natural science,
as w^ell as in every thing which his capacious mind em¬
braced, has arisen in Portugal, and has been domesticated
in the schools of Paris andlhondon, the amiable and learn¬
ed Correa de Serra. What little impulse has been given to
literature in Portugal, and particularly the foundation of a
Royal Academy of Sciences, is owing to him ; and though
his name has chiefly appeared in the ranks ot botanical
science in an incidental manner, no one possesses more
enlarged and accurate views, or more profound knowledge,
of the subject.
“ In the extensive, though incomplete, review which we English
have undertaken of the recent history of botanical science, and
the individual merits of particular writers have Sh.iefly scSs-
hitherto been detailed and compared. The most difficult
part of our task perhaps still remains, namely, to contrast
and appreciate the influence and the merits of two great
and rival nations, in the general school of scientific botany ;
to consider the causes that have led to the particular line
which each has taken; and to compare the success, as well
as to calculate the probable future consequences, of their
respective aims. England and France have, from the
time of Ray and Tournefort, been competitors in botani¬
cal fame, because each was ambitious ot supporting the
credit of the great man she had produced. This contest,
1 Geneva is celebrated at the present day as the residence of Professor De Candolle. This distinguished botanist, in addition to
many other works of scarcely inferior merit, published, in 1818 vol. 1st, and in 1821 vol. 2d, of a Rcguum arranged accord¬
ing to the natural system. No more has yet appeared; but in 1824 he commenced a Prodromus, or abridgement of what the other was
intended to be ; and of this four vmlumes are completed. It is expected to be concluded in a few years.
2 Raddi, Tenore, Viviani, and the Sicilian botanist Gussone, had scarcely, at the time when Sir J. E. Smith wrote this, gained
sufficient fame to be noticed by him. . • j- • i oi
3 Had Sir James Smith lived, he would have found occasion to alter the above paragraph. At present there is not one mdiviauai
deserving the name of botanist in Spain. The last of them, Lagasca, has had all his collections, including what he had amassed tor
years with a view to publish a Flora of Spain, entirely destroyed, and been obliged himself to take refuge in England.
B O T
axono- however, as far as it regarded theoretical speculations, has
my. entirely subsided on the part of Ray’s champions. In prac-
tical science, likewise, the admirers of Ray and of Tourne-
fort have shaken hands, like those of every other school.
On the subject of system, the question is greatly changed;
for though a phoenix has arisen from the ashes of Tourne-
fort, its ‘ star-like eyes,’ darting far beyond all former
competition, have been met, if not dazzled, by a new light,
rising in full glory from the north ; a polar star, which has
been hailed by all the nations of the earth.
land. “ The Linnaean system of classification, with all its con-
g ' comitant advantages of nomenclature, luminous technical
definition, and richness of information, was planted, like a
fresh and vigorous scion, in the favourable soil of England,
already fertilized with accumulations of practical know¬
ledge, about the middle of the last century. If we may
pursue the metaphor, the ground was entirely cleared for
its reception; for all previous systems had been of con¬
fined and local use, the alphabetical index having become
the resource of even the most learned, and the pupils of
Ray being held to his method of classification rather by
their gratitude for his practical instruction, than any other
consideration. Accordingly we have, in our own early
progress, before they were all, as at present, swept oft the
stage, found them rather contending for his nomenclature,
imperfect as it was, because they were habituated to it,
than for his system, of which it was evident they had
made little use. Hence the first attempt in England to
reduce our plants to Linnaean order, made by Hill, was
chiefly a transposition of Ray’s Synopsis into the Linnaean
classes; the original nomenclature being retained, while
the specific names of the Species Plantarum were re¬
jected.
orwich. “ Hill’s imperfect performance was superseded by the
more classical Flora Anglica of Hudson, composed under
the auspices and advice of the learned and ingenious Stil-
lingfleet, in which the botany of England assumed a most
scientific aspect, and with which all the knowledge of Ray
was incorporated. At the same time, the principles ot
theoretical botany, and the philosophical writings of the
learned Swede, were studied with no ordinary powers of
discrimination and judgment, in a small circle of expe¬
rienced observers at Norwich. A love of flowers, and a
great degree of skill in their cultivation, had been long
ago imported into that ancient commercial city, with its
worsted manufacture, from Flanders; and out of this
taste something like the study of systematic botany had
sprung. These pursuits were mostly confined to the
humblest of the community, particularly among the then
very numerous bodies of journeymen weavers, dyers, and
other artisans of a similar description. Towards the
middle of the eighteenth century, several of the opu¬
lent merchants seem to have acquired, by their intimate
connection with Holland, not only the above-mentioned
taste for horticulture, but likewise an ambition to be dis¬
tinguished by their museums of natural curiosities. The
former sometimes extended itself, from the flowery par¬
terre and the well-arranged rows of tulips, hyacinths, car¬
nations, and auriculas, into no less formal labyrinths, or
perhaps a double pattern of angular or spiral walks, be¬
tween clipped hedges, exactly alike on each side of a
broad gravel walk. Such was the most sublime effort of
the art within the compass of our recollection. “ Grove ’
could by no means be said to “ nod at grove, ’ for the per¬
pendicular and well-trimmed structure was incapable of
nodding; but that “ each alley should have a brother
was an indispensable part of the design. Greenhouses of
exotic plants, except oranges and myrtles, were at this
time scarcely known; and the writer well recollects hav¬
ing seen, with wonder and admiration, above forty years
ANY. S3
ago, one of the first African geraniums that ever bloomed Taxono-
in Norwich. If, however, the progress of natural science my-
was slow in this angle of the kingdom, the wealthy manu-
facturers, become their own merchants, found it necessary
to acquire a knowledge of various foreign languages, in
order to carry on their wide-extended commerce. In
learning French, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, and German,
they unavoidably acquired many new ideas. Their sons
were sent to the continent, and it were hard, indeed, if
many of them did not bring home much that was worth
learning. The society of the place, aided by some con¬
comitant circumstances, and the adventitious acquisition
of two or three men of singular talents and accomplish¬
ments, became improved. A happy mixture of literature
and taste for many years distinguished this city above its
rivals in opulence and commercial prosperity. Such Nor¬
wich has been in our memory; and if its splendour be
gone by, a taste for mental cultivation, originating in many
of the before-mentioned causes, still remains, and is fos¬
tered by the novel pursuits of chemistry and natural his¬
tory, on which some arts of great importance in the manu¬
factory of the place depend for improvement. We trust
the reader will pardon this digression from the subject
more immediately before us, to which we shall now return.
“ Some of the more learned students of English plants,
among the lovers of botany in Norwich, had long been
conversant with the works of Ray, and even the Historia
Muscorum of Dillenius. They were prepared therefore
to admire, and to profit by, the philosophical writings of
Linnaeus. Hence originated the Elements of Botany, pub¬
lished in 1775 by Mr Hugh Rose, who was aided in the
undertaking by his equally learned friend, the reverend
Henry Bryant, of whose acuteness and botanical skill no
better proof is wanting, than his having found and deter¬
mined, nine years before, the minute Tillcea muscosa, for
the first time in this island. Numerous pupils were eager
to improve themselves by the assistance of such masters;
and, amongst others, the writer of these pages imbibed,
from their ardour and friendly assistance, the first rudi¬
ments of a pursuit that has proved the happiness and the
principal object of his life.
“ London became, of course, the focus of this science, as London,
well as of every other. Of the English universities, Cam- Cam¬
bridge most fulfilled its duty, in rendering its public esta-and
blishments useful to the ends for which they were founded Ux ou ’
and paid. The names of Martyn, both father and son,
have long maintained a distinguished rank in botany ; and
the latter, for many years, has inculcated the true princi¬
ples of Linnaean science, from the professor’s chair. A bo¬
tanic garden was established by a private individual, Dr
Walker, about the period of which we are speaking. A
Linnaean Flora Cantabrigiensis, by Mr Relhan, has renew¬
ed the celebrity of that field in which Ray had formerly
laboured ; and there has always existed a little community
of Cambridge botanists, though fluctuating and varying,
according to circumstances. At Oxford, botany, so vigo¬
rously established by Sherard and Dillenius, slept for forty
years under the auspices of the elder Professor Sibthorp,
at least as to the utility of its public foundations. Yet
even there the science had many individual cultivators,
and if others were forgotten, the name of a Banks ought
to render this school for ever celebrated. The younger
Professor Sibthorp well atoned for the supineness of his
father and predecessor. He published a Flora Oxoniensis,
and extended his inquiries into the classical scenes of
Greece, finally sacrificing his life to his labours, and seal¬
ing his love of this engaging study by a posthumous foun¬
dation, which provides for the publication of a sumptuous
Flora Gracca, and the subsequent establishment of a pro¬
fessorship of rural economy. Edinburgh, under the aus-
84
BOTANY.
Taxono- pices of Professor Hope, became distinguished for the cul-
my. tivation of botany as a branch of medical education. The
physiology of plants was there taught more assiduously
than in almost any other university of Europe; and the
Linnaean principles were ably enforced and illustrated,
not with slavish devotion, but with enlightened discrimi¬
nation. Nor must the dissenting academy at Warrington
be forgotten, where the distinguished circumnavigator
Forster, of whom we have already spoken, was settled.
Here many young naturalists were trained. The neigh'
bouring family of the Blackburnes, possessed even to this
day of one of the oldest and richest botanic gardens in
England, have steadily fostered this and other branches of
natural knowledge. The same taste has spread to Manches¬
ter, Liverpool, and the country around. Westmoreland,
Northumberland, and Durham, have their sequestered
practical botanists in every rank of life. Scenes celebrated
by the correspondents of Ray are still the favourite haunts
of these lovers of nature and science, who every day add
something to our information, and to the celebrity of other
parts of the same neighbourhood.
London “ We must now concentrate our attention to the London
school. school, which for about forty years past has maintained a
rank superior to most other seats of botanical science ;
the more so perhaps from its being founded in total disin¬
terestedness, both with respect to authority and emolu¬
ment. Truth alone, not system, has been the leading ob¬
ject of this school; unbiassed and gratuitous patronage its
support; and a genuine love of nature and of knowledge
its bond of union, among persons not less distinguished
from each other by character and opinion, than by their
different pursuits and various ranks of life. The illustri¬
ous Banks, from the time when, after his return from his
celebrated and adventurous voyage, he devoted himself to
the practical cultivation of natural science for the advan¬
tage of others, as he had long pursued it for his own plea¬
sure and instruction, has been the head of this school.
Here he fixed the amiable and learned Solander, for the
remainder of his too short life. The house of this liberal
Mecsenas has ever since been, not only open, but in a
manner at the entire command of the cultivators and ad¬
mirers of this and other branches of philosophy; inas¬
much as his library and museum have been devoted to
their free use; and his own assistance, encouragement,
and information are as much at their service as if his for¬
tune and fame had all along depended on their favour.
With such an establishment as this, aided by the perpe¬
tual resources of the numerous public and private gardens
around, botany might well flourish. The liberal spirit of
the leaders of this pursuit gave a tone to the whole. The
owners of nurseries, though depending on pecuniary emo¬
lument for their support, rivalled each other in disinterest¬
ed communication. The improvement of the science was
the leading object of all. One of this latter description
took his rank among the literary teachers of botany. Lee’s
Introduction was much approved by Linnaeus, whose sys¬
tem and principles it ably exemplifies, and who became
the friend and correspondent of its author. Travelling
botanists were dispatched under the patronage of the
affluent to enrich our gardens from the Alps, the Cape of
Good Hope, and the various parts of America. Every new
acquisition was scrutinized, and received its allotted name
and distinction from the hand of the correct and classi¬
cal Solander, who one day was admiring with Collinson,
Fothergill, or Pitcairn, the treasures of their respective
gardens, and another labouring w ith the distinguished Ellis,
at the more abstruse determination of the intricate family Taxon>
of marine productions, whether sea-weeds, corallines, or
shells. His own acquisitions, and those of his friend and
patron, in the fairy land of the South Sea Islands, the
hazardous shores of New Holland, or the nearly fatal
groves and swamps of Java, were at the same time re¬
corded by his pen, as they were gradually perpetuating by
the slow labours of the engraver. To this band of zealous
naturalists the younger Linnaeus was for a while associated,
as well as the excellent and zealous Broussonet, who, though
not unversed in botany, devoted himself most particularly
to the more uncommon pursuit of scientific ichthyology.
“ The Banksian school, altogether intent upon practical
botany, had adopted the Linnaean system as the most com¬
modious, while it pursued and cultivated the Linnaean prin¬
ciples as the only ones which, by their transcendent excel¬
lence, could support the science of botany on a stable foun¬
dation. In these Dr Solander was, of course, well train¬
ed ; and, having added so wide a range of experience to his
theoretical education, few botanists could vie with him,
who had, as it were, caught his preceptor’s mantle, and im¬
bibed, by a sort of inspiration, a peculiar talent for concise
and clear definition. Abstract principles of classification,
or even such outlines of natural arrangement as Linnseus
had promulgated, seem never to have attracted Solander.
In following the chain of his ideas, discernible in the mate¬
rials he has left behind him, one cannot but remark his sin¬
gular inattention to every thing like botanical affinity, to
which the artificial sexual system was, with him, entirely
paramount. The genera which, for extemporaneous use,
he named with the termination oides, comparing each with
some well-known genus, till a proper appellation could be
selected, are seldom thus compared because of any natu¬
ral affinity, or even any external resemblance, but be¬
cause they agree with such in their place in the artificial
system, or nearly perhaps in technical characters. A
great botanist, therefore, it is evident, may exist, without
that vaunted erudition in a peculiar line, which some
would have us consider as the only road to knowledge and
to fame. We allow that this sort of erudition is now,
since the attention it has received from Linnaeus, Jussieu,
and others, become as indispensable to a good theoretical
or philosophical botanist, as is the study of carpology, in
consequence of the labours of Gmrtner; we only contend
that it is possible to know plants extremely well without
either.
“ The learned Dryander, less skilled than his predeces¬
sor the coadjutor of Sir Joseph Banks, in a practical ac¬
quaintance with plants, exceeded him in theoretical lore
and ingenious speculation, and far excelled every other
man in bibliographic information, as well as in the most
precise and fastidious exactness relative to every subject
within the wide extent of his various knowledge. He
furthered, upon principle, and with unwearied assiduity,
every object of the noble establishment to which he was
devoted; but, like Solander, he now sleeps with his fa¬
thers, and his place is supplied by a genius of British
growth, who unites talents with experience, and theoreti¬
cal skill, in the most eminent degree, with practical know¬
ledge.1
“ Although it is almost superfluous to name the most
eminent disciples of the London school of botany, it might
seem negligent to pass them over without some particular
mention. The ardent and ingenious Curtis has left a perma¬
nent monument behind him, in the Flora Londinensis, to
say nothing of the popular Botanical Magazine, continued
1 Since the death of Sir Joseph, his library and herbarium have been deposited in the British Museum, where Mr Brown, to whom
Sir James here alludes, has still the unqualified charge of them.
BOTANY.
85
by his friend Dr Sims. The Flora Scotica of Lightfoot first
offered, in a pleasing and familiar garb, the botanical riches
of that part of the island to its southern inhabitants. The
lynx-eyed Dickson, so long and faithfully attached to his
constant patron, has steadily traced, through all its wind¬
ings, the obscure path of cryptogamic botany with pecu¬
liar success. No more striking instance can be pointed
out, to prove how totally the most consummate practical
skill, even in the most difficult part of botany, is indepen¬
dent of theoretical learning. Even those who profit by
the certain aids supplied by the discoveries of Hedwig,
can with difficulty keep pace with this veteran in their
pursuits, who, with conscious independence, neglects all
those aids.
“ Just at the time when the school, whose history we are
nd library endeavouring to trace, had most firmly established its cre-
f Lin* dit and its utility, a great additional weight was given to
1EUS' England, in the scale of natural science, by the acquisi¬
tion of the entire museum, library, and manuscripts of the
great Linnaeus and his son, which came amongst us, by
private purchase, in 1784, after the death of the latter.
Hence our nomenclature has been corrected, and our
knowledge greatly augmented. These collections have
necessarily been consulted by most persons about to pub¬
lish on the subject of natural history, and a reference to
tluseum
Linnnean
- Society.
other, at the expense of their own right of private judg- Taxono-
ment. Their transactions are open to the pupils of every my-
school, and the observations of every critic, that have any
prospect of being useful to the world. The writer of each
communication must, of course, be answerable for the par¬
ticulars of his own performance, but the society is respon¬
sible for each being, on the whole, worthy to be commu¬
nicated to the public. The possession of the very mate¬
rials with which Linnaeus worked, his own specimens and
notes, enables us very often to correct mistakes, even of
that great man, many of which would be unaccountable
without the means of thus tracing each to its source. At
the same time, the acquisition of materials to which he
never had access, tends to improve and augment the his¬
tory of what he had left imperfect. His language, his de¬
finitions and characters, were, for some time, held so sa¬
cred, that they were implicitly copied, even though mani¬
festly inapplicable, in some points, to the objects to which
they were referred. Synonyms were transcribed from his
works by Rose, Hudson, Curtis, and even Gaertner (we
assert it on the positive proof of errors of the press, copied
in the transcribing), without reference to the original
books, to see whether such synonyms, or their accom¬
panying plates, agreed with the plant under considera-
   tion. The example of Dr Solander first led the writer of
them, in doubtful cases, secures a general conformity of this to avoid such a negligent and unfaithful mode of
sentiment and nomenclature among the botanists of Eu- proceeding ; yet he has ever considered as sacred the very
rope, Asia, and America. We are seldom obliged to waste words of Linnaeus, where they require no correction,
time in conjecturing what Linnaeus, or the botanists with They are become a kind of public property, the current
whom he corresponded, meant, for we have before us their coin of the botanical realm, which ought not, with impu-
original specimens, named by their own hands. An en- nity, to be falsified or adulterated, lo them we hope to
tire London winter was devoted to the almost daily labour be pardoned if we apply the words of the poet,
of comparing the Banksian herbarium throughout, with The solid bullion of one sterling line,
that of Linnaeus, and to a copious interchange of speci- Drawn to French wire, would through whole pages shine,
mens between their respective possessors, who, with the
aid of Mr Dryander alone, accomplished this interesting Of this it is needless to quote examples. Me must be
and instructive comparison. Hence the Hortus Kewensis every day more and more sensible of the value of the
of the lamented Aiton, which was at that period preparing Linnaean style, in proportion as the number of those who
for publication, became much more correct in its names, can attain it is evidently so very small. By the light of
our master alone can the science, which he so greatly ad¬
vanced and refined, be preserved from barbarism, while
long and tedious, loose and feeble, ill-contrasted and bar¬
barously-worded definitions, press upon it from various
quarters. New terms are invented to express old ideas ;
names and characters are changed for the worse, to con-
ceal'the want of new discoveries ; and students are often
deterred from adopting real improvements, because they
know not which guide to prefer.
“ From the combined effects of the various causes which Practical
. ...x ^ „. we have endeavoured to trace, the study of botany in Eng- study of
“ The institution of the Linnaean Society at London in land has, for a long period, been almost entirely practical,
1788, especially under that name, must be considered as To determine the particular species intended, in every
a triumph for Sweden in her turn. By this establishment case, by Linnaeus; to distinguish and to describe new ones ;
the intercourse of science is facilitated ; essays, which to improve scientific characters, and to correct synonyms ;
might otherwise have never seen the light, are given to these have been the objects of our writers; and hence many
the world; and a general taste for the pleasing study of publications of great utility, especially a number of criti-
nature is promoted. Learned and worthy people are thus cal and descriptive essays, in the Transactions of the Lin-
made acquainted with each other, from the remotest cor- naean Society, not unworthy of the school which gave
ners of the kingdom, and their information enriches the them birth, have enriched the general stock of knowledge.
These are the sound fruits of skill and investigation, the
solid advantages of real information, applied to practical
use. They are independent of theoretical speculation,
and will stand unshaken, amidst any possible changes of
system. On such principles the Flora Britannica has
been attempted, and continued as far as the present un-
than it, or any other similar performance, could have been,
without this advantage. It could scarcely be expected
that Sweden would, unmoved, let the botanical sceptre
thus pass from her; but it is much to the honour of the
nation, that all her naturalists have ever preserved the
most friendly intercourse with us, particularly with the
person who deprived them of this treasure. They have
not merely pardoned, but publicly sanctioned, the scien¬
tific zeal which prompted him to this acquisition, by as¬
sociating him with all their learned establishments, with¬
out any solicitation on his part.1
common stock. The state has given its sanction to this
rising establishment. Its publications and its members
are spread over the Continent, and other similar institu¬
tions have borrowed its name, imitated its plan, and paid
respect to its authority. Yet it is not in the name alone
of Linnaeus, that the members of this society place their
confidence ; still less do they bow to that name, or to any settled state of some of the latter orders, of the last class,
1 It may not, perhaps, be generally known, that Sir James Smith himself was the purchaser. Since his death it has become the
property of the Linnaean Society of London, along with all his private collections and library.
86
BOTANY.
France.
Tourne-
fort.
will allow.1 Such impediments, which depend on the diffi¬
culties of systematic discrimination, among the Lichens
especially, it is hoped will soon be removed. Meanwhile
the English Botany of the same writer, illustrated by Mr
Sowerby’s expressive and scientific figures, has finished its
course, and formed so nearly complete a body of local
botany, as, we believe, no other country has produced. In
this the liberal contributions of numerous skilful observeis,
from the Alpine heights of Scotland to the shores and
circumambient ocean of the south, are preserved and le-
corded ; evincing a degree of general inquiry and acute¬
ness, which hardly any nation can rival. Ihe memory of
several benefactors to the science, otherwise in danger of
passing away, is embalmed in this national work, which
serves at once as their botanical testament, and the monu¬
ment of their fame. Some of our botanists of the piesent
day have thrown great light on several of the most obscure
departments of the science; witness Mr Sowerby’s work
on English Fungi; the labours of the learned Bishop of
Carlisle on Carices, and, in conjunction with Mr Wood¬
ward, on Fuel; of Mr Dawson I urner on the lattei tribe,
and on the Musci of Ireland; but especially Mr Hooker’s
inimitable display of the British JungermannicE? Nor shall
the contributions of a Winch or an Abbot, a \\ ithering,
Knapp, Stackhouse, or Velley, nor the more splendid la¬
bours of the indefatigable Lambert, be forgotten. Each,
in one way or other, has enlarged the bounds of science,
or rendered it easier of access. We cannot, in the com¬
pass of our present undertaking, pay the tribute due to
every individual, our aim being a general picture of the
whole. From what we have said, the zeal with which this
lovely science has been cultivated in England, will suffi¬
ciently appear. Nor have public lectures or botanic gar¬
dens been neglected, in order to render the knowledge of
botany as accessible as possible, and to diffuse a taste for
its pursuit. The popularity of the study has, at least, kept
pace with the means of instruction. The garden and
green-house, the woods, fields, and even the concealed
treasures of the waters, are now the resource of the young
and the elegant, who, in the enjoyment of a new sense as
it were, in the retirement of the country, imbibe health, as
well as knowledge and taste, at the purest of all sources.
“ France alone now remains to be considered, in order to
finish the historical picture which we have undertaken of
the state of botanical science in Europe. To do justice
to this part of our subject, we must turn our attention to
times long since gone by, or we shall scarcely render in¬
telligible the state of affairs at present.
“ The great Tournefort, by the force of his character, his
general and particular information, the charms of his pen,
and the celebrity which his name gave to his country,
through the popularity of his botanical system, was so
firmly established, in the ideas of the French, as the Grand
Monarque of botany, that they would have as soon allow¬
ed the greatness of Louis XIV. to be questioned, as that
of this distinguished philosopher. So beneficial was this
partiality, in some respects, that it gave an unprecedented
impulse and popularity to the science ; so disadvantageous
w7as it in others, that it placed a formidable barrier in the
way of all improvement. Vaillant, the able and worthy Taxono.
pupil of Tournefort, has never been forgiven for speaking, my.
on some occasions, too freely of his master’s defects.
Hence his own merit has been kept in the back ground.
The doctrine of the sexes of plants was discountenanced
as long as possible, because it was proved by Vaillant, after
having been rejected by Tournefort. Nevertheless, when
the good seed of science is once sown, it can hardly be
totally suffocated by the impediments of prejudice and ig¬
norant partiality. Practical zeal sprung up by the side of
speculative jealousy, and the tares withered, while the
profitable plants flourished. Some botanists followed the
steps of Tournefort to the Levant, exploring afresh those
countries which he has for ever rendered classic ground.
Others visited America, which they traversed in different
directions. The indefatigable Plumier performed three
separate voyages to the western world; and though his dis¬
coveries have, in a great measure, suffered shipwreck from
tardy and imperfect patronage, as a great part of his col¬
lections did by the accidents of nature, yet something of
value remains. His Filices are enough to insure his per¬
petual remembrance, and his Nova Genera are the basis
of our knowledge of generic differences in West Indian
plants. Most of all has been distinguished, among the
French botanists who succeeded the times of Tournefort
and Vaillant, the family of the Jussieus. One of these Jussieus,
investigated the prolific regions of Peru, and discovered
some things which no succeeding traveller has gathered.
Other branches of this family, besides being eminent in
medical science and practice, have pursued the study of
botany with no ordinary success, on the most philosophi¬
cal principles. Of these the most eminent are the cele¬
brated Bernard de Jussieu, the contemporary of the earlier
days of Linnasus; and his nephew Antoine Laurent de
Jussieu, the pride and the ruler of systematic botany at
present in France. The views and the performances of
these great men lead us to a new branch of our subject,
which indeed we have had in our contemplation from the
beginning of this essay,—the exposition of the principles of
a natural scheme of botanical classification, as hinted, and
imperfectly sketched, by Linnaeus, and brought to the
perfection of a regular system by the Jussieus.
“ Previous to our entering on this detail, and the remarks Linnaean
to which it will give rise, we must conclude all that be- ^h°o1 in
longs to the former part of our undertaking, by giving n“nce•
some account of those botanists who have formed and
maintained a Linnaean school in France. We must shel¬
ter ourselves under the broad banner of truth when we
observe that these have, till very lately, been almost the
only French botanists that have supplied us with any
practical information; and their labours have been useful
in proportion as they have commendably shaken off the
prejudices of their predecessors. Of this last proposition
Duhamel is a witness, though we may perhaps excite some
surprise in classing him among Linnaean botanists. His
preface to his Trade des Arbres sufficiently shows how
fearful he was of being taken for such, and yet how he
was held by vulgar prejudice alone, to the nomenclature,
or rather the generical opinions of Tournefort. He tells
1 The English Flora was published on the same plan, a short time before the death of the author. This contains none of the Cryp-
togamia except the Ferns, but a continuation is every day expected from Dr Hooker.
2 Dr Hooker, now Professor at Glasgow, is better known throughout the world as the first museologist of the present age. His
Musci Exotici and Muscologia Britannica are excellent. In a knowledge of Ferns he is also unrivalled, upon which branch, along with
Dr Greville, he has published the splendid leones Filicum. But it is not Cryptogamia alone his pencil and pen have illustrated; he
has published the Exotic Flora, at present continues the Botanical Magazine, and is engaged with a Botanical Miscellany, Flora Boreali-
Americana, &c. all of which are accompanied with plates.—Among those who have contributed in this country to illustrate botany by
plates, we ought not to omit to mention Mr Lindley, and also Dr Greville, whose delineations of Cryptogamic subjects, particularly
of Fungi, must always render his Scottish Cryptogamic Flora a standard work. There are other botanists, likewise, who equally de¬
serve notice, although they be not gifted with the use of the pencil: Mr David Don has contributed much to the page of botany, but
who has not heard of Mr Robert Brown, “ Botanicorum facile princcps
BOTANY.
87
axono- us, while he adopts these, that his judgment went with
my. Linnaeus, whom he follows in all new discoveries. The
^ plan of his book, confined to hardy trees and shrubs, jus¬
tifies his use of an alphabetical arrangement, in preference
to any system, unless he had thought sufficiently well of
Tournefort’s to prefer that. But he has prefixed to his
work, as a practical method of discovering scientifically
what it contained, no other than a sexual classification.
His practical botany was so limited, being entirely sub¬
servient to his great objects of forest planting and vegeta¬
ble physiology, that he had no attention to spare for the
consideration of methodical systems. Accordingly, he
tells us, that some such is necessary for the use of bota¬
nists, especially of those who explore the productions of
foreign countries; but whether the method of Ray, Tour-
nefort, Boerhaave, Van-Royen, Linnaeus, or Bernard de
Jussieu be adopted, is of no importance. Six years be¬
fore Duhamel’s work came out, Dalibard had published,
in 1749, his Florce Parisiensis Prodromus, according to
the Linnaean system.
“ It has always appeared to the writer of this, from the
conversation and writings of French botanists, that the
judgment of the learned Le Monnier, and the countenance
of his patron the Duke d’Ayen, afterwards Marechal de
Noailles, first established the reputation of Linnaeus in
France; not so much possibly for the sake of his system,
as his discoveries, his commodious nomenclature, and his
clear principles of discrimination. When Le Monnier
botanized in Chili, in the company of the astronomers
with whom he was associated, he soon found, like Dr Gar¬
den in South Carolina, that the classification of Tourne-
fort was no key to the treasury of a new world. He how¬
ever made his remarks and collections, and studied them
subsequently under the auspices of a more comprehensive
guide. The Marechal de Noailles, a great cultivator of
exotic trees and shrubs, corresponded with the Swedish
naturalist, and endeavoured to recommend him to the no¬
tice of the lovers of plants in France. Meantime Gerard
and Gouan in the south, both introduced themselves to
the illustrious Swede, and promulgated his principles and
discoveries, though only the latter adopted his classifica¬
tion. Villars we have already noticed as the author of a
Linnaean Histoire, des Plantes de Dauphine. He died lately,
professor of botany at Strasburg, where he succeeded
the very able and philosophical Hermann, one of the
truest Linnaeans, who had imbibed all the technical style
of the Swedish school, as well as its accuracy of discrimi¬
nation. We may now safely announce Hermann as the
real author, in conjunction perhaps with Baron Born, of
that ingenious but bitter satire the monachologia, in which
the several species of monks are affectedly discriminated,
and their manners detailed, like the animals in the Lin-
nsean Systema Natures. This ludicrous performance has
long since appeared in a not very exact English trans¬
lation, and was rendered into French by the late M.
Broussonet. As we are led again to name this amiable
man, too soon lost to his country, after experiencing every
vicissitude of revolutionary peril and alarm, we cannot
help distinguishing him as one most zealous in the culti¬
vation and diffusion of Linnaean learning, a taste for which
he chiefly imbibed in England. He had no indulgence
for those prejudices which cramped the talents of his
countrymen, and prevented their deriving knowledge from
any quarter where it was to be had. He recommended
the younger Linnaeus to their personal acquaintance and
favour; which service he also rendered, a few years after,
to the person who now commemorates his worth, and who
will ever remember, with affection and regret, his many
virtues, his agreeable converse, and his various and ex¬
tensive acquirements.
{£ The intimacy which subsisted between this enthusiastic Taxono-
naturalist and the distinguished botanist 1’Heritier, con- my.
firmed, if it did not originally implant, in the mind of the
latter, that strong bias which he ever showed for the Lin¬
naean principles of botany. According to these his nume¬
rous splendid works are composed. He moreover imbib¬
ed, if we mistake not, from the same source, a peculiar
preference for uncoloured engravings of plants, instead of
the coloured ones which had long been in use. It cannot
be denied that the merit of these last is very various,
and sometimes very small. They do, nevertheless, pre¬
sent to the mind a more ready idea of each species, than
a simple engraving can do, nor is the latter less liable to
incorrectness. When plates are taken from the delinea¬
tions of such exquisite artists as I’Heritier employed, they
have a good chance of excellence; but the engravings of
Cavanilles, done after miserable drawings, though they
deceive the eye by their neat finishing, are really less ex¬
act than many a rude outline. Coloured plates, if exe¬
cuted with the uniformity and scientific exactness of Mr
Sowerby’s, or the characteristic effect of Jacquin’s, speak
to the eye more readily than most engravings. The art
of printing in colours, practised formerly in England with
small success, was revived at Paris by Bulliard, and is
carried to the highest perfection in the recent publications
of Redoute and Ventenat, which leave hardly any thing
to be wished for, with respect to beauty or exactness.
Many of the works of 1’Heritier have remained imperfect,
in consequence of the political convulsions of his country
and his own premature death. The learned and worthy
Desfontaines, who travelled in Barbary, has been more
fortunate in the completion of his labours. His elegant
Flora Atlantica, in 2 vols. 4to, with finely engraved un¬
coloured plates, is classed and modelled on the plan of
the Linnaean school. Such also is the plan of the works
of that distinguished botanist Labillardiere, who, besides
his account of New Holland plants, has published five
elegant decades of new species from Syria. That scien¬
tific horticulturist M. Thouin, likewise a most excellent
botanist, though he has scarcely written on the subject,
is a correct pupil of the Swedish school. His general spi¬
rit of liberal communication, and his personal attachment
to the younger Linnaeus, led him to enrich the herbarium
of the latter with the choicest specimens of Commerson’s
great .collection, destined otherwise to have remained in
almost entire oblivion. A singular fate has attended the
discoveries of most of the French voyagers, such as Com-
merson, Sonnerat, and Dombey, that, from one cause or
other, they have scarcely seen the light. So also it has
happened to those of Tournefort, Sarrazin, Plumier, and
others, whose acquisitions have long slept in the Parisian
museums. Flappily there seems to have arisen of late a
commendable desire to render them useful by publication,
and thus many fine plants, known merely by the slight
ancl unscientific appellations of Tournefort, and therefore
never adopted by Linnams, have recently been clearly de¬
fined, or elegantly delineated. The journeys of Olivier
and Michaux towards the east have enriched the Paris
gardens, and been the means of restoring several lost
Tournefortian plants. We believe however that the Eng¬
lish nurseries have proved the most fertile source of aug¬
mentation to the French collections, as appears by the
pages of all the recent descriptive writers in France.
“ We dare not presume to arrange the indefatigable and
very original botanist Lamarck among the Linnaean bo¬
tanists of his country, but we beg leave to mention him
here, as one who has thought for himself, and whose works
are the better for that reason. His severe and often
petulant criticisms of the Swedish teacher, made him ap¬
pear more hostile than he really was, to the principles of
88
BOTANY.
Sexual
system.
that great man. Being engaged in the botanical depart¬
ment of the Encyclopedic Methodique, he was obliged to
conform to an alphabetical arrangement; but he surely
might have chosen the scientific generic names for that
purpose, instead of barbarous or vernacular ones, which,
to foreigners, would have made all the difference, between
a commodious and an unintelligible disposition ot his work.
In the detail of his performance, he has great merit, both
with respect to clearing up obscure species, or describing
new ones; and he had the advantage of accession many
occasions, to Commerson’s collection. Lamarck s i'tore
Francoise is arranged after a new analytical method ot
his own. This book however is valuable, independent oi
its system, as an assemblage of practical knowledge and
observation. We have only to regret a wanton and incon¬
venient change of names, which too often occurs, and
which is not always for the better; witness Chciranthus
hortensis, instead of the long established incanus of Lin-
nams; Melampyrum violaceum, which is not correct, tor
nemorosum, which is strictly so, and which preseives an
analogy with the rest of the species.
“ We shall now undertake the consideration of the prin¬
ciples that have been suggested, and the attempts that
have been made, respecting a
NATURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
“ The sexual system of Linnaeus lays no claim to the
merit of being a natural arrangement. Its sole aim is to
assist us in determining any described plant by analytical
examination. The principles on which it is founded are
the number, situation, proportion, or connection, of the
stamens and pistils, or organs of impregnation. These
principles are taken absolutely, with the sole exception
of their not being permitted to divide the genera, that is,
to place some species of a genus in one part of the sys¬
tem, and others in another, though such may differ in the
number, situation, proportion, or connection of their sta¬
mens or pistils; those characters being possibly artificial,
while the genera are supposed, or intended, according to
a fundamental law independent of all systems, to be na¬
tural assemblages of species. We need not here explain
the mode in which Linnaeus has provided against any in¬
convenience in practice, resulting from such anomalies of
nature herself.
“ But though this popular system of Linnaeus does not
profess to be a natural method of classification it is in
many points incidentally so, several of its classes or orders
whose characters are founded in situation, proportion, or
connection, being more or less perfectly natural assem¬
blages ; nor can it be denied that, on the whole, it usual¬
ly brings together as many groups of natural genera, as
occur in most systems that have been promulgated. This
fact would be more evident, if the various editors of the
system, those who have added new genera to the original
ones of Linnaeus, or, in general, those who have any way
applied his method to practice, had properly understood
it. They would then have perceived that its author had
always natural affinities in view ; his aim, however incom¬
pletely fulfilled, according to our advanced knowledge,
having constantly been, to place genera together in na¬
tural affinity or progression, as far as their relationship
could be discerned. At the same time he uses an analy¬
tical method, at the head of each class in his Systema
Vegetabilium, in which the genera are disposed according
to their technical characters. Murray, in compiling the
fourteenth edition of that work, has been inadvertent re¬
specting this essential part of its plan. Indeed it is pro¬
bable that he was not competent to judge of the affinities
of the new genera, introduced from the Supplementum, or
from the communication of Jacquin, Thunberg, &c. Yet
surely he might have perceived the affinity of Banksia to Taxoms
Protea, rather than to Ludwigia or Oldenlandia; and niy.
indeed’ Linnseus himself ought to have discovered the
relationship of the latter to Hedyotis, it he did not detect
their identity, instead of inserting it between two such
strict allies of each other as Ludwigia and Ammanma. To
pursue these remarks would be endless. It is hardly ne¬
cessary to indicate the natural classes or orders of the
Linnsean system, such as the Tetradynamia, Didynamia,
Diadelphia, Syngenesia; the Triandria Digynia, Gyn-
andria Diandria, $c. Except the first-mentioned class,
which, if Cleome be removed, is strictly natural and entire,
the others are liable to much criticism. We are almost
disposed to allow, what we know not that any one has yet
observed, that the system in question is the more faulty
in theory, for these classes being so natural as they are.
Each order of the Didynamia presents itself as a natural
order, though the character of that class, derived from the
proportion of the stamens, serves to exclude several geneia
of each order, and to send them far back into the second
class. If all ideas of natural affinity be discarded from
our minds, there is no harm whatever in this; but if the
Didynamia claims any credit, as a class founded in nature,
the above anomaly is a defect. So, still more, under the
same point of view, is the Diadelphia, or at least its prin¬
cipal order Decandria, liable to exception. This order
consists entirely of the very natural family of Papilionacece.
They are characterized as having the ten stamens in two
sets. Now it happens that there are many papilionaceous
genera, indeed a great number of such have been dis¬
covered since Linnseus wrote, whose ten stamens are all
perfectly distinct. These therefore are necessarily re¬
ferred to the class Decandria, and they come not alto¬
gether amiss there, because they meet in that class some
concomitant genera, which though, like them, leguminous,
are less exactly, or scarcely at all, papilionaceous. But the
greatest complaint lies against some genera of the Dia¬
delphia Decandria, for having the stamens all really com¬
bined into one set, so as in truth to answer to the techni¬
cal character of the preceding class Monadelphia. I here
is mostly indeed some indication of a disunion upward,
where they, more or less perfectly, form two sets; and
some of them are so nearly diadelphous, that their com¬
plete union at the bottom may easily be overlooked; others,
however, have only a fissure along the upper side of their
common tube, without any traces of a separate stamen or
stamens. The papilionaceous character of the corolla
therefore, in such cases, is made to overrule that of the
particular mode of union among the stamens, and is in
itself so clear, as seldom to be attended with any diffi¬
culty ; but the incorrectness of principle in the system, in
the point before us, as being neither professedly natural,
nor exactly artificial, cannot be concealed. Part of the
objections, to which the sexual system was originally
liable, have been obviated. We mean what concerns the
last class but one, Polygamia. Dr Forster observed, in
his voyage round the world, that this class was subject to
great exception, on account of the trees of tropica c i-
mates, so many of which are constantly or occasiona y
. polygamous; that is, each individual frequently bears
some imperfect flowers, male or female, along with its
perfect or united ones. Such a circumstance reduces any
genus to the class Polygamia ; and on this principle Mr
Hudson, thinking perhaps that he made a great improve¬
ment, removed our Ilex Aquifolium, or Holly, thither,
though Ilex is well placed by Linnseus in the fourth class.
The author of the present essay has ventured to propose
a scheme, which is adopted in his Flora Britannica, for
getting clear of this difficulty. He considers as poly¬
gamous such genera only as, besides having that charac
8!)
BOTANY.
Uaxono- ter in their organs of impregnation, have a difference of
mj. structure in the other parts of their two kinds of flowers.
Thus Atriplex has, in its perfect flowers, a regular spread¬
ing calyx, in five equal segments ; in the attendant female
ones a compressed one, of two leaves, subsequently much
enlarged.
“ The genera thus circumstanced are so very few, as far
as we have discovered, that possibly the class might, but
for the uniformity of the system, be abolished. We can¬
not indeed tell what future discoveries may be made ; and
its character, on the above foundation, is sufficiently clear
and permanent; for flowers of an essentially different con¬
figuration can hardly vary into each other. The orders of
the last class of the Linnaean system, Cryptogamia, are
natural, and preserved, all nearly the same, by every sys¬
tematic projector. The original appendix to this system,
the PalmcB, would be a great blemish therein, as an arti¬
ficial arrangement; for such an arrangement ought to be
so formed as to admit every thing, on some principle or
other. But this stumbling-block is now removed. The
palm tribe were placed thus by themselves, merely till
their fructification should be sufficiently known. Now they
are found to agree well with some of the established classes
and orders, where they meet with several of their natural
i allies.
atural “ Whatever advantages might accrue to the practical
assifica- study of botany, from the convenience and facility of his
r110^ artificial system, Linnaeus was from the beerinning: intent
on the discovery of a more philosophical arrangement of
plants, or, in other words, the classification of nature.
This appears from the 77th aphorism of the very first edi¬
tion of his Fundamenta Botanica, published in 1736, where
he mentions his design of attempting to trace out frag¬
ments of a natural method. In the corresponding section
of his Philosophia Botanica, he, fifteen years afterwards,
performed his promise; and the same Fragmenta, as he
modestly called them, were subjoined to the sixth edition
of his Genera Plantarum, the last that ever came from his
own hands. The interleaved copies of these works, with
his manuscript notes, evince how assiduously and constant¬
ly he laboured at this subject, as long as he lived. He
was accustomed to deliver a particular course of lectures
upon it, from time to time, to a small and select number
of pupils, who were for this purpose domesticated under
his roof. What this great botanist has himself given to
the world, on the subject under consideration, is indeed
nothing more than a skeleton of a system, consisting of
mere names or titles of natural orders, amounting in his
Philosophia to sixty-seven, besides an appendix of doubt¬
ful genera ; and that number is, in the Genera Plantarum,
reduced to fifty-eight.
“ Under the title of each order, the genera which com¬
pose it are ranged according to the author’s ideas of their
relationship to each other, as appears by some of his
manuscript corrections; and some of the orders are sub¬
divided into sections, or parcels of genera more akin to
each other than to the rest. He ingeniously avowed, at
all times, his inability to define his orders by characters.
He conceived that they were more or less connected with
each other by several points of affinity, so as to form a
map rather than a series. The experienced botanist, who
peruses the above-mentioned Fragmenta, will in most
cases readily imbibe the ideas of their author, as to the
respective affinities of the genera. In some few instances,
as the Dumosce, where he avows his own doubts, and the
Holeracece, where he is unusually paradoxical, it is more
difficult to trace the chain of his ideas. Such, however,
was all the assistance he thought himself competent to
afford. His distinguished pupils, Fabricius and Giseke,
fortunately took notes of his lectures on natural orders ;
and by the care of the latter, to whom Fabricius commu¬
nicated what he had likewise preserved, their joint ac¬
quisitions have been given to the public, in an octavo vo¬
lume, at Hamburg, in 1792. Nor was this done without
the permission of their venerable teacher, who told Giseke
by word of mouth, when they took leave of each other,
that 1 * * as he loved him, he had laboured with pleasure in
his service;’ adding, that 4 Giseke was at liberty to pub¬
lish, whenever he pleased, any thing that he had retained
from his owm instructions.’
“ Linnaeus, according to a conversation with Giseke, re¬
corded in the preface of the volume edited by the latter,
declined to the last any attempt to define in words the
characters of his orders. His reason for this appears in
his Classes Plantarum, where he justly remarks, that no
certain principles, or key, for any such definition can be
proposed, till all the orders, and consequently all the
plants, in the world are known. He has, however, so far
expressed his opinion, in the work last quoted, as to point
out the situation of the seed itself, with respect to other
parts, and the situation and direction of its vegetating
point, or corculum, as most likely to lead to a scheme of
natural classification. Hence the system of Caesalpinus
stood very high in his estimation. He also, in the con¬
versation above mentioned, divides his own orders into
three sections, or classes, Monocotyledones, comprising the
first ten orders, with the 15th; Dicotyledones (with two
or more cotyledons), the 11th to the 54th order inclusive,
except the 15th; and Acotyledones, order 55th to 58th, with
a hint that the last, or Fungi, ought perhaps to be alto¬
gether excluded. This distribution of plants, by the num¬
ber or the absence of the cotyledons, or lobes of the seed,
is the great hinge of all the professedly natural modes of
arrangement that have been attempted.”
“ Linnaeus did not consider it as absolute, for he told
Giseke that he knowingly admitted into his eleventh order
some* plants that are monocotyledonous, with others that
are dicotyledonous. The reason of this w as the only se¬
cret he kept from his pupil; nor could the latter ever dive
into it, though he afterwards endeavoured to learn it from
the younger Linnaeus, who knew nothing, neither did he,
as Giseke says, much care about the matter.”1
The want of any avowed principle of distinction pre¬
cludes almost all criticism of these orders of Linnaeus as
a natural system. They cannot be applied to practice,
and might in the present day be passed over in silence.
As, howrever, a very few, and amongst others the late Sir
J. E. Smith, considered them as even of more importance
than those of Jussieu, an opinion in which we cannot
coincide, we shall trace very shortly their names, but.
omit entirely the notes that usually accompany them, as
unphilosophical, and tending but little to benefit the
reader.
1 u Nymphcea appears to be the great secret, which the worthy professor told his pupil, that he, or some other person, might chance
to find out in ten, twenty, or fifty years, and would then perceive that Linnaeus himself had been aware of it. Accordingly Gaertner
and Jussieu have made the same discovery, or rather, fallen into the same mistake, describing Nymph as a as monocotyledonous, and
Cyamus, Sm. Exot. Bot. v. i. 59 (their Nelumbo or Nelumbium), as in some measure dicotyledonous. The excellent De Candolle, in the
Bulletin des Sciences, No. Ivii. published in 1802, has first rightly considered both as dicotyledonous, and akin to the Papaveracece of Jus¬
sieu, the Linnaean Rhceadece.,,
90
Exposition
of the Lin-
nsean natu¬
ral orders.
BOTANY.
I.—Monocotyledones.
1. Palma:. 2. Piperita:, the flowers of which are crowded
into a close spike, including3. CalamaricB, or grass¬
like plants, not true grasses, as Carex, Typha, Sic. 4.
Gramina, or the true grasses. 5. Tripetaloidea, in which
there were three petals (Linn.), as Juncus and Alisma.
6. Ensatce, where the leaves are ensiform, and the coiolla
(Linn.) monopetalous. 7. Orchidea, with fleshy roots, and
the flowers either furnished with a spur or ol a singular
construction ; the filaments and style are united, and the
ovarium inferior. 8. Scitaminea, with herbaceous stems,
very broad leaves, a triangular ovarium beneath a lilia¬
ceous corolla. 9. SpathacecB are those lilies which have the
flowers issuing from a large spatha. 10. Coronaria, or
lilies without a spatha, but with a corolla of six petals. LI.
Sarmentacea, with weak stems and liliaceous flowers.
II.—Dicotyledones.
12. Holeracece, “ plants tender or brittle in the mouth,
and easy of digestion” the flowers of no beauty. 13. Suc¬
culents, with very thick fleshy leaves. 14. Gruinales,
having a pentapetalous corolla, several pistils, and a long
pointed capsule, as Geranium. 15. Inundats, which grow
in or under water, with flowers of no beauty. 16. Calyci-
flors: here there is only a calyx, on which the stamina
are inserted ; but the genera put into this were afterwards
referred elsewhere by Linnaeus. 17. Galycanthems, where
the calyx is seated on the germen or ovarium, and the
flowers are beautiful. 18. Bicornes, having the anthers
provided with two long straight points or horns, as Erica,
and several others having no real affinity. 19. Hesperides,
with evergreen leaves, fragrant flowers, and numerous
stamens. 20. Rotacece, having a rotate corolla. 21. Precis,
with handsome early spring flowers, as the primrose. 22.
Caryophylles, or those with a caryophyllaceous corolla.
24. Trihilats, having a style with three stigmas, and
winged or inflated capsules, as Melia, J^Ialpiyliia, and
Acw: 25. Corydales, flowers with a spur, or of a singular
form, as in Epimedium and Pinguicula. 25. Putamines,
bearing fruit in a hard shell, as Capparis, and others not
allied to each other. 26. Multisiliqus, with a fruit of
many siliquse, as Trollius. 27. Rhceades, with a caducous
calyx, and a capsule or siliqua. 28. Lurids, corresponding
to the Solanaceae of Jussieu. 29. Campanaces, with bell¬
shaped flowers, but otherwise an unnatural assemblage.
30. Contorts, with a twisted corolla, as Nerium and Vinca.
31. Vepreculs, having a monophyllous calyx, coloured like
a corolla. 32. Papilionaces, with papilionaceous flowers.
33. Lomentaces, with a legume or lomentum, but not a papi¬
lionaceous flower. 34. Cucurbitaces, as Cucumis and Pas-
si for a. 35. Senticoss, comprehending many of the Rosa¬
cea;. 36. Pomaces, as Amygdalus and Pyrus. 37. Colum-
nifers, in which the stamens, as in Malva, unite and form
a long tube. 38. Tricoccs, with a trilocular capsule, as
Euphorbia. 39. Siliquoss, corresponding to Tetradyna-
mia in the artificial system. 40. Personals, the same as
Didynamia angiospermia. 41. Asperifolis, having “ four
naked seeds” (Linn.), a monopetalous corolla, five stamens,
one style, and rough leaves. 42. Verticillats, those with
labiate or ringent flowers, including some of Diandria, and
all Didynamia gymnospermia. \S.Bumoss, shrubby plants,
with a stem furnished with a soft pith : flowers small, the
petals of four or five segments, as Sambucus, Rhamnus, &c.
44. Sepiaris, shrubs, usually with a tubular corolla, and very
few stamens, as Ligustrum. 45. Umbellats, bearing an um¬
bel of flowers, a pentapetalous corolla, five stamens, two
styles, and “ two naked seeds.” 46. Hederaces, with a quin-
quefid corolla, five or ten stamens, a baccate fruit, and
flowers in a corymb; Iledera an<\. Fife’s were here associated.
47 Stellats, with a quadrifid corolla, four stamens, and two Taxono.
“ naked seeds.” 48. Aggregats, resembling the compound
flowers, but with the anthers free. 49. Composits, or the
compound flowers. 50. Amentaces, with the fruit in a cat¬
kin. 51. Conifers, bearing a strobilus or cone. 52. Coa-
dunats, which have several berries or fruits united into
one, as Annona. 53. Scabrids, having rough leaves, and
flowers of no attraction, as Urtica, Ficus, &c. 54. Miscella-
nes, or those not referable to the preceding.
III.—Acotyledones.
55 Filices. 56. Musci. 57. Algs. 58. Fungi.
It will readily appear that many of these are very arti¬
ficial, and some of the conjunctions quite improper; but,
upon the whole, they exhibit a great resemblance in their
external appearance", which Linnaeus himself could not de¬
fine in words.
We shall now advert to the French school of Botany ; 1 rench
and “ here the learned and truly estimable Bernard de Jus-
sieu, the contemporary of Linnaeus in the earlier part °f Jussieu
his career, first claims our notice. This great practical
botanist, too diffident of his own knowledge, extensive as
it was, to be over-anxious to stand forth as a teacher, did
not promulgate any scheme of natural arrangement till the
year 1759, when the royal botanic garden at Trianon was
submitted to his direction. His system was published by
his nephew in 1789, at the head of his own work, of which
it makes the basis. It appears in the form of a simple
list of genera, under the name of each order, without any
definition, just like the Fragmenta of Linnscus, at the end
of his Genera Plantarum.
“ In 1763 a very active and zealous systematic, M. Adan- Adanson.
son, made himself known to the world, by the publication
of his Families des Plantes. In this learned and ingeni¬
ous, though whimsical and pedantic work, the great task
of defining natural orders by technical characters is first
attempted. His affected orthography and arbitraly no¬
menclature render it scarcely possible, without disgust, to
trace his ideas; which, however, when developed, prove
less original than they at first appear. His work is writ¬
ten avowedly to supersede the labours of Linmeus, against
whom, after courting his correspondence, he took some
personal displeasure ; and yet many of his lea.ding cha¬
racters are borrowed from the sexual system. Hie discri¬
minative marks of his fifty-eight families are taken from
the following sources : leaves, sex of the flowers, situation
of the flowers with respect to the germen, form and situa¬
tion of the corolla, stamens, germens, and seeds. Every
family is divided into several sections, under each of which
the genera are, in like manner, synoptically arranged, and
discriminated by their leaves, inflorescence, calyx, corolla,
stamens, pistil, fruit, and seeds. In the detail of his sys¬
tem, Adanson labours to overset the principle, so much
insisted on by Linnaeus and his school, and to which the
great names of Conrad Gesner, and Caesalpinus, are chief¬
ly indebted for their botanical fame, that the genera of
plants are to be characterized by the parts of fructifica¬
tion alone. The experienced botanist knows that this is
often but a dispute of words ; Linnaeus having, in arrang¬
ing the unbelliferous plants, resorted to the inflorescence,
under the denomination of a receptacle ; see his 45th na¬
tural order. But it appears to us that the characters de¬
duced from thence are in themselves faulty, being often
uncertain, and not seldom unnatural; and that the plants
in question may be better discriminated by their flowers
and seeds. Adanson however prefers the inflorescence,
even in the Verticillats of I. in me us; for no reason, that
we can discover, but because Linnaeus has so much better
defined the genera of those plants by the calyx and corol-
B O T
|"axono- la. It were a needless and ungrateful task to carp at the
niy. mistakes of this or any writer on natural classification,
with regard to the places allotted for difficult genera, be¬
cause the human intellect must faulter in unravelling the
intricate mysteries of Nature. But surely, when Planta-
go is placed with Buddleia in one section of the Jasminea,
and Diapensia with Callicarpa in another; when the most
natural genus of Lavandula is divided and widely sepa¬
rated ; when Cassytha is ranged with Statice, Eriocaulon,
and the Proteacece, in one place; Geoffrcea with Melia,
Rhus, Sapindus, and Ruta, in another; we may be allow¬
ed to wonder, and to doubt whether we are contemplat¬
ing a natural or an artificial system. It does not appear
that Adanson made many proselytes. He haunted the
botanical societies of Paris in our time, without associat¬
ing with any; nor was his extensive knowledge turned to
much practical account. Linnaeus has made but one
slight remark, that we can find, in his own copy of the
Families des Plantes, nor could he study deeply what was
undoubtedly very difficult for him to read. He certainly
never noticed Adanson’s attacks, unless the satirical sketch
of the Botanophili, at the end of his Regnum Vegetahile,
(see the beginning of Syst. Veg. ed. 14), be partly aimed
at this author. To apply the whole of it to him would be
unjust, though much is very characteristic,
cademy “ The study of Botany had never been entirely neglected
Sciences. in France since the days of Tournefort; because one de¬
partment in the Academy of Sciences was allotted to that
and other branches of natural history; and the seats in
the academy being pensioned places under government,
there was something to be got by an apparent attention to
such pursuits. Buffon and his pupils engrossed zoology.
Botany was allowed to exist, so far as not to interfere with
his honours ; but nothing of foreign origin, and above all,
nothing Linnsean, dared to lift up its head. Something of
true science, and practical knowledge, did nevertheless im¬
perceptibly work its way. Le Monnier, and the Marechal
de Noailles, corresponded, as we have already said, with
Linnaeus, and acquired plants from England, of which they
dared to speak, and to write, by his names. A most able
and scientific botanist and cultivator, Ihouin, was esta¬
blished in the Jardin du Roi, who studied the Linnaean
system, and even ventured, though secretly, to communi¬
cate new plants to the younger Linnaeus when at Paris.
Cels, an excellent horticulturist, was unshackled by aca¬
demic trammels. L’Heritier, Broussonet, and others,
came forward. An original letter of Rousseau, the idol
of the day, in which he paid the most flattering homage
to botany and to Linnaeus, was published in the Journal
de Paris, and had a wonderful effect on the public mind,
and on the conversation of literary circles. In short, a
Linnaean party had been, for some time, gaining ground;
and every thing was done by party at Paris. 'Ihe old
j ntoine de French school was roused from its slumbers. Of the
ussieu. family of the Jussieus, one individual remained, who, though
he venerated the names and the pursuits of his uncles,
had never devoted himself to their studies any further
than to sit in their professorial chair. He possessed, how¬
ever, an inherent taste for botany; he had leisure, opu¬
lence, and eminent talents ; and though his religious prin¬
ciples, and his rather strict devotional habits, might inter¬
fere, which they still do, with his credit in certain philo¬
sophical circles, and his predilection for animal magnetism
might exclude him from the Royal Society of London, yet
he has risen above all such obstacles, to the summit of
botanical fame and authority in his own country ; and his
name stands conspicuous, as the leading teacher of a na-
ANY. 91
tural classification of plants. The most indefatigable study Taxono-
for about five years, and the constant assistance and en-
couragement of numerous pupils and correspondents, en-
abled Professor Antoine Laurent de Jussieu to publish, in
1789, his Genera Plantarum secundum ordines naturales
disposita. This octavo volume was received by acclama¬
tion throughout Europe, and hailed as the most learned
botanical work that had appeared since the Species Plan¬
tarum of Linnaeus.”
“The whole preface of Jussieu is a concise and learned
review of the physiology and distinctions of plants, more
particularly explaining the progress of the author’s ideas
and principles of botanical classification. 'Lhe main end
of the whole book, besides defining the characters of all
known genera, is to dispose them in a natural series, in
various classes and orders, whose technical distinctions are
throughout attempted to be fixed and contrasted.”1
The first in England who wrote a systematic work ac- Britain,
cording to the natural method of Jussieu, was Mr Brown,
the most able botanist of this or any former age; and no
one has done so much, in any country, to throw light on its
intricacies. Salisbury, Hooker, Don, and Lindley, have
respectively contributed their share ; but we regret to say,
that hitherto, in Britain, from the simplicity of the Lin¬
naean system for enabling one to obtain the name of a
plant, and from the want of good elementary works in our
language to guide the student, the natural classification,
except among a few of the principal botanists, has been
very little attended to. Another great desideratum has
been a Species Plantarum, or work containing all the known
species, arranged in this way: but this is at present at¬
tempted by Professor De Candolle of Geneva, and when
his Prodromus Systematis Regni Vegetahilis is completed,
we do not hesitate to state that, notwithstanding a mul¬
titude of errors, it will prove to be one of the most valu¬
able works ever presented to the public, and will tend
more to establish the method than all the books previously
written on the subject.
“ The advantages of such a system,” says Mr Lindley,
“ in applying botany to useful purposes, are immense, es¬
pecially to medical men, with whose profession the science
has always been identified. A knowdedge of the proper¬
ties of one plant is a guide to the practitioner, which en¬
abled him to substitute some other with confidence which
is naturally allied to it; and physicians on foreign sta¬
tions may direct their inquiries, not empirically, but upon
fixed principles, into the qualities of the medicinal plants
which nature has provided in every region for the allevia¬
tion of the maladies peculiar to it. To horticulturists it
is not less important: the propagation or cultivation of
one plant is usually applicable to all its kindred ; the habits
of one species in an order wdll often be those of the rest;
many a gardener might have escaped the pain of a poison¬
ed limb, had he been acquainted with the laws of affinity;
and finally, the phenomena of grafting, that curious ope¬
ration, which is one of the grand features of distinction be¬
tween the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and the success
of which is wholly controlled by ties of blood, can only be
understood by the student of the natural system.”
The natural method having in view not the mere nam- Principles
ing of plants, which can of itself be interesting to only a of the na-
limited number of individuals, but the classifying them tural sys-
according to the groups which nature herself forms, or em'
rather, as nature forms only species, according to the re¬
semblance that one tribe of vegetables bears to another,
we must, consequently, conform as much as possible to
1 Sir J. E. Smith in Eiicycl. Brit sixth ed. Supp. voh ii. p. 415 and 416.
92
BOTANY.
Primary
divisions.
her laws; and to know these we must first obtain a pre¬
cise idea of the organization of plants, studying minutely
all their parts, and the functions of each. This we have
already attempted to elucidate under the head of Glosso¬
logy. We now come to examine into the relative import¬
ance of these organs, in order that we may derive from
them a classification according to nature.
When different seeds taken from the same plant are
made to germinate, we have individuals not entirely agree¬
ing in the shape of the leaves, or the height of the stem;
from which we may infer that characters derived from
these are of the least importance; and consequently, when
we form species, we must use such with great caution.
But when we rise a step higher, and group species into
genera, we find so great a variety in both the stem and
leaves, that we are forced to look for characters elsewhere,
and thus resort to the different parts of the flower; and all
genera are therefore founded on a consideration of these.
When, however, we come to examine a genus by itself,
we shall find that perhaps none of these parts are suffi¬
ciently constant, some species differing from others in the
number or shape of the sepals, or petals, or stamens, or
pistilla, so that we are obliged to call into action not any
particular one, but a combination of the whole. W hile
doing this, it cannot escape our notice that the more ex¬
ternal portions, as the calyx, exhibiting more of the folia-
ceous origin, are less constant than the petals ; and these
again less so than the stamens; but the stamens and pis¬
tils having least of the structure of the original leaf, are
the most uniform; and hence Linnaeus, influenced princi¬
pally however by these being the true sexual organs,
adopted the stamina and pistils as the basis of his system.
Now we have already said that, in many natural genera,
plants differ from one another only specifically, although
there happen to be a difference in the number of parts of
the reproductive organs. Number, then, not being at all
times sufficient to constitute a genus, can still less be re¬
lied on for a higher division. The structure must thus be
considered; and this we not only find common to the spe¬
cies of a genus, but even often to different genera so allied
in aspect that at first we might consider them all as one
great genus; and such a great genus being in fact an or¬
der, we are led, while defining it, to place considerable
dependence on the structure of the anthers, but more
especially on the fruit, the ultimate metamorphosis of the
primary leaf. But on comparing together two or more
orders otherwise very closely allied, we often perceive
very different structures of the fruit; so that, in search of
something more fixed, we are compelled to dip still deeper
into the economy of the plant, and examine the seed.
Here, indeed, we find a great diversity in the external
form; but on scrutinizing the interior, particularly the em¬
bryo, or the very rudiment of the plant, we find only two
modifications; and each of these, after having opened dif¬
ferent seeds, we perceive to be constant to a very great
class of plants united together, whether by the structure
of the fiuit, the number of stamens, or by the flower, or
by the anatomy of the stems, or by the leaves. These
modifications of the embryo, resting on there being one or
two cotyledons, must thus form the groundwork of a na¬
tural method: it was already foreseen by Linnaeus, but
was demonstrated by Jussieu. We only here allude to
those plants in which a seed and embryo exists"; for the
very principle we have laid down implies its existence. A
primary division, then, pointed out by nature, is therefore
obviously into those with flowers and those that have
none, or into those which have seeds and an embryo, and
such as have neither true seeds nor an embryo.
First, then, we have a division into Exembryonate and
Embryonate vegetables; and, secondly, the Embryonate
divides into those with one and those with two cotyledons, Taxoc
which was no sooner fixed than many corresponding dif- my
Y-t
ferences of structure became perceptible. Thus Monaco
tyledones show a radicle that projects the root through a
covering. The divisions of the flower are ternary; the
leaves are curvinerved, primarily alternate or spiral, but
indicating a disposition to become opposite at the summit
of the plant; the stem is cylindrical, and increasing in
diameter from within by an expansion of the vascular
fibre. The Dicotyledones, on the contrary, have opposite
cotyledons; the radicle of the embryo becomes a root by
mere development; the division of the flower is usually
quinary ; the leaves are angulinerved, and primarily oppo¬
site or verticillate, with a tendency to become alternate
towards the inflorescence; the stem is conical, with a bark,
and both increasing by concentric layers, the stem from
without, the bark from within.
Having thus attained primary divisions with important Second;
and constant characters, we are next to proceed to subdi-division
vide these into orders; but in doing this we must observe,
that though it be quite possible to group genera into or¬
ders, and to place these orders in one of the great divisions
above given, it is almost impracticable to place them sa¬
tisfactorily one after the other so as to constitute a book.
Each order is not allied merely to the one that precedes
and that which follows it, but approaches more or less to
several others. In arranging them, then, in a linear se¬
ries, all that we can attempt is to place those next each
other that have common characters of most value or of
greatest number; and as the value and number of these
are added to or diminished by the discovery of new plants
and modern analyses, we must expect daily changes to
take place. In this consists the difficulty of the natural
method, when compared with a purely artificial one ; but
these difficulties are from time to time smoothed down, so
that ultimately it will be viewed as the only useful one,
while the artificial system will be entirely neglected, ex¬
cept by those whose desires extend no farther than to
make out the name of a vegetable.
Jussieu considered the whole floral envelopes of the Mo-
nocotyledones as a calyx, whether coloured or green ; and
observing that a portion of the Dicotyledones were also
destitute of a corolla, he laid hold of this to divide them into
two parts, as had been already done by Tournefort: at
the same time he separated those with a corolla into one
and many-petaled. These sections, however, being arti¬
ficial, cannot be entirely depended on in practice, many
species belonging to a polypetalous order having the co¬
rolla abortive; while again, as in the Pentapetaloideae of
Ray, several of those also with a polypetalous corolla have
the ungues or claws united, so that it is in reality a mono-
petalous one, although arranged with the other. Linnaeus
had already introduced the insertion of the stamens to
distinguish his class Icosandria from Polyandria ; and this
bringing together plants tolerably nearly allied in other
respects, Jussieu extended the idea, and having observed
that stamens not hypogynous were either perigynous or
epigynous, he made use of these three characters to subdi¬
vide both the Monocotyledones and each of the sections of
the Dicotyledonous plants. Only one of these he found
necessary further to divide, in order to separate Syngene-
sia of Linnaeus from those approximated to them in seve¬
ral other characters, but of a different habit or appearance,
and had here recourse to the union or separation of the
anthers. These ultimate subdivisions he termed classes,
and to the end of them he appended one consisting of
such Dicotyledones as had the flowers unisexual, and were
therefore principally contained in the 21st, 22d, and 23d
classes of Linnaeus. We have already seen, in treating of
the parts of a flower, that the stamens and corolla have
:
L
BOTANY.
'axono*
t.
my.
] teen
i ;ses of
, ;sieu.
always the same insertion, and that when a corolla is ga-
mopetalous, or, in common language, monopetalous, the
cause that unites the petals often also makes part of the
filaments adhere to it. Among the monopetalous plants,
then, to prevent confusion, Jussieu, instead of saying that
the stamens were hypogynous or perigynous, speaks of the
insertion of the corolla; and, with these remarks, we may
now present the fifteen classes of Jussieu.
I.—Cotyledons none.
Cl. 1. Acotyledones.
II.—Monocotyledones.
2. Monohypogynce, stamens hypogynous.
3. Monoperigynee, stamens perigynous.
4. Monoepigyrm, stamens epigynous.
III.—Dicotyledones.
§ 1. Apetalae.
5. Epistaminece, stamens epigynous.
6. Peristaminece, stamens perigynous.
7. Hypostaminece, stamens hypogynous.
§ 2. Monopetalae.
8. Hypocorollce, corolla hypogynous.
9. Pericorollce, corolla perigynous.
10. Epicorollce synantherce, corolla epigynous, anthers
united.
11. Epicorollce corisantherce, corolla epigynous, anthers
free.
§ 3. Polypetalae.
12. Epipetalce, stamens epigynous.
13. Peripetalce, stamens perigynous.
14. Hypopetalce, stamens hypogynous.
§ 4. Diclines.
15. Diclines, flowers unisexual, or without a perianth.
. Such the groundwork of the system which, though
in some things artificial, was instantly perceived to bear
the palm from all that preceded it; and this, without any
alteration, is still adhered to in France by many of the most
eminent botanists. Jussieu originally prefixed no names
o his classes, and the want of this was much objected to.
Ihose which we have given have been lately proposed by
Antoine L. de Jussieu in the Dictionnaire des Sciences Na-
turelles ; and, although not entirely according to the prin¬
ciples of the Greek language, may be adopted as extreme¬
ly useful, each being so framed as to suggest the struc-
rlVaSS- A*1"5 ^le commencement Molldl
cates the Monocotyledones. Epistamina, &c. having no al¬
lusion to a corolla, suggests its absence. Hypocorollce
and the others, allude to the corolla being of o^e piece’
and not of distinct petals, which last is pointed out bynames
&c. The other parts of the names, eni p^7
and hypo, need no explanation. ^ 5
ouriilfe|f»ffged in thC StUd/ °,f P,ants aI<™. it is obvi-
A r-K 1 ! consequence whether we begin, as Jussieu
did, by the Acotyledones, or by the Dicotyledones • but if
we view botany as a science that treats of only one of the
gW kln?rdoms of nature, and wish to introduce it into a
doSTtiST’’T7St br‘ng th°Se portions ofeach most
closely together which are most nearly linked. So that if
/yA00l°P 7 descdbe the
a, and end by those of a simpler structure and
thc Tm°St allied of the Acotyledones, andVol-
the steps of Jussieu. But if we describe vegetables
in the first place, we must begin with the Dicotyledones,
and finish with the Acotyledones. When, however, a Sys-
tema I egetuhiliuni is contemplated without reference to
animals, it may perhaps smooth the way to the student if
it commences by those more obvious, and, though of more
complex formation, yet more simple to be comprehended.
On this account De Candolle has reversed the arrange¬
ment of Jussieu.
. have said that in some respects the system of Jus-
sieu is artificial, and therefore his orders need not neces-bvDeCan-
sarily follow each other precisely as he has left them. De doUe,
Candolle accordingly divides the Dicotyledones into Tha-
lamijlorcB, or those whose petals are distinct and hypo¬
gynous ; CalycifloreB, having the petals either distinct or
united, but always inserted on the calyx ; Corollijlorce,
with the petals united, and hypogynous, and bearing the
stamens; and Monochlciniydece, with a simple perianth or
perigonium. Moreover, he derives his characters for all
these united, not from the cotyledons, but from the struc-
tui e of the stem, and terms them Exogenae ; and in a
similar way he calls Monocotyledones by the name of En-
dogenae, with this alteration, that he supposes the ferns and
allied plants, which in another part we have termed Due-
tulosae, to have the same structure of a stem as the Monoco¬
tyledones, and therefore divides the Endogenas into Pha¬
nerogams and Cryptogams. The other Acotyledones,
named by him Cellulares, from their entire homogeneity
of cellular tissue, conclude the system. Although he
lias given us an arranged catalogue of the orders in his
Iheorie Eknsntmre} which, however, he has consider¬
ably altered in his Prodromus, now publishing, yet he has
scaicely exhibited any subdivisions of his principal groups,
t may be, however, useful to present the following sketch
of his, contrasted as much as possible with that of Jussieu.
\^^ (De Candolle). Dicotyledones (Jussieu).
1. lhalamifiorae  1. Hypopetalae.
2. Peripetalae.
3. Epipetalae.
4. Epicorollae corisantherae.
5. Epicorollae synantherae.
rrr /-i ^ 6- Pericorollae.
HI. Corolhflorae  7. Hypocorollae.
TT7- n/r ,, f 8- Hypostamineae.
IV. Monochlamydeae J 9. Peristamineae.
j 10. Epistamineae.
.111. Diclines.
B. Endogenae.
V. Phanerogamae...
II. Calyciflorae.
VI. Cryptogamae....
C. Cellulares.
VII. Cellulares 
02. Monoepigynae.
-< 13. Monoperigynae.
(14. M ’ ‘
Monohypogynae.
15. Acotyledones.
Fiom the above it will be perceived, although some
sneer at the natural system, because they do "not un-
erstand it, and assert that every one has a method of
ns own, and quote De Candolle’s as extremely distinct
trom that of Jussieu, that it is in fact founded on, and not
botarfisf m ^ essentlal Point from’ that of tIie Parisian
iLmd,1eV ia his Introduction to the Natural Systemhv Mr
J o any, ias discarded nearly all these subdivisions as Lindley.
empirical, and substituted in their place one derived from
bein? Protected b7 a pericarp, or exposed
vitliout any covering to the influence of the pollen. This
last is of very great importance, and is worthy of being
1 Second Edition, p. 213. (1819).
94
botany.
ders.
Taxono- adopted; but any one who has glanced at his volume
my. must have soon felt the great want of more minute dm-
sions than he has adopted, however artificial they might
be; nor do we think that he has compensated for the de¬
ficiency by a more judicious disposition of the orders.
We ourselves shall follow pretty closely that given by
De Candolle, because, from his publishing a work contain¬
ing all the known species arranged according to it, it is
almost the only one that can be of use to a student ot spe¬
cies. But while we do so, we shall subdivide his groups
in the manner recommended by Jussieu; not that they
are to be implicitly trusted, but that they may in some
measure assist the reader while referring to the orders.
Characters We must now advert to the orders themselves ; and
of the or- these being great natural genera, in order to obtain cha-
’ - racters for them, we must have an intimate knowledge ot
the structure of the organs of the component genera and
species, so as to select such as are common to all, and ot
the greatest importance. Botanists having seen that the
embryo gave most fixed characters for a general division,
have looked to it also, and to the structure of the seed,
as of great influence in limiting each order individually.
This view was altogether omitted by Jussieu at the time
the Genera Plantarum was given to the world, but is now
frequently adopted as a criterion, when other and more
easily examined points fail. The structure of the fruit
we have already said to be useful for defining genera, and
consequently must not be passed over while circumscrib¬
ing an order; nor must the position of the seed be omit¬
ted. As to the carpel, the stigma affords few good marks ;
but the ovarium must be strictly attended to, especia y
as a contrast to the mature fruit, many plants having two
or three cells in the ovarium, and but one by abortion in
the fruit. Thus the structure of the ovary is in several ot
greater importance than that of the fruit. The apocarpous
or syncarpous nature of the ovarium, upon which avc have
already dwelt, must be noticed. The position of the pla¬
centae and the ovules has likewise been esteemed ot great
value. The stamina, whether viewed relatively to their in¬
sertion, their adherence, proportional size, or number, and
particularly the structure of the anther, and even the
pollen, all indicate greater or less affinities in other points.
The floral envelopes must be considered in all thpir
bearings, and even the inflorescence must not be neglect¬
ed The relative position, also, of one part of a flower to
another, whether the number be symmetrical or complete,
enables us often to clear up many difficulties. But it
is not one of these alone in which we are to confide, but
in a combination of them: two orders, differing solely by
one character, being too closely allied, had better be unit¬
ed ; a clavis analytical therefore, such as has been given
by Mr Bindley in his introduction, can convey to us almost
no idea of the orders, and, besides, has the disadvantage
of not exhibiting the anomalies that so frequently occur.
Having exhausted all the parts of the flower, we may
then turn our attention to the leaves; and here we may
take advantage of a character that is intimately connect¬
ed with the habit or external aspect of the order, and is
consequently truly natural; we allude to the leaves being
opposite or alternate, and with or without stipules. I he
presence or absence of pellucid dots, exhibiting a peculiar
organization in the plant, must be carefully observed.
Compound or simple leaves are often of use to enable us
to refer a plant to a particular order. The mere shape of
leaves is too variable, but the venation, or disposition of
the nerves, upon which the shape of the leaf depends, as
the fruit does upon the ovary, although hitherto not much Arran
attended to, seems in many cases of considerable im‘
portance. As to the stem, the external variations, as erect
or climbing, square or round, sometimes aid us, but in
most orders afford us no assistance. The root has been
rarely found of any avail. j
We have again and again stated that we are not to take Classes
the characters of orders from any one organ individually, Brow::
but from several. Each order may thus be expected to
possess some points in common with several other orders,
and by the number of these, and their value, as found from
experience, we are able to trace the affinity between any
one, and those that ought to be arranged in its vicinity.
When several very important points are nearly the same
in four or five different orders, though distinct in man^
others, a greater approximation is visible between them¬
selves, than any of them exhibits to other orders : this has
induced Mr Brown to propose to erect orders into classes
of a different kind from those of Jussieu ; and he has hap¬
pily succeeded in accomplishing this in several instances.
Very few such classes or aggregate orders have, however,
yet been formed, and therefore we shall not enter into
their consideration farther than merely remark that this
is, at present, greatly to be desired in the natural method,
and that, when it shall be accomplished, and the whole
distributed among a few great compound orders, we may
be able to do away entirely with even the slight remains
we now must admit into it, of an artificial or empinca
arrangement. , .
It is now time that we proceed to enumerate and lay
down the characters of the orders themselves. Jussieu
constituted a hundred, and subjoined a list of many genera,
either so little known, or so ill defined, that he could not
refer them. By degrees, however, as light was thrown
upon them, some were entered into known orders, while
others exhibited the necessity of constructing additional
ones. In his Theorie Elementaire, in 1819, De Candolle
enumerates 161 orders, but has since admitted many new
ones in his Prodromus. Richard, in 1828, describes 162,
but omits a few which he considered not well understood.
Rudolphi, in 1830, gives 276; and about the same time
Mr Bindley has 272. Both Rudolphi and Bindley, how¬
ever, carry the system of subdivision perhaps to excess;
but as our object is here to give a view of the science at
the present day, we shall admit almost all of them, arrang¬
ing, however, the minor ones under a general head, to
which, for conciseness, we shall give no character, and
which may be viewed, if one pleases, as a class. lo as
short a definition of the orders as possible we shall annex
a few remarks, which we trust may render this depart¬
ment more interesting.
in
$
iBl ft!
arrangement and characters of the
NATURAL ORDERS.
I. Vasculares.
A. Exogenje. De Cand. (Dicotyledones. Juss.)
D i v. I.—Dichlamydece Thalamiflora. D. C.
(1. Hypopetalae.1 Juss.)
Order 1. Panunculacece. Juss.
Sub-order 1. Ranunculinece. Sepals distinct, various
in number, from three to fifteen, but usually five, deci¬
duous : estivation generally imbricated, sometimes valvate.
1. flj
petal
. I„ the divisions with several petals, the petals are sontetimes, though rarely, abortive t it is then difficult to decide whether the
plant comes here or belongs to the monochlamydeoe.
BOTANY. 95
grange* Corolla of 5-15 petals1 (or absent by abortion), distinct.
! it and Stamens distinct, indefinite in number: anthers adnate,
C acters. extrorse. Ovaria seated on the torus, indefinite, or rare-
. ^ Jy (by abortion) solitary, usually apocarpous, and rarely
somewhat syncarpous : style one to each ovary, simple:
ovules solitary? or several, adhering to the inner edge.
Carpels various, either achenia which are sometimes bac¬
cate, or follicular with 1-2 valves. Albumen between
fleshy and horny. Embryo minute, inclosed in the albu¬
men near its base.—Herbaceous, suffrutescent, or rarely
shrubby plants. Leaves alternate, or sometimes opposite,
simple but variously divided: petiole dilated and forming a
sheath half-clasping the stem. Hairs, when present, simple.
—Ex. Clematis, Anemone, Ranunculus, Helleborus.
Suborder 2. Cimicifugece. Sepals 4-5, distinct, deci¬
duous : estivation imbricated. Petals 4-5, distinct. Sta¬
mens distinct, indefinite : anthers adnate, introrse. Ovaria
seated on the torus, apocarpous, indefinite or rarely soli¬
tary : styles simple : ovules 2-3, or more, in each ovarium,
adhering to the inner margin. Carpels follicular or bac¬
cate. Seeds several or solitary, exarillate. Albumen
between fleshy and horny. Embryo minute, inclosed at
the base of the albumen.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent.
Leaves simple, divided, alternate. Flowers racemose.
—Ex. Cimicifuga, Actcea, Zanthorrhiza.
Suborder 3. Pceoniece. Sepals five, foliaceous, persis¬
tent, unequal: estivation imbricated. Petals five, some¬
times 6-10 by culture, distinct, somewhat equal, destitute
of claws: estivation imbricated. Stamens very nume¬
rous : anthers adnate, introrse. Torus large, fleshy, an¬
nular, surrounding the base of the ovaria. Ovaria 2-5,
apocarpous : style none: stigmas sessile, thick, of two
lamellae : ovules numerous. Carpels follicular, tipped with
the persistent stigmas, opening above by a longitudinal
suture. Seeds several, exarillate: umbilicus prominent.
Embryo minute, straight, inclosed at the base of the fleshy
albumen.—Herbaceous or shrubby plants. Leaves alter¬
nate, divided. Flowers terminal, solitary, large.—Ex.
Pceonia.
The first suborder is usually divided into four, Clema-
tideae, Anemoneae, Ranunculeae, and Helleborineae, dis¬
tinguished by a combination of the estivation, and position
of the seed ; but as it appears probable that in the ova¬
rium there is always at least two ovules, so the position
of the seed, whether erect or pendulous, must depend
entirely on which of the ovules, the upper or lower, be¬
comes abortive. In general terms the Ranunculaceae may
be known from other Hypopetalae by having adnate an¬
thers that dehisce longitudinally, by a fruit of several dis¬
tinct simple carpels, by a horny albumen, exarillate seeds,
and exstipulate sheathing leaves.—Acridity, causticity,
and poison, are the general characters of this order.
Order 2. Dilleniacece. D. C.
Sepals five, persistent. Corolla of five petals, deciduous,
in a single row. Stamens numerous; filaments dilated
either at the base or apex. Anthers adnate, introrse,
bursting longitudinally. Ovaria definite, more or less dis¬
tinct, with a terminal style and simple stigma; ovules
ascending. Fruit of 2-5 distinct unilocular carpels, or of
a similar number cohering together : the carpels are either
capsular or baccate, and pointed by the style. Seeds se¬
veral in each carpel, or only two or one by abortion, sur¬
rounded by a pulpy arillus. Testa hard. Embryo straight,
minute, at the base of a fleshy albumen.—Leaves alter¬
nate, or rarely opposite, without stipules.—Ex. Delima,
Dillenia.
Known by the longitudinally dehiscing anthers, distinct Arrange-
simple carpels, arillate seeds, fleshy albumen, and exstipu- ment and
late leaves. In some genera, however, there is but one ^iaracterf
carpel, and in a few others they partially cohere. They
are trees or shrubs, or even undershrubs.—They are gene¬
rally astringent; most have the leaves covered with aspe¬
rities, which are sometimes so hard as to permit of their
use for polishing.
Order 3. Magnoliacece. Juss.
Suborder 1. Winterece. R. Br. Sepals 2-6, deciduous or
persistent. Petals 2-30 (when more than five, in several
rows). Stamens indefinite, distinct: anthers adnate, de¬
hiscing longitudinally. Ovaria definite in one verticil,
one-celled, ovules suspended. Stigmas sessile. Fruit of
distinct carpels. Embryo very small, straight in the base
of a fleshy albumen.—Leaves alternate, transparently dot¬
ted, coriaceous, with convolute deciduous stipules.—Ex.
Illicium, Wintera.
Suborder 2. Magnoliece. Juss. Sepals 3-6, deciduous.
Petals 3-27, in several rows. Stamens indefinite, distinct;
anthers adnate, long, bursting longitudinally. Ovaries
numerous in several rows, one-celled: ovules ascending
or suspended : styles short. Fruit of numerous carpels,
which are either dehiscent or indehiscent, distinct or par¬
tially connate, sometimes samaroid. Embryo minute at
the base of a fleshy albumen.—Leaves alternate, not dot¬
ted, coriaceous, with deciduous convolute stipules.—Ex.
Magnolia, Liriodendron.
These two suborders, scarcely distinguishable from each
other but by their leaves, may be characterized by their
longitudinally dehiscing anthers, apocarpous ovaria, and
stipulate leaves.—The first tribe is aromatic and stimu¬
lant ; and the Drymis Winteri yields the winter’s bark,
well known for its resemblance to cinnamon. The second
is not at all aromatic ; but the flowers, which are large,
are often strongly odoriferous; they have a bitter tonic
taste, but the bark does not seem to possess either tannin
or gallic acid. The bark of thq tulip-tree has been said to
equal Peruvian bark.
Order 4. Anonacece. Juss.
Sepals 3-4, persistent, often partially cohering. Petals
6, in two rows, coriaceous; estivation valvular. Stamens
indefinite (very rarely definite): anthers adnate, ex¬
trorse, with a large connectivum. Ovaries usually nu¬
merous, separate or sometimes cohering, rarely definite:
ovules solitary or several, erect or ascending. Fruit of a
number of succulent or dry carpella, that are one or many-
seeded, and distinct, or concrete into a fleshy mass. Testa
of the seed brittle. Embryo minute at the base of a hard
fleshy ruminated albumen.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alter¬
nate, simple, without stipules.—Ex. Anona, Guatteria.
The apocarpous ovaria, ruminated albumen, and exsti¬
pulate leaves, are the general characteristics of this order.
—Almost all possess a powerful aromatic taste and smell;
in some the fruit contains much sugary mucilage, and is
succulent and eatable ; of this kind are the custard-apples,
and the celebrated Cherimolia of Peru.
Order 5. Menispermacece. Juss.
Flowers usually unisexual, and very small. Sepals and
petals having the same appearance, in one or several rows ;
three or four in each row, deciduous. Stamens mona-
delphous or occasionally free, sometimes opposite to the
petals and equal to them in number, sometimes three or
four times as many: anthers adnate, extrorse. Ovaria
usually numerous, free or slightly united by their inner
margin, unilocular. Drupes baccate, one-seeded, oblique,
1 For the sake of brevity, we shall seldom state, under the respective orders, that the stamens or petals are hypogynous or perigy-
nous, trusting that this may be inferred from the divisions Hypopetalae, Peripetalae, and the like, which we have already explained.
When, however, there is any discrepancy, we shall notice it.
BOTANY.
96
Arrange- lunate, and compressed, or rarely a multilocular berry,
ment and with the cells many-seeded. Embryo curved, radicle su-
Characters. perjor> Albumen none, or in small quantity and fleshy.—
Climbing shrubs, with alternate leaves and very minute
flowers.—Ex. Menispermum, Cissampelos.
The stamens opposite the petals, apocarpous ovaria,
minute unisexual flowers,and twining shrubby stems, point
out this order.—The root of several species is bitter and
tonic, and of some the seeds are narcotic. A few have
been used in intermittent fevers. The columbo root, so
esteemed for its tonic, antiseptic, and astringent qualities,
belongs to the genus Menispermum.
Order 6. Berberidece. Vent.
Sepals 3-4-6, deciduous, in a double row, accompanied
externally with petaloid scales. Petals equal to the se¬
pals in number and opposite to them, or twice as many;
often furnished in the inside with an appendage at the
base. Stamens equal in number to the petals and oppo¬
site to them: anthers bilocular, the cells opening elasti¬
cally with a valve from the bottom to the top. Ovarium
solitary, unilocular, containing 2-12 ovules, which are erect,
or attached laterally to the inner margin, and forming there
one or two rows: style sometimes lateral, short: stigma
orbicular. Fruit baccate or capsular, indehiscent. Al¬
bumen fleshy or horny. Embryo straight, in the axis of
the albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyledons
flat.—Leaves alternate, without stipules.—Ex. Berberis,
Leontice.
The single simple carpel, stamens opposite to the petals,
and the anthers opening by valves, will readily distinguish
this from the other Hypopetalae. This kind of anther is
of rare occurrence, but equally exists in the Laurineae,
Hamamelideae, and Atherospermeae. There are no sti¬
pules, the spines being the true leaves, of which the pa¬
renchyma has disappeared, and the nerves become indu¬
rated : what are commonly called leaves are those formed
by the development of the leaf-buds. All are articulated
with the petiole, and hence the leaves are in reality com¬
pound, although apparently simple. The stamens of many
exhibit great irritability.—The berries of some species of
Berberis are acid and astringent, and form with sugar an
agreeable preserve.
Order 7. Podophyllacece. D. C.
Sepals 3-4. Petals in two or three rows, each equal in
number to the sepals. Stamens 12-18, arranged in two,
three, or more rows ; filaments filiform : anthers terminal,
introrse, opening by a double longitudinal line. Torus
small. Ovary solitary: style one, short: stigma somewhat
peltate. Fruit succulent or a capsule, one-celled. Seeds
indefinite, attached to a lateral placenta. Embryo small,
at the base of a fleshy albumen.—Plants herbaceous.
Leaves broad and lobed, without stipules.—Ex. Podophyl¬
lum, Jeffersonia.
This order is allied to the Berberideae, to the last tribe
of Ranunculaceae, and to Papaveraceae, with which some
botanists unite it.—The roots possess purgative properties.
Order 8. Hydropeltidece. D. C.
Sepals 3-4. Petals 3-4, alternate with the sepals. Sta¬
mens two or more times the number of the petals: an¬
thers linear, introrse, continuous with the filament. To¬
rus inconspicuous. Ovaries two or more, stigmas simple.
Fruit indehiscent, tipped with the indurated styles, con¬
taining one or two pendulous seeds. Embryo inclosed in
the endosperm, is fungilliform, and seated at the base of a
firm somewhat fleshy perisperm.— Aquatic plants, with
floating leaves.—Ex. Hydropeltis, Cabomba.
The situation of this order was formerly involved in
some doubt, as Richard, mistaking the endosperm, insisted
that the embryo was fungilliform, or shaped like a little
mushroom or a small nail, and perfectly monocotyledo-
nous. De Candolle unites it to Podophyllacese as a section. Arranr,
In some points the above, and the only two genera, ap- n)ent s| 1
proach very closely to the Nymphseacese, to which Brown ^rac! '
unites them; and Hydropeltis is somewhat related to Caltha ^
among the Ranunculaceae.
Order 9. Nymphceaceee. Salisb.
Suborder 1. Nelumbonece. D. C. Sepals 4-5. Petals nu¬
merous in many rows. Stamens indefinite in several rows :
filaments petaloid : anthers adnate, introrse, opening by a
double longitudinal cleft. Torus fleshy, elevated, very
large, inclosing in hollows of its substance the numerous
separate ovaria, which have a simple style and stigma.
Nuts inserted, but loose, in the hollows of the torus, 1-2-
seeded. Perisperm 0 : endosperm conspicuous. Embryo
large, with two fleshy cotyledons.—Aquatic herbs with
peltate leaves. Ex. Nelumbium.
Suborder 2. Nymphceece. D. C. Sepals and petals nu¬
merous, passing into each other. Stamens indefinite, in
several rows : filaments petaloid : anthers adnate, introrse,
opening by two longitudinal clefts. Torus large, fleshy,
surrounding more or less completely the ovaria, styles, and
stigmas. Ovaria apocarpous, attached to the inside of the
bottle-shaped, indehiscent torus, on the top of which are
the radiate stigmas. Seeds very numerous in each carpel,
attached to spongy placentae that form the false dissepi¬
ments of the fruit. Efidosperm flesh}', and, with the in¬
closed embryo, seated on the outside of the base of the
farinaceous perisperm: cotyledons foliaceous.— Aquatic
herbs, with peltate or cordate fleshy leaves.—Ex. Nym-
phcea, Nuphar.
We cannot see that these tribes can be separated, and
we almost coincide with Brown, that the Hydropeltideae
may be added to this order. We have already (p. 49)
sufficiently explained the structure of the fruit of Nuphar.
—Their medical properties are not well understood, but
they are reputed to be narcotic and sedative.
Order 10. Sarraceniacece. Turp.
Sepals five, persistent: estivation imbricated. Petals
five. Stamens indefinite: anthers adnate,bilocular,bursting
internally and longitudinally. Ovarium five-celled: style
single : stigma persistent, much dilated, peltate, with five
angles. Capsule quinque-locular, valves five, loculicide.
Seeds very numerous, small: placentae large at the inner
angle of the cells. Albumen copious. Embryo cylindrical,
lying near the base of the seed, with the radicle pointing to
the hilum.—Herbaceous bog plants. Leaves radical, with
a hollow petiole, at the apex of which is the lamina cover¬
ing the orifice of the petiole like a lid. Scapes one-flower¬
ed.—Ex. Sarracenia.
On account of the stigma this family has been usually
placed near Papaveraceae. Mr Lindley suggests its affi¬
nity to Bioncea, wherever that be placed.
Order 11. Papaveracece. Juss.
Sepals two, deciduous. Petals four cruciate (or a mul¬
tiple of four), regular, rarely wanting. Stamens eight, or
some multiple of four, usually indefinite, inserted in four
parcels, one of which adheres to the base of each petal:
anthers bilocular, erect. Ovary solitary: style short or
none : stigmas alternate with the placentae, two or many,
in which case they are stellate on the flat apex of the
ovarium. Fruit one-celled, either siliquaeform with two,
or capsular with several, parietal placentae. Seeds nu¬
merous. Albumen between fleshy and oily, at the base
of which is a minute straight embryo, with plano-convex
cotyledons.—Plants herbaceous or shrubby, with a milky
juice. Leaves alternate, divided. Peduncles long, one-
flowered.—Ex. Papaver, Eschscholtzia (Plate CXXII.)
This order approaches to the Podophylleae on the one
hand, and to the Cruciferae on the other. In Eschscholt¬
zia the apex of the peduncle dilates, and bears on it the
B O T
■range- organs of reproduction ; the calyx in it is apparently of one
ent and piece, and separates like an operculum from the very base,
aracters.—Narcotic properties prevail in this family, except in the
seed, which is oily. The narcotic principle of opium is an
alkaline substance called Morphia.
Order 12. Fumariacece. D. C.
Sepals two, deciduous. Petals four, cruciate, one or both
of the two outer saccate at the base, the two inner callous
at the apex, where they cohere and inclose the anthers
and stigma. Stamens six, diadelphous, opposite the outer
petals: anthers of the middle stamens of each parcel
two-celled, of the outer ones one-celled. Ovary one-cell-
ed : style filiform, stigma with two or more points. Fruit
a one-seeded utricle, or a two-valved, two-seeded, indehis-
cent capsule, or a two-valved, polyspermous stigma. Seeds
with an arillus attached to narrow parietal placentae. Al¬
bumen fleshy. Embryo nearly straight, minute, eccentric.
—Herbaceous plants, with a watery juice. Leaves alter¬
nate, multifid.—Ex. Fumaria, Dielytra.
Nearly allied to the last order, but distinct in the
definite diadelphous stamens and irregular corolla. The
central anthers being alone bilocular, suggests that two
of the others make but one, or that there is in reality
here but four stamens, one before each petal. And even
Mr Lindley has demonstrated that the inner petals form
a corolla, while the outer ought to be viewed as sepals:
the deciduous sepals above described would thus be
bracteae.—The Fumariaceae are slightly bitter, and act as
diaphoretics and aperients.
Order 13. Cruciferce. Juss.
Sepals four; two corresponding to the two stigmas are
anterior and posterior, and narrower than the others;
two are lateral, or corresponding to the valves, broader,
concave at the base, gibbous or spurred. Corolla cruci¬
form. Petals four, alternate with the sepals, nearly equal,
deciduous. Stamens six ; the two opposite the lateral
sepals are solitary, shorter, and occasionally toothed ; four
in pairs opposite the anterior and posterior sepals, longer,
generally free, sometimes connate, or furnished with a
tooth on the inside: anthers bilocular, introrse. Torus
with several green glands between the petals and the
stamens, and ovarium. Ovarium syncarpous, bilocular.
Placentae parietal, usually meeting in the middle, and
forming a spurious dissepiment. Stigmas two, opposite the
placentae, or anterior and posterior. Fruit a siliqua or
silicule, rarely one-celled and indehiscent, usually spuri¬
ously bilocular, and dehiscing by two valves separating
from the placentae ; one or many-seeded. Seeds campuli-
tropous, pendulous, attached in a single row by a funiculus
to each side of the placentae. Albumen none. Embryo
with the radicle folded up on the cotyledons, which are
next the placenta.—Herbaceous plants, or very seldom
suffruticose. Leaves alternate.—Ex. Dr aba, Lepidium,
Sinapis, Bunias.
This order having six tetradynamous stamens, can
scarcely be confounded with any other. We have already
explained (p. 49) the structure of the fruit according as Mr
Lindley and we understand it. Mr Brown gives a differ¬
ent explanation, upon which we have not room to enter.—
The general character of the Cruciferae is to possess anti¬
scorbutic and stimulant qualities, with an acrid flavour.
They contain much azote, and have therefore, when in a
putrescent state, been occasionally used in the manufacture
of Prussian blue, when the horns and hoofs of cattle could
not be had in sufficient quantity.
Order 14. Capparidece. Juss.
Sepals four. Petals four, cruciate, usually unguiculate
and unequal. Stamens four, six, or indefinite, but in gene¬
ral some high multiple of four. Torus hemispherical or
elongated, often bearing glands. Ovary stalked: style
VOL. v.
A N Y. 97
one, filiform, or sometimes none. Fruit unilocular, sili- Arrange-
quseform, or fleshy and indehiscent, rarely one-seeded, ment and
usually with two polyspermous placenta? at the margin pfCharacters.
the valves or carpels. Seeds generally reniform, with a
thickened legmen. Albumen none. Embryo incurved:
cotyledons foliaceous, somewhat flat.— Leaves alternate,
stalked, undivided, or palmate. Stipules none, or spi-
nescent.—Ex. Cleome, Capparis.
Allied to Cruciferse: indeed Linnaeus arranged some of
the genera in Tetradynamia. The stipitate ovarium, and
the fruit, indicates some affinity to Passifloreae.—The pro¬
perties are not very dissimilar from those of the last order.
The root of Cleome dodecandra is used as a vermifuge.
Order 15. Besedacece. D. C.
Sepals 4-6, persistent. Petals 4-6, alternate with the
sepals, unequal; the upper ones with a scale-like claw and
palmatipartite limb, the lateral ones 2-3-lobed, the lower
smaller and entire. Stamens 10-24 : filaments more or less
and variously united : anthers bilocular, erect, opening
longitudinally. Torus very short, or resembling a stipes,
bearing under the stamens an obtuse nectariferous scale.
Ovaria3-6, each with one style, free, or united into a syn¬
carpous ovary. Fruit of 3-6 few-seeded follicles, dehiscing
internally; or a capsule, unilocular, polyspermous, 3-6-valv-
ed, indehiscent except at the apex. Placentae parietal iti
the middle of the valves or follicles. Seeds somewhat
pendulous, the testa crustaceous. Albumen very thin and
fleshy. Embryo curved: radicle superior: cotyledons
fleshy.—Herbaceous plants, with alternate leaves ; stipules
none, or represented by glands.—Ex. Reseda.
Most botanists agree in bringing this family near to the
Capparideae, except Mr Lindley, who conceives it to be
more nearly allied to Euphorbiaceae and Datisceae.—Reseda
luteola yields a yellow dye, and R. odorata or Mignonette
is well known for its fragrant flowers.
Order 16. Flacourtiavece. Rich.
Sepals 4-7, cohering slightly at the base. Petals equal
in number to, and alternate with, the sepals, sometimes
wanting. Stamens equal in number to the petals or some
multiple of them, occasionally changed into nectariferous
scales. Ovary roundish, sessile or slightly stalked : style
none, or filiform: stigmas several, more or less distinct.
Fruit unilocular, containing a thin pulp, either fleshy and
indehiscent, or capsular with 4-5 valves. Placentae parie¬
tal, branching all over the inner surface of the valves.
Seeds few, thick, often enveloped in a pellicle formed by
the withered pulp. Albumen fleshy, somewhat oily.
Embryo straight in the axis, with the radicle turned to¬
wards the hilum: cotyledons flat, foliaceous.—Leaves
alternate, simple, without stipules. Flowers sometimes
unisexual.—Ex. Patrisia, Flacourtia, Kigyclaria, Ery-
throspermum.
The peculiar placentae of this order occurs in no other
of the Dicotyledones. In some things they resemble the
Capparideae.—The fruit of several species of Flacourtia is
eaten ; that of Hydnocarpus is used in Ceylon for poisoning
fish, which at the same time renders them unfit for food.
Order 17. Bixinece. Kunth.
Sepals 4-7, distinct, or cohering at the base: estiva¬
tion imbricated. Petals five, resembling the sepals, or
none. Stamens indefinite, free, inserted on the discoid
torus : anthers bilocular. Ovary sessile, one-celled : ovules
attached to 2-7, narrow, parietal placentae : style single,
or 2-4 cleft. Fruit capsular or baccate, one-celled, many
seeded : placentae in the middle of the valves. Seeds en¬
veloped in pulp. Albumen fleshy, or very thin, including
the embryo, which is slightly curved; radicle pointing
to the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous.—Leaves alternate,
simple, with deciduous stipules.—Ex. Prockia.
From the last family this is chiefly to be distinguished
N
98
BOTANY.
Arrange- by the narrow and not ramified placenta: still Richard
ment and unites them; and we would have also done this, were it
Characters. not that Mr Lindley places upwards of 120 orders be-
tween them, and does not even notice their affinity. Don
suggests that the name Prockiaceae ought rather to be
adopted, for that Bixa is nearly related to Sloanea and
Ablania, among the Tiliacese. This order also bears some
relation to the Cistineae and Homalineae.—The pulp sur¬
rounding the seeds of JBixa (or the Arnotto) is purgative
and stomachic.
Order 18. Cistinece. Juss.
Sepals five, persistent, unequal; the three inner with a
twisted estivation. Petals five, very caducous; estiva¬
tion corrugated, and twisted in an opposite direction to
that of the sepals. Stamens indefinite, free : anthers ad-
nate. Ovarium syncarpous, one or many-celled: style
single: stigma simple. Fruit capsular, 3-5-10-valved,
one-celled, with parietal placentae in the middle of the
valves, or imperfectly 5-10-celled, with dissepiments pro¬
ceeding from the middle of the valves, and meeting in
the axis of the fruit. Seeds indefinite. Embryo either
spiral or curved, in the midst of a mealy albumen: radicle
at the opposite extremity from the hilum.—Shrubs or
herbaceous plants. Leaves usually opposite below, alter¬
nate above, with or without stipules.—Ex. Cistus, Heli-
anthemum.
The inverted embryo andloculicidal dehiscence are what
must be chiefly relied on in defining the limits of this or¬
der.—The balsamic substance called Labdanum, which
must not be confounded, as some ignorant people have
done, with Laudanum, is obtained from Cistus Creticus.
Order 19. Violariece. D. C.
Sepals five, persistent; estivation imbricated. Petals five,
usually withering, generally unequal; estivation oblique¬
ly convolute. Stamens five, alternate with the petals, or
occasionally opposite to them, inserted on the hypogynous
disc or torus: anthers bilocular, introrse, closely approxi¬
mated, or united laterally to each other: filaments di¬
lated, elongated beyond the anthers; two of them, in the
irregular flowers, usually with an appendage at the base.
Ovary one-celled, with many (rarely one) ovules : style
single, usually declinate, with an oblique cucullate stigma.
Capsule three-valved, loculicide, or bearing the placenta
on the middle of the valves. Embryo straight, erect, in
the axis of a fleshy albumen.—Leaves alternate, rarely
opposite, with persistent stipules and an involute verna¬
tion.—Ex. Viola (Plate CXVIL), Alsodeia.
The irregular flowered genera are easily distinguished
from those of other orders ; but those with regular flowers,
constituting the section Alsodineae, are so with more dif-
culty. Of the latter, Pentaloba was said to have five pla¬
centas, but that seems contradicted by Brown. The pla¬
centae are opposite to the three outer sepals.—The roots
of all the species are more or less emetic, and some of
them are substituted for Ipecacuanha.
Order 20. Droseracece. D. C.
Suborder 1. Droserece. Sepals five, persistent, equal;
estivation imbricated. Petals five. Stamens free, wither¬
ing, five and alternate with the petals, or ten : anthers bi¬
locular, bursting longitudinally. Ovary one : styles 3-5,
slightly connected at the base or distinct, bifid or branch¬
ed. Capsule 3-5-valved, loculicide, one-celled, or spuri¬
ously three-celled, the dissepiments being formed by the
placentas meeting in the axis. Seeds without an arillus ;
testa sometimes loose, and distinct from the tegmen. Em¬
bryo straight, erect, in the axis of a fleshy or cartilaginous
albumen.—Leaves alternate, furnished (except in Aldro-
vanda), with glandular hairs, with a circinate vernation.
Stipules in the form of ciliae at the base of the petioles.—
Ex. Drosera, Aldrovanda.
Suborder 2. Parnassiece. Sepals five ; estivation im- Arrange
bricated. Petals five, alternate with the sepals. Sta- ment an
mens 10-20, some of them often sterile : anthers bilocu-Y^racte
lar, bursting longitudinally. Ovary solitary, unilocular:
style none, and four sessile stigmas opposite the placentae,
or one with a lobed stigma. Fruit a capsule, one-celled,
4-5-valved and loculicide ; or indehiscent, and then the pla¬
centa is only at the base. Seeds numerous. Albumen 0.
Embryo erect, or the radicle pointing to the hilum.—Bog
plants. Leaves nearly all radical, without glandular hairs.
—Ex. Parnassia, Dioncea.
Some botanists describe the stamens of Droseraceae as
perigynous, which, however, wre do not think distinctly
made out; but were that true, they would approach to
the Saxifrageae. As to our second suborder, Parnassia has
been referred by Lindley, as was already suggested by
Brown, to the Saxifrageae, but by Don to the Ilypericineae.
Richard, again, who affirms it to be a genuine Drosera-
ceae, places Dioncea among the Hypericineae ; while Lind¬
ley retains it, for the time, among the Droseraceae, but
pointing out an affinity with the Sarraceniaceae. But the
four stigmas opposite to the placentae in Parnassia seem
to indicate that these are each composed of two half stig¬
mas belonging to different carpels, and consequently that
the styles have a tendency to become united, although
bifid in their upper portion, as in Drosera. The stigma of
Dioncea may be similarly explained. The syncarpous
ovarium is at variance with the Saxifrageae; and, in the
Ftypericineae, the styles alternating with the margins of
the carpels, and the sometimes capitate stigmas, demon¬
strate that the styles are there free and the stigmas un¬
divided. Hence we have brought them under Droseraceae,
from which they chiefly differ by their habit and absence
of albumen.—The genus Drosera is rather acid, slightly
acrid, and reputed poisonous to cattle.
Order 21. Polygalece. Juss.
Sepals five, very irregular, distinct; three exterior, of
which one is superior and two inferior; two interior, pe-
taloid, lateral: estivation imbricated. Petals unequal,
usually three, of which one is inferior, while the others
alternate with the upper and lateral sepals. . Sometimes
there are five, the two additional ones being minute, and
between the lateral and lower sepals : the lower petal
(called the keel), is sometimes entire, and then naked or
crested, or sometimes three-lobed without a crest. Stamens
eight, unequal, ascending, combined into a tube, which is
split opposite to the upper sepal: anthers one-celled, open¬
ing by a terminal pore, or very rarely by a longitudinal
cleft. Ovarium bilocular, with placentae in the axis ; the
cells anterior and posterior, the latter often abortive :
ovules one, rarely ttvo, pendulous: style simple, curved:
stigma simple. Fruit loculicide, or sometimes indehiscent.
Seeds pendulous, with a caruncula next the hilum. Al¬
bumen copious, fleshy, rarely reduced to a thin gelatinous
plate. Embryo straight, with the radicle next the hilum.
—Leaves without stipules.—Ex. Polygala, Securidaca.
The petal being inferior, and the sepal superior, distin¬
guish this family from the Leguminosae, to which, in some
respects, they bear greater affinity than to any other.
Krameria, usually referred here, has, we think, been mis¬
understood, and we therefore exclude it.—Bitterness is
the principal property, but the roots of Polygala Senega
and sanguinea are stimulant, diuretic, emetic, purgative,
expectorant, sialagogue, sudorific, and emmenagogue.
Order 22. Tremandrece. R. Brown.
Sepals 4-5, nearly equal, slightly cohering at the base,
deciduous ; estivation valvate. Petals 4-5, alternate with
the sepals, deciduous ; in estivation involute, much larger
than the sepals, and including the stamens. Stamens dis¬
tinct, 8-10, two before each petal: anthers 2-4-celled,
B O T
range- opening by a terminal pore. Ovarium bilocular: ovules
yjntand 1-3 in each cell, pendulous : style one : stigmas 1-2. Cap-
y.racters.suie two-celled, two-valved, loculicide. Seeds pendulous,
with a caruncular appendage at the apex, but with a
naked hilum. Embryo cylindrical, straight, in the axis of
a fleshy albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Heath-like
shrubs, with usually glandular hairs. Leaves alternate
or verticillate, without stipules. Pedicels solitary, axillary,
one-flowered.—Ex. Tetratheca, Tremandra.
Perhaps nearest allied to Polygaleae, but differing in
several particulars. They are all from New tlolland.
Order 23. Tamariscinece. Desv.
Calyx 4-5-partite, persistent: estivation imbricated.
Petals 4-5, inserted on the receptacle, marcescent; estiva¬
tion imbricated. Stamens equal to the petals in number,
or twice as many, free or monadelphous. Ovarium one-
celled: style short: stigmas three. Capsule three-valved,
one-celled, loculicide, polyspermous. Placentae sometimes
only at the base of the capsule. Seeds erect or ascend¬
ing, comose. Albumen 0. Embryo straight, with the ra¬
dicle next the hilum.—Shrubs or herbs. Leaves alter¬
nate, like small scales.—Ex. Tamarix, Myricaria.
Placed by De Candolle and most botanists among the
orders with perigynous stamens ; but Ehrenberg has lately
shown that these organs are there hypogynous. To us also
they appear hypogynous, and we have therefore inserted
this order next the Frankeniacem. The insertion of the
petals is more difficult to be traced, whether they be like
the stamens, as is most probable, or, as some state, in¬
serted into the very base of the calyx.—The bark is
slightly bitter and astringent. The ashes of some species
contain much sulphate of soda. The manna of Mount
Sinai, consisting wholly of mucilaginous sugar, is produced
by a variety of Tamarix Gallica.
Order 24. FrankeniacecB. St Hie.
Sepals five, slightly cohering at the base. Petals five,
alternate with the sepals. Stamens opposite to the sepals,
five, eight, or indefinite : filaments usually very short, free :
anthers bilocular, extrorse, bursting longitudinally, or by
two terminal pores. Ovarium one-celled, with three parie¬
tal placentae : style slender, simple, or trifid. Capsule one-
celled, three-valved, septicide. Seeds numerous, very
minute. Embryo straight, cylindrical, in the axis of a
fleshy albumen: radicle turned towards the hilum.—Leaves
alternate or verticillate, usually furnished with stipules;
but which are wanting in Frankenia.—Ex. Frankenia,
Sauvagesia.
The flowers are regular, except in Laxemburgia. In
Lavradia there is an internal monopetalous corolla; in
Sauvagesia an internal pentapetalous one, between which
and the true corolla are many capillary or clavate fila¬
ments: these accessory parts being abortive stamens. This
family is closely allied to the Cistineae, Violarieae, and Dro-
seraceae, from which it differs by the septicidal dehiscence.
Order 25. Elatinece. Cambess.
Sepals 3-5, distinct, or slightly connate at the base.
Petals alternate with the sepals. Stamens equal in num¬
ber to, or twice as many as, the petals. Ovarium 3-5-cell-
ed: styles 3-5 : stigmas capitate. Placentae in the axis.
Capsule 3-5-celled, 3-5-valved, loculicide. Seeds nume¬
rous. Albumen 0. Embryo cylindrical: radicle next the
hilum.—Annual marsh plants. Leaves opposite, with small
inconspicuous stipules.—Ex. Elatine, Bergia.
'Ihe capitate stigmas, want of albumen, and loculicidal
dehiscence, have caused this small group to be separated
from the Caryophylleae. The seeds are usually cylindri¬
cal and curved; and the embryo has the same shape, and
is not straight, as some have described it.
Order 26. Caryophyllacece. Juss.
Sub-order 1. Vivianiece. Sepals five, united into a
A N Y. 99
monophyllous, campanulate, 5-toothed calyx, persistent. Arrange-
Petals five, unguiculate, pei'sistent. Stamens ten: fila- ment an(l
ments filiform: anthers erect, bilocular, bursting longitu-^iaracter®'
dinally. Ovarium 3-celled : ovules two in each cell, hori-
zontal, approximated: style short: stigmas three, linear,
papillose on the inner surface. Capsule 3-celled, 3-
valved, loculicide. Seeds two in each cell, attached close¬
ly together to about the middle of the axis, campulitro-
pous. Albumen fleshy, copious. Embryo filiform, curved
round the albumen.—Under shrubs. Leaves opposite,
tomentose beneath.—Ex. Viviania.
Suborder 2. Caryophyllece. Sepals 4-5, distinct or co¬
hering in a tube, persistent. Petals 4-5, unguiculate, some¬
times wanting. Stamens usually double the number of
the petals, or, if equal, alternate with them. Filaments
subulate, sometimes cohering. Anthers erect, bilocular,
opening longitudinally. Ovarium one, syncarpous, often
stipitate. Stigmas 2-5, sessile, filiform ; papillose on their
inner surface. Capsule 2-5-valved, one-celled, or imper¬
fectly (rarely completely) 2-5-celled, opening usually by
twice as many teeth as stigmas, sometimes by valves.
Placenta in the axis of the fruit. Seeds indefinite, or rare¬
ly definite, campulitropous. Albumen mealy, round which
the embryo is curved.—Leaves opposite and entire, often
connate at the base, without stipules.—Ex. Dianthus, Ce-
rastium.
After Don, we unite Viviania {Macrcea, Lindl., and
Caesarea, St Hil.) to this order; but perhaps its affinity is
greater with Ledocarpam, which most authors place in the
great group of Geraniaceae. The petals of Viviania are sca-
riose. We are very doubtful if any of the true Caryophyllea1
have complete dissepiments. Hymenella and Physa are
little known, and most of, if not all, the genus Mollugo must
be removed, the definite stamens being alternate with the
sepals, as in Portulacem. The number of teeth at the apex
of the capsule demonstrate that the dehiscence, if perfect,
would have been loculicidal.—A few have soponaceous
properties. They are all very insipid.
Order 27. Malvaceae. Juss.
Sepals five, rarely 3-4, more or less cohering at the base,
often bearing an external calyx or involucre: estivation
valvate. Petals equal in number to the sepals : estivation
twisted. Stamens monadelphous, indefinite, or rarely as
few as the petals. Anthers one-celled, reniform, bursting
transversely. Ovarium formed by the union of several car¬
pels round a common axis, either distinct or cohering.
Styles as many as the carpels, united or free. Fruit cap¬
sular or baccate : carpels one or many-seeded, sometimes
closely united, sometimes separate or separable. Dehis¬
cence loculicidal or septicidal. Albumen 0, or in very
small quantity. Embryo curved: cotyledons twisted and
doubled up.—Leaves alternate, stipulate. Hairs stellate.
—Ex. Lavatera, Hibiscus, Sida.
The affinity between Malvaceae and Caryophyllaceae is
very obscure. De Candolle considered the Lineae as a con¬
necting order; but that differs exceedingly from both in
the structure of the seed, and, according to St Hilaire,
ought to form a part of the Geraniaceae.—All abound in
mucilage, and are destitute of unwholesome qualities.
Cotton is the covering of the seed in the genus Gossypium.
From the Althaea officinalis is prepared, in France, the
valuable tracing paper, known by the name of papier ve-
getale.
Order 28. Bombacece. Kunth.
Calyx gamosepalous, campanulate or cylindrical, trun¬
cate or quinque-partite, with a few minute bracteas on the
outside. Petals five, regular, or none: estivation twist¬
ed. Stamens five, ten, fifteen, or more: filaments co¬
hering at the base into a tube, which is soldered to the
tube of the petals, divided above into five parcels, each of
100
BOTANY.
Arrange- which bears one or more anthers, intermixed sometimes
ment and with barren filaments: anthers one-celled, linear. Oya-
Characters. rinm of five (rarely ten) carpels, either strictly cohering
or partly distinct: styles as many as the carpels, free, or
more or less cohering. Placentae in the axis. Fruit vari¬
able, capsular, or indehiscent, usually with five valves and
loculicide. Seeds often inclosed in a woolly or pulpy cover¬
ing; sometimes with a fleshy albumen and flat cotyledons;
sometimes exalbuminous with wrinkled or convolute coty¬
ledons.—Leaves alternate, with stipules. Pubescence on
the herbaceous parts stellate.—Ex. Bombax, Helicteres.
These were separated from Malvaceae by Kunth and De
Candolle, but again united by St Hilaire: they chiefly differ
by the calyx not being decidedly valvate in estivation, and
by the polyadelphous stamens.—Like the Malvaceae, they
are mucilaginous, and possess no deleterious properties.
The dried leaves of Adansonia, or the Baobab tree, have
been used in cases of diarrhoea and fevers; its fruit also is
frequently eaten; and the expressed juice mixed with sugar
has been valued in putrid fevers. The seeds of some are
covered with long hairs, as in the true cotton plant.
Order 29. Byttneriacece. R. Brown.
Calyx naked, or with an involucrum: sepals five, more
or less united at the base: estivation valvate. Petals
five'or none, often saccate as the base, and variously length-
ed at the apex: estivation convolute. Stamens equal
to the number of the petals, or some multiple of them,
more or less monadelphous, some of them often sterile:
anthers bilocular, extrorse. Ovarium of five (rarely three)
carpels, more or less syncarpous: styles as many as the
carpels, free or united : ovules ascending, 2-3 or many in
each carpel. Capsule 3-5-celled, 3-5-valved. Seeds with a
strophiolate apex, often winged. Albumen oily or fleshy,
rarely wanting. Embryo straight: radicle inferior: co¬
tyledons foliaceous, flat and plaited, or rolled round the
plumula; or, in the exalbuminous seeds, very thick.—Irees
or shrubs. Pubescence often stellate. Leaves alternate,
simple, exstipulate.—Ex. Sterculia, Byttneria, Lasiopeta-
lum, Hermannia, Dombeya, Wallichia.
The six genera we have cited as examples have been
made the types of as many sections, and even, by some bo¬
tanists, of as many different orders. As a group, how¬
ever, on the other hand, they have been united by St Hi¬
laire to the Malvacem, although differing in their bilocular
anthers. They form the passage to the next order, from
which they differ by their monadelphous stamens. In Ster¬
culia and Erythropsis the carpels are distinct, and in Wal-
theria there is but one, four being abortive.—They abound
in mucilage. The Kola of the African travellers is got
from the seeds of Sterculia acuminata, and Chocolate from
those of Theobroma Cacao.
Order 30. Tiliacece. Juss.
Suborder 1. Tiliece. Sepals 4-5: estivation valvate,
rarely imbricated. Petals 4-5, rarely wanting. Stamens
free, usually indefinite : anthers bilocular, dehiscing lon¬
gitudinally. Torus with 4-5 glands at the base of the
petals. Ovary solitary, of 4-10 carpels : style one : stig¬
ma with as many lobes as cai*pels. Fruit dry, multilocu-
lar, with several seeds in each cell; or by abortion uni¬
locular and one-seeded. Embryo erect, in the axis of a
fleshy albumen : cotyledons flat, foliaceous.—Leaves al¬
ternate, stipulate. Petals entire.—Ex. Tilia, Corchorus.
Suborder 2. Elceocarpece. Juss. Sepals 4-5, without an
involucrum : estivation valvate. Petals 4-5 : estivation
imbricated. Torus large, discoid, usually with glands.
Stamens 15-20: filaments short, free : anthers long, bi¬
locular, opening at the apex by a double fissure. Ovary
multilocular: style one : stigmas equal to the number of
carpels, sometimes united. Fruit various, indehiscent,
dry, drupaceous, or valvular and loculicide, sometimes by
abortion one-celled. Seeds two or more in each cell. Al- Amnp
bumen fleshy. Embryo erect: cotyledons flat, foliaceous. roentai
—Leaves alternate, sometimes approximated in pairs, with <^act)
deciduous stipules. Petals lobed or fimbriated, some-
times entire.—Ex. Elceocarpus, Aristotelia.
The large discoid torus, distinct stamens, and bilocular
anthers, serve to distinguish this order from the Malva¬
ceae and others allied to them ; at the same time De Can¬
dolle very properly suggests that Malvaceae, Bombaceae,
Byttneriaceae, and Tiliaceae, may all form one group or
class, remarkable, as he says, for the valvate estivation of
the calyx ; for although it be now known that Sloanea
and Ablania have it imbricated, yet these have so much
affinity with Bixa, that the three may be considered as
intermediate between the Bixineae (or more properly
Prockiaceae) and Tiliaceae.—The Tiliece are mucilaginous.
The fruit of some is succulent and eatable.
Order 31. Dipterocarpece. Brume.
Calyx tubular, five-lobed, unequal, naked, persistent,
and afterwards enlarged: estivation imbricated. Petals
sessile, slightly connected at the base : estivation twisted.
Stamens indefinite : filaments dilated at the base, free or
irregularly cohering: anthers erect, bilocular, subulate,
opening by terminal fissures. Torus small, not discoid.
Ovarium with few cells : ovules in pairs, pendulous : style
and stigma simple. Fruit coriaceous, one-celled by abor¬
tion, three-valved or indehiscent, surrounded by the calyx.
Seed solitary. Albumen none. Radicle superior : coty¬
ledons twisted and crumpled, or unequal and obliquely
incumbent.—Trees abounding in resin. Leaves alternate :
vernation involute. Stipules deciduous, convolute.—Ex.
Dipterocarpus, Shorea.
Allied to Elaeocarpeae, and also to the Malvaceae, and in
some few respects to Guttiferae, but easily distinguished
by the enlarged foliaceous unequal segments of the calyx
investing the fruit.—The camphor tree of Sumatra be¬
longs to this order. The fruit of the Valeria indica, when
boiled, yields a kind of tallow.
Order 32. Chlenacece. Thouars.
Involucrum 1-2-flowered, persistent. Sepals three, small.
Petals 5-6, broader and sometimes cohering at the base.
Stamens rarely 10, usually indefinite : filaments united
at the base into a tube, or adhering to the base of the
petals: anthers roundish, syngenesious or free, bilocular.
Ovarium solitary, trilocular : style one, filiform: stig¬
ma trifid. Capsule three-celled, or by abortion one-celled.
Placenta central. Seeds solitary or numerous, suspended.
Embryo in the axis of a fleshy or horny albumen : coty¬
ledons foliaceous, undulated.—Leaves alternate, with sti¬
pules.—Ex. Sarcolcena, Leptolcena.
From this order Hugonia ought certainly to be exclud¬
ed, it only differing from the Byttneriaceae (Suborder
Dombeyaceae) by the imbricated, and not valvular, esti¬
vation of the calyx. Jussieu, from considering the union
of the petals at the base, refers Chlenaceae to the neigh¬
bourhood of the Ebenaceae. All the species are natives
of Madagascar, and very little known.
Order 33. Ternstrcemiacece. Mirb.
Sepals five, concave, coriaceous, deciduous, the inner¬
most often the largest: estivation imbricated. Petals
five, often combined at the base, alternate with the sepals.
Stamens indefinite: filaments often cohering at the base
into one or more parcels, and united to the petals. Ovary
plurilocular, usually sessile on a discoid torus: ovules
two or more, pendulous at the inner angle of each cell:
styles 2-5 : stigmas simple. Fruit 2-5-celled, coriaceous
and indehiscent, or capsular and opening by valves. Seeds
large, few, sometimes arillate. Albumen 0, or in very
small quantity. Embryo either straight, or bent, or fold¬
ed back: radicle next the hilum : cotyledons very large,
rrange-
snt and
uracters
BOTANY.
101
sometimes longitudinally plaited, often containing oil.—
Leaves alternate, coriaceous, exstipulate, now and then
pellucido-punctate.—Ex. Termtrcemia, Gordonia, Ca¬
mellia.
Cochlospermum\&L% the dissepiments imperfect, and con¬
sequently the ovarium spuriously one-celled. In Camel¬
lia, from* the effect of luxuriant cultivation, there are often
six or seven petals, styles, and cells to the fruit. This
order is allied to the Aurantiaceae, and also to the Gutti-
ferae; but they also osculate with the Hypericineae, Marc-
graaviaceae, and Tiliaceae.—The properties of most of the
species are little understood. An excellent table oil is
obtained from the seeds of Camellia oleifera. The tea of
commerce is produced by several species of Thea and
Camellia.
Order 34*. Olacinece. Mirb.
Calyx small, of one piece, entire, or toothed, often final¬
ly becoming large and fleshy: estivation imbricated. Pe¬
tals 3-6, distinct, or adhering in pairs by the interven¬
tion of stamina: estivation valvate. Stamens (fertile)
definite, 3-10, alternate with the petals, mixed with others
that are sterile and opposite to the petals: filaments
compressed: anthers erect, bilocular, bursting longitu¬
dinally. Ovarium 1-3-4-celled: ovules 3-4, pendulous
from the top of a central placenta : style simple : stigma
3-4-lobed. Fruit drupaceous, indehiscent, often surround¬
ed by the enlarged calyx, one-celled, one-seeded. Seed
pendulous. Albumen copious, fleshy. Embryo small, at
the base of the albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Leaves
simple, alternate, exstipulate, sometimes abortive.—Ex.
Olax, Ximenia.
A very distinct order, although it be somewhat difficult
to discover its proper place. Brown supposes the calyx
above described to be bracteae, and the petals a perianth,
and consequently it would be placed near the Santala-
ceae. Jussieu, again, admits the presence of both calyx
and corolla, but that the last is monopetalous, and places
the order near the Sapoteae.—Nothing is known of their
medical properties.
Order 35. Aurantiacece. Cork.
Calyx urceolate .or campanulate, short, 3-5-toothed, wi¬
thering. Petals 3-5, broad at the base, sometimes slightly
combined: estivation imbricated. Stamens equal in num¬
ber to, or a multiple of, the petals: filaments flattened
at the base, distinct, monadelphous, or polyadelphous :
anthers erect. Torus conspicuous, discoid. Ovarium
multilocular: style one: stigma one, somewhat divided,
thickish. Fruit a hesperidium. Seeds attached to the
axis, solitary or numerous, usually pendulous: raphe and
chalaza usually very distinct. Albumen 0. Embryo
straight: radicle next the hilum : cotyledons thick, fleshy:
plumula conspicuous.—Trees or shrubs, abounding in vo¬
latile oil. Leaves alternate, often compound, articulated
with a usually winged petiole.—Ex. Citrus, Limonia.
The oily receptacles dispersed over the whole plant,
deciduous and compound leaves (always indicated by
the joint connecting them with the petiole) distinguish this
family from its allies.—The pulp of the fruit is more or less
acid. The oil is volatile, fragrant, bitter, and exciting.
The orange, lemon, citron, and lime, belong to this order.
Order 36. Hypericinece. Juss.
Sepals 4-5, distinct or cohering, unequal, persistent,
with glandular dots: estivation imbricate. Petals 4-5,
often dotted with black; veins oblique : estivation twist¬
ed. Stamens indefinite, polyadelphous (very rarely ten
monadelphous): anthers versatile. Ovarium solitary: styles
several, rarely connate: stigmas simple, sometimes capi¬
tate. Placentae in the axis. Fruit baccate or capsular,
of many cells and valves, septicide. Seeds minute, inde¬
finite, very rarely solitary. Albumen none. Embryo
straight: radicle next the hilum, inferior.—Juice resi- Arrange-
nous. Leaves dotted, usually opposite, and entire. Flow- ment aml
ers generally yellow.—Ex. Hypericum, Vismia. Characters.
Allied on the one hand to Guttiferae, and on the other,
but more distantly, to Cistineae. The juice of many
species is purgative and febrifugal.
Order 37. Reaumuriece. Ehrenb.
Calyx 5-partite, persistent, surrounded externally with
imbricated bracteae. Petals five. Stamens definite and
monadelphous, or indefinite and polyadelphous. Torus
with or without glands. Ovarium solitary: styles slen¬
der, 2-4-5. Placentae at the base. Capsule of two, four,
or five cells, and as many valves, loculicide. Seeds defi¬
nite, erect, hairy, large. Embryo straight, in the axis of
a farinaceous albumen : radicle next the hilum.—Shrubs.
Leaves fleshy, small, alternate, exstipulate. Flowers soli¬
tary.—Ex. Reaumuria, Holachna.
The petals and stamens are hypogynous. Reaumuria
has peltate anthers, and was formerly placed at the end
of the Ficoideae ; Holachna was the Tamarix Songarica of
Pallas.—Saline matter exists in great abundance.
Order 38. Guttiferce. Juss.
Sepals 2-6, usually persistent, round, frequently unequal,
and coloured : estivation imbricated. Petals 4-10. Sta¬
mens indefinite, or rarely definite, free, or variously unit¬
ed at the base: filaments unequal: anthers adnate, in-
trorse, or extrorse ; sometimes very small, sometimes uni¬
locular, and sometimes opening by a pore. Torus fleshy,
occasionally five-lobed. Ovarium solitary, one or many-
celled : ovules solitary, erect or ascending; or numerous
and attached to central placentae : style none, or very
short: stigmas peltate or radiate. Fruit capsular, or
fleshy, or drupaceous, one or many-celled, one or many-
seeded, valvular and septicide, or indehiscent. Seeds de¬
finite, in a pulp, apterous, often arillate : testa thin and
membranous. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle
pointing to (or from ?) the hilum: cotyledons usually
cohering.—Trees or shrubs, sometimes parasitical: juice
resinous. Leaves exstipulate, opposite, or rarely alter¬
nate, coriaceous, with a strong midrib, and many oblique
lateral parallel veins. Flowers articulated with their pe¬
duncle.—Ex. Clusia, Calophyllum.
In Calophyllum the petals seem opposite to the sepals,
but in the other genera they are alternate. This order
approaches most to the Hypericineae, but differs in seve¬
ral particulars : it is also allied to the following family.—
A yellow, viscid, acrid, and purgative gum-resinous juice
abounds in all. The powerfully drastic and cathartic
gamboge is obtained from Stalagmitis cambogioides.
Order 39. Marcgraaviacecc. Juss.
Sepals 2-7, usually coriaceous and persistent: estiva¬
tion imbricated. Corolla five-petaled, or sometimes mo¬
nopetalous, calyptriform, entire, or torn at the point. Sta¬
mens indefinite, very rarely only five : filaments free,
dilated at the base: anthers long, erect, bursting in¬
wards. Ovarium solitary, unilocular: style one or none :
stigma lobed or stellate. Placentae 4-12, parietal, pro¬
minent, and forming spurious dissepiments, more or less
complete. Fruit coriaceous, indehiscent, or of several
valves, separating from below, loculicide. Seeds inde¬
finite, minute, in a pulp. Albumen 0. Embryo straight:
radicle next the hilum.—Shrubs. Leaves alternate, sim¬
ple, entire, almost sessile, and coriaceous.—Ex. Marcgraa-
via, Norantea.
Some botanists describe the structure of the fruit differ¬
ently, by supposing the lamellate placentae to be imper¬
fect, but true dissepiments; and this idea is confirmed by
the ovules being only attached to the free extremity of this
part. But the above is Professor Richard’s hypothesis,
and few have examined the tribe with such accuracy.
102 B O T
Arrange- By the one view this order is allied to the Flacourtianeae,
ment and an(j by the other to the Guttiferas, next to which it has
Characters. keen usuaiiy placed.—Nothing is known of their proper-
t}es>
Order 40. Hippocrateacece. Juss.
Sepals five (rarely four or six), small, combined to their
middle, persistent: estivation imbricated. Petals equal
in number to the stamens: estivation imbricated. Sta¬
mens three (rarely four or five) : filaments united almost
to their apex, forming a tube round the ovarium. Ova¬
rium triangular, trilocular: ovules erect, four in each
cell: style one: stigmas 1-3. Placentae in the axis.
Fruit fleshy, 1-3-celled, or of three samaroid carpels.
Seeds about four in each cell or carpel. Albumen none.
Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum : cotyledons flat,
elliptical, oblong, somewhat fleshy, cohering (at least in
the dried plant).—Shrubs arborescent or climbing. Leaves
opposite, simple, somewhat coriaceous. Flowers small.—
Ex. Hippocratea, Salacia.
The ternary number of the stamens, combined with the
quinary number of the sepals and petals, form the grand
feature of this order. By most botanists it is supposed to
be principally allied to the Acerineae and Malpighiacem;
but Brown asserts that it is scarcely distinct from Celas-
' trinese, notwithstanding the hypogynous stamens.—The
fruit of Tonsella pyriformis is rich and sweet flavoured;
the nuts of Hippocratea comosa are also eatable.
Order 41. Eryihroxylece. Kunth.
Sepals five, combined at the base, persistent: estiva¬
tion imbricated. Petals five, broad, and with a small
scale at the base : estivation slightly twisted. Stamens
ten : filaments united at the base into a cup : anthers erect,
bilocular, longitudinally and laterally dehiscing. Ovarium
three-celled, of which two are sometimes abortive: ovule
one: styles three, distinct or united: stigmas three.
Drupe one-seeded. Seed angular, pendulous. Embryo
linear, straight, in the axis of a corneous albumen : radi¬
cle elongated, next the hilum : cotyledons linear, flat,
foliaceous.—Leaves alternate, rarely opposite.—Ex. Ery-
throxylon, Sethia.
Closely allied to Malpighiacese by the presence of albu¬
men, sessile petals, and general appearance.—A reddish
brown dye is prepared from the bark of Erythr. suberosum.
Order 42. Malpighiacece. Juss.
Sepals five, slightly combined, persistent: estivation
imbricated. Petals five, unguiculate, occasionally want¬
ing. Stamens ten (rarely fewer): filaments distinct, or
slightly monadelphous : anthers roundish. Torus usually
discoid. Ovarium one, usually three-lobed, consisting of
three carpels, more or less combined: ovules solitary:
styles three, distinct or united. Placentae in the axis.
Fruit dry or fleshy, of three distinct carpels or three-
celled, occasionally 1-2-celled by abortion. Seeds soli¬
tary, pendulous. Albumen 0. Embryo curved or straight:
radicle short, next the hilum : cotyledons foliaceous or
thickish.—Small trees or shrubs, sometimes climbing.
Leaves simple, opposite, or very rarely alternate, not dot¬
ted, usually with stipules. Pedicels articulated in the
middle.—Ex. Malpighia, Hiptage, Banisteria.
The sepals are often furnished externally with glands
at the base, on which account, and the often samaroid
fruit, this order seems allied to Acerinese. In Aspicarpa
there is but one stamen.—Little is known of their proper¬
ties. The Barbadoes cherry, the fruit of the Malpighia
glabra, is used in Jamaica by way of dessert.
Order 43. Acerinece. Juss.
Calyx 5-, or rarely 4-9-partite: estivation imbricated.
Petals equal in number to the lobes of the calyx with
which they alternate, rarely wanting. Stamens definite,
usually eight, rarely five or twelve: anthers oblong. T orus
ANY.
discoid. Ovarium two-lobed, two-celled: ovules in pairs, Arranges ,
attached to the inner angle : style one: stigmas two, subu- ment an, El
late. Fruit of two samaroid carpels, of which the mem-^1‘*racte< (j
branous appendage has the lower margin incrassated.
Seeds solitary or in pairs, erect. Albumen 0. Embryo
curved or convolute : radicle next the hilum : cotyledons
foliaceous, wrinkled.—Trees. Leaves opposite, simple,
lobed, or pinnatisect, without stipules. Flowers often po¬
lygamous.—Ex. Acer, Negundo, Dobinea.
Sugar is extracted in abundance from the Acer saccha-
rinum and some other species.
Order 44. Hippocastanece. D. C.
Calyx campanulate, five-lobed: estivation imbricated.
Petals five or (by abortion) four, distinct, unequal. Sta¬
mens 7-8, distinct, unequal: anthers oval, versatile. To¬
rus discoid. Ovarium roundish, three-celled: ovules in
pairs: style one, filiform, acute. Fruit coriaceous, 1-2-3-
celled, 1-2-3-valved, loculicide. Seeds solitary, large:
testa shining or smooth; hilum broad and pale coloured.
Albumen 0. Embryo curved, inverted: radicle conical,
curved, turned towards the hilum: cotyledons thick, gib¬
bous, fleshy, cohering, hypogseous: plumula large, two¬
leaved.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite, 5-7-palmate.
Pedicels articulated.—Ex. AEsculus, Pavia.
Richard, with some justice, unites this to the Malpighi-
aceae : indeed they agree in almost every important point,
except the habit or general appearance.—The seeds
abound in starchy matter, which renders them nutritive:
they also contain much potash: they are bitter. The
bark of AEscidus hippocastanum or Horse-chestnut is bit¬
ter, astringent, and febrifugal.
Order 45. Bhizobolece. D. C.
Sepals five, more or less combined: estivation imbri¬
cated. Petals five, thickish, unequal. Stamens indefinite,
slightly monadelphous, in a double row, of which the
inner is often abortive: anthers roundish, bursting longi¬
tudinally. Torus discoid. Ovarium four-celled: ovules
solitary, peritropous : styles 4 : stigmas simple. Fruit of
four (or by abortion fewer), indehiscent, one-celled, one-
seeded nuts, with a thick, double putamen. Seed reni-
form, with the funiculus dilated into a spongy excrescence :
albumen 0. Embryo very large : radicle constituting near¬
ly the whole of the kernel: cauliculus long, two-edged:
cotyledons small, foliaceous, lying in a furrow of the ra¬
dicle.—Trees. Leaves opposite, palmately compound.—
Ex. Caryocar.
Somewhat allied to Mangifera among the Terebin-
thaceae, but particularly to Sapindaceae. To Hippocas-
taneae it has also some affinity.—The Souari nut, the pro¬
duce of the Car. tomentosum, is well known as the most
delicious of the nut tribe: other species yield a nut per¬
haps almost as good.
Order 46. Sapindaceoe. Juss.
Sepals 4-5, distinct or slightly cohering at the base:
estivation imbricated. Petals generally 4-5, occasionally
wanting, sometimes naked, sometimes villous or glandular
in the middle, or sometimes with a petaloid scale. Sta¬
mens twice as many as the petals, distinct, ascending.
Torus discoid, plane, lobed. Ovarium roundish, trilocular;
ovules usually in pairs, one above the other, ascending:
styles three, more or less united at the base : stigmas three.
Placentae in the axis. Fruit fleshy, vesicular, or capsular,
3- (or by abortion I-2-) celled. Seeds solitary, erect,
or resupinate. Albumen 0. Embryo: radicle next the
hilum: cotyledons more or less curved on the radicle,
sometimes straight.—Leaves alternate, having frequently
pellucid lines or dots.—Ex. Sapindus, Paidlinia,Dodon(Ba.
Near to Meliacese, and also to some of the Terebin-
thaceae.—The leaves and branches are poisonous, but the
fruit is eatable, and, of several, is used in desserts. The
B O T
-•ange- Litchi, Longan, and Rambutan, are from the genus Eu-
jpt and phoria. The fruit of the soap-berry, Sapindus saponaria,
rracters. js saponaceous.
Order 47. Meliacece. Juss.
Suborder 1. Meliece. Sepals 4-5, more or less united:
estivation imbricated. Petals 4-5, conniving or cohering
at the base: estivation valvate. Stamens as many as the
petals, or two, three, or four times as many: filaments
cohering in a long tube: anthers sessile within the orifice
of the tube. Torus sometimes large and cup-shaped.
Ovarium single, plurilocular: ovules suspended, solitary,
or in pairs : style one : stigmas free or combined. Fruit
baccate, drupaceous, or capsular, many- (or by abortion
one-) celled; valves when present loculicidal. Seeds ap¬
terous. Albumen 0. Embryo straight, inverted: radicle
next the hilum.—Leaves alternate or stipulate.—Yst.Melia,
Trichilia.
Suborder 2. Humiriacece. Ad. Juss. Calyx five-cleft:
estivation imbricated. Petals five, alternate with the se¬
pals : estivation imbricated. Stamens five times as many as
the petals: filaments combined into a tube: anthers two-
celled, with a fleshy connectivum extended beyond the
lobes. Torus annular or toothed. Ovarium five-celled :
ovules suspended, solitary, or in pairs: style simple:
stigma lobed. Fruit drupaceous, five- (or by abortion
fewer) celled. Seed with a membranous integument.
Embryo straight, oblong, lying in a fleshy albumen: ra¬
dicle next the hilum.—Leaves alternate, exstipulate: pe¬
tiole winged.—Ex. Humiria.
Suborder 3. Cedrelece. R. Brown. Calyx five-cleft,
persistent: estivation imbricated. Petals five, sessile:
estivation imbricated. Stamens ten, combined below into
a tube: anthers somewhat sessile, acuminated, bilocular,
bursting longitudinally. Torus cup-shaped, ten-plaited.
Ovarium five-celled, each cell semibilocular by the inflec¬
tion of the placentae: style simple: stigma peltate, five-
lobed. Capsule of five valves, septifragal; dissepiments
obliterated, except at the base. Placentae laminary, in¬
flected, finally becoming loose, and having two or more
seeds on each side. Seeds erect or suspended, winged at
one extremity: testa coriaceous. Albumen fleshy, thin,
or wanting. .Embryo straight, transverse: radicle very
small, distant from the hilum : cotyledons flat, very large.
—Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Swietenia, Cedrela.
We again unite these three orders, because we do not find
any good marks between them. The albuminous seeds and
slender embryo chiefly distinguish Humirieae from Melieae;
but in Cedreleae the seeds have albumen and want it, and
in this tribe the dehiscence of the capsule is not so con¬
stant as one would wish ; for in Chloroxylon (or Swietenia
chloroxylon) the fruit is loculicidal. The seeds of all, we
believe, are anatropous.—The medical properties of this
family are little understood; and to judge by those that
are known, they are very dissimilar. Thus the bark of
Canella alba (or false Winter’s bark) is aromatic and sti¬
mulant; that of Melia is nauseous ; and of Sivietenia febri-
fuga, bitter and febrifuge. The fruits of some few are
eatable, and delicious. Mahogany is the wood of Swie¬
tenia Mahogoni.
Order 48. Ampelidece. Rich.
, Calyx small, nearly entire. Petals 4-5, sometimes coher¬
ing above, and calyptriform : estivation valvate. Stamens
4-5, opposite to the petals: filaments distinct, or slightly
cohering at the base: anthers ovate, versatile. Torus
an annular disc, bearing the petals on its exterior, and the
stamens on its surface. Ovarium two-celled: ovules in
pairs, erect: style one, very short: stigma simple. Berry
globose, pulpy, two- (or often by abortion, one-) celled.
Seeds 1-4, erect: testa osseous. Albumen horny. Em¬
bryo erect: radicle slender: cotyledons lanceolate.—
i t • . '
ANY. 103
Climbing shrubs. Leaves, lower ones opposite, upper Arrange-
alternate, with racemes opposite to them, which are some- ment and
times abortive, and change into tendrils.—Ex. Cissus, Characters.
Vitis.
This order approaches closely to the Meliacese; indeed
it is difficult to say to which Leea ought to be referred,
or if it ought not to form a small connecting group. If in
that genus we consider the torus to be cup-shaped, bear¬
ing the petals on its outside about the middle, we shall
have above the insertion of the petals five sessile, adnate,
extrorse, anthers; by which view we should have a true
member of the Ampelidece: but then the anthers are al¬
ternate with the petals, and the plants are not climbing:
from Meliaceae it differs rather more. As to Lasianihera^
too little is known of it to decide upon its affinities.—The
vine is so well known that we need not detail its properties.
Order 49. Geraniacece. Juss.
Suborder 1. Geraniece. St Hil. Sepals five, persis¬
tent, more or less unequal, or sometimes spurred at the
base: estivation imbricated. Petals five (or, by abor¬
tion, 4, rarely 0), unguiculate: estivation twisted. Sta¬
mens monadelphous, twice or thrice as many as the pe¬
tals (some occasionally abortive). Ovarium of five carpels,
placed round an elongated axis: ovules pendulous, soli¬
tary : styles five, cohering round the axis. Fruit cohering
round the axis; of five pieces, with a membranous, inde-
hiscent pericarp and indurated style, which finally twists
and carries the pericarp along with it. Seed solitary, erect:
chalaza close to the hilum. Albumen 0. Embryo curved :
radicle at the opposite extremity from the hilum, but point¬
ing towards it: cotyledons next the hilum, foliaceous,
convolute, and plaited.—Leaves simple, stipulate, opposite,
or alternate, with peduncles opposite to them.—Ex. Ge-
ranium.
Suborder 2. Linece. D. C. Sepals 3-4-5, persis¬
tent: estivation imbricated. Petals 3-4-5, unguiculate,
fugitive: estivation twisted. , Stamens as many as the
petals, and alternate with them (with intermediate teeth
or abortive stamens), arising from an annular torus: an¬
thers ovate, erect. Ovarium with as many.(rarely fewer)
cells and styles as stamens: stigmas capitate. Capsule
generally pointed with the hardened base of the styles,
plurilocular: each cell spuriously bilocular, and opening
by two valves at the apex. Seeds solitary in each spu¬
rious cell, compressed, pendulous. Albumen thin, fleshy.
Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons
flat.—Leaves entire, alternate, without stipules, sometimes
with two glands at the base. Flowers terminal.—Ex.
Linum.
Suborder 3. Balsaminece. Rich. Sepals five, irregular,
deciduous, the two inner and upper connate, the lower
spurred : estivation imbricate. Petals four (five, but the
fifth abortive), united by pairs. Stamens five: filaments
subulate: anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally.
Ovarium solitary, five-celled: ovules numerous: stigma
sessile, more or less five-lobed. Fruit capsular, five-
celled, five-valved, elastically septifrage. Seeds numerous,
suspended. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle next
the hilum: cotyledons plano-convex.—Succulent herba¬
ceous plants. Leaves simple, opposite or alternate, ex¬
stipulate. Flowers axillary.—Ex. Impatiens.
Suborder 4. Hydrocerece. Bdume. Sepals five, deci¬
duous, coloured, unequal, the lowermost spurred: estiva¬
tion imbricated. Petals five, unequal; the upper arched.
Stamens five: filaments connate at the apex: anthers
slightly connate, bilocular, bursting at the apex. Ovarium
five-celled: ovules pendulous, 2-3 in each cell: stigmas
five, sessile, acute. Fruit succulent, five-celled; endo-
carp hard and osseous. Seeds solitary. Albumen 0. Em¬
bryo : radicle next the hilum : cotyledons plano-convex.
104
BOTANY.
Arrange- —Herbaceous, with angular stems. Leaves alternate, ex-
ment and stipulate.—Ex. Hydrocera.
Characters. Suborder 5. Tropceolece. Juss. Sepals five, the upper
spurred : estivation imbricate, or rarely valvate. Petals
five, unequal, irregular, the two upper sessile, the three
lower stalked, or sometimes abortive. Stamens eight,
free : anthers erect, bilocular. Torus discoid, almost unit¬
ed with the calyx. Ovarium one, triquetrous, of three
carpels: ovules solitary, pendulous : style one : stigmas
three, acute. Fruit indehiscent, separable from the axis
into three pieces (or, by abortion, of one piece). Albu¬
men 0. Embryo large: radicle next the hilum, lying
within the projections of the cotyledons, which are
straight, thick, and consolidated into one body.—Herba¬
ceous trailing or twining plants. Leaves alternate, exsti-
pulate. Flowers axillary.—Ex. TtopcRolum.
Suborder 6. OxalidecB. D. C. Sepals five, equal,
sometimes slightly cohering at the base, persistent: esti¬
vation imbricate. Petals five, equal, unguiculate : esti¬
vation twisted. Stamens ten, more or less monadelphous;
those opposite the petals longer than the others : anthers
erect, bilocular. Ovarium five-angled, five-celled : styles
five, filiform : stigmas capitate, or slightly bifid. Placentae
in the axis. Capsules membranous, five-celled, 5-10-valv-
ed. Seeds several: testa fleshy, bursting elastically. Al¬
bumen between cartilaginous and fleshy. Embryo straight,
as long as the albumen : radicle long, next the hilum : co¬
tyledons foliaceous.—Leaves compound (or by abortion
simple), alternate, seldom opposite or whorled.—Ex. Oxa-
Ixs Averrhoa.
All these suborders may be either considered as parts
of one order, or as orders belonging to one class. They
are allied on the one hand to Caryophyllese and Malvaceae,
and on the other to Rutaceae. Rhynchotheca has no pe¬
tals, but certainly belongs to the Geraniaceae, although it
be difficult to say with which of the above sections it ought
to be ranked: the seeds pendulous, albumen fleshy, em¬
bryo straight, stamens distinct, and two ovules in each
cell, militate against it being placed inGeranieae ; and the
cohering styles separate it from Lineae and Oxalideae. In
Tropaeoleae the stamens may almost be called perigynous.—
Geranieae possess an astringent principle, and an aromatic
and resinous flavour. The mucilaginous diuretic seeds of
Lineae, and the purgative leaves of L. catharticum, are well
known. The fleshy fruit of Tropaeoleae is acrid, and used
as a cress. The Oxalideae are acid, and supply the place
of sorrel. The leaves of Ox. acetosella contain pure oxa¬
lic acid.
Order 50. Pittosporece. R. Brown.
Sepals five, deciduous, distinct, or partially cohering.
estivation imbricated. Petals five, sometimes slightly
cohering: estivation imbricated. Stamens five, distinct,
alternate with the petals. Ovary solitary, 1-2-5-celled:
style one: stigmas 2-5, equal in number to the placentas.
Fruit capsular or baccate, cells polyspermous, sometimes
incomplete, loculicide. Seeds often covered with a glu¬
tinous or resinous pulp. Embryo minute, contained in a
fleshy albumen near the hilum : radicle long: cotyledons
very short.—Leaves simple, alternate,exstipulate. Flowers
sometimes polygamous.—Ex. Pittosporuvi, Bdlardiera.
De Candolle arranges this next Polygaleae, probably on
account of the tendency of the fruit to become unilocular,
with parietal placentae. We, however, agree with Richard,
that its place ought to be at no great distance fi om the
Rutaceae. The berries of Billardiera are eatable, but no¬
thing further is known of the properties of the order.
Order 51. Brexiacece. Lindl.
Sepals five, small, persistent, cohering at the base : es¬
tivation imbricated. Petals five : estivation imbricated.
Stamens five, alternate with the petals, arising from a
narrow cup, which is toothed between each stamen: an- Arrange
thers introrse, two-celled, opening longitudinally. Ova- mentanj
rium five-celled : ovules numerous : placentae in the axis:
style one: stigma simple. Fruit a five-celled drupe.
Seeds indefinite : testa and tegmen distinct. Albumen
0. Embryo straight: radicle cylindrical, pointing to the
hilum : cotyledons ovate, obtuse.—Trees. Leaves co¬
riaceous, alternate, with small deciduous stipules.—Ex.
Brexia.
The solitary genus of this order appears to be the same
with the Venana of Lamarck, which name ought perhaps
to be adopted. Du Petit Thouars describes a fleshy al¬
bumen.
Order 52. Rutacece. Juss.
Suborder 1. Zygophyllece. R. Brown. Flowers bi¬
sexual, regular. Calyx 4-5-divided: estivation convolute.
Petals alternate with the sepals: estivation usually con¬
volute. Stamens twice as many as the petals: filaments
distinct, dilated at the base, and usually arising from
scales. Ovarium simple, 4-5-celled: ovules in pairs or
more, pendulous, or rarely erect: style simple, 4-5-fur-
rowed: stigma simple, or 4-5-lobed. Fruit capsular, or
rarely fleshy, with 4-5 angles or wings, 4-5-valved and
loculicidal, or indehiscent: endocarp and sarcocarp com¬
bined. Seeds usually fewer than the ovules. Albumen
between fleshy and horny, rarely 0. Embryo green: ra¬
dicle superior: cotyledons foliaceous.—Leaves opposite,
stipulate, not dotted, rarely simple—Ex. Zygophyllum,
Tribulus.
Suborder 2. Rutece. Juss. Flowers bisexual, regular.
Calyx 4-5-divided: estivation imbricated. Petals alter¬
nate with the sepals: estivation between twisted and
convolute. Stamens twice or thrice as many as the petals.
Torus sometimes discoid. Ovarium 3-5-lobed, 3-5-celled:
ovules in each cell two, or 4-20, pendulous or adnate to
the placentae : styles several, combined upwards : stigma
3-5-angled, or furrowed. Capsule either three-valved and
loculicide, or 4-5-lobed, opening internally at the apex:
sarcocarp and endocarp combined. Seeds often fewer
than the ovules. Embryo lying within the fleshy albu¬
men : radicle superior: cotyledons flat.—Leaves (with
one exception), exstipulate, alternate, usually with pellu¬
cid dots.—Ex. Ruta, Peganum.
Suborder 3. Diosmece. R. Brown. Flowers bisexual.
Calyx 4-5-divided: estivation imbricated. Petals (rarely
wanting), as many as the sepals, distinct, or combined
below into a spurious monopetalous corolla: estivation
twisted-convolute, or rarely valvate. Stamens as many,
or twice as many, as the petals (or fewer by abortion),
hypogynous, or rarely perigynous. Torus discoid or ur-
ceolate, surrounding the base of the pistillum, free or at¬
tached to the calyx, often wanting. Ovaria as many or
fewer than the petals, syncarpous, or more or less apocar¬
pous : ovules two, rarely four or one in each, peritropal:
styles combined above : stigma simple or dilated. Fruit
of 1-5 capsules, cohering, or somewhat distinct: endocarp
two-valved, dehiscing at the base, separating from the
two-valved sarcocarp. Seeds solitary or in pairs. Albu¬
men 0. Radicle superior.—Leaves exstipulate, opposite
or alternate, covered with resinous dots.—Ex. Bictamnus,
Diosma, Correa, Evodia, Monniera.
Suborder 4. Zanthoxylece. Ad. Juss. Flowers uni¬
sexual, regular. Calyx 3-4-5- divided : estivation imbri¬
cated. Petals equal in number (rarely none) to the se¬
pals : estivation usually twisted-convolute. Stamens as
many, or twice as many, as the petals. Ovaria as many
(or fewer) as petals, syncarpous, or partially apocarpous.
Ovules, in each two, or rarely four: styles more or less
combined. Fruit either baccate or membranous, some¬
times of 2-5 cells, sometimes of several drupes or two-
B O T
i ange- valved capsules, of which the fleshy sarcocarp is partly se-
-r it anil pavable from the endocarp. Seeds solitary or in pairs,
C acters. n(jujous< Embryo lying within a fleshy albumen : ra-
SUperior : cotyledons ovate, flat.—Leaves exstipu-
late, alternate or opposite, with pellucid dots.—Ex. Zmti-
thoxylon, Brucea, Ptelea.
Suborder 5. Simaroubea. Rich. Flowers usually bi¬
sexual. Calyx 4-5-divided : estivation imbricated. Petals
as many as the sepals, spreading, or connivent into a kind
of tube: estivation twisted. Stamens twice as numerous:
filaments arising from scales: anthers bursting longitu¬
dinally. Ovarium stipitate, 4-5-lobed, 4-5-celled : ovules
solitary: style simple : stigma 4-5-lobed. Fruit of 4-5
indehiscent drupes arranged round a common receptacle.
Seeds pendulous: testa membranous. Albumen none.
Radicle superior, short, drawn back within the thick coty¬
ledons.—Leaves alternate, exstipulate, without dots.—Ex.
Quassia, Simarouba.
These five may, if one pleases, be viewed as orders belong¬
ing to one class. The last of them is the most distinct, and
is closely allied to the Ochnacese. Some few Diosmeae have
the stamens perigynous, but the great passage to the Pe-
ripetalse is through the Zanthoxyleae, many of which are
very closely allied to the Terebinthaceae.—Of the Zygo-
phylleae some are anthelmintic; others are acrid and bit¬
ter, and are employed as sudorifics, diaphoretics, or altera¬
tives. Of the Ruteae the common rue is sudorific, anthel¬
mintic, and emmenagogue. The Diosmeae of the Cape
are considered antispasmodics; of America, febrifuge:
and the root of Dictamnus was formerly used as a sudori¬
fic and vermifuge. Almost all the Zanthoxyleae are aro¬
matic and pungent; some are powerful sudorifics and
diaphoretics; of others the bark is bitter. Brucea con¬
tains a poisonous principle called Brucia. The Simarou-
beae are all intensely bitter.
Order 53. Ochnacece. D. C.
Sepals five, persistent: estivation imbricated. Petals
equal to or rarely twice as many as the sepals, deciduous,
spreading: estivation imbricated. Stamens five, alter¬
nate with the petals, or ten, or indefinite : filaments per¬
sistent : anthers two-celled, erect, opening by pores.
Torus discoid- Carpels as many as petals, seated upon
an enlarged tumid gynobase: ovules erect: styles com¬
bined into one. Fruit (a sarcobase) of several indehiscent
drupaceous carpella, articulated with the gynobase. Seeds
solitary. Albumen none. Embryo straight : radicle
short, inferior : cotyledons thick.—Leaves alternate, sim¬
ple, stipulate. Pedicels articulated in the middle.—Ex.
Ochna, Gbmphia.
Very closely allied to the Rutacese, but diftering by the
erect ovule, and the anthers opening by pores. Walkera
is usually referred here, although the ovules be pendulous
and the radicle superior; but perhaps in this order more
attention must be paid to the spermic direction of the em¬
bryo ; for in Ochnacese and Walkera, as well as in Ruta-
ceae, the radicle points to the hilum.—The root and leaves
of Walkera serrata are bitter, and a decoction tonic, sto¬
machic, and anti-emetic.
Order 54. Coriariece. D. C.
Calyx campanulate, five-parted: estivation imbricate.
Petals five, alternate with the lobes of the calyx, very
small, fleshy, carinate internally. Stamens ten (in the
female flowers barren): filaments filiform, distinct: an¬
thers oblong, two-celled. Ovarium seated on a thickened
torus, five-angled, five-celled : ovules solitary, pendulous :
style none : stigmas five, opposite the segments of the
calyx, long, filiform, glandular. Fruit (in the male flowers
abortive) a crustaceous pentachenium, surrounded by the
enlarged fleshy petals. Seeds pendulous. Albumen none.
Embryo slightly curved: radicle superior: cotyledons
VOL. V.
ANY. 105
plano-convex.—Shrubs with square branches. Lt;.ves op- Amrnge-
posite, simple, three-nerved. Buds scaly. Fowers race- ment aml
mose, unisexual: the males with abortive pistilla, the fe.Characters,
males with abortive stamens.—Ex. Coriaria.
Jussieu has pointed out the affinity of this tribe with
the Malpighiaceae: with Rhamneas it is also allied ; but
we think it would be no difficult matter to demonstrate
its close relation to Euphorbiaceae. The petals are in a
very reduced state, and scarcely differ from what we find
in several Euphorbiaceae.—The fruit of Coriaria myrti-
folia is poisonous.
Div. II.—Dichlamydece Calyciflorce. D. C.
(2. Peripetalae. Juss.) 2 Peripe-
Order 55. Stackhousiece. R. Brown.
Calyx five-cleft, equal, with an inflated tube. Petals
five, equal, inserted at the top of the tube of the calyx,
unguiculate: claws combined into a tube: limb narrow,
spreading. Stamens five, unequal, arising from the throat
of the calyx. Ovarium superior, 3-5-lobed ; lobes distinct:
ovules solitary, erect: styles 3-5, sometimes united at the
base: stigmas simple. Fruit of 3-5, indehiscent, winged
or apterous pieces, attached to a central persistent column.
Embryo erect in the axis of, and about as long as, the
fleshy albumen.—Leaves simple, entire, alternate, with
lateral minute stipules.—Ex. Stackhousia.
Related to the'Celastrineae, and also to the Euphorbiaceae;
on which last account we have placed it after Coriarieae.
Order 56. Celestrinece. R. Brown.
Suborder 1. Euonymece. D. C. Sepals 4-5 : estivation
imbricated. Petals 4-5 (rarely none), with a broad base :
estivation imbricated. Stamens alternate with the petals :
anthers erect. Torus large, expanded, flat. Ovarium
superior, immersed in the torus and adhering to it, 3-4-
celled: ovules one or many in each cell, attached by a
short funiculus to the axis, ascending. Fruit superior, a
capsule 3-4-celled, 3-4-valved and loculicidal, or a dry drupe
with a 1-2-celled nut. Seeds one or many in each cell,
ascending or resupinate, sometimes arillate. Albumen
fleshy. Embryo straight: radicle short, inferior: cotyle¬
dons flat and thick.—Shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate,
or opposite. Ex. Euonymus, Celestrus.
Suborder 2. Staphylece. D. C. Sepals five, connect¬
ed at the base, coloured: estivation imbricated. Petals
five, alternate: estivation imbricated. Stamens five, al¬
ternate with the petals. Torus a large urceolate disc.
Ovarium 2-3-celled, superior: ovules erect: styles 2-3,
cohering at the base. Fruit membranous or fleshy, inde¬
hiscent, or opening internally, partly abortive. Seeds as¬
cending, roundish, truncate at the hilum: testa bony:
hilum large, truncate. Albumen none. Embryo straight:
radicle small, inferior : cotyledons thick.—Shrubs. Leaves
opposite, pinnate, with common and partial stipules.—Ex.
Staphylea, Turpinia.
Allied to Hippocrateacese, to Euphorbiacese, and to
Rhamneac. Ilicineas has been now removed from this to
the Hypocorollae near to Ebenaceae.— Iheir medical pro¬
perties are unknown. The young shoots of Euonymus
Europceus, termed bois carre, when charred, are used as
pencils in some kinds of drawings.
Order 57. Bhamnece. Juss.
Calyx 4-5-cleft: estivation valvate. Petals distinct,
cucullate, or convolute, inserted into the throat of the
calyx, sometimes wanting. Stamens definite, opposite the
petals. Torus a large, flat, or urceolate disc. Ovarium
superior or half superior, 2-3-4-celled: ovules solitary,
erect. Fruit fleshy, indehiscent, or dry, and separating
in three parts. Seeds erect. Albumen fleshy, rarely
none. Embryo about as long as the seed: radicle short,
o
106 B O T
An-ange- inferior-: cotyledons large, flat.—Trees or shrubs often
ment and thorny. Leaves simple, alternate (or rarely opposite),
Characters. mjnuteiy stipulate.—Ex. Rhamnus, Phylica.
Allied to Celestrineae, to Euphorbiaceae, to Rosaceae,
and to Byttneriaceae. The berries of several species of
Rhamnus are violent purgatives. The fruit of Zizyphus,
however, is destitute of these qualities, and is both whole¬
some and pleasant to eat: the Jujube is a species of this
genus, as also the Lotus of the classics.
Tiwv S’ offns Xwroio (payoi fiiXiri^ea
Ouk sr’ u.va.'yyu'ka.i •jra.Xin nhXtv, twdi ves/rtfai"
AXX’ uvroi) (iouXovro (ait av&^cttn tuaroQuyour
Karov i^iwropivoi fjotviftiv, votrrov ts Xaha^ou,1
Order 58. Terebinthacece. Juss.
Suborder 1. Anacardiece. R. Bit. Flowers usually uni¬
sexual. Calyx usually small, persistent, 5- (sometimes
3.4.7.) divided. Petals equal in number to the sepals
(sometimes wanting), perigynous: estivation imbricate.
Stamens equal in number to the petals, and alternate, or
twice as many or more : filaments distinct or cohering at
the base, perigynous (or very rarely hypogynous.) Torus
fleshy, annular, or cup-shaped, or inconspicuous. Ovarium
single (or rarely 5-6), free or rarely adhering to the calyx,
1- celled : ovulum solitary, attached by the funiculus to the
base or side of the cell: styles one or three, occasionally
four: stigmas as many. Fruit indehiscent, usually drupa¬
ceous. Seed ascending, or more frequently pendulous. Al¬
bumen none. Radicle superior or inferior, next the hilum
(very rarely at the opposite extremity), sometimes curved
suddenly back : cotyledons thick and fleshy, or leafy.—
Trees or shrubs : juice resinous, gummy, caustic, or milky.
Leaves alternate, not dotted.—Ex. Anacardium (Plate
CXIIL), Mangifera, Rhus.
Suborder 2. Spondiacece. Kuntii. Flowers sometimes
unisexual. Calyx 5-cleft, regular. Petals 5 : estivation
between valvate and imbricate. Stamens ten, perigynous.
Torus large, discoid, or annular. Ovarium superior, sessile,
2- 5-celled : ovules solitary, ascending or pendulous : styles
five, short: stigmas obtuse. Fruit drupaceous, 2-5-celled.
Seed solitary. Albumen none. Radicle pointing to the
hilum : cotyledons plano-convex.—Trees. Leaves impari-
pinnate, alternate, not dotted, exstipulate.—Ex. Spondias.
Suborder 3. Burseracece. Kunth. Flowers usually bi¬
sexual. Calyx persistent, somewhat regular, 2-5-divided.
Petals 3-5: estivation usually valvate. Stamens two or four
times as many as petals, perigynous. Torus orbicular or an¬
nular. Ovarium 2-5-celled,superior,sessile: ovules in pairs,
collateral, suspended : style one or none : stigma simple or
lobed. Fruit drupaceous, 2-5-celled, its outer portion
often splitting into valves. Seed solitary. Albumen none.
Radicle straight, superior, next the hilum : cotyledons
fleshy, or wrinkled and plaited.—Trees or shrubs abound¬
ing in balsam, gum, or resin. Leaves alternate, usually
not dotted, generally with stipules.—Ex. Bursera, Idea.
Suborder 4. Amyridece. Kunth. Calyx small, regular,
persistent, four-divided. Petals four, inserted at the base
of the calyx (hypogynous, Kunth), equal, narrow at the
base : estivation imbricated. Stamens twice as many as
the petals, and inserted with them, distinct. Torus thin,
discoid, covering the base of the calyx. Ovarium supe¬
rior, sessile, one-celled: ovules two, pendulous: stigma ses¬
sile, capitate. Fruit somewhat drupaceous, indehiscent,
glandular. Seed one. Albumen none. Radicle superi¬
or, next the hilum, very short: cotyledons fleshy.—Resi¬
nous trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite, compound, dotted.
—Ex. Amyris.
We look on these suborders as parts of one order, and ge-
A N Y.
nera occur which show their affinity. Thus the old genus Arran, , j
Amyris is now split, and placed in the first, third, and mentii j
fourth of the above. Poupartia lies doubtfully between the Characr (I
second and third. Sorindeja is placed by Kunth in the ;
first, by Brown and De Candolle in the third ; while Spon¬
dias Mangifera, which probably does not differ, is in the
second. As a whole, this order has the seed anatropous :
to this there is perhaps one exception in Schinus, where
Kunth describes the ovule suspended, and the radicle
inferior; but this, from its great resemblance to Duvaua,
requires to be re-examined. If in Amyrideie the sta¬
mens be truly hypogynous, they may be perhaps removed
to the vicinity of the Aurantiaceae.—The Anacardieae
have an acrid, highly poisonous juice. The varnish of Syl-
het, and of Martaban, are obtained from species belonging
to them. These varnishes are at first white, but afterwards
become black, and are dangerous to some constitutions.
Mastich is the produce of species of Pistacia. The fruit
of some kinds, as the Mango, the Cashew-nut, and the Pis-
tacia-nut, are eaten. The fruit of some species of Spon-
diaceae, called Hog-plums, are eatable. Burseracese have
a fragrant juice, that is neither acrid nor staining. Several
balsams are obtained from them. The Amyrideae also
produce balsams, but the Am. toxifera is said to be poi¬
sonous.
Order 59. Connaracece. R. Brown.
Flowers bi- (rarely uni-) sexual. Calyx 5-partite, regular,
persistent: estivation imbricate or valvular. Petals 5, equal,
inserted at the base of the calyx. Stamens twice as many
as the petals, inserted with the petals, or somewhat hypogy¬
nous : filaments usually arising from a glandular or annular
torus (formed by the union of their glandular bases). Ova-
ria apocarpous, solitary, or several : ovules in pairs, col¬
lateral, ascending: styles terminal: stigmas obtuse, usually
dilated. Capsules 1-5, dehiscing longitudinally at the
ventral suture. Seeds solitary, erect, sometimes with an
arillus. Albumen none, or fleshy. Radicle superior, at
the opposite extremity from the hilum: cotyledons thick
when there is no albumen, foliaceous in those with it.—
Trees or shrubs, without resinous juices. Leaves com¬
pound, alternate, not dotted, exstipulate.—Ex. Connarus,
Omphalobium, Cnestis.
This order seems to form the passage from the Tere-
binthaceae to the Leguminosoe : to the last it is so closely
allied as scarcely to be sometimes distinguishable from it,
except by the radicle being at the opposite end from the
hilum. When there is but one capsule, as in Connarus (to
which may be united the first section of Ompalobium of
De Candolle), it is opposite the anterior segment of the
calyx, as in Leguminosee : when several, as in Cnestis, they
alternate. Brown thinks the insertion ought to be de¬
scribed as hypogynous.
Order 60. Leguminoscc. Juss.
Calyx five-parted, or toothed, or cleft, with the odd seg¬
ment anterior : segments often unequal and variously com¬
bined. Petals five (or, by abortion, four, three, two, one,
or wanting), inserted into the base of the calyx, usually
unequal, sometimes variously combined; the odd petal su¬
perior. Stamens definite or indefinite, inserted with the pe¬
tals or sometimes hypogynous, distinct, or monadelphous,
or diadelphous, or rarely triadelphous: anthers bilocular,
versatile. Ovaria superior, one-celled, solitary (or very
rarely 2-5): ovules one or many: style simple, proceed¬
ing from the upper or ventral suture : stigma simple.
Fruit a legume or drupe. Seeds solitary or several, some¬
times with an arillus. Albumen none. Embryo straight,
or with the radicle bent upon the edge of the cotyledons.—
J Homer’s Odysseij, ix. line 94.
•aiige-
iit and
C-racters,
BOTANY.
Leaves alternate, with usually two stipules at the base of
the petiole, and two at the base of each leaflet in the pin¬
nate leaves. Pedicels usually articulated.—Ex. Pisum,
Citysus, Mismosa, Swartzia, Cassia.
This order touches upon many others, but it is particu¬
larly allied to the almond tribe among the Rosaceae, from
which, till lately that Mr Brown pointed it out in the relative
positions of the calyx and pistillum, no good character had
been discovered to separate them.—This family is among
the most important to man, whether as affording objects
of beauty, of utility, or of nutriment. The bean, the pea,
the vetch,, and the clover tribe belong to it; as do the log¬
wood, the laburnum, indigo, the tamarind, senna, and the
acacias. Its general property is to be wholesome; but
there are several exceptions. Thus, the seeds of Labur¬
num and the juice of Coronilla varia are poisonous. Senna,
obtained from several species of Cassia, is purgative; se¬
veral other plants are also purgative. The pericarp of
some contains much tannin. Several kinds of gums and
balsams are got from them. But it would consume pages
to enumerate all the uses to which this, one of the most ex¬
tensive orders in the vegetable kingdom, has been applied.
Order 61. Moringece. R. Brow n.
Calyx five-partite : estivation slightly imbricated. Pe¬
tals five, nearly equal, the upper one ascending. Stamens
ten, perigynous: filaments slightly petaloid, callous, and
hairy at the base : anthers simple, one-celled, with a thick
convex connectivum. Torus fleshy, lining the tube of the
calyx. Ovarium superior, stipitate, one-celled : style fili¬
form, terminal, not obliquely inserted, stigma simple.
Placentae three, parietal. Fruit a pod-like capsule, one-
celled, three-valved, loculicide. Seeds numerous, half-
buried in the fungous substance of the valves. Albumen
none. Radicle straight, small: cotyledons fleshy, plano¬
convex.—Leaves twice or thrice pinnate, with an odd
leaflet.—Ex. Moringa.
Formerly considered as part of Leguminosae, but now se¬
parated by Mr Brown. It seems, however, to have more
affinity with these than with any others; nor do we see in
the fruit very grave objections for such a supposition, as
the flowers of Gleditschia have occasionally two carpels
united in the same manner as the three of Moringa. The
root of Moringa pterigosperma, or horse-radish tree, has a
warm, biting, and slightly aromatic taste, and is used as a
stimulant in paralytic affections and intermittent fevers.
Order 62. Rosacece. Juss.
Suborder 1. Chrysobalanece. R. Brown. Calyx five-
lobed, the fifth lobe superior, sometimes bracteolate at the
base. Petals five, or wanting, more or less irregular.
Stamens definite or indefinite, usually irregular. Ovarium
superior, solitary, 1-2-celled, stipitate, the stalk cohering
more or less on one side with the calyx: ovules in pairs,
erect: style single, arising from the base of the ovary :
stigma simple. Drupe 1-2-celled. Seeds usually solitary,
erect. Albumen none, or rarely fleshy. Radicle inferior :
cotyledons fleshy.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, al¬
ternate, stipulate, without glands.—Ex. Chrysobalamus,
Hirtella.
Suborder 2. Amygdalece. Juss. Calyx five-toothed,
the odd lobe superior. Petals five. Stamens about twenty,
in estivation curved inwards: anthers erect, two-celled.
Torus lining the tube of the calyx. Ovarium superior,
solitary, simple, one-celled: ovules two, suspended: styles
terminal, with a groove on each side: stigma reniform.
Fruit a drupe. Seeds usually solitary, suspended from
the funiculus, which arises from the base of the cavity, but
coheres with its side. Albumen none. Embryo straight:
radicle next the hilum: cotyledons thick.—Trees or shrubs.
Leaves simple, alternate, stipulate.—Ex. Prunus, Amyg-
dalus.
107
Suborder 3. Neilliece. Calyx campanulate, five-cleft, Arrange-
the odd segment superior. Petals five, sessile. Stamens ment and
indefinite, unequal: filaments smooth: anthers erect, kb^^jaracteis-
locular, dehiscing on the outside longitudinally. Torus
lining the tube of the calyx. Ovarium superior, simple,
one-celled: ovules several, ascending: style round, ter¬
minal, persistent: stigma simple, obtuse. Capsule one-
celled, dehiscing at the inner or ventral suture. Seeds
several. Albumen copious, fleshy. Embryo in the axis
of the albumen : radicle next the hilum, thick, short: co¬
tyledons plano-convex.—Shrubs. Leaves simple, alter¬
nate, stipulate.—Ex. Neillia.
Suborder 4. Spiraea. Juss. Calyx 4-5-lobed, fifth
lobe superior: estivation imbricated. Petals five, equal.
Stamens indefinite, in estivation curved inwards: anthers
erect, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Torus thin or
fleshy, lining the whole tube of the calyx, or free in its
upper part. Ovaria superior, one or several, apocarpous,
or rarely cohering: ovules 1-6 in each carpel, suspended :
styles lateral, but near the apex: stigmas simple, emargi-
nate. Fruit usually of distinct follicles, very rarely capsu¬
lar. Seeds 1-6, apterous, or rarely winged. Albumen none.
Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum: cotyledons flat.
—Leaves alternate, stipulate, or rarely without stipules,
simple, or rarely trifoliate.—Ex. Spiraa, Gillenia.
Suborder 5. Quillajea. Don. Calyx five-cleft: estiva¬
tion valvate. Petals five, alternate with the segments of
the calyx, sometimes wanting. Stamens two or three
times as many as the segments of the calyx, perigynous :
anthers two-celled. Ovaria five, connate at the base, one-
celled : ovules indefinite, ascending : styles five : stigmas
five, lateral, papillose. Fruit of five follicles, connate at
their base. Seeds numerous, ascending, winged at the
apex. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle cylin¬
drical, next the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous, convolute,
longer than the radicle.—Trees. Leaves alternate, entire.
Stipules minute, caducous. Flowers unisexual.—Ex.
Quillaja, Kageneckia. '•
Suborder 6. Sanguisorbea. Juss. Calyx 3-4-5-lobed,
with a thickened, afterwards indurated, tube: estivation
valvate. Petals none. Stamens definite, alternating with
the segments of the calyx (though sometimes fewer than
them by abortion), rarely indefinite: anthers erect, two-
celled and bursting longitudinally, or one-celled and
bursting transversely. Torus lining the tube of the calyx.
Ovarium 1-4, with a lateral style proceeding from the apex
or base: ovule solitary, attached to the ovarium, close
to the base of the style: stigma simple, penicilliform,
or bearded, or rarely capitate. Nuts 1-4. Seed solitary,
suspended, or ascending. Albumen none. Radicle su¬
perior : cotyledons large, plano-convex.—Leaves alter¬
nate, stipulate, simple, lobed, or compound. Flowers often
unisexual.—Ex. Sanguisorba, Acana.
Suborder 7. Potentillea. Juss. Calyx 4-5- (or more-)
divided : estivation valvate. Petals as many as the lobes
of the calyx, and alternating. Stamens indefinite, some¬
times 10-15-20, rarely five, and then alternate with the
petals : anthers bilocular. Torus lining the tube of the
calyx, sometimes becoming very fleshy: ovaria distinct,
indefinite, or rarely definite (2-5): ovules suspended, erect,
or ascending, solitary, or rarely in pairs, one above the
other : style lateral, attached near the apex : stigma sim¬
ple or plumose. Fruit of small nuts or achenia. Seeds
solitary. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle next
the hilum : cotyledons flat.—Leaves alternate, often com¬
pound, stipulate.—Ex. Potentilla, Dryas, Fragaria.
Suborder 8. Rosea. Juss. Calyx five-divided, seg¬
ments often pinnatisect; tube contracted at the mouth,
at length fleshy: estivation spirally imbricated. Petals
five. Stamens indefinite: anthers two-celled. Torus
108 B O T
Arrange- thick, lining the tube of the calyx, bearing at its margin
ment and the stamens and petals, and on its surface the carpels.
Characters. Qvarjeg SUperj0r, indefinite, concealed within the tube of
the calyx: ovules in pairs, one above the other, suspended:
styles persistent, lateral, attached near the apex of the
ovary, protruded beyond the tube of the calyx, and their
upper portions free or rarely concrete. Achenia numerous,
hairy. Seed solitary. Albumen none. Embryo straight:
radicle superior: cotyledons flat.—Shrubs. Leaves pin¬
nate, alternate, stipulate.—Ex. Hosa.
Suborder 9. Pomacece. Juss. Calyx five-toothed, the
odd segment superior: tube more or less globose, ex¬
tremely fleshy and juicy. Petals five, unguiculate. Sta¬
mens indefinite. Torus thin, lining the tube of the ca¬
lyx, bearing the petals and stamens on its margin. Ova-
ria 1-5, adhering to the side of the calyx: ovules
ascending, two collateral, or rarely solitary: styles 1-5:
stigmas simple. Fruit a pomum, 1-5-celled, or spuri¬
ously 10-celled : endocarp cartilaginous, spongy, or bony.
Seeds solitary. Albumen none. Radicle short, next the
hilum : cotyledons flat, or rarely convolute.—Trees or
shrubs. Leaves alternate, stipulate.—Ex. Pyrus, Cra-
tcegus.
These nine suborders we do not hesitate in thinking
portions of one; nor are genuine marks to be found be¬
tween them. The most distinct is the Chrysobalaneie:
the Neillieae form a passage to the Homalineae : but as for
the others, we do not see how they are to be limited inter
se. The true Sanguisorbeae have no petals, few stamens,
and definite ovaria; while the Potentilleae ought to have
petals, numerous stamens, and numerous carpels: but
Cercocarpus having no petals, has many stamens; Sib-
baldia has petals, with five stamens and carpels; Are-
monia has petals, definite stamens, and two carpels;
thus leaving between the two suborders no character but
in the presence or absence of the petals. Nor is Iloseas
scarcely distinct on the one hand from Potentilleae, and on
the other from Pomaceae. Neuradeae we have referred to
the Ficoideae.—As to properties, the fruit of some of the
Chrysobalaneae is eaten under the name of the cocoa-
plum. Amygdaleae, including the Plum, Cherry, Almond,
Peach, &c. are well known: the leaves and kernel con¬
tain hydrocyanic acid, and are usually poisonous. I he
other suborders are in general wholesome: they contain
an astringent principle, on account of which some are used
as febrifuges: the roots of a few are emetic.
Order 63. Calycanthece. Lindl.
Sepals and petals confounded, indefinite, combined in
a fleshy tube : estivation imbricate. Stamens indefinite,
perigynous: anthers extrorse, bursting longitudinally. To¬
rus lining the tube of the calyx. Ovaria several, simple,
one-celled, adhering to the tube of the calyx : ovules soli-
• tary, or in pairs, one above the other: style terminal.
Achenia inclosed within the fleshy tube of the calyx. Seed
solitary. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle inferior:
cotyledons convolute.—Shrubs with square stems. Leaves
opposite, simple, scabious, exstipulate. Flowers bisexual,
axillary, solitary.—;Ex. Calycanthus, Chimonanthus.
Most nearly allied to the Rosaceae, although in some
points they bear a resemblance to the Monimiea:: even
to the Magnoliaceae there is an affinity through Illicium.
The aromatic fragrance of the flowers is the only known
property.
Order 64. Salicariere} Juss.
Suborder 1. Lythrariece. Juss. Calyx tubular or cam-
panulate, lobed, the lobes sometimes with intermediate ac-
1 We have arranged this and the fifteen following orders somew.
are disposed in a more natural series.
A N Y.
cessory lobes or teeth: estivation valvate. Petals alter- Arrang
nate with the lobes of the calyx, very deciduous, some- mentaij
times wanting. Stamens inserted a little below the petals, Cllaracti
equal in number to them, or two, three, or four times as v-,‘rv
many, rarely fewer: anthers introrse, bilocular, bursting
longitudinally. Ovarium superior, 2-4-celled: ovules nu¬
merous : style filiform : stigma usually capitate. Placentae
in the axis. Capsule membranous, surrounded by, but
not combined with, the calyx; usually one-celled by the
obliteration of the dissepiments, bursting longitudinally or
irregularly. Seeds numerous, small, apterous or winged.
Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum:
cotyledons flat and foliaceous.—Herbs or shrubs with
usually tetragonal branches. Leaves opposite or (seldom)
alternate, entire, exstipulate, and without glands. Flow ers
bisexual.—Ex. Lythrum, Lagerstrcemia.
SuborderS. Cerutophyllece. Gray. Calyx 10-12-par-
tite, lobes equal. Petals none. Stamens 12-20: anthers
ovato-oblong, bilocular, bicuspidate, sessile. Ovarium free,
ovate, one-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous : style filiform,
oblique: stigma simple. Nut one-celled, indehiscent,
terminated by the indurated style. Seed solitary, pendu¬
lous. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle supe¬
rior: cotyledons four! alternately smaller.—Aquatic herbs.
Leaves verticillate, cut into filiform lobes. Flowers uni¬
sexual.—Ex. Ceratophyllum.
Much as these two suborders differ in appearance, we
have the authority of Richard for uniting them. It must
be confessed, however, that their chief great resemblance
is in the persistent calyx, free from, but surrounding, the
fruit.—Lythrum Salicaria is astringent: a few species of
the order are used for dyeing.
Order 65. Rhizophorece. R. Brown.
Calyx 4-13-lobed: estivation valvate, or sometimes
calyptriform. Petals inserted on the calyx, alternate with
the lobes, and equal to them in number. Stamens insert¬
ed with the petals, twice or thrice as many: filaments
distinct, subulate: anthers erect, straight, or incurved.
Ovarium two-celled, adherent to the calyx, or (rarely)
free: ovules two or more in each cell, pendulous. Fruit
indehiscent, one-celled. Seed pendulous, solitary. Al¬
bumen none. Radicle long: cotyledons flat.—Trees or
shrubs. Leaves simple, opposite, with stipules between
the petioles.—Ex. Rhizophora.
Allied on the one hand to Salicarieae, and on the other
to Saxifrageae (Cunonieae) : to Vochysiacese and Combre-
tacese its affinity is also strong.—The bark is astringent,
and in some cases is used for dyeing black.
Order 66. Vochysiacece. Sx Hilaire.
Sepals 4-5, unequal, united at the base, the upper one
spurred: estivation imbricated. Petals one, two, three,
or five, alternate with and inserted into the base of the
sepals, unequal. Stamens 1-5, opposite to or alternate
with the petals, for the most part sterile, one having an
ovate, fertile, four-celled anther. Ovarium free, or ad¬
herent to the calyx, three-celled: ovules solitary or in
pairs, rarely more : style and stigma one. Placentae in the
axis. Capsule triquetrous, three-celled, three-valved, lo-
culicide, or rarely septicide. Seeds usually 1-2 (rarely
many) in each cell, erect (Lindl.). Albumen none.
Embryo straight: radicle short,superior: cotyledons large,
foliaceous, convolute, plicate.'—Trees. Leaves opposite,
entire, stipulate (very rarely exstipulate).—Ex. Vochysia,
Qualea.
An order as yet ill understood, but seemingly most al¬
lied to Combretaceae and Onagrariae.
differently from what De Candolle has done; hut we trust they
BOTANY.
109
n
C
's.
Lnge. Order 67. Combretacece. R. Brown.
it and Calyx 4-5-lobed, lobes deciduous. Petals alternate with
bcters. t]ie ]0bes, or wanting. Stamens twice as many as the lobes,
rarely equal in number to them or thrice as many: filaments
distinct, subulate: anthers bilocular, bursting longitudi¬
nally. Ovarium adherent with the tube of the calyx,
one-celled: ovules 2-4, pendulous from the apex of the
cavity : style one, slender: stigma simple. Fruit drupa¬
ceous, baccate, or nut-like, one-celled, indehiscent, often
winged. Seed solitary (by abortion), pendulous. Albu¬
men none. Radicle superior: cotyledons leafy, usually
convolute, sometimes plicate.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves
alternate or opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Combretum, Ter-
minalia.
Allied to Onagrariae, Memecyleae, Myrtaceae, and even
to Santalaceae and Elaeagneae.—The species of this order
are mostly astringents: the bark, therefore, of some is
used for tanning; others are employed in dyeing. Ter-
minalia Vernix is said to furnish the Chinese varnish,
which is poisonous.
Order 68. Memecylece. D. C.
Calyx 4-5-lobed or toothed. Petals 4-5, alternate with
the sepals. Stamens twice as many as the petals: fila¬
ments distinct: anthers incurved, twro-celled. Ovarium
2- 8-celled, adherent with the tube of the calyx: ovules
solitary: style one, filiform: stigma simple. Berry (ba-
lausta?) crowned by the limb of the calyx, one, four, or
eight-celled. Seeds solitary, pendulous. Albumen none.
Embryo straight: radicle superior: cotyledons foliaceous,
convolute.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite, simple, entire, with¬
out stipules or dots, penninerved or rarely three-nerved.
—Ex. Memeeylon, Mouriria.
Near Myrtaceae and Melastomaceae, and in some re¬
spects intermediate.
Order 69. Melastomaccce. Juss.
Calyx with four or five teeth or divisions, which are more
or less deep, or are sometimes united and separate from
the tube like a lid. Petals equal to the segments of the
calyx, perigynous. Stamens equal in number to the petals,
and alternate with them, usually with intermediate sterile
ones: filaments in estivation bent downwards between
the carpels and the calyx : anthers long, two-celled, usu¬
ally bursting by two terminal pores, sometimes longitu¬
dinally. Ovarium with several cells, more or less coher¬
ing with the calyx by its angles, but otherwise free:
ovules indefinite : style one : stigma simple, entire, punc-
tiform or capitate. Placentae in the axis. Fruit plurilo-
cular, either free, and then capsular, valvate, and loculi-
cide, or adherent, baccate (a balausta), and indehiscent.
Seeds numerous, minute. Albumen 0. Embryo straight
or curved: radicle pointing to the hilum : cotyledons
equal or unequal.—Leaves opposite, undivided, not dotted,
3- 9-nerved.—Ex. Melastoma, Rhexia, Charianthus.
Bordering on both the Salicarieae and Myrtaceae, but
differing from these and other allied orders in several par¬
ticulars. The great characteristic of this order is the sin¬
gular situation of the filaments in estivation.—There are
no unwholesome species in this large family, and the suc¬
culent fruit of several is eatable and pleasant. They all
possess a slight degree of astringency.
Order 70. Alangiece. D. C.
Calyx campanulate, 5-10-toothed, with an annular
fleshy disc, or continuation of the torus at the base of the
segments. Petals as many as the segments of the calyx,
linear, x-eflexed : estivation twisted. Stamens long, ex-
serted, two or four times as many as the petals : fila¬
ments distinct, villous at the base : anthers introrse, two-
celled, often sterile. Ovarium globose : style one, subu- Arrange-
late : stigma capitate or conical. Berry (balausta) oval, “ent anu
coherent with the tube of the calyx, and somewhat crown-1:01 a
ed by its limb, fleshy, slightly ribbed, 1-3-celled: endo-
carp sometimes osseous, and separating from the sarco-
carp like a putamen. Seeds solitary, pendulous. Albu¬
men fleshy, brittle. Embryo straight: radicle long, as¬
cending : cotyledons flat, foliaceous.—Trees. Leaves al¬
ternate, exstipulate, entire, not dotted.—Ex. Alangium.
Closely allied to the Melastomacese, from which they
differ in very few particulars. To Myrtaceae they also
bear so strong a resemblance, that till lately they were
inserted in that order.—The fruit is eatable. The juice
of the root is said to be vermifuge and hydragogic; and
the root itself, in powder, efficacious against the bite of
serpents.
Order 71. Philadelphece. Don.
Calyx 4-10-divided. Petals alternate with the segments
of the calyx, and equal to them in number: estivation
convolute-imbricate. Stamens indefinite, in one or two
rows, or rarely ten. Ovarium coherent with the tube of
the calyx: styles distinct, or united into one : stigmas
4-10. Capsule free above, 4-5-celled. Seeds indefinite,
scobiform, subulate, smooth, pendulous, heaped in the
inner angle of the cells upon an angular placenta: arillus
loose, membranous. Albumen fleshy. Embryo straight,
about as long as the albumen: radicle superior, obtuse:
cotyledons flat, shorter than the radicle.—Shrubs. Leaves
deciduous, opposite, without dots or stipules.—Ex. Phila-
delphus, Deutzia, Decumaria.
This small order borders on the Myrtaceae, and also on
the Saxifrageae. Decumaria is usually described with a
fruit of 7 10 cells, but Mr Don1 asserts it has but four. Mr
Lindley doubts if the cover to the seed be an arillus; but
if it were the testa, then the interior portion could not have
been attached next the hilum, as in these plants, in order
to have produced a radicle pointing also towards it.
Order 72. Myrtacece. Juss.
Calyx 4-5-6-8-cleft, the limb sometimes cohering in twro
portions, sometimes in one, and then falling off like a cap .
or lid. Petals perigynous, as many as the’ segments of
the calyx, and alternating with them, sometimes slightly
united at the very base; rarely none : estivation imbri¬
cated. Stamens inserted with the petals, twice as many
as the petals, or (usually) indefinite: filaments either all
distinct, or monadelphous, or variously polyadelphous, in
estivation curved inwards. Anthers ovate, bilocular,
small, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium cohering with
the tube of the calyx, formed of two, four, five, or six
carpels, the dissepiments rarely imperfect, and hence one
to six-celled: style and stigma simple. Placentae in the
axis. Fruit dry or fleshy, dehiscent or indehiscent, 2-6
or many-celled, or by the obliteration of the dissepiments
one-celled. Seeds rarely solitary, or few, usually inde¬
finite. Albumen 0. Embryo straight or curved : radicle
next the hilum: cotyledons distinct, or sometimes conso¬
lidated into one mass with the radicle.—Trees or shrubs.
Leaves usually opposite, entire, and with transparent dots,
sometimes alternate, rarely serrated, and rarely without
dots.—Ex. Chamcelaucium, Calytrix : Leptospermum, Eu¬
calyptus : Myrtus,'Eugenia : Barringtonia, Gustavia :
Bertholletia, Lecythis.
This very extensive family has been separated into five
sections by De Candolle ; but, however desirable it might
be to erect these into independent orders, no good cha¬
racters have yet been pointed out. We shall here give a
summary of the sections. 1. Chamcelauciece has a one-
1 Jamieson’s Jour. Jan. 1830, p. 170.
no
BOTANY.
Arrange- celled ovarium and capsule, with leaves opposite, and
ment and dotted. 2. Leptospermece has a plurilocular capsule, op-
Characters. p0Sjte or alternate leaves, which are usually dotted. 3.
Myrtece has a berry or balausta, distinct stamens, oppo¬
site leaves, which are almost always dotted. 4. Barring-
tonece has a fleshy, one-celled fruit, monadelphous stamens,
opposite or verticillate leaves without dots. 5. Lecythidete
has a plurilocular woody capsule that opens with a lid or
remains closed, monadelphous stamens, and leaves alter¬
nate, and not dotted. To the Myrteae we, with Mr Lind-
ley, unite the Granateae, because Punica or the pomegra¬
nate only differs by having its two verticels of carpels
developed instead of one, as in plants not in a state of
cultivation : the inner series (or those at the bottom of
the fruit) have their placentae in the axis; but the outer
series, forced to the top of the fruit by the contraction of
the mouth of the tube of the calyx, having their placen¬
tae in the ovary at the back of the inner carpels, exhibit
them in the ripe fruit in a horizontal position on the up¬
per surface of the lower cells.—The dots on the leaves
and other parts indicate the presence of a volatile oil,
which is aromatic and pungent, and gives the perfume to
the cloves of commerce, and to several fruits of this or¬
der. The fleshy seeds of the Lecythideae are eatable, and
highly esteemed.
Order 73. Onagrarice. Juss.
Calyx tubular, with the limb usually quadripartite, some¬
times sexpartite, very rarely 2-3-partite, the lobes some¬
times cohering in various degrees : estivation valvate.
Petals usually equal in number to the lobes of the calyx,
regular (or rarely irregular), inserted at the top of the
tube: estivation twisted. Stamens definite: filaments
distinct: anthers oblong or ovate : pollen triangular. Ova¬
rium plurilocular, cohering with the tube of the calyx :
ovules indefinite, rarely definite: style filiform: stigma
capitate or lobed. Fruit baccate or capsular, dehiscent or
indehiscent, 1-2-4-celled. Seeds indefinite, rarely de¬
finite, or solitary in each cell. Albumen 0. Embryo
straight: radicle long and slender, pointing to the hilum:
cotyledons short, equal, or rarely unequal.—Leaves alter¬
nate or opposite, not dotted.—Ex. Montinia, Fuchsia, Epi-
lobium, Jussicea, Circcea, Trapa.
Distinguished from Salicarieae by the adherent fruit;
from Myrtaceae by the definite stamens and leaves not
dotted ; from Halorageae by the filiform style and absence
of albumen; and from Loaseae by the seeds attached to
the central axis, and not to the wall of the fruit. With
all these, however, Onagrariae are intimately allied. Lind-
ley has separated from this family Circcea and Trapa ; the
former on account of its solitary seeds, but then Gama is
in the same predicament. Trapa is chiefly remarkable
for its very large seeds and unequal cotyledons.—Almost
no properties have been recorded of these beautiful plants.
The seeds of Trapa, which are very large, are eatable.
Order 74. Haloragece. R. Brown.
Suborder 1. Cercodece. Rich. Calyx with the limb
3-4-partite or entire. Petals inserted at the top of the
tube of the calyx, and alternate with its segments, or
wanting. Stamens inserted with the petals, twice as many,
or equal to them in number, rarely fewer. Ovarium close¬
ly cohering with the tube of the calyx, 1-3-4-celled: ovules
solitary, pendulous : style 0 : stigmas equal in number to
the cells, pappulose on their inner surface, or penicilli-
form. Fruit dry and indehiscent, membranous or bony,
with as many cells as stigmas (rarely fewer by abortion).
Seeds solitary, pendulous. Albumen fleshy, sometimes
thin. Embryo straight, in the axis of the albumen : radi¬
cle superior, long : cotyledons minute.—Leaves alternate,
opposite, or whorled. Flowers axillary, sessile, occasion¬
ally unisexual.—Ex. Haloragis, Hippuris, Myriophyllum.
Suborder 2. Callitrichece. Link. Calyx exceedingly Arrange
minute, inconspicuous, surrounding the ovarium, soon rup- ment an:
turing. Petals wanting. Stamen one, rarely two: fila- c
ment filiform, grooved in the inside : anther reniform, one-
celled, bursting transversely. Ovarium solitary, tetrago¬
nal, compressed, two-celled (of two carpels, the dorsal
sutures being slightly indexed towards the axis) : ovules
in pairs, peltate: styles none: stigmas two, filiform, pap¬
pulose on their inner surface. Fruit two-celled, contract¬
ed at the dorsal sutures, at once loculicidal and septicidal
(thus as if composed of four achenia, attached round the
base of the stigmas by the centre of their inner angle).
Seeds, two in each cell, divaricating (or in each achenium
solitary), peltate. Embryo slightly curved, in the axis of
a thin fleshy albumen : radicle superior, long: cotyledons
very short.—Aquatic herbaceous plants. Leaves oppo¬
site, simple, entire. Flowers axillary, very minute, usually
unisexual, sometimes with two small bractese at the base
of the short peduncle.—Ex. Callitriche.
Between these two suborders there is little difference
except the seeds solitary or in pairs; the last is usually
described with four cells to the fruit, although with only
two stigmas, an incongruity too obvious to require discus¬
sion ; the structure is as in the Boraginese and Labiatae.
The nearest affinity is with the Onagrariae, from which
they only differ by the presence of albumen, which, how¬
ever, is sometimes very thin indeed.
Order 75. Loasece. Juss.
Calyx five-parted, persistent, in estivation spreading.
Petals five, cucullate, arising from the top of the tube of
the calyx, and alternate with its segments, sometimes
with an inner series of five, either similar to the outer or
dissimilar : estivation inflexed, valvate. Stamens inde¬
finite, in several rows, distinct, or polyadelphous, each
parcel opposite the outer petals: filaments subulate, un¬
equal, the outer ones often sterile. Ovarium adherent
with the tube of the calyx, or (rarely) only inclosed with¬
in it, one-celled: ovules several: styles 3-7, combined
into one: stigma one or several. Placentae parietal.
Fruit capsular or succulent, one-celled, 3-7-valved, septi¬
cidal. Seeds usually indefinite, rarely definite, without
an arillus. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen,
straight: radicle pointing to the hilum : c6tyledons small,
flat.—Herbaceous plants, hispid, with sharp stinging hairs.
Leaves opposite or alternate. Peduncles axillary, one-
flowered.—Ex. Loasa (Plate CXVIIL), Mentzelia.
This family is most readily distinguished from those,
with which it might be otherwise confounded, by the pa¬
rietal placentae. With Onagrariae it has much, but with
Cucurbitaceae, as we conceive, little affinity. The cuticle
of the stem sometimes separates readily while growing.
—The stinging property is the only one known.
Order 76. Cucurbitacece. Juss.
Calyx 5-toothed, sometimes obsolete. Petals five, dis¬
tinct or more or less united, sometimes scarcely distin¬
guishable from the calyx, strongly marked with reticulat¬
ing veins, sometimes fringed. Stamens five, distinct or
triadelphous : anthers 2-celled, usually long and sinuous,
rarely ovate. Ovarium adhering to the tube of the calyx,
of 3-5-carpels, spuriously one-celled: ovules solitary or
indefinite: style short: stigmas 3-5, two-lobed, very thick,
velvety or fringed. Fruit a peponida. Seeds usually ovate
and flat, enveloped in a juicy, or dry and membranous,
arilla: testa coriaceous, often thick at the margin. Al¬
bumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle next the hilum:
cotyledons foliaceous, palmatinerved.—Stem succulent,
climbing by means of lateral tendrils formed of abortive
stipules. Leaves palmatinerved, alternate. Flowers usual¬
ly unisexual.—Ex. Cucumis, Bryonia.
This order bears considerable affinity to the last. Brown
BOTANY.
jaiige- and Jussieu consider the calyx and corolla together as a
] :nt and double calyx ; and were it not for the obvious affinity of
Ci racters. Belvisiaceae, we would have removed it to the Mono-
' 'y~^ chlamydeae.—The melon, the cucumber, and the gourds,
come here, of which the uses are well known. Some, as
the colocynth, are extremely bitter and purgative. The
seeds of all are sweet and oily, and from some a consider¬
able quantity of fine flavoured oil may be expressed.
Order 77. Papayucece. Agardh.
Flowers unisexual. Calyx minute, five-toothed. Corolla
monopetalous, inserted into the base of the calyx, in the
male tubular and five-lobed, in the female divided nearly
to the base into five segments. Stamens ten, inserted on
the throat of the corolla: anthers introrse, two-celled,
bursting longitudinally; those alternate with the lobes of
the corolla on short filaments, those opposite to the lobes
sessile. Ovarium free, one-celled : ovules indefinite : stig¬
mas sessile, five-lobed, lacerated. Placentas five, parietal.
Fruit succulent, indehiscent, one-celled. Seeds indefinite,
parietal, enveloped in a loose mucous coat: testa brittle,
pitted. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen : radicle
slender, turned towards the hilum : cotyledons flat.—Trees
without branches. Leaves alternate, lobed, on long slen¬
der petioles.—Ex. Carica (Plate CXXIV.)
Formerly referred to the neighbourhood of the Urticem,
but now considered as more allied to the Cucurbitaceae
and Passifloreae, especially in the structure of its fruit.
—The tree yields an acrid milky juice. The fruit is cooked
and eaten. Its juice, when unripe, is a very powerful ver¬
mifuge. When newly-killed meat of any kind is sus¬
pended among the leaves, it in the course of a few hours
becomes quite tender.
Order 78. Belvisiacece. R. Brown.
Calyx monosepalous, persistent; limb divided. Corolla
monopetalous, plaited, deciduous, inserted on the summit
of the tube of the calyx. Stamens either indefinite, or
i ten with an outer row of abortive ones converted into a
much laciniated inner monopetalous corolla, distinct or
polyadelphous: anthers two-celled. Ovarium adhering
to the tube of the calyx, one-celled: ovules indefinite:
style one, short: stigma one, lobed or angular. Placen¬
tas parietal. Fruit a fleshy berry, crowned by the lobes
of the calyx, one-celled. Seeds numerous, parietal.—
Shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate. Flowers
axillary and solitary, bisexual.—Ex. Belcisia, Asteranthos.
This small order exhibits much affinity to both Cucur¬
bitaceae and Passifloreae. Belvisia is the same genus as
Napoleonea, an older name, and which ought therefore to
be retained. A comparison of Asteranthos will readily
show that the inner corolla of Belvisia is, as we have
stated, formed of an outer row of stamens.
Order 79. Passiflorece. Juss.
Sepals five or ten, united below into a more or less
elongated tube, in one or two series, the outer being lar¬
ger and foliaceous, the inner more petaloid, and sometimes
wanting. Petals perigynous, usually represented by an
annular or many filamentous processes, rarely five, dis¬
tinct, and with the usual appearance of petals. Stamens
nve (very rarely indefinite), monadelphous, usually with
processes from the torus between them and the petals:
anthers versatile, turned outwards, two-celled, bursting
longitudinally. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovules inde-
miite : styles three, or four, or none. Fruit naked or sur¬
rounded by the calyx, one-celled, usually three-valved,
sometimes dehiscent and loculicide, sometimes fleshy and
indehiscent. Seeds indefinite, compressed, with an aril-
ns or strophida: testa brittle, sculptured. Embryo straight,
to the a fleshy albumen: radicle pointing
Tribe 1. Paropsiece. Petals five, membranaceous. Sta-
111
mens five or numerous : ovarium sessile : stigma of three, Arrange-
four, or five divisions: capsule with as many valves as ment and
divisions of the stigma. Seeds with a thick fleshy arilla : Characters,
cotyledons foliaceous.—Shrubs, not climbing, without ten-
drils. Leaves alternate, without glands, exstipulate. Ex.
Patrisia, Smeathmannia.
Tribe 2. Passiflorece veree. Petals deformed. Stamens
five, opposite the outer divisions of the calyx: ovarium
stipitate: stigma sessile, three-lobed : capsule three-valved:
seeds with a pulpy arillus: cotyledons foliaceous.—Usually
climbing plants, with tendrils. Leaves alternate, stipulate,
usually with glands on the petioles.—Ex. Passflora, Tac-
sonia.
Tribe 3. Malesherhiece. Calyx tubulous : petals changed
into a ten-toothed membranous corona: stamens five, op¬
posite the inner segments of the calyx (Don) or ten : ova¬
rium stipitate: styles three, inserted below the apex of
the ovary : capsule three-valved : placentae not higher up
than the dehiscence of the valves : seeds strophiolate,
cotyledons fleshy.—Suffrutescent plants, not climbing,
without tendrils. Leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate,
without glands.—Ex. Malesherbia.
We think the view we have taken of the corolla is borne
out by a comparison of the different genera in this with
all those in the allied neighbouring orders. There is a
considerable affinity between these and the Violariem, Fla-
comtianeae, and Capparideae; but through JMalesherhia it
is strongest with the 1 urneraceae.—In several species
the succulent arillus and pulp has been found to be fra¬
grant, cooling, and agreeable to the taste.
Order 80. Turneracece. D. C.
Calyx with five equal lobes: estivation imbricated.
Petals five, inserted into the tube ef the calyx: estiva¬
tion twisted. Stamens five, inserted a little below the
petals, and alternating: filaments distinct: anthers ob¬
long, erect, two-celled. Ovarium free, one-celled : ovules
indefinite: styles three, more or less cohering, or bifid:
stigmas multifid. Placentae three, parietal. Capsule
one-celled, three-valyed, loculicide, bursting only half¬
way down. Seeds indefinite, crustaceous,' reticulated,
with a thin arillus on one side. Embryo slightly curved,
in the middle of a fleshy albumen : radicle pointing to the
hilum: cotyledons plano-convex.—Herbaceous or suffru¬
tescent plants, pubescent, but not stinging. Leaves al¬
ternate, exstipulate, sometimes biglandular at the apex of
the petiole.—Ex. Turnera, Piriqueta.
Considerably allied in habit to the Cistineae, but differ¬
ing in several respects in character. Kunth makes it a
section of Loaseae; but the hairs are not stinging, the
estivation of the corolla is twisted, and the styles onlv
united at the base.
Order 81. Fouquieriacece. D. C.
Sepals five, persistent, ovate, or roundish: estivation
imbricated. Petals five, regular, combined in a long tube,
arising from the base of the calyx. Stamens 10-12, ex-
serted, distinct, inserted with the petals, but not cohering
with them: anthers two-celled. Ovarium free, sessile,
somewhat three-celled: ovules indefinite: style filiform,
trifid. Capsule triangular, imperfectly three-celled, three-
valved, loculicide. Seeds partly abortive, compressed,
winged, pendulous. Embryo straight, in the axis of a thin
fleshy albumen: radicle at the opposite extremity from the
hilum : cotyledons flat.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves fleshy,
clustered in the axilla of a spine or cushion.—Ex. Fou~
quieria, Bronnia.
A family very little known, chiefly allied to the Portu-
laceae and Crassulaceae: to Turneraceae their affinity is
slight, as the fruit is really trilocular, and not one-celled.
Order 82. Portulacece. Juss.
Sepals two, seldom three or five, cohering at the base.
112
botany.
Arrange¬
ment and
Characters.
Petals usually five, sometimes three, four, or six, or rare¬
ly wanting, distinct, or cohering at the base, inserted at
the very base of the sepals, sometimes hypogynous, alter¬
nate with the sepals when of the same number. Stamens
inserted with the petals, variable in number, all fertile:
filaments distinct, when definite opposite to the petals or
alternating with the sepals: anthers versatile, two-celled,
bursting longitudinally. Ovarium one, free, one-celled:
style single or none : stigmas several. Capsule one-celled,
dehiscing transversely (a pyxidium), or by three va ve .
Seeds numerous or three (solitary? (by abortion), in one
plant scarcely known), attached to a central placenta or to
the base of the fruit, campulitropous : testa usually crusta-
ceous and black. Embryo curved round the circumference
of a farinaceous albumen : radicle long.—Succulent plants.
Leaves usually alternate, without stipules, or with sca-
rious ones at each side at the base.-Ex. Ta-
linum, Calandrinia (Plate CXVL), Montia.
This family bears so much affinity to the Caryophyllese,
and to Ulecebrese, that it is difficult to discriminate them.
Caryophyllese have, however, no stipules, nor a pyxidium,
nor a calyx of two sepals; and the stamens (when few)
are opposite to the sepals, and hypogynous. Ulecebrese
and Scleranthese, on the other hand, have fertile stamens
opposite the sepals, alternating with others that are either
fertile or sterile, or with petals, which are sometimes want-
inor. We exclude from this order the genus Aylmeria, ot
which the two bracteas, five sepals, alternately sterile
stamens and scariose stipules, mark it to belong to the
Illecebrese near to Insipidity and want of smell
are the usual qualities of this tribe.
Order 83. ParonychiacecB. St Hil.
Suborder 1. Illecebrea. R. Brown. Sepals five, some¬
times distinct, sometimes more or less cohering. 1 etals
between the lobes of the calyx, sometimes conspicuous,
usually small, and resembling sterile stamens, sometimes
wanting. Stamens perigynous or hypogynous, opposite
the sepals (when equal to them in number), some ot them
occasionally wanting: filaments distinct, or rarely united :
anthers two-celled. Ovarium superior: styles two or
three, distinct or partially combined. Fruit small, one-
celled, an utricle, or a 3-5-valved capsule. Seeds either
numerous upon a free central placenta, or solitary and pen¬
dulous from a long funiculus arising from the bottom ot
the fruit. Embryo lying on one side of a farinaceous a -
bumen, more or less curved: radicle pointing to the hi-
lum: cotyledons small.—Leaves opposite or alternate,
entire, with scarious stipules.—Ex. Telephium, Illecebrum,
Polycarpcea, Pollichia. , . c
Suborder 2. Scleranthece. R. Brown. Sepals 4-5, more
or less cohering. Petals between the lobes of the calyx,
perigynous, resembling sterile or fertile stamens, some¬
times wanting. Stamens equal to the sepals in number,
and opposite to them, sometimes fewer : filaments distinct:
anthers two-celled, or rarely one-celled. Ovarium supe¬
rior: styles 2-3, distinct, or combined into one. fruit
one-celled, either an utricle covered by the calyx, or a
three-valved capsule. Seeds campulitropous, solitary,
pendulous from a long funiculus proceeding from the base
of the utricle ; or one or several attached to a central pla¬
centa. Embryo cylindrical, curved round a farinaceous
albumen.—Leaves opposite, usually setaceous, without
stipules.—Ex. Scleranthus, Queria, Minuartia.
Upon carefully examining these suborders, they will be
found to present no difference but the presence or ab¬
sence of the membranous stipules, ihese, however, will
distinguish the Illecebrese from both the Caryophyllese and
Amaranthaceee, and the accessory stamens or petals will
separate the Scleranthese from the Chenopodese. I he
Paronychieee, as a whole, form the passage to the Mono-
chlamydese; for what are here termed petals or abortive Arran^.i
stamens, constitute in the Amaranthacese what are often "'em aw |
stamens, constitute in uie ^iiituauL.m^ca. V Char^i
called processes or teeth between the stamens, nor is there J™1
any practical difference between them. Lithophila, refer¬
red here by De Candolle, having three scariose bracteae,
a calyx of five unequal sepals, no corolla, two stamens
united at their base with a membranous tube round the
ovarium, unilocular anthers, an utricular fruit, two long
subulate stigmas, and no stipules, evidently belongs to
the Amaranthacese, next to Gomphrcena.
Order 84. Crassulacece. D. C.
Suborder 1. Sempervivce. Juss. Sepals 3-20, more or
less united at the base. Petals equal in number to the
sepals, and alternate with them, inserted in the bottom of
the calyx, either distinct or cohering in a gamopetalous
corolla. Stamens inserted with the petals, equalling them
in number, and alternate, or twice as many, those oppo¬
site the petals being shortest, and arriving at perfection
before the others. Filaments distinct, subulate : anthers
bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Nectariferous scales
(abortive stamens), one at the base of each o^ arium,
sometimes obsolete. Ovaria equal in number to the pe¬
tals, and opposite to them, one-celled, tapering each into
a short style, distinct, or slightly connected at the base.
Fruit of several follicles, opening by the ventral suture.
Seeds variable in number. Embryo straight, in the axis
of a thin, fleshy albumen : radicle pointing to the hilum.—
Leaves succulent (or very rarely membranaceous), entire,
or pinnatifid, exstipulate.—Ex. Crassula, Sempervivunt,
Cotyledon, Penthorum. . ,
Suborder 2. Galacinece. Don. Sepals 4-o, united at
the base, persistent. Petals as many as the sepals, and
inserted upon their bases, alternate with them, caducous.
Stamens fertile, either equal in number to and alternate
with the petals, or twice as many,_ inserted along with
them, with sterile filaments alternating with them, either
distinct or monadelphous: anthers two-celled bursting
longitudinally, or one-celled bursting transversely. Ova¬
rium 3-4-celled, free: ovules indefinite, attached to the
inner angles of the carpels: stigma three-cornered or
four-lobed. Fruit of 3-4 follicles attached to each other
by their inner angles and the stigma, dehiscing at their
ventral and dorsal sutures. Seeds indefinite, minute. Em¬
bryo (only observed in Galax) straight in the midst of
a copious fleshy albumen : radicle long, pointing to the hi¬
lum : cotyledons very short.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves
radical, simple or pinnatifid, with glandular serratures:
stipules none.—Ex. Francoa, Galax. .
These two suborders are principally allied by their
carpels not being attached to a central axis or column,
and thus bear affinity to the Saxifrages. The Uala-
cines perhaps merit being considered as distinct; but in
Galax the sterile filaments opposite to the petals have an
affinity with the alternate fertile stamens of bedim, a
relation which is confirmed by the similarly-situated sta¬
mens in Francoa being also fertile. In this last genus t ie
sterile filaments are placed between the stamens and pe¬
tals, and therefore belong, a pair to each petal, and are
the choristate lepals of Dunal: in neither genera are there
hypogynous scales, as is usual in the Sempervivse. inis
order possesses refrigerant and abstergent properties,
mixed sometimes with a good deal of acridity.
Order 85. Ficoidece. Juss. _
Suborder 1. Aizoideee. Spkeng. Sepals definite (usual¬
ly five, but varying from four to eight), more or less com¬
bined at their base, equal or unequal: estivation valvate
or imbricate. Petals indefinite, coloured, sometimes want¬
ing. Stamens perigynous, distinct, definite or indefinite:
anthers oblong, incumbent. Ovarium cohering with tne
tube of the calyx, or free, plurilocular (usually five-celled; •
BOTANY.
Ai nge- stigmas several, distinct. Capsule of several cells burst-
nl and ino- in a stellate form at the apex. Seeds usually indefi-
ClStcters.nite> rarely definite, or even solitar}\ Embryo on the out-
of a mealy albumen, curved, or rarely spiral.—Leaves
succulent, opposite or alternate, simple.—Ex. Mesembnj-
anthemum, Aizoon.
Suborder 2. Nitrariece. Lindl. Calyx five-toothed,
fleshy, persistent. Petals five, perigynous: estivation in-
flexed, valvular. Stamens perigynous, three times the
number of the petals: anthers erect, bursting longitudi¬
nally. Ovarium free, three-(rai’ely six-) celled: ovules
pendulous, attached by a long funiculus : style none :
stigmas sessile on the attenuated apex of the ovary, as
many as there are cells. Fruit drupaceous, one-celled :
sarcocarp bursting at the apex by 3-6 valves: endo¬
sperm osseous. Seed solitary. Albumen none. Embryo
straight: radicle next the hilum.—Shrubs. Leaves deci¬
duous, succulent, alternate, sometimes fascicled.—Ex.
Nitraria.
Suborder 3. Neuradece. Calyx five- cleft, persistent:
estivation slightly imbricated. Petals five, perigynous :
estivation imbricated. Stamens ten, perigynous. Ovarium
syncarpous, cohering at the base with the short tube of the
calyx, 5-10-celled: ovules solitary, pendulous : styles 5-10.
Capsule 5-10-celled, depressed, indehiscent. Seeds soli¬
tary, pendulous, germinating within the capsule. Albumen
none. Embryo slightly curved : radicle small, superior,
next the hilum: cotyledons large.—Leaves pinnatifid or
bipinnatifid, membranaceous, tomentose, stipulate.—Ex.
Neurada, Grielium.
This order is much allied to the Crassulacem, but is dis¬
tinguished by the truly syncarpous ovarium; and also to
the Portulaceae. The Nitrarieae show an affinity with the
Rhamneae, and the Neuradeae with the Rosaceae.—The
succulent leaves of a few are eaten; some yield an abun¬
dance of soda.
Order 86. Cactece. Juss.
Sepals numerous, usually indefinite, and confounded
with the petals, either crowning the ovarium or covering
its whole surface. Petals numerous, usually indefinite,
sometimes irregular, inserted at the orifice of the calyx.
Stamens indefinite, cohering more or less with the petals
and sepals: filaments long, filiform: anthers ovate, versa¬
tile. Ovarium fleshy, cohering with the tube of the calyx,
one-celled: ovules indefinite : style filiform : stigmas seve¬
ral. Placentae parietal, as many as the stigmas. Fruit
succulent, one-celled. Seeds many, after having lost their
adhesion nestling in a pulp, ovate or obovate : albumen
none. Embryo straight, curved, or spiral: radicle thick,
obtuse, next the hilum.—Succulent shrubs. Leaves almost
always wanting; when present fleshy, smooth, entire, or
spiniform. Flowers sessile.—Ex. Cactus, Rhipsalis.
Connected chiefly with Grossularieae, and somewhat with
Portulaceae: there is also an affinity with the Ficoideae.
The ovules in Rhipsalis are decidedly parietal, notwith¬
standing that this has been made an exception by De
Candolle.—The fruit of several, known under the name of
Indian Figs, is eaten : it resembles somewhat that of the
Grossularieae, but is more insipid, and is entirely destitute
of the acidity found in that order. It is upon the Cactus
(Opuntid) Tuna, and cochinillifera, principally, that the
cochineal insect feeds.
Order 87. Grossulariecc. D. C.
Calyx 4-5-cleft, regular, coloured. Petals perigynous,
as many as the segments of the calyx, alternate with them.
Stamens 4-5, alternate with the petals, and inserted with
them : filaments equal, distinct, usually short: anthers bi¬
locular, bursting longitudinally (or occasionally transverse¬
ly). Ovarium one-celled, cohering with the tube of the
calyx: ovules indefinite : style one, 2-4-cleft. Placentas
VOL. v.
113
two, parietal, opposite. Berry crowned with the remains Arrange-
of the flower, one-celled, filled with pulp. Seeds nume- ment and
rous, suspended among the pulp by long filiform recurved ^Iaracter3-
funiculi: testa externally gelatinous. Albumen horny.
Embryo straight, very minute at the opposite extremity
from the hilum : radicle pointing to the hilum.—Shrubs.
Leaves alternate, lobed: vernation plicate.—Ex. Rihes.
From the Cacteae they may be distinguished by the
structure of the seed, and the habit; and from Onagrariese,
Homalineae, and Loaseae, to all which they are related, by
the same and various other characters.—Gooseberries and
currants are well known as agreeable acid fruits, owing to
the presence of malic acid in them. The black currant is
tonic and stimulant, and the leaf is sometimes used to
heighten the flavour of bad tea.
Order 88. Saxifragacece. Juss.
Sepals usually five (rarely three, four, seven, or nine),
more or less cohering at their base : the limb usually per¬
sistent. Petals as many as sepals (except in Donatio),
inserted on the tube of the calyx, alternate with its lobes,
deciduous or persistent, very rarely wanting. Stamens
perigynous, either equal to (or rarely fewer than) the pe¬
tals, and alternate with them ; or twice as many as the pe¬
tals, some alternate, some opposite to them (in one species,
by the abortion of tbe alternating stamens, there are only
five, and opposite to the petals) ; or (in Bauera) indefinite :
filaments subulate: anthers ovate, two-celled, bursting longi¬
tudinally (in Bauera) by two pores. Ovarium partly cohe¬
rent with the tube of the calyx, formed of two (rarely 3-5)
carpels, cohering by their introflexed sides, or margins:
styles as many as the carpels, distinct, or more or less com¬
bined : stigmas capitate or clavate. Placentae along the
introflexed margins of the carpels, either throughout the
whole length, or at the base only, or at the apex, usually
separating with the carpels, rarely attached to a central
axis. Fruit capsular, usually of two (rarely 3-5) carpels
or valves, the margins of which are either entirely intro¬
flexed, or partly introflexed, or'Scarcely at all when the
fruit is one-celled: carpels dehiscing at the ventral su¬
ture, separating from each other, either from the base up¬
wards, or from the apex downwards. Seeds usually nu¬
merous, rarely definite : albumen fleshy. Embryo small,
in the midst of the albumen : radicle pointing towards the
hilum.
Tribe 1. Escalloniece. R. Br. Petals and stamens five
(rarely six) : ovary adherent, or rarely free : styles two or
three combined into one.—Shrubs or trees. Leaves al¬
ternate, simple, exstipulate.—Ex. Escallonia, Itea.
Tribe 2. Cunoniece. R. Bn. Petals 4-5, or none : sta¬
mens 8-10: ovarium usually free: styles 2-3, distinct, or
rarely combined.—Shrubs or trees. Leaves opposite, with
interpetiolar stipules.—Ex. Cunonia, Weinmannia.
Tribe 3. Bauerece. Lindl. Petals 7-9: stamens inde¬
finite : anthers biporose : ovarium almost free : styles 2-3,
distinct.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite, ternate, exstipulate.
—Ex. Bauera.
Tribe 4. Hydrangece. D. C. Petals five : stamens ten:
ovarium adherent, or rarely free: styles 2-5, distinct, or
combined.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Flowers
corymbose; the exterior, and sometimes all of them, sterile
and dilated.—Ex. Hydrangea, Broussaisia.
Tribe 5. Saxifragece, D. C. Petals 4-5, or wanting :
stamens 8-10, or 3-5: ovarium adherent or free: styles
2-3, distinct, or rarely combined.—Herbs. Leaves exsti¬
pulate, alternate, or rarely opposite. Flowers in a raceme
or panicle, rarely solitary, all fertile.—Ex. Saxifraga,
Chrysosplenium, Heuchera.
We follow De Candolle in not breaking up this large
order, each tribe passing imperceptibly into another. It
seems to form a central point between several other or-
114
BOTANY.
Arrange- ders. Thus, through Escallonieae it is allied to the Grossu-
ment and larise and Vaccinieae ; to the Philadelpheas and Caprifolia-
Cliaracters. ceae through Hydrangeas; and to Hypericineas through Saxi-
frageae. J)e Candolle also compares it with the Umbelli-
ferae. The albumen of‘ Escallonia, though fleshy, is very
oily ;„and the embryo is in the centre of the albumen, with
the radicle pointing to the hilum. Mr Lindley says, erro¬
neously, that the embryo is “ in the apex of the albumen,
and the radicle at the opposite extremity of the hilum.”—
The species of Saxifrageae are astringent; the properties
of the other tribes are unknown.
Order 89. Bruniacece. 11. Brown.
Calyx five-cleft: estivation imbricated. Petals alter¬
nate with the segments of the calyx, inserted on its
throat: estivation imbricated. Stamens alternate with
the petals, arising with them, or from a discoid torus : an¬
thers turned inwards, two-celled, bursting longitudinally.
Ovarium free, or usually cohering with the tube of the
calyx, 1-3-celled : ovules suspended, solitary, or two col¬
lateral ones in each cell, very rarely numerous: style simple
or bifid : stigmas one, or 2-3, small, and papilliform. Fruit
dry, bicoccous, or indehiscent and one-celled, usually
crowned by the persistent calyx. Seeds (some of them
usually abortive) suspended, sometimes with a short aril-
lus. Embryo minute, at the base (next the hilum) of a
fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyle¬
dons short, fleshy.—Branched, heath-like shrubs. Leaves
small, imbricated, rigid, entire. Flowers small, capitate,
or rarely panicled, spiked, or terminal, and solitary.—Ex.
Brunia, Staavia, Berardia.
An order thought by De Candolle to be allied to Rham-
neae, but now considered as much nearer to Hamamelideae,
or even Myrtaceae. Thamnea has a one-celled ovary
with a central columnar axis, from the apex of which
the ovules hang, indicating a tendency in this order to
hfive a plurilocular fruit.
Order 90. Hamamelidece. R. Brown.
Calyx four-lobed or truncate, with 5-7 callous teeth.
Petals" inserted on the calyx, usually long and linear,
equal in number to (rarely by abortion fewer), and altex*-
nating with, the calycine segments, rarely changed into
fertile stamens. Stamens twice as many as the petals ;
all fertile when the petals bear anthers, half of them
(those opposite to the petals) sterile when there are true
petals: anthers erect, two-celled, each cell dehiscing
longitudinally at the side, either by a valve opening in¬
wards, or by a simple fissure. Ovarium coherent at the
base with the tube of the calyx, two-celled : styles two
(rarely by accident three). Capsule two-celled, two-valved,
loculicide. Seeds solitary, pendulous. Embryo straight,
in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle superior, next
the hilum: cotyledons foliaceous, plane, or slightly invo¬
lute at their base.—Shrubs. Leaves alternate, petiolate,
penninerved, with two stipules. Flowers axillary, nearly
sessile, fasciculate, usually with bracteas, sometimes uni¬
sexual.—Ex. Hamamelis, Fothergilla.
The above character is perhaps a little strained to in¬
clude Fothergilla,.a genus, however, referred here both by
Nuttal and Brown: perhaps it must be even still more
modified when Trichocladus, another genus of the order,
becomes better known. The relation of Fothergilla to
Pachysandra shows some affinity between this family and
Euphorbiaceae ; and there is a manifest connection also be¬
tween it and the Amentaceae. There is likewise an affinity
to the Alangiese, Bruniacete, the Rhamneae, and the Ha-
lorageae.
Div. II.—Bichlamydece Calyciflorcc.
(3. Epipetalae.1 Juss.)
Umbelliferce. Juss.
D. C. Arrarif,
ment g:
Charac;
Order 91. Umbelliferce. Juss. JMiXi
Calyx five-toothed, or entire. Petals five, inserted on^^j1
the outside of a fleshy disc, around the top of the ovary,
alternate with the teeth of the calyx, often inflexed at the
point, the inflexed portion cohering with the middle vein
of the lamina : estivation somewhat imbricate, rarely val-
vate. Stamens five, alternate with the petals, distinct,
during estivation inflexed : anthers ovate, two-celled, de¬
hiscing longitudinally. Ovarium cohering entirely and
closely with the calyx, crowned by a double fleshy disc
(an expansion of the torus), two-celled: ovules solitary,
pendulous: styles two, distinct: stigmas simple. Fruit
dry (a cremocarpium), consisting of two carpels (or mericar-
pia) which adhere by their face (commissura) to a common
axis (carpophorum), but in maturity separate from it, and
are pendulous: each carpel indehiscent, traversed by five
longitudinal ridges (. juga primaria), one opposite to each
petal and each stamen ; and often also by alternating nerves
(juga secundaria), the ridges being separated by chan¬
nels. In the substance of the pericarp are linear recep¬
tacles of oily matter (yittce), usually opposite the channels,
sometimes below the ridges, rarely wanting. Seed pen¬
dulous, usually cohering with the carpel, rarely loose.
Embryo minute, at the base (that is, at the apex of the
fruit) of a copious horny albumen : radicle superior, point¬
ing to the hilum.—Herbaceous, or rarely suffrutescent
plants : stem usually fistular and fun-owed. Leaves alter¬
nate, very rarely opposite, simple (without articulations),
variously cut, sometimes reduced to the petiole (phyl-
lodium). Flowers in umbels, the umbel sometimes capi¬
tate, usually with an involucre.—Ex. Conium, Eryngiim,
Hydrocotyle.
Supposed to be allied to Saxifrageae (through Hydro¬
cotyle), to Araliaceae, and through them to Ampelideae.
Lindley seems to think them nearest to Ranunculacese.
Perhaps each flower is made up of two, a structure ex¬
plained by that of Dampiera among the Campanulaceae
(Scaevoleae), and rendered probable by that of Hetero-
morpha. Then each petal being formed of two cohering
by their margins and ati intervening stamen, we should
have two flowers each with five petals, five stamens, and
one style, united together; and thus other affinities must
be looked for.—The fundamental organs of this order are
usually very poisonous, at all events ought to be looked
on with suspicion, although the roots of a few by cultiva¬
tion seem to lose their virulent qualities. The fruit is
in no case hurtful, and is usually a warm and agreeable
aromatic. Gum ammoniac, galbanum, assafcetida, and
opoponax, are obtained from plants of this family.
Order 92. Araliacece. Juss.
Calyx entire or toothed. Petals 5-16, alternate with
the teeth of the calyx, very rarely wanting, and then (in
Adoxa) perhaps changed into petals: estivation valvate.
Stamens as many as the petals, rarely twice as many, in¬
serted below the margin of a large epigynous disc: an¬
thers two-celled. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the
calyx, of two or more cells: ovules solitary, pendulous:
styles two or more, distinct, concrete, or rarely wanting:
stigmas simple. Fruit usually fleshy, 2-15-celled, crown¬
ed by the limb of the calyx : endocarp crustaceous. Seeds
solitary, pendulous. Embryo small, surrounded by a copious
fleshy albumen, close to the hilum : radicle pointing to the
hilum, superior.—Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants.
1 We keep the subdivisions Epipetalse, Epicorollse, and Epistamina, although the plants belonging to them have in reality the
stamens and petals as much perigynous as the Grossularieae, Eicoidese, &c. which have a perfectly adherent fruit.
r
B O T
j range- Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Flowers umbelled or capi-
nt and tate.—Ex. Aralia, Adoxa, Hedera.
C aracters. borders strongly on the Umbelliferre, Ampelideae,
! an(j also the Cornese.—The famed Ginseng, which, when
first introduced into Europe at the beginning of the seven¬
teenth century, sold for its weight in gold, is a species of
Panax; it is supposed to have a stimulating and invigorat¬
ing property when fresh, but when dry has now been found
of little use. The berries of Hedera are purgative.
Order 93. Cornece. D. C.
Calyx four-lobed. Petals four, oblong, broad at the
base, regular, inserted on the top of the tube of the calyx :
estivation valvate. Stamens four, alternate with the
petals, inserted with them : anthers two-celled. Ovarium
closely cohering with the tube of the calyx, two celled:
ovules pendulous, solitary: style filiform: stigma simple.
Fruit fleshy, crowned by the remains of the calyx, two-
celled (or rarely one-celled by abortion) : endocarp thick
and bony. Seeds solitary, pendulous: albumen fleshy.
Embryo straight: radicle superior, shorter than the oblong
cotyledons.—Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Leaves opposite
(in two species only alternate). Flowers capitate, um¬
belled, or corymbose, naked or with an involucre.—Ex.
Cornus.
Approaching to the Hamamelidese and Araliaceae (from
which it is best distinguished by the opposite leaves, bony
endocarp, and a ternary arrangement of the parts of the
flower); and also to Caprifoliaceae ; but this last has a
gamopetalous corolla, and a quinary arrangement in the
flowers. One species among the Corneae, however, the
Mastixia pentandra, is said to have the quinary arrange¬
ment and alternate leaves, but is not well known.—The
fleshy part of the fruit is sometimes eaten. The bark of
Cornus jlorida and C. sericea is tonic and febrifuge, and
has been substituted in North America for the Peruvian
bark.
Div. II.—Dichlamydece Calycijiorce. D. C.
• fpico- (4. Epicorollae Corisantherae. Juss.)
■ thene.*' Order 94. Loranthacece. Rich, and Juss.
Calyx with a smaller calyx or bracteae at the base of
its tube ; limb short, entire or lobed. Petals 4-8, free or
more or less united: estivation valvate. Stamens as
many as the petals, and opposite to them : filaments more
or less combined with the petals: anthers versatile, or erect,
or adnate to the corolla. Ovarium cohering with the tube
of the calyx, one-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous: style
filiform or none: stigma capitate. Fruit fleshy, crowned
by the calyx, cne-celled : endocarp membranaceous. Seed
one, pendulous. Embryo straight in the axis of a fleshy
albumen: radicle superior, next the hilum.—Shrubs al¬
most all parasitical. Leaves fleshy, entire, opposite, rare¬
ly alternate or wanting.—Ex. Viscum, Loranthus.
Distinguished from Caprifoliaceae, Corneae, and the
other orders in the neighbourhood, by the position of the
stamens before the petals. Mr Brown suggests their re¬
lation to Proteaceae.—The berries contain a viscid matter,
that is insoluble in water and alcohol. The bark is usual-
ly astringent. Ihe well known Mistletoe of the oak is the
Viscum album. Loranthus tetrandrus (the Lonicera co-
rymbosa of authors), is used in Chili for dyeing black.
Order 95. Caprifoliacece. Juss.
Calyx with its limb 5- (very rarely 4-) lobed. Corolla
of one piece, lobed, sometimes irregular ; the divisions al¬
ternate with those of the calyx: estivation not valvate
ANY. us
(D. C). Stamens equal in number to the lobes of the Arrange-
corolla (or sometimes one of them abortive), alternating ™ent and
with them, and inserted towards its base: filaments subu-tharacters*
late: anthers ovate, bilocular. Ovarium cohering with the
tube of the calyx, three-celled (rarely four or five-celled):
ovules few in each cell, pendulous: style one, exserted, or
none : stigmas as many as the cells, either distinct or com¬
bined into one capitate stigma. Fruit crowned by the
limb of the calyx, fleshy, or rarely almost dry, plurilocu-
lar, or one-celled (either by the disappearance of the dis¬
sepiments, or by the abortion of the other cells). Seeds
solitary, in pairs, or several (some often abortive) in each
cell, pendulous. Embryo straight, in the centre of a fleshy
albumen: radicle superior, next the hilum.—Shrubs.
Leaves opposite without stipules (or rarely with two small
stipules or glands at the base of each petiole). Flowers
terminal, corymbose, or axillary.—Ex. Sambucus, Vibur¬
num, Lonicera, Linncea.
Tribe 1. Sambucece. Kunth. Corolla regular, rotate,
seldom tubular : style none : stigmas three, sessile; raphe
on the inner side of the ovule.
Tribe 2. Lonicerece. R. Brown. Corolla more or less
tubular, often irregular: style filiform: raphe on the out¬
er side of the ovule. (Br.)
In Sambucus and Viburnum the testa of the seed is
membranous, but the endocarp is bony : in Lonicera and
Triosteum the testa itself is bony; and care must be had
to distinguish whether the bony part belong to the carpel
or the seed. This order bears a striking relation to the
Rubiaceae ; it is also allied to the Apocyneae.—The flowers
of the elder (Sambucus nigra) are fragrant and sudorific,
but the leaves emetic and purgative. The fruit of Vibur¬
num has an austere astringent pulp, which becomes
eatable after fermentation. The honeysuckle is a pur¬
gative.
Order 96. Rubiacece. Juss.
Tube of the calyx adherent with the ovarium, the limb
variable, truncate, or lobed, Consisting of as many sepals
as petals, rarely with accessory intermediate teeth. Petals
4-5, rarely 3-8, united, inserted upon the summit of the
tube of the calyx : estivation twisted or valvate. Stamens
as many as the lobes of the corolla, alternate with them
(rarely some of them suppressed) : filaments more or less
combined with the tube: anthers oval, two-celled, turned
inwards : pollen elliptical. Ovarium adherent, usually
two-celled, or with several cells, rarely (by abortion) one-
celled, crowned by a fleshy urceolate disc: style single,
sometimes partly divided: stigmas usually two, rarely
several, distinct, or more or less concrete. Fruit a cremo-
carpium, or capsular, or baccate, or drupaceous, two or
many-celled. Seeds one or many in each cell, in the for¬
mer case attached to the apex, or more usually to the base
of the cell; in the latter to a central placenta. Albumen
horny or fleshy, copious. Embryo straight or slightly
curved, inclosed in the albumen: radicle turned to the
hilum : cotyledons foliaceous.—Leaves simple, entire, op¬
posite (very rarely verticillate) : stipules two at the base
of each leaf, entirely distinct, or cohering either with the
leaf or with each other, or both ways; their apex some¬
times produced into setae, sometimes into foliaceous ex¬
pansions, resembling verticillate leaves.—Ex. Cinchona,
Gardenia, Hedyotis, Isertia, Hamelia, Cordiera, Guet-
tarda, Pcederia, Coffea, Spermacocce, Anthospermum, Ru-
bia, Opercularia.
The above thirteen genera have been taken by I)e Can¬
dolle1 as the types of as many tribes, but our limits do
1 Prodr. Syst. Rcgn. Veg. vol. iv. p. 342.
116
BOTANY.
Arrange- not permit us to give the characters. The Rubiaceae are
ment and allied to the Caprifoliaceae, to Valerianese, Uipsaceae, and
Characters.£jonaposit0e; but perhaps it was with the Apocynese and
1 'w' Gentianese that they were most generally confounded,
previous to the separation of the Loganiaceae. Hous-
tonia, referred still by De Candolle to the (xentianeae,
has an inferior (adherent) ovarium, interpetiolar stipules,
a bilocular polyspermous capsule, and seeds not wing¬
ed, and consequently must be arranged here, at the end
of the Hedyotideae.—The roots (as in Rubict or the
Madder) sometimes yield an excellent red dye; in others
they are acrid, emetic, purgative, or diuretic. The bark
(as in Cinchona or Peruvian bark) is sometimes bitter,
tonic, astringent, and aromatic, and eminently powei-
ful in intermittent fevers. The horny albumen ot the
Coifea Arabica is what is roasted, and made use of, under
the name of Coffee; and it is probable that such other
seeds, of this order, as have a horny albumen, might be
used as a substitute. The fruit of a few is succulent and
eatable.
Order 97. Valerianece. Juss.
Calyx with a limb of various kinds, either membranous,
or resembling a pappus. Corolla inserted into the top
of the ovarium, tubular, usually five-lobed, rarely 3-4-
lobed, lobes obtuse; tube equal, or gibbous, or spurred, at
the base. Stamens 1-5, inserted into the tube ot the co¬
rolla, and alternate with its lobes : anthers ovate, two-
celled. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx
(inferior), 1-3-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous: style
filiform : stigmas 1-3, distinct or combined. Fruit dry, in-
dehiscent, crowned with the limb of the calyx, one-celled,
or three-celled (two being abortive). Seed solitary, pen¬
dulous. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle su¬
perior : cotyledons flat.—Leaves opposite, exstipulate.
—Ex. Patrinia, Valeriana.
Most intimately connected with Dipsaceae, but distinct
by having no albumen, and by the absence ot an involu-
CrUm. The roots of several are tonic, bitter, vermifuge,
and antispasmodic; and some seem to be even febrifugal.
The smell is disagreeable, although esteemed in some
countries : thus the Nardostachys Jatamansi is the spike¬
nard of the ancients. The young leaves of Valerianella
olitoria make a good spring sallad.
Order 98. Dipsacece. Juss.
Calyx with a limb short or elongated, entire, or toothed,
or pappose. Corolla inserted on the apex ot the tube ot
the calyx, tubular, limb oblique, 4-5-lobed, rarely ringent:
estivation imbricated. Stamens four, inserted on the
tube of the corolla, alternate with its lobes, almost always
distinct: anthers two-celled. Ovarium cohering with the
tube of the calyx, either closely, or only by the apex, or
at first free and afterwards cohering, one-celled: ovule soli¬
tary, pendulous : style filiform : stigma simple. Fruit dry,
indehiscent, crowned by the limb of the calyx, usually
covered by an outer calyx or involucellum, one-celled.
Seed solitary, pendulous. Embryo straight, in the axis of
a fleshy albumen: radicle superior.—Leaves opposite,
very rarely verticillate, variable in shape on the same
plant. Flowers densely capitate, or very rarely verticil-
late.—Ex. Morina, Scabiosa.
The involucellum to each flower in this order is of a
very singular kind, and may be distinguished into three
parts: the base, or the lower portion ; the tube, which is
furnished with several deep furrows or grooves; and the
crown, or the portion above the grooves,—the modifica¬
tions of which are well suited for generic chaiacters.. Ihis
family is most allied to the Calycerese and Valeiianem.
The teasel (the head of Dipsacus fidlonum) is used by
fullers in dressing cloth.
D. C.
Arrange,
ment and
Characters
Div. II.—Dichlamydece Ccdycijlorce.
(5. Epicorollse Synantherse.)
Order 99. Calycerew. R. Brown. ^ AEpiwT
Calyx with a limb of five unequal segments. Corolla rollffiPSv'
regular, funnel-shaped, with a long slender tube and ananther*
five-lobed limb; the lobes with three principal veins.
Stamens five, inserted on the tube, with as many alter¬
nating glands inserted a little below them : filaments unit¬
ed : anthers introrse, partially connate. Ovarium coher¬
ing with the tube of the calyx, crowned by a disc, one-
celled : ovule solitary, pendulous: style single, smooth :
stigma capitate. Fruit an achenium, crowned by the rigid
teeth of the calyx. Seed solitary, pendulous. Embryo
in the axis of a fleshy albumen : radicle superior.—Herba¬
ceous plants. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Flowers
sessile, capitate, surrounded by an involucrum: sometimes
the ovaria mutually cohere into one mass.—Ex. Calycera
Boopis.
In this, the preceding order, and the following, the flowers
are sometimes termed florets, and the whole capitulum a
flower; but this is incorrect. From Compositae this order
is easily known, by the radicle being superior.
Order 100. Compositce. Adanson.
Limb of the calyx either wanting or membranous, and
divided into bristles, pale®, or hairs, and called pappus.
Corolla monopetalous, five-toothed or lobed, tubular, or
ligulate, or bilabiate, inserted on the top of the ovarium,
alternate with the lobes, which have each tw^o marginal
nerves : estivation valvate. Stamens five, alternate with
the teeth of the corolla : filaments distinct: anthers con¬
nate (very rarely free), erect, articulated with the fila¬
ments. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx,
one-celled: ovule solitary, erect: style single : stigmas
two, distinct or united. Fruit an achenium, crowned with
the limb of the calyx. Seed solitary, erect. Albumen
none. Radicle inferior.—Leaves alternate or opposite,
usually simple, exstipulate. Flowers bi- or unisexual, ca¬
pitate, surrounded by a many-leaved involucrum (brac-
teoles), the scales of which are sometimes also interspersed
with the flowers on the receptacle, and are then called
palece.—Ex. Carduus, Centaurea; Achillea, Artemisia;
Trixis, Cluetanthera; Sonchus, Hdracium.
Of this there are four principal groups: 1. Cynaro-
cephalce, where the flowers are all tubular, the recep¬
tacle hairy or pitted, the style swollen and furnished with
hairs below the stigma: 2. Corymbiferce, where the external
flowers are usually ligulate, and the inner ones tubular:
3. Labiatifiorce, where the flowers have two deep unequal
lips to the corolla : 4. Cichoracece, where all the flowers are
ligulate. Various subdivisions have been also attempted,
but their limits are hitherto very unsettled.—All the Com-
positse are bitter. TheCynarocephalse are some of them sto¬
machics, others febrifugal, and others sudorific and diapho¬
retic; but the bitter principle is not found in the unexpand¬
ed leaves or receptacle. The Corymbiferae possess tonic,
stomachic, and febrifugal qualities; some are sudorific,
others diuretic : the roots of Helianthus tuberosus, or the
Girasole (vidgo Jerusalem) artichoke, are eatable. The
Cichoraceae have usually a milky, bitter, astringent, and
narcotic juice, which induces sleep ; but before this is form¬
ed, many of the species may be used as articles of food.
Div. II.—Dichlamydece Calycijlorce. D. C.
(6. Pericorollae. Juss.)
Order 101. Brunoniacece. R. Brown.
Calyx five-partite, with four bracteas at its base, persis¬
tent : tube very short, afterwards enlarged. Corolla in-
6. Peri-
coroll*'
B O T
fringe- serted in the base of the calyx (truly hypogynous ?): mo-
rpt and nopetalous, infundibuliform, nearly regular, marcescent:
CUacters-t,u{je u]timately split at the back, with the primary nerves
v opposite its divisions: limb five-partite, the upper seg¬
ments most deeply divided ; nerves central, dividing at the
top into two recurrent marginal branches: estivation val¬
vular. Stamens five, inserted with, but free from, the co¬
rolla, alternating with its segments: filaments very short,
distinct: anthers connate, erect, articulated with the fila¬
ments, bilocular, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free,
one-celled: ovule solitary, erect: style single: stigma
single, inclosed in a two-valved cup (indusium). Fruit a
utricle, inclosed in the indurated tube of the calyx. Seed
one, erect. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle small,
inferior : cotyledons fleshy, plano-convex.—Herbaceous
plants, without stems. Leaves radical, exstipulate. Flowers
capitate, on a scape : heads surrounded by an involucre of
enlarged bracteae.—Ex. Brunonia.
Very nearly allied indeed to the Dipsaceae and Com-
positae, but having the ovary free. We do not feel quite
certain that the corolla is hypogynous, having observed a
kind of disc at the base of the calyx, to which it seemed
attached; but although it were so, it would be impossible
to remove this order from the side of the Goodenoviae.
The habit is that of the Globularineae. Perhaps this and
the three following ought to be made suborders of one
great order.
Order 102. Goodenovice. R. Brown.
Calyx five-cleft, sometimes 5-3-partite, sometimes ob¬
solete, equal,, or rarely unequal, persistent. Corolla in¬
serted into the calyx, sometimes at its base ; monopetalous,
more or less irregular, marcescent or deciduous: its tube
split at the back, and sometimes separable into five petals
when the ovarium is almost free : its limb five-partite, with
one or two lips, the edges of the segments being thinner
than the middle : primary nerves of the tube alternate with
the divisions; the thick part of the lobes with lateral
nerves: estivation valvate. Stamens five, distinct, insert¬
ed with, but free from, the corolla, alternate with its lobes :
anthers distinct or cohering, continuous with the filaments,
two-celled, bursting longitudinally: pollen simple or com¬
pound. Ovarium more or less cohering with the tube of
the calyx, 1-2 or four-celled, sometimes with a gland be¬
tween the two anterior filaments : ovules erect: style one,
simple (rarely divided) : stigma fleshy, simple, or two-lob-
ed, surrounded by a membranous cup. Fruit various.
Seeds erect, definite or indefinite : testa thick, sometimes
bony. Embryo straight, inclosed in a fleshy albumen:
radicle inferior: cotyledons foliaceous.—Plants without
milky juice. Leaves scattered, exstipulate. Flowers dis¬
tinct, never capitate.
Tribe 1. Goodeniece. R. Brown. Ovarium of two
(rarely four) carpels, 2-4)-celled : ovules indefinite : fruit
a two or rarely four-celled capsule, septicidal, rarely lo-
culicidal: seeds numerous, attached to the axis.—Ex.
Goodenia, Velleia.
Tribe 2. Sccevolece. R. Br. Ovarium of two or four
carpels, 1-2 or four-celled : ovules solitary in each carpel:
fruit indehiscent, drupaceous, or nut-like: seed one, or
two (by abortion of the dissepiment), in each cell, attach¬
ed to the bottom of the cell.—Ex. Sccevola, Dampiera.
The above two tribes, differing little from each other, but
agreeing in a multitude of extraordinary characters, we
cannot consider even as suborders. We consider the in¬
dusium to the stigma as an abortive gynandrous column,
both in this order and the last.
Order 103. Stylidiece. R. Brown.
Calyx with 2-6 divisions, bilabiate or regular, persistent.
Corolla monopetalous, falling oft'late : its limb 5-6-partite,
irregular, or rarely equal: lobes with a central nerve:
ANY. H7
estivation imbricated. Stamens two: filaments longitudi- Arrange-
nally connate with the style into a column : anthers didy- ment and
mous, rarely simple, lying over the stigma: pollen globu-(-liaracters-
lar, simple, sometimes angular. Ovarium cohering with
the side of the calyx, crowned often with one gland in
front or two opposite ones, two-celled, or, by the contrac¬
tion of the dissepiment, sometimes one-celled : ovules in¬
definite : style one : stigma entire or bifid. Capsule two-
valved, two or one-celled, septicidal. Seeds indefinite,
small, erect. Embryo minute, inclosed in a fleshy, some¬
what oily albumen.—Plants, destitute of milkyjuice. Leaves
alternate, scattered, or apparently verticillate.—Ex. Sty-
lidium, Forstera.
The position of the anthers in this order, combined
with the tube at the base of the style in some of the Cam-
panulaceae, serves to explain the structure of the indusium
to the stigma in the two preceding. This family is readily
distinguished by the gynandrous stamens, from those in
its vicinity.
Order 104. Campanulacece. Juss.
Calyx usually five-lobed (sometimes 3-8-lobed), rarely
entire, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, inserted on the
calyx, usually five (sometimes 3-4-6-8) cleft, deciduous or
marcescent: lobes with a central principal nerve : estiva¬
tion valvate. Stamens inserted with the corolla, alternat¬
ing with its lobes, and equal to them in number: anthers
two-celled, distinct or cohering, erect, two-celled, bursting
longitudinally. Ovarium cohering, wholly or by its lower
half, with the tube of the calyx, of two or more carpels :
ovules indefinite : style simple: stigma naked, simple, or
with as many lobes as cells to the ovarium. Placentae in
the axis of the plurilocular, or parietal in the one-celled
ovaria. Fruit capsular, one or more celled, loculicidal,
dehiscing either by lateral fissures, or by valves at the
apex. Seeds indefinite. Embryo straight, in the axis of
a fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Plants,
yielding a milkyjuice. Leaves alternate or rarely oppo¬
site, exstipulate. >
Tribe 1. Lobeliece. Juss. Odd segment of the calyx
anterior : corolla irregular: anthers cohering : pollen ovate, *
elongated, smooth, marked by a longitudinal furrow:
style glabrous, with a fringe of hairs below the stigma.
—Ex. Lobelia.
Tribe 2. Campanulece. D. C. Odd segment of the calyx
posterior : corolla regular : anthers free, or rarely cohering:
pollen spherical, papillose: style pubescent.—Ex. Cam¬
panula.
The distinguishing characters of these two tribes are per¬
haps too few to afford ordinal characters. The hairs on the
style or under the stigma seem to be intended for the ab¬
sorption of the vivifying part of the pollen. There is an ex¬
pansion of the torus (or abortive stamens) at the insertion
of the corolla and stamens, and this sometimes not only
covers the top of the ovary, but even forms a tube round
the style (as in Adenophora). The cells of the fruit are
usually opposite the calycine segments, rarely alternate
with them. In the Lobelieae the odd sepal is really an¬
terior, although by a twist in the pedicel it appears pos¬
terior.—The milky juice is acrid, and in some cases
poisonous.
Order 105. Gesneriacece. Rich, and Juss.
Calyx five-parted: estivation valvate. Corolla mono¬
petalous, tubular, more or less irregular, five-lobed : esti¬
vation imbricate. Stamens four (rarely two), two being
longer than the others, with the rudiment of a fifth in¬
serted on the corolla: anthers two-celled, with a thick
tumid connectivum. Ovarium partly free, surrounded by
glands alternating with the stamens, of two carpels whose
margins are introflexed and placeatiferous: ovules inde¬
finite : style continuous with the ovary : stigma capitate.
118
BOTANY.
Arrange- concave. Fruit capsular or succulent, one-celled, two-
ment and valved, loculicide. Seeds minute, indefinite : testa thin,
Characters. gnejy an(j obliquely veined. Embryo in the axis oi a
fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Leaves
opposite, rugose, exstipulate.—Ex. Gesnera, Sarmienta,
Gloxinia.
More allied to the Bignoniaceae, and especially Oro-
bancheae, from which last order the present is most readi¬
ly distinguished by the usually adherent ovarium: per¬
haps, as hinted by Richard, the two orders may be con¬
joined. Being allied, however, to the Orobancheae, the
Gesneriaceae form a link between the Campanulaceae and
the following order (Monotropeae).
Order 106. Ericinece. Juss.
Suborder 1. Monotropece. Nutt. Calyx 3-4-5-partite,
persistent. Corolla monopetalous, regular, deciduous,
more or less deeply 4-5-lobed, inserted at the base of the
calyx (hypogynous ?): estivation imbricated. Stamens
inserted with the corolla, twice as many as its lobes, dis¬
tinct, free from the corolla : anthers two (often imperfect¬
ly) celled, dry, opening by fissures or pores, with or with¬
out appendages. Torus discoid. Ovarium free, 4-5-celled:
ovules indefinite : style one : stigma simple, discoid. Fruit
capsular, 4-5-celled, 4-5-valved, loculicidal: axis 4-5-lob-
ed. Seeds indefinite, minute: testa long and linear, loose,
membranous, largely reticulated with veins : nucleus glo¬
bose in the centre of the testa. Albumen fleshy. Embryo
at one extremity of the albumen, extremely minute.—Her¬
baceous, or rarely suffrutescent plants. Leaves simple,
entire, or toothed, or wanting.—Ex. Pyrola, Monotropa.
Suborder 2. Ericece. Calyx 4-5-cleft, nearly equal,
persistent. Corolla inserted at the base of the calyx (hy-
pogynous?), monopetalous, 4-5-cleft (occasionally sepa¬
rable into four or five petals), regular or irregular, often
marcescent: estivation imbricated. Stamens definite,
equal in number to the segments of the corolla, or twice
as many, distinct, inserted with the corolla, free from it,
or attached to its base : anthers two-celled, hard and dry,
usually (rarely not) bifid and furnished with some kind
of appendages, dehiscing by terminal pores, or rarely by
clefts. Torus discoid, or in the form of scales. Ovarium
free, plurilocular: ovules indefinite, very rarely solitary
in each cell: style one, straight: stigma one, entire ox-
toothed. Placentae central. Fruit capsular or baccate,
with several cells, loculicide, or septicide. Seeds inde¬
finite, minute, very rai'ely definite, testa adhex-ing closely
to the tegmen and nucleus. Embi-yo cylindrical, in the
axis of a fleshy albumen : radicle next the hilum.—Shrub¬
by or sufirutescent plants. Leaves evergreen, rigid, en¬
tire, whorled, or opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Erica, Arbu¬
tus, Ehododendrum, Andromeda (Plate CXXIV.)
Suborder 3. Vacciniece. D. C. Calyx entire, or 4-6-
lobed. Corolla monopetalous, with as many lobes as the
calyx. Stamens distinct, twice as many as the lobes of
the corolla: anthers dx-y, two-celled, deeply bifid, with
narrow horn-like lobes. Torus forming a disc round the
top of the ovarium. Ovarium adherent to the tube of the
calyx, 4-5-celled : ovules indefinite : style simple : stigma
simple. Fruit baccate, crowned by the persistent limb of
the calyx, succulent, 4-5-celled. Seeds numerous. Em¬
bryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle
long, pointing to the hilum : cotyledons very short.—Ex.
Vaccinium, Oxycoccus.
Suborder 4. Epacridecc. R. Bit. Calyx five- (rarely
four-) parted, often coloured, persistent. Corolla inserted
at the base of the calyx (hypogynous ?), deciduous or
mai'cescent, monopetalous, sometimes sepai’able into five
petals; limb five (rax-ely four), divided, sometimes by the
cohesion of the segments, bursting transversely: estiva¬
tion imbricated or valvular. Stamens as many as, and al¬
ternate with, the segments of the corolla, rarely fewer, in- Arrange,
serted with or on the corolla: anthers dry, simple, entire and
without appendages, bursting longitudinally: pollen round
or three-lobed, attached to a single central receptacle.
Torus in the form of scales. Ovarium sessile, free, pluri-
(rarely uni-) locular: ovules solitary or indefinite: style
one : stigma simple, or sometimes toothed. Fruit dru¬
paceous, baccate, or capsular. Embryo slender, straight,
in the axis of a fleshy albumen, and about half its length.
—Shrubs or small trees. Leaves usually altei’nate, exsti¬
pulate.—Ex. Epacris, Styphelia.
Between Monotropeae and Ericeae there is no certain
character but in the testa of the seed; the mode by which
the anthers dehisce being variable in both, even although
we exclude Pyrola, as has been already done by Don.
Ericeae is usually described with indefinite ovules ; but Cy-
rilla, usually referred here, has them solitary in each cell.
Between Ericeae and Vaccineae no character can be given,
farther than the ovarium free or adherent: the habit of
several species in both is the same. Between Ericeae and
Epacrideae, again, there is almost nothing but the structure
of the anthers and a difference of habit; we therefore
consider them all as suborders. As a whole, it is difficult
to say what are the affinities. In some points they slight¬
ly approach to the Campanulaceae, and in others to the
Saxifrageae (Escallonieae and Cunonieae).—Their gene-
x-al properties are astringent and diuretic. The berries of
the succulent fruited species are mostly grateful and eat¬
able : the Bilberries, Cranberries, Bearberries, &c. belong
to this family. The fruit of the Arbutus unedo (so called
because one was sufficient) is, however, exceedingly dis¬
agreeable.
Order 107. Columelliacece. Don.
Calyx turbinate; limb persistent, five-lobed, or multi-
(10-11-) partite. Corolla perigynous, rotate, 5-8-lobed:
estivation convolute. Stamens two, inserted in the throat
of the corolla: anthers linear, sinuous, and one-celled, or
straight and two-celled. Torus expanded into a perigy¬
nous disc. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the calyx,
two-celled: ovules indefinite (Don): style simple, decli-
nate: stigma capitate. Fruit capsular, two-celled, two-
valved, septicidal, each valve often splitting at the apex.
Seeds indefinite, ascending: testa coriaceous, smooth.
Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle
pointing to the liilum.—Leaves opposite, entire, exstipu¬
late. Flowers solitary, yellow.—Ex. Columellia, Menodora.
A very little known order, lately established, and im¬
perfectly characterised. Thus, Don says of Menodora,
that the ovarium is adherent (inferior), and the ovules
indefinite; while Kunth, and Bonpland, who formed the
genus, says the stamens are hypogynous, the ovarium su¬
perior, and the ovules-only two in each cell. The near¬
est affinity of this order is with Styracineae, Jasminacese,
and Ebenaceae.
Order 108. Symplocece. Juss.
Calyx monosepalous, limb entire or divided, persistent.
Corolla perigynous or rarely hypogynous (?), monopeta¬
lous, regular : estivation imbricated or valvate. Stamens
definite or indefinite, inserted into the tube of the corolla,
unequal, mono- or polyadelphous at their base. Ovarium
cohering with the tube of the calyx either entirely or in
part, or free, three, four, or five-celled: ovules four in
each cell, of which two are ascending and two suspended:
style simple: stigma simple: placentae central, hruitsur¬
rounded by or inclosed in the calyx, being a carcerulus,
or a one- (by abortion) celled, three-valved, loculicidal,
coriaceous capsule. Seeds usually solitary in the capsule,
or in each cell of the carcerulus, erect or suspended: testa
membranous or bony. Embryo straight, in the axis of a
fleshy albumen: radicle pointing to the hilum: cotyledons
1
EOT
l?ange- flat, foliaceous.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, ex-
] it and stipulate.—Ex. Styrax, Symplocos, Ciponima, Halesia.
C racters. jn Styrax there is usually but one bony seed, but that
v genus, although the corolla be certainly perigynous, is by
some referred with Strigilia to the Meliaceae. Don asserts
that Halesia forms a very distinct group, so that the pre¬
sent order would thus consist of Symplocos, to which
Kunth joins Ciponima, of which the characters are how¬
ever still less understood than the other two. It may be
therefore considered as a dubious order, of which the
genera chiefly agree in the position of the ovules.—Storax
and benzoin are derived from the genus Styrax.
Div. III.—Dichlamydecc Corolliflorce. D. C.
7. Ivpo. (7. Hypocorollse.1 Juss.)
culbe. Order 109. Ebenacece. Vent.
Flowers uni- (rarely bi-) sexual. Calyx 3-6-divided,
nearly equal, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, regular,
deciduous, somewhat coriaceous, 3-6 divided: estivation
imbricated. Stamens inserted on the corolla, or hypogy-
nous, definite (two or four times as many as the segments
of the corolla, and rarely of the same number when they
alternate with them), filaments usually in two rows : an¬
thers erect, linear-lanceolate, two-celled, bursting longitu¬
dinally. Ovarium free, sessile, plurilocular: ovules one
or two in each cell, pendulous: style divided, rarely sim¬
ple : stigmas simple or bifid. Fruit fleshy, round or oval,
the pericarp sometimes opening regularly. Seeds few,:
testa membranous. Embryo straight, nearly in the axis
of a cartilaginous albumen: radicle next the hilum : coty¬
ledons foliaceous.—Trees or shrubs, without milky juice.
Leaves coriaceous, alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Diospyrus,
Ferreola.
Allied to the Symploceae, to the Sapoteae, and several
others that we have placed in the neighbourhood.—The
fruit is eatable, but the chief peculiarity of this order con¬
sists in the extreme hardness of its wood. Ebony and
iron-wood both belong to it.
Order 110. Ilicinece. Brongniart.
Sepals 4-6 : estivation imbricated. Corolla monopeta¬
lous, hypogynous, 4-5-partite: estivation imbricated. Sta¬
mens inserted into the base of the corolla, alternate with
its lobes, and equal to them in number: filaments straight:
anthers introrse. Torus not discoid. Ovarium free, fleshy,
somewhat truncate, 2-6-celled: ovules solitary, pendulous
from a cup-shaped funiculus : stigma nearly sessile, lobed.
Fruit fleshy, indehiscent, containing from two to six one-
seeded nucules. Seed suspended. Embryo small, lying
at the end next the hilum of a large fleshy albumen : ra¬
dicle superior: cotyledons small.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves
coriaceous, alternate, or opposite.—Ex. Ilex, Prinos.
Separated by Brongniart from the Celastrinese. They
are much allied to the Ebenaceae.—The leaves of some
species are used as tea. The bark and berries of others
are tonic, astringent, and antiseptic.
Order 111. Sapotece. Juss.
Flowers bisexual. Calyx divided, regular, persistent.
Corolla hypogynous, deciduous, monopetalous, regular, its
lobes usually equal to, rarely twice or thrice as many as,
those of the calyx. Stamens inserted on the corolla, defi¬
nite, distinct; the fertile ones as many as (rarely more than)
tie segments of the calyx, with which they alternate; the
sterile ones between them rarely wanting. Ovarium pluri-
ocular : ovules solitary, erect: style one : stigma simple,
sometimes lobed. Fruit fleshy, plurilocular, or, by abor-
ANY. 119
tion of the dissepiments, one-celled. Seeds solitary, erect: Arrange-
testa bony, shining. Embryo large, erect, white, usually mentand
inclosed in a fleshy albumen, which, however, is some-^haracters-
times wanting : radicle short, straight, or slightly curved,
turned towards the hilum : cotyledons foliaceous (in the
albuminose seeds), or fleshy (in the exalbuminose seeds).
—'Trees or shrubs, with copious milky juice. Leaves co¬
riaceous, entire, alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Achras, Lu-
cuma.
Closely allied to the Ebenaceae, from which, however,
the}r differ by their having milky juice, bony seeds, bi¬
sexual flowers, and various other important characters.—
The fruit of many, as the star-apple, the sappodilla plum,
and others, is much prized in their native countries. The
bark of some species of Achras is astringent and febrifugal.
Order 112. Myrsinece. II. Brown.
Flowers bisexual, rarely unisexual. Calyx 4-5-cleft,
persistent. Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, 4-5-cleft,
equal. Stamens 4-5, inserted into the corolla, and oppo¬
site its segments : filaments distinct, rarely connate, short,
sometimes wanting, with sometimes five sterile petaloid
alternating ones: anthers sagittate, erect, two-celled,
bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, one-celled: ovules
definite or indefinite, peltate, immersed in the placenta:
style one: stigma simple or lobed. Placenta free, central,
fleshy. Fruit fleshy. Seed usually solitary, sometimes
2-4, peltate: hilum concave: testa membranous, incorpo¬
rated with the tegmen. Albumen horny. Embryo slen¬
der, slightly curved, heterotropous (or lying across the
hilum): radicle horizontal when the seed is solitary, or
inferior when there are several seeds : cotyledons short.—
Irees or shrubs, rarely suffrutescent. Leaves coriaceous,
exstipulate, usually alternate.—Ex. Myrsine, Ardisia.
Allied to Sapoteae, but particularly to Primulaceae in
the structure of the fruit, though with a very different
habit.—Bread is prepared from the pounded seeds of
Theophorasta Jnssicei in St Domingo.
Order 113. Jasminacecc.
Suborder 1. Juss. Flower bisexual. Calyx
divided or toothed, persistent. Corolla hyp.ogynous, mo¬
nopetalous, regular, hypocrateriform, 5-8-divided: estiva¬
tion imbricated and twisted. Stamens two, inserted on
the corolla, inclosed within its tube: anthers two-celled,
bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, two-celled: ovules
solitary, rarely in pairs, at first pendulous, afterwards erect:
style one: stigma twodobed. Fruit a double berry, or
pyxidium, or a bivalved capsule. Seeds usually solitary,
rarely in pairs, erect. Albumen none, or very thin. Em¬
bryo straight: radicle inferior.—Shrubs, with usually twin¬
ing stems. Leaves opposite, pinnate.—Ex. Jasminum, Bo-
livaria.
Suborder 2. Oleinece. Hoffm. and Link. Flowers
bisexual, or sometimes unisexual. Calyx gamosepalous,
divided, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, gamopetalous,
and four-cleft, sometimes of four petals, connected in
pairs by the intervention of the filaments, rarely wanting:
estivation somewhat valvate. Stamens two, alternate
with the segments of the corolla: anthers two-celled,
bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, two-celled : ovules
in pairs, collateral, pendulous: style one or none: stig¬
ma entire or bifid. Fruit drupaceous, baccate, or capsu¬
lar. Seeds often by abortion solitary. Albumen dense,
fleshy, abundant. Embryo straight, about half the length
of the albumen : radicle superior: cotyledons foliaceous.—
Trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite.—Ex. Olea, Ligustrum,
Fraxinus.
withSDehC0arnA,n:S1BrUn0ll-iaCe^ &c', wlj!ch. hav? the insertion of the corolla doubtfully hypogynous, but the stamens free from it, we,
-anuolle, have referred to the l enpetalae. Plumbaginem, however, we have retained.
120
BOTANY.
Arrange- These two suborders are so very much allied that few
ment and separate them. Bolivaria has two seeds in each cell, and
Characters, partakes of the character of both. In both the radicle
points to the hilum. Their affinities extend on the one
side to the Ebenacese and Columelliaceae, and on the other
to the Verbenaceae.—The flowers are usually fragrant.
The bark of the olive and ash is astringent and highly febri¬
fuge. Olive oil is expressed from the pericarp, the od of
Jasmine from the flowers.
Order 114. Asclepiadece. R. Brown.
Calyx five-divided, persistent. Corolla hypogynous,
gamopetalous, regular, five-lobed, deciduous : estivation
contorted-imbricate: rarely valvate. Stamens five, insert¬
ed into the base of the corolla, and alternate with its seg¬
ments : filaments usually connate: anthers two-celled,
each cell sometimes divided by incomplete septa: pollen,
when the anther bursts, coalescing into masses which are
as numerous as the cells, or sometimes confluent by paiis,
and sticking to the five processes of the stigma, either by
twos, by fours, or singly. Ovaria two : ovules indefinite .
styles two, close to each other, often very short: stigma
one, common to both styles, dilated, with five corpusculi-
ferous angles. Placentas at the ventral sutures, hollicles
two (sometimes one by abortion). Seeds indefinite, im¬
bricate, pendulous, usually with a coma at the hilum. Al¬
bumen thin. Embryo straight: radicle superior: cotyle¬
dons foliaceous.—Plants, with usually a milky juice, often
twining. Leaves entire, usually opposite, with interpetio-
lar ciliae instead of stipules.—Ex. Asclepias, Stapelia.
Separated by Mr Brown from the Apocyneae on ac¬
count of the very remarkable structure of the anthers and
stigma.—The milky juice is usually acrid and bitter, and
must always be regarded with suspicion, even although it
seems in some few species to be used as aliment. Ihe
roots are generally acrid and stimulating; some few are
diaphoretic and sudorific. The root and bark of tbe mu-
dar plant (Calotropis Mudara), is a powerful purgative
and alterative; and an extract, a new principle, called
mudarine, has the singular property of diliquescing by
cold and congealing by heat.
Order 115. Apocynea:. Juss.
Calyx five- rarely four-divided, persistent. Corolla hy¬
pogynous, gamopetalous, regular, five- rarely four-lobed,
deciduous : estivation contorted-imbricate, rarely valvate.
Stamens five, rarely four, inserted on the corolla, alternate
with its lobes: filaments distinct: anthers two-celled,
bursting longitudinally: pollen granular, globose, or thiee-
lobed, immediately applied to the stigma. Ovaria two and
each one-celled, or one and bilocular: ovules usually inde¬
finite, rarely solitary or few : styles two or one : stigma one.
Fruit follicular, or capsular, or baccate, or drupaceous,
double or single. Seeds indefinite or rarely definite: al¬
bumen fleshy, cartilaginous, or horny, rarely wanting. Em¬
bryo foliaceous: radicle pointing to the hilum.—Plants,
with usually a milky juice. Leaves entire, generally op¬
posite, without stipules, but with interpetiolar cilise or
glands.—Ex. Apocynum, Vinca, Strychnos. _
We have now entered upon a group to be distinguished
with great difficulty, so much do the orders run into each
other; and indeed more than one botanist have suggested
that the Rubiaceie, Apocyneae, Loganiaceae, and Gentianeae,
may form one class. Gentianeae, however, touches upon
Scrophularineae, and this again on various others, so that
we scarcely know what limits to impose on the series.
Strychnos, Carissa, and some others, have been separated
by Jussieu as a distinct order, having a simple fruit, and
peltate seeds without a coma. To this, perhaps, Gardnera
belongs, having a quaternary divided flower, valvate co¬
rolla, like Strychnos, simple fruit, and ecomose seeds. But
then, some still referable to Apocynese have a simple fruit
and comose seeds, others a double fruit and ecomose Arran$
seeds, all of which might as well be made orders ; besides, ment as
we doubt if, by having only one stigma, the ovarium ought
to be ever considered as different from a syncarpous one.—
The milk seems still more deleterious than that of the last
order, being known to be used as food in only two plants.
The root of some is poisonous, in others cathartic ; in some
the bark has these properties, in others the fruit. One
seed of the Tanghin tree of Madagascar is sufficient to
poison twenty persons. The nux-vomica is prepared from
the seeds of the Strychnos. Of some species the bark is
febrifugal.
Order 116. Loganiacece. R. Brown.
Suborder 1. Loganiece. Calyx quinque-partite. Co¬
rolla hypogynous, regular, or irregular: estivation convo¬
lute. Stamens inserted on the corolla, five or one (and
therefore not corresponding with the divisions of the co¬
rolla): anthers bilocular, bursting longitudinally: pollen
marked by three bands (Martius). Ovarium free, two-
celled: ovules indefinite: style continuous : stigma sim¬
ple. Fruit either a two-celled capsule, with placentae
finally becoming loose ; or a nuculanium with one or two-
seeded nucules. Seeds peltate: testa finely reticulated,
sometimes winged. Albumen fleshy or cartilaginous. Ra¬
dicle turned towards the hilum.—Leaves entire, opposite,
usually with interpetiolar sheathing stipules.—Ex. Loga-
nia, Gcertneria.
Suborder 2. Potalieoc. Martius. Calyx 4-5-6-partite.
Corolla hypogynous, regular, 5-10-divided (not corre¬
sponding with the segments of the calyx): estivation
contorted-convolute. Stamens inserted on the corolla:
pollen elliptical, simple. Ovarium free : style continuous :
stigma simple. Placentae central, four-lobed. Fruit suc¬
culent, two- (or spuriously four-) celled. Seeds indefinite,
peltate: testa and tegmen distinct. Albumen cartilagi¬
nous. Embryo heterotropous (Mart.).—Trees or shrubs.
Leaves entire, opposite, with interpetiolar sheathing sti¬
pules.—Ex. Potalia, Fagrcea.
SuborderS. Spigeliecc. Martius. Calyx quinque-par¬
tite, regular. Corolla hypogynous, five-lobed : estivation
valvate. Stamens five, inserted into the corolla: pollen tri¬
angular, the angles globular. • Ovarium free, two-celled:
ovules few: style articulated with the ovarium: stigma
simple. Fruit capsular, two-celled, two-valved, septicidal,
valves separating from the central placenta. Seeds few,
nearly definite, small. Albumen copious, fleshy. Em¬
bryo very minute: radicle next the hilum.—Leaves en¬
tire, opposite, with stipules or a tendency to produce
them.—Ex. Spigelia.
The genera of these three suborders have perhaps no
very great affinity with each other. Some have been
lopped off the Apocyneae, some taken from the Gentianeae,
others from the Rubiaceae. All botanists now agree that
they are osculating eccentric plants; and we have therefore
brought them all here under the head of Loganiaceae.
Their general character lies in the free, two-celled ovary,
and opposite stipulate leaves.—-Their properties seem to
be bitter, like the Gentians: some are acrid and emetic
like the Apocyneae. The root of Spigelia marilandica is
vermifuge, and in large doses cathartic.
Order 117. Gentianece. Juss.
Calyx gamosepalous, usually 5- (sometimes 4-6-8 or
10-) divided, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, gamopeta¬
lous, usually regular, marcescent, or^deciduous: limb di¬
vided into as many lobes as the calyx: estivation imbri-
cate-twisted. Stamens inserted upon the corolla, alter¬
nate with the segments, and equal to them in number,
some of them occasionally abortive : pollen three-lobed or
triple. Ovarium single, of two carpels, the edges of which
are either slightly inflexed, or meet in the axis, hence
BOTANY.
121
uige- 1-2-celled : ovules indefinite : style one, continuous : stig-
t and mag 0ne or two. Fruit capsular or fleshy, one-celled, usu-
kters-ally two-valved, septicidal, or rarely (in Menyanthes) locu-
licidal. Seeds small, indefinite. Embryo straight, in the
axis of a soft fleshy albumen : radicle next the hilum.—
Leaves exstipulate, opposite, and entire (in Menyanthes
and Villarsic, usually alternate, toothed, or divided).—
Ex. Gentiana, Chlora.
From an examination of very imperfectly ripe fruit, we
had concluded that the capsule of Villarsia was loculi-
cidal, and thought ourselves confirmed by Brown, “ Valvu-
larum axibus seminiferis.” But Gaertner and others assert
the contrary: otherwise this character might serve to re¬
move both Menyanthes and Villarsia, and form a distinct
suborder. Martius says that the two carpels of the Gen-
tianeae are right and left, and not anterior and posterior;
but certainly the one is (at all events where the quinary
arrangement holds) opposite to the odd sepal, and the
other to the odd petal, which again, with regard to the
bractea, appear to us anterior and posterior. The torus
presents a disc or gland in Tachia and Villarsia.—The
Gentianeae are intensely bitter; and this renders them,
without exception, tonic, stomachic, and febrifugal.
Order 118. Biynoniacece. Juss.
Suborder 1. Bignoniece. Calyx divided or entire,
sometimes spathaceous. Corolla hypogynous, usually ir¬
regular, 4-5-lobed. Stamens five, unequal (one and some¬
times three of them being sterile): anthers two-celled.
Torus discoid. Ovarium superior, one or two-celled, each
cell being often spuriously divided: ovules indefinite:
style one: stigma bilamellate. Capsule one or two-celled,
sometimes spuriously two or four-celled, two-valved. Seeds
transverse, compressed, winged. Albumen none. Em¬
bryo straight, foliaceous: radicle next the hilum.—Trees
or shrubs, or rarely herbaceous. Leaves opposite or rare¬
ly alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Bignonia, Spathodea, Ec-
cremocarpus.
Suborder 2. Didymocarpece.1 Don. Calyx five-divided,
equal. Corolla tubular, irregular, five-lobed, more or less
bilabiate: estivation imbricate. Stamens four, didyna-
mous (two sometimes sterile), rarely with the rudiment
of a fifth: anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally.
Torus an annular disc. Ovarium superior, one-celled, of
two carpels, the contiguous introflexed margins of which
diverge, and form two or four spurious cells: ovules inde¬
finite : style filiform: stigma two-lobed or bilamellate,
or infundibuliform and entire. Fruit succulent, or capsu¬
lar or siliquose, and two-valved. Seeds indefinite, small,
ovate, or cylindrical, suspended, apterous, sometimes with
a coma. Albumen none. Embryo straight: radicle next
the hilum.—Usually herbaceous, sometimes shrubby plants.
Leaves in general opposite, or radical.—Ex. JDidymocarpus,
Cyrtandra, Ficldia.
Suborder 3. Pedalinece. R. Brown. Calyx five-divided,
nearly equal, rarely spathaceous. Corolla irregular, the
tube ventricose, the limb five-lobed, bilabiate. Stamens
four, didynamous (two sometimes sterile), with the rudi¬
ment of a fifth: anthers bilocular. Torus a glandular
disc. Ovarium one or two-celled, of two carpels, the in¬
troflexed margins of which, by splitting and diverging,
constitute several spurious cells: ovules few in each spu¬
rious cell: style one: stigma bilamellate or 2-4-cleft,
bruit drupaceous, or rarely capsular and two-valved, spu¬
riously many-celled. Seeds few, large, apterous; pendu¬
lous, erect, or transverse. Albumen none. Embryo
straight, next the hilum.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves Arrange-
opposite.—Ex. Pedalium, Sesamum. ment and
Most botanists now agree that these three form but^haracterK-
one order. The true Incarvillea has winged and perhaps
transverse seeds, and belongs to Bignoneae; while other
species, by some united to it, have pendulous, apterous
seeds, and belong to Didymocarpeae. Bamondia is re¬
ferred to Didymocarpeae by Martius, but we know of none
who has examined the mature seeds. If these be exal-
buminose, then the character of the order may be slightly
altered for its reception ; in the mean time, on account of
the anthers dehiscing by terminal pores, we refer it to
the Solaneae. Bignonia seems to have a one-celled fruit,
with a transverse septum or projection from its parietal
placentae. Arragoa is too imperfectly known for any one
to judge of its place. The Bignoniaceae are nearly allied
to Scrophularineas and Solaneae, but have no albumen.
—Nothing almost is known of their medical properties.
Order 119. Polemonidece. Juss.
Suborder 1. Cohaiece. Don. Calyx foliaceous, five-
cleft, equal. Corolla campanulate, equal, limb five-lobed :
estivation imbricate. Stamens five, equal, inserted on
the base of the tube: anthers entire, two-celled. Torus
large, discoid, five-angular. Ovarium free, simple, of three
carpels, one-celled (spuriously three-celled, by means of
the placentae of each carpel being introflexed and attached
to the sides of a solid triangular centre axis): ovules in¬
definite, ascending: style simple: stigma trifid. Capsule
somewhat fleshy, spuriously three-celled, three-valved, sep¬
ticidal: placentae attached to the central axis, and sepa¬
rating from the valves. Seeds flat, winged, ascending, in
a double row. Albumen thin, fleshy, soft. Embryo straight,
large: radicle cylindrical, pointing to the hilum, inferior:
cotyledons broad, compressed, cordate.—Climbing diffuse
shrubs. Leaves alternate, pinnate, terminated by a ten¬
dril.—Ex. Cobcea.
Suborder 2. Polemonieee. Juss. Calyx five-divided,
persistent, sometimes irregular. Corolla regular, rarely
irregular, five-lobed. Stamens five, inserted on the middle
of the tube of the corolla, and alternate with its segments.
Anthers entire. Torus discoid, lobed. Ovarium free, of
three carpels, three-celled, or one-celled (and spuriously
three-celled by the introflexed placentae being united with
a triangular central axis) : ovules ascending : style simple :
stigma trifid. Capsule three-celled, or spuriously so,
three-valved, loculicidal: placentae in the axis, and sepa¬
rating from the valves. Seeds few or numerous, angular
or oval, often enveloped in mucus, ascending, in a single
row. Embryo straight, in the axis of a horny albumen:
radicle inferior, next the hilum; cotyledons elliptical, fo¬
liaceous.—Herbaceous, erect plants. Leaves opposite or
alternate, simple or variously divided.—Ex. Polemonium,
Phlox, Bonplandia.
This order borders very close on the Bignoniaceas,
especially Cobcea, in which genus, had the seeds been at¬
tached to the margins of the valves, and consequently
the septa been merely projections of the placentae, as in
Bignonia, we should have referred it to that order, not¬
withstanding the trifid stigma, and the presence of some
albumen. On the other side, Polemonideae are allied to
Convolvulaceae, but from this the shape of the embryo is
sufficient to distinguish them.
Order 120. Hydroleacece. R. Brown.
Calyx five-parted, persistent: estivation imbricated.
Corolla regular, not always agreeing with the calyx in
On account of its priority, we have adopted this name, instead of Cyrtandraceae given to these plants by Dr Jack. Jack’s paper
was read in May 1822, and published long afterwards in the 14th volume of the Linncran Transactions ; Don’s was read on 2Gth Ja¬
nuary 1822, and published in Julv that same year.
VOL. V.
Q
122
BOTANY.
Arrange- the number of its divisions: estivation plicate or imbri-
ment and cate. Stamens five, inserted on the corolla, equal: anthers
Characters.
deeply lobed at the base, two-celled. Torus an annular
disc. Ovarium free, 2-3-celled : ovules indefinite : styles
two or three: stigmas incrassated. Fruit capsular, 2-3-
celled, loculicidal. Seeds indefinite, very small. Em¬
bryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle
next the hilum: cotyledons flat.—Leaves alternate, ex-
stipulate, often covered with glandular or stinging hairs.
 Ex. Hydrolea, Diapensia.
Almost exactly intermediate between Polemomdese and
Convolvulacea?; like the former, having the placentae often
adhering to the axis and separating from the valves, and
principally differing in the plurality of styles. From Con-
volvulaceae the dehiscence of the capsule, the number ox
seeds, the albumen, and flat cotyledons, will distinguish
them.
Order 121. Convolvulacece. Juss.
Calyx five-divided, persistent. Corolla deciduous, regu¬
lar, five-lobed: estivation usually plicate. Stamens five,
inserted on the base of the corolla, alternate with its seg¬
ments. Torus discoid. Ovarium free, of two, three,
or four carpels, usually syncarpous, rarely apocarpous,
usually with two, three, or four cells, rarely by abortion
one-celled: ovules erect, definite; when more than one,
collateral: style one, sometimes entire, usually bifid,
rarely two: stigmas obtuse or acute. Capsule 1-4-celled,
septifrap-al and septicidal; sometimes without valves, or a
pyxidium. Seeds at the base of the placentae. Albumen
mucilaginous. Embryo curved : radicle inferior : cotyle¬
dons corrugated, rarely inconspicuous.—Herbaceous plants
or shrubs, usually twining and with a milky juice. Leaves
alternate, ex stipulate.—Ex. Convolvulus, Falkia, Cuscuta*
(Plate CXIX.)
Cuscuta, from its having no leaves developed, has, as
may be presumed, no conspicuous cotyledons. Analogy,
however, enables us to assert that they do exist, although
in an abortive state. In Cuscuta the calyx and corolla
are sometimes four-lobed, the stamens four. Dichondra
and Falkia, usually described as with apocarpous ovana,
ought rather, by analogy, to be considered as syncar¬
pous, with a deeply-divided style.—An acrid, purgative,
milky iuice abounds in the roots: the Jalap and Scam-
mony are obtained from those of species of Convolvulus.
The roots of C. batatas (or sweet potato) and C. edulis
are eaten.
Order 122. Cordiacece. R. Brown.
Calyx five- (rarely four-) toothed. Corolla with the
limb 5-4- (rarely 10-) cleft. Stamens inserted on the
corolla, alternate with its segments: anthers versatile.
Ovarium free, four-celled: ovule solitary: style conti¬
nuous : stigma four-cleft. Fruit with a fleshy epicarp,
sarcocarp bony, four-celled (some of them occasionally
abortive). Seed erect, attached to a long funiculus that
proceeds from the apex of the cell to the base. Albumen
none. Radicle superior: cotyledons plaited longitudi¬
nally. Trees. Leaves alternate, scabrous, exstipulate.
Flowers panicled.—Ex. Cordia, Vawonia.
Perhaps not distinct from Boragineae, but somewhat allied
to Convolvulaceae by the plaited cotyledons.—The flesh
of the fruit is mucilaginous and emollient. The Sebesten
plums are produced by Cordia Myxa and C. Sebestcna.
Order 123. Borayinecv. Juss.
Suborder 1. Ehretiea. Mart. Calyx five-parted:
estivation imbricate. Corolla tubular, limb five-divided,
estivation imbricated. Stamens five, inserted on the base
of the corolla, alternate with its segments : anthers erect.
Torus an annular disc. Ovarium free, simple, two or foui
celled: ovules four, suspended: style terminal: stigma
simple, two-lobed. Fruit a nuculanium. Seeds four, sus¬
pended, some occasionally abortive. Albumen very thin Amngoj
and fleshy, or wanting. Embryo straight or curved: mem aK
radicle next the hilum: cotyledons plano-convex.—Trees^acte
or shrubs. Leaves alternate, scabrous, or harshly pubes- ^
cent, exstipulate. Flowers in corymbose spikes, or pani¬
cles.—Ex. Ehretia, Tournefortia.
Suborder 2. Heliotropiece. Mart. Calyx five-parted,
persistent. Corolla regular, five-lobed : estivation imbri¬
cate. Stamens inserted on the tube of the corolla, alter¬
nate with its segments’: anthers erect. Torus discoid.
Ovarium free, entire, or two-lobed, four-celled: ovules four,
pendulous: style terminal or between the lobes, simple :
stigma simple or bifid. Fruit dry, separable into four
achenia. Seed pendulous, solitary. Albumen none, or
very thin and fleshy. Radicle minute, next the hilum,
superior : cotyledons fleshy, plano-convex, or convolute.
—Somewhat shrubby or herbaceous plants. Leaves alter¬
nate, scabrous, exstipulate. Flowers in terminal, fascicu¬
lated or corymbose spikes.—Ex. lieliotropiuni, Tiaridium^
Coldenia.
Suborder 3. Boragece. Calyx five-divided, persistent.
Corolla regular, five-cleft: estivation imbricate. Stamens
inserted on the corolla, alternate with its segments: an¬
thers erect. Ovarium four-lobed, four-celled : ovules four,
each suspended from the inner angle and near the sum¬
mit of the cell: style simple, arising from the base of the
lobes of the ovarium: stigma simple or bifid, bruit a
microbasis, separable into four achenium-like, or two bi¬
locular bony, portions. Seed suspended. Albumen none.
Radicle superior, short: cotyledons plano-convex. Her¬
baceous plants or shrubs: stem terete. Leaves alternate,
scabrous, exstipulate. Flowers usually spicate. Ex. Bo~
rago, Myosotis.
There is scarcely any good character between these.
The first maybe best distinguished by its fleshy fruit, the
last by the fruit being a microbase, and the second by
the fruit being dry and yet not a microbase. In the Bo-
rageae, as may be easily seen in Cerinthe, a placenta, or
rather a conducting thread, passes up through the sarco¬
carp at the inner angle of each part of the fruit, and en¬
ters the cell between the middle and the summit, bear¬
ing the seeds, which are thus suspended, not erect as
some botanists say. In Tiaridium the fruit has two diva¬
ricating lobes, between which the style is inserted : a cord
passes from its base along the middle of each lobe, to near
the apex, where it enters each cell, forming a double pla¬
centa. Coldenia seems to have a thin albumen, and some¬
what convolute cotyledons. The Ehretiese, on account of
the fleshy fruit, formed part of the original family of Se-
besteniae (Cordiacese) of Ventenat. Although we have
termed the fruit in all these four-celled, it, however, con¬
sists only of two cells, each of which is divided into two
by an incrassation and inflexion of the dorsal nerve. A
fifth part is sometimes suppressed from the calyx, corolla,
and stamens.—The Boragea? are mucilaginous and emol¬
lient. Some contain nitrate of potash, which gives a cool¬
ness to the beverage in which their leaves are steeped.
The roots of others give out a reddish brown dye.
Order 124. Hydrophyllecc. R. Brown.
Calyx five- or ten-divided, persistent. Corolla regular
or nearly so, five-lobed, with two lamellae towards the base
of each constituent petal. Stamens alternate with the
lobes of the corolla: anthers ovate, two-celled, versatile,
bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, simple, one-cell¬
ed : ovules definite or indefinite, suspended : style termi¬
nal, bifid : stigmas two. Placentae two, parietal, or on
stalks from the base of the cavity. Fruit capsular, one-
celled, two-valved, loculicide. Seeds definite or indefi¬
nite. Embryo small at the umbilical extremity of a copious
cartilaginous albumen : radicle superior.—Herbaceous his-
BOTANY.
123
A
m
Ch
nge. pid plants. Leaves opposite, or alternate and lobed.—
p and Ex. Hydrophyllum, Phacelia.
kcters. Closely allied to Boragineae, from which Mr Brown se-
' parated them in the Prodromus Flora Nov. HolL, and in
the appendix to Franklin’s Overland Expedition. What
are termed here stalked placentae, are, we suspect, the pa¬
rietal placentae detached from the back of each valve, but
remaining attached to the base of the cell.
Order 125. Solanea. Juss.
Calyx five- (rarely four-) parted, persistent. Corolla with
the limb five- (rarely four-) cleft, regular, or somewhat un¬
equal, deciduous : estivation plicate, or in some imbricate.
Stamens inserted on the corolla, alternate with its seg¬
ments, sometimes one abortive : anthers bursting longitudi¬
nally or by terminal pores. Ovarium two or more celled,
rarely one-celled : ovules usually indefinite : style con¬
tinuous : stigma obtuse, rarely lobed. Fruit either a cap¬
sule, which is 2-4-celled, 2-4-valved, and septicidal, or
opening transversely with a double dissepiment; rarely
one-celled, two-valved, the margins introflexed, and bear¬
ing the placentae ; or a 2-4-celled berry, with the placentae
adhering to the dissepiment; or a nuculanium, with five
or more nucules which have spurious one or more cells with
one seed in each. Seeds sessile. Embryo more or less
curved, often eccentric, lying in a fleshy albumen : radi¬
cle next the hilum.—Herbaceous plants or shrubs. Leaves
alternate.—Ex. Solanum, Nicotiana; Nolana ; Verbascum,
Anthoeercis.
Allied to both Convolvulaceae and Boragineae, with
which last, and also with Hydrophylleae, it has sometimes
been proposed to associate Nolana: this genus, indeed,
merits being made into a suborder. As to Verbascum,
Ramondia, Celsia, Anthocercis, and Duboisia, they have the
habit of the Solaneae, but the imbricate corolla, unequal
stamens, and almost straight embryo, of the Scrophulari-
nete; and if they are not conjoined with these, and the
character of the present order thus made more rigor¬
ous, we cannot point out a decided distinguishing cha¬
racter between the two families. Ramondia has a unilo¬
cular fruit. Triguera seems to have an irregular, pli¬
cate corolla, and the fruit a tetrachenium; but this ge¬
nus is little known.—Upon the whole, the leaves of the
Solaneae are narcotic and acrid: those of Verbascum,
however, and probably of the others with an imbricate
corolla, are mucilaginous. The roots are usually poison¬
ous. The fruit is also in general very poisonous, although,
whether by the effects of cultivation, or some peculiarity
in the plants themselves, that of the Love-apple, Tomato,
Capsicum, and a few others, are eaten without inconveni¬
ence. The tubers formed on the potato-plant are, when
boiled, highly alimentary. The dominant property of
these vegetables is their stupifying action, which is usual¬
ly joined to an acrid principle. The vjjvsvhs of Homer
(Od. iv. 1. 221), supposed by some to be the poppy, seems
rather to be the Hyoscyamus, which has still a similar name
applied to it in some eastern languages.
Order 126. Orobanchece. Vent.
Calyx divided, persistent. Corolla irregular, usually
bilabiate, persistent: estivation imbricated. Stamens
four, didynamous. Torus a fleshy disc. Ovarium free,
one-celled, of two carpels, whose edges are sometimes
slightly introflexed and divaricated: ovules indefinite:
style one : stigma two-lobed. Fruit capsular, inclosed
within the withered corolla, one-celled, loculicide. Seeds
indefinite, minute. Embryo very minute, lodged in a la¬
teral hollow near the apex of a fleshy albumen.—Her¬
baceous, leafless, parasitical plants.—Ex. Orobanche, La-
thrwa.
Richard, and Nuttal (under his genus Epiphagus),
describe the embryo situated as above: Gsertner, how¬
ever, figures it in Lathrcea at the base of the albumen; Arrange-
but the character is too minute to be of much use. J£ent an^
This order approaches very close to the following, from Cj»acterg-
which, however, it is easily distinguished; and also to the
Gesneriaceae.— Orobanche major is powerfully astringent.
Order 127. Sciophularinece. Juss.
Calyx divided, unequal, persistent. Corolla usually
irregular and bilabiate or personate, deciduous: estivation
imbricate. Stamens usually four, didynamous, rarely equal,
sometimes two. Torus discoid. Ovarium free, two-cell¬
ed : ovules definite or indefinite : style simple: stigma
two-lobed, rarely entire. Fruit capsular (rarely fleshy),
two-celled (rarely, by the obliteration of the dissepiments,
one-celled), 2-4-valved, loculicidal or septicidal: dissepi¬
ment distinctly double, or apparently single. Placentae
central in maturity, either remaining attached to the dis¬
sepiment, or becoming loose. Seeds definite or indefinite.
Embryo straight, included within a fleshy albumen.—Her¬
baceous, seldom shrubby, plants. Leaves usually oppo¬
site.—Ex. Veronica, Erinus, Scrophularia, Rhinanthus,
Melampyrum.
After Brown, we unite the Pediculares of Jussieu to the
Scrophularineae, the two kinds of dehiscence of the cap¬
sule being found sometimes in the same genus. Richard,
in 1828, proposed to make use of another character, viz.
the direction of the embryo, which he supposes to be or-
thotropous in the true Scrophularineae, and heterotropous
or inverted in the Pediculares or Rhinanthaceae. Mr Bind¬
ley has therefore lately availed himself of this structure.
But the only genera we can discover with a heterotropous
embryo are, Rhinanthus, Melampyrum, and Pedicularis;
Euphrasia and Bartsia, so allied to them, having it ortho-
tropous. In the above three the embryo is minute, while
in all the others it occupies a great part of the length of
the albumen.—This family presents no great uniformity
in its properties; the greater number, nevertheless, con¬
taining a principle more or less acrid, purgative in Gra-
tiola and some Scrophularice, but so powerful in Digitalis
purpurea (the fox-glove), that this plant is very poisonous
unless in smalfdoses. Euphrasia is slightly astringent and
aromatic, without the deleterious qualities‘of the other
genera.
Order 128. Labiatce. Juss.
Calyx tubular, regular, or bilabiate, persistent. Corolla
bilabiate ; upper lip entire or bifid, lower three-cleft: the
upper in estivation overlapping the lower. Stamens four,
didynamous (two being sometimes abortive), inserted on
the corolla, alternate with the lobes of the lower lip: an¬
thers two-celled, sometimesapparently one-celled, either by
the obliteration of the septum, or by the abortion of a cell.
Ovarium free, deeply four-lobed : ovules four : style one,
proceeding from the base of the lobes : stigma bifid, usu¬
ally acute, sometimes unequal or dilated. Fruit a micro¬
basis, separable into four achenia. Seeds erect, some of
them occasionally abortive. Albumen none, or very thin.
Radicle inferior : cotyledons flat.—Herbaceous or suffru-
tescent plants, with quadrangular stems. Leaves oppo¬
site, exstipulate.—Ex. Salvia, Teucrium, Scutellaria.
The Labiatae approach to the Boragineae, and also to
the Verbenaceae. The leaves are full of little utricles of
oil.—Two principles are found in these plants; the one
aromatic and stimulant owing to the abundance of the
essential oil, the other bitter ; and, according as the one
or the other predominates, so they are cordial, sudorific,
and antispasmodic, or tonic and stomachic. I he order
contains no dangerous plants.
Order 129. Verbenacea. Juss.
Suborder 1. Myoporince. R. Brown. Calyx five-
parted, persistent. Corolla nearly equal, or bilabiate. Sta¬
mens four, didynamous, with the rudiment of a fifth some-
124
BOTANY.
Arrange- times bearing pollen. Torus an annular disc. Ovarium with a spur. Stamens two, included within the corolla, Arrange
ment and free, 2-4-celled : ovules four, pendulous: style one: stig- and inserted into its base : anthers one-celled, sometimes ment ai
Characters. ma scarceiy divided. Fruit an osteocarpium, with a fleshy contracted in the middle. Ovarium free, of two carpels, Characte
V—epicarp and bony sarcocarp, with 2-4-cells : seeds four, one-celled: ovules indefinite : style one, very short: stig-
Embryo cylindrical, in the axis of a firm albumen : radicle ma unequally bilamellate. Placenta central, erect, glo-
superior. Shrubs. Leaves alternate or opposite, exsti- bular. Fruit capsular, one-celled, opening transversely,
pulate.—Ex. Mijoporum, Bontia. or by a longitudinal cleft at the apex. Seeds minute.
Suborder 2. Verbenece. Calyx tubular, persistent. Co- Albumen none. Embryo with two (sometimes inconspi-
rolla tubular, deciduous, limb usually irregular. Stamens cuous) cotyledons.—Herbaceous, marsh or water plants,
four, didynamous, rarely equal, sometimes only two. Ova- or parasites. Leaves radical, often abortive. Flowers on
rium free, 2-4-celled : ovules four, erect, rarely pendulous, scapes.—Ex. Pinguicula, Utricularia. _
and then becoming erect after fecundation: style one: I hese are most closely allied to the Scrophlarineae, from
stigma bifid or entire. Fruit an osteocarpium, or nucula- which they are distinguished by the ovary being one-cel -
nium, or a tetrachenium (the epicarp being sometimes ex- ed, or, in other words, by the indexed part of the carpel-
tremely thin). Seeds erect, four, or by abortion three or lary leaves being at an early age obliterated. ihe large,
one. Albumen none, or very thin. Embryo straight: central, free placenta allies them to the Primulaceae ; but
radicle inferior.—Trees or shrubs, rarely herbaceous plants, these have more than two carpellary leaves and a copious
Leaves usually opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Verbena, Vitex, albumen.
Avicennia. Order 132. Primulacece. Juss.
Suborder 3. Selaginece. Juss. Calyx tubular, rarely Calyx five- (rarely four-) cleft, regular, persistent. Co-
of two sepals, persistent. Corolla tubular; limb five-lobed, rolla hypogynous, rarely perigynous, with the limb regu-
irreo-ular. Stamens four, usually didynamous, seldom only lar, five- (rarely four-) cleft, rarely wanting. Stamens m-.
twof inserted on the top of the tube of the corolla: an- serted upon the corolla or hypogynous, equal in number,
thers one-celled. Ovarium free, very minute : style one, and opposite to its segments. Ovarium free (rarely with
filiform. Fruit membranous, two-celled, one cell often its base adherent to the calyx), one-celled, of five (rarely
abortive. Seed solitary in each cell, erect. Embryo in four) carpels: ovules indefinite : style one : stigma capi-
the axis of a fleshy albumen : radicle superior, at the op- tate. Placenta central, free. Capsule opening by valves,
posite extremity from the hilum.—Herbaceous or shrubby orapyxidium. Seeds numerous, peltate. Embryo straight,
plants. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Selago, He- cylindrical, inclosed within a fleshy albumen, transverse,
benstreitia. or rarely in the axis.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves usu-
These have a somewhat similar habit, and only differ ally opposite.—Ex. Primula, Trientalis. .
from each other by very minute characters. Through Closely allied through the last order to Scrophularmeae
Verbena they are allied to the last order; and through and the other Hypocorollse; to Myrsineae however it has
Selaginese to both Scrophularinese and Acanthacese.—• the greatest affinity, from which it is best known by its
Their properties are of little importance ; the Vervein has capsular and not fleshy fruit. Samolus has the ovarium
long since fallen into disrepute ; and the fruit of the Vitex only partly free, and has* five sterile stamens alternate
Aqnus-castus, being hot and aromatic, may be expected to with the fertile ones, but cannot be confounded with any
produce a contrary effect from that from which the plant of the Pericorollae if we consider the structure of the fruit
derived its name. The bark of Avicennia tomentosa is and seed. Glaux has no petals, but the stamens are still
used in Brazil for tanning. The Teak-tree of East India alternate with the sepals; Don has united it with the
belongs to this family. ‘ Plantaginese on account of the embryo being in the axis
Order 130. Acanthacece. Juss. of the albumen; but the stamens are erect m estivation,
Calyx 5-4-divided, equal or unequal, rarely either multifid and the fruit one-celled.—The Cowslip is slightly narco-
or entire and obsolete, persistent. Corolla mostly irregular, tic, and the root of the Cyclamen acrid; but little is
with the limb ringent or bilabiate, or occasionally with one known about their properties,
lip sometimes nearly equal, deciduous. Stamens mostly Order 133. Globularinece. D. C.
two, sometimes with other two or three shorter ones, twro Calyx five-cleft, usually equal, sometimes bilabiate, per-
of which are sometimes fertile : anthers either two-celled sistent. Corolla tubular, five-parted, bilabiate, or rarely
or one-celled, bursting longitudinally. Torus a glandular of one lip. Stamens four, somewhat didynamous, inserted
disc. Ovarium free, two-celled: ovules two or many in into the top of the tube of the corolla, alternate with the
each cell: style one : stigma two-lobed or entire. Pla- segments of the lower lip: anthers remform, one-celled.
centae in the axis. Capsule two-celled, elastically two- Ovarium free, one-celled : ovule solitary, pendulous : style
valved, loculicidal. Seeds two or many in each cell, some- filiform, persistent: stigma bifid. Fruit indehiscent. Seec
times by abortion solitary, ascending, usually subtended pendulous. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albu-
by ripad subulate persistent ascending processes from the men : radicle superior.—'Shrubby or herbaceous plants,
placentae : testa loose. Albumen none. Embryo curved with perennial roots. Leaves alternate, blowers capitate,
or straight: radicle cylindrical, descending, next the hi- on a paleaceous bracteated receptacle.—Lx. Globulana.
lum : cotyledons large, foliaceous.—Herbaceous plants or Jussieu and De Candolle considered this allied to the
shrubs. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Flowers with three Primulaceae. Cambessedes has lately demonstrated their
for by abortion two) bracteas to each.—Ex. Acanthus, affinity with the Yerbenaceae (Selagineae), and more par-
Justicia. ticularly with the Dipsaceae. Perhaps they ought to be
The flowers, as in Thunbergia, have sometimes large placed in the vicinity of the Brunoniaceae and Goodeno-
bracteae inclosing an obsolete calyx. They approach the viae, with which last they agree in the irregular corolla:
Scrophularineae °in habit, and Bignoniaceae in character, but in the Dipsaceae and these two the torus surrounds
from which it is extremely difficult to separate those ge- the ovarium, and either appears on its surface in the shape
nera that want the hooked processes of the placenta.— of a disc, or incloses the style and forms a cup under the
Acanthus mollis is considered emollient. The properties stigma, whereas here it is almost imperceptible at the
of the other genera of this order are almost unknown. bottom of the calyx.—Bitter, tonic, and purgative.
Order 131. Lmtibularice. Richard. Order 134. Plumbaginece. Juss.
Calyx divided, persistent. Corolla irregular, bilabiate, Calyx tubular, peisistent. estivation plicate, coio a
irfi
IK'J
I*
S
t
it
BOTANY.
125
. 1<Te. gamopetalous, or of five distinct petals, regular. Stamens
mt and five, hypogynous when the petals are combined, inserted
Chi cters.into the base of the petals when distinct. Ovarium free,
one-celled : ovule solitary, pendulous from the extremity
of an umbilical cord arising from the bottom of the cell:
styles five, seldom three or four, each bearing a subulate
stigma. Fruit a utriculus. Seed pendulous : testa and
tegmen combined. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fari¬
naceous albumen: radicle superior.—Herbaceous or suffru-
tescent plants. Leaves alternate or fascicled, somewhat
sheathing at the base. Flowers panicled, either loosely or
in a capitate manner.—Ex. Plumbago, Statice, Armeria.
Jussieu and De Candolle consider the calyx as a kind
of involucrum, and the petals as a perianth, probably on
account of other points of resemblance between this order
and Nyctagineae, in which there is no corolla.—The genus
Plumbago is caustic and acrid. Statice is tonic and astrin¬
gent.
Order 135. Plantaginece. Juss.
Sepals four (rarely three), somewhat unequal, persis¬
tent : estivation imbricate. Corolla tubular, with a four-
(rarely three-) parted limb, scarious, persistent. Stamens
four, inserted into the tube of the coi'olla, or its base, al¬
ternate with its segments : filaments long, filiform, doubled
inwards before fecundation : anthers versatile, two-cell¬
ed. Torus inconspicuous. Ovarium free, two-seldom four-
and very rarely one-celled: ovules solitary, in pairs, or
indefinite: style simple capillary : stigma hispid, simple
or rarely bifid. Fruit a pyxidium, inclosed within the
persistent corolla. Seeds sessile, peltate or erect: testa
mucilaginous. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen :
radicle inferior.—Herbaceous and generally stemless plants.
Flowers bisexual in spikes, or unisexual and solitary, the
male on a long peduncle, the female sessile.—Ex. Planta-
go, Littorella.
We agree with Brown and smne others, that this has a
true calyx. In the genus Plantago, the filaments, although
only freed from the corolla in their upper part, really have
the same origin as the corolla, but are adnate to its tube.—•
The Plantains are bitter, astringent, and slightly febrifugal.
rpo-
neae.
tral funiculus : style one or none. Stigma simple or com- Arrange-
pound. Fruit an utricle or a pyxidium, rarely a berry, ment and
Seeds lentiform, pendulous : testa crustaceous. Embryo Characters,
curved round a central farinaceous albumen: radicle near
the hilum.—Herbaceous plants or shrubs. Leaves oppo¬
site or alternate, exstipulate. Flowers capitate or in
spikes, usually bisexual.—Ex. Amaranthus, Gomphrcena,
Deeringia.
Closely allied in many respects to the Illecebreae : nor
is it easy to point out any general distinguishing character.
Martius supposes the bracteoles to be a true calyx, and
the perianth a corolla.—The leaves are mucilaginous.
This order is chiefly cultivated for its showy flowers.
Div. IV.—Moriochlamydecc. D. C.
(8. Hypostamineae. Juss.)
Order 136. Nyctaginece. Juss.
Perianth tubular, coloured, contracted in the middle,
becoming indurated at the base; limb entire or toothed :
estivation plicate. Stamens definite, hypogynous : anthers
two-celled. Torus a glandular disc. Ovarium free, one-
celled : ovule solitary erect: style one ; stigma one. Fruit
a caryopsis, inclosed within the enlarged persistent tube
of the perianth. Embryo rolled round a farinaceous al¬
bumen : radicle inferior: cotyledons foliaceous.—Leaves
opposite, rarely alternate. Flowers with an involucre,
which is either common or proper, one or many-leaved,
or sometimes minute.—Ex. Mirabilis, Boerhaavia.
The nearest affinity of this order is with Plumbagineae,
but particularly with Polygoneae : it is, however, very dis¬
tinct from either. The genus Mirabilis, that word being
an adjective, ought to be called Nyctago.—The root of
the Marvel of Peru, and most others of this family, is
purgative.
Order 137. Amaranihacece. Juss.
Perianth 3-5-partite, scarious, persistent, with usually
two bracteoles at the base. Stamens as numerous as the
segments of the perianth, distinct, or united into a mem¬
branous cup or tube, occasionally partly abortive, often
with intermediate barren filaments or processes: anthers
two-celled or one-celled. Ovarium single, free, one-cell¬
ed : ovules solitary or several, suspended from a free cen-
Div. IV.—Monochlamydece. D. C.
(9. Peristamineae. Juss.)
Order 138. Chenopodece. D, C.
Perianth ebracteate, deeply divided, sometimes tubular
at the base, persistent: estivation imbricate. Stamens in¬
serted into the base of the perianth, or sometimes hypogy¬
nous opposite its segments, and equal to them in number,
occasionally fewer. Ovarium single, free, or sometimes
cohering with the tube of the perianth^ one-celled : ovule
solitary, attached to the base of the cell: style 2-4-divid-
ed: stigmas simple. Fruit indehiscent, membranous, in¬
closed in the calyx, which becomes often enlarged or fleshy.
Seed erect or resupinate. Embryo curved, placed round
a farinaceous albumen, or spiral, or doubled together with¬
out albumen : radicle next the hilum.—Leaves alternate,
sometimes opposite, exstipulate. Flowers bi- or unisexual.
—Ex. Chenopodium, Atriplex.
Very difficult to be distinguished by a character from
the last order, although usually with a habit very differ¬
ent.—Some, as the Spinage, are used as pot-herbs: of
others, the root, as of the Beet, is eaten.—Many possess
an essential oil. The Salsolce, Salicornia, and others, yield
much soda.
Order 139. Phyiolaccacece. R. Brown.
Suborder 1. Phytolaccece. Perianth 2-4-5-partite. Sta¬
mens inserted into the base of the perianth,'indefinite, or
as few as the segments of the perianth, alternate with
them. Ovarium of one or several carpels, syncarpous or
apocarpous: ovule one in each carpel, ascending: styles
equal to the number of the carpels, terminal in the sim¬
ple ovarium, lateral in the apocarpous: stigmas simple
or divided. Fruit baccate or dry, indehiscent. Seeds so¬
litary, ascending. Embryo curved round a mealy (rarely
a fleshy) albumen : radicle next the hilum.—Leaves alter¬
nate, exstipulate, often with pellucid dots.—Ex. Phyto¬
lacca, Rivina, Gisekia, Theligonum.
Suborder 2. Petiverice. Ag. Perianth 4-5-partite. Sta¬
mens perigynous, indefinite; or, if occasionally equal in
number to the leaves of the perianth, alternate with them.
Ovarium one, free, one-celled: ovule solitary, erect: style
one, lateral: stigma simple or penicillate. Fruit dry, one-
celled, indehiscent. Seed erect. Albumen 0. Embryo
straight: radicle inferior: cotyledons convolute.—Leaves
alternate, often dotted, with minute deciduous stipules
(in Petiveria).—Ex. Petiveria, Seguiera.
We do not see why these ought to be separated; their
habit is precisely the same. Microtea and Ancistrocarpus,
both with albumen, approach closely to Petiveria by the
prickles on the fruit. Rivina also exhibits a tendency to
have the cotyledons convolute. We have joined to them
Theligonum, although with an oily and somewhat fleshy
albumen. De Candolle and Richard do not separate this
family from Chenopodese.—Phytolacca decandra is a pur¬
gative : its root is emetic, as also is a spirit distilled from
its berries: but a tincture from them seems to be much
9. Perista-
ininese.
ige- esteemed for chronic rheumatism. The leaves are acrid;
and but young shoots, when boiled, are used instead of aspa-
ters. ragus.
Order 140. Polygonece. Juss.
Suborder 1. Persicarice. Flowers solitary. Perianth
divided : estivation imbricate. Stamens definite, insert¬
ed into the bottom of the perianth : anthers bursting
longitudinally. Ovarium one, free : ovule solitary, erect:
styles or stigmas several. Fruit a nut, naked, or covered
by the enlarged perianth. Seed erect. Albumen farina¬
ceous, rarely very thin and fleshy. Embryo usually on
one side of the albumen : radicle superior.—Herbaceous,
rarely shrubby plants. Leaves alternate, sheathing at the
base, or adhering there to intrafoliaceous stipules, revolute
when young. Flowers often unisexual.—Ex. Polygonum,
Rumex.
Suborder 2. Eriogonece. Flowers bisexual, collected in
a campanulate involucrum. Perianth campanulate, six-
cleft : estivation imbricate. Stamens nine, inserted into
the bottom of the perianth : anthers bursting longitudi¬
nally. Ovary one, free: ovule solitary, erect: stigmas
three. Fruit an achenium, covered by the persistent pe¬
rianth. Seed erect. Albumen farinaceous. Embryo
straight, in the axis of the albumen : radicle superior, re¬
mote from the hilum.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves alter¬
nate, usually tomentose, neither sheathing nor with intra¬
foliaceous stipules.—Ex. Eriogonum.
The erect ovule and superior radicle will distinguish
this at once from the two last orders. The second sub¬
order contains, in addition to Eriogonum, an allied genus
from South America, in which the segments of the invo¬
lucre terminate in spiny processes, and the fruit is len¬
ticular, although with a triangular beak.—In almost all the
species the root and young leaves have an astringent and
acid taste, the first owing to the presence of tannin and
gallic acid, the second to oxalic acid, which makes them
rank among tonic medicines. The roots of some, as the
rhubarb, possess, in addition, a purgative property. The
seeds of all, with the exception of those of Polygonum
hydropiper, which are hot and acrid, may be used as food,
like those of most other orders with a copious farinaceous
albumen.
Order 141. Begoniacece. R. Brown.
Flowers unisexual. Perianth coloured ; of four or some¬
times 3-9 in the males, or 5-6 in the females, tepals or
leaves, of which some are smaller than the others: esti¬
vation imbricate. Stamens indefinite, distinct, or united
into a solid column: anthers collected in a head, continu¬
ous, clavate, two-celled, bursting longitudinally, with a
very thick connectivum. Ovarium coherent with the tube
of the perianth, of three carpels, each with the dorsal
nerve winged, three-celled: ovules indefinite: stigmas
three, sessile, two-lobed, somewhat spirally twisted. Pla¬
centae in the axis. Fruit membranous, capsular, tri¬
angular, three-celled, loculicide (bursting at the angles)
below. Seeds indefinite : testa thin, reticulated. Albu¬
men 0. Embryo oblong : radicle next the hilum.—Her¬
baceous or suffrutescent plants. Leaves alternate, ob¬
lique at the base, with scarious stipules.—Ex. Begonia
(Plate CXVIII.)
Closely allied to the Polygoneae in several respects,
but distinguishable from them by a multitude of charac¬
ters : some slight relation they also bear to Loaseae and
Onagrareae. Mr Lindley once considered them as having
affinity with Saxifragaceae (Hydrangeae), and Link places
them near Umbelliferae.—The leaves and young shoots are
acid, and may be used, like those of the rhubarb, for tarts.
The roots are astringent and slightly bitter.
Order 142. Laurinece. Juss.
Perianth 4-6-cleft, the limb sometimes obsolete: esti¬
vation imbricate. Stamens perigynous, definite, opposite Arrang,.;
to the segments of the perianth; more often twice as many, mentan
and in two rows, in which case the outer row is almosttr^ractf'
always fertile, while such of the inner row as are opposite
the inner segments of the perianth are sterile: filaments
of the inner row often with glands at their base : anthers
2-4 celled, cells opening by a longitudinal persistent valve
from the base to the apex, outer row introrse, inner row
extrorse. Ovarium single, free or rarely adherent, one-
celled: ovule solitary, pendulous: style one: stigma obtuse.
Fruit fleshy, naked, or covered by the enlarged and fleshy
perianth. Seed one, pendulous. Albumen none. Radi¬
cle short, superior: cotyledons large, usually plano-convex
and peltate near the base, rarely convolute: plumule con¬
spicuous, two-leaved.—Trees. Leaves exstipulate, alter¬
nate, or seldom opposite. Sometimes twining, parasitic,
suffrutescent, or herbaceous plants, without leaves.—Ex.
Laurus, Gassytha.
Perhaps Gyrocarpus, having an adherent ovary, a drupe
with two winged processes at its apex, and convolute pe-
tiolate cotyledons, ought to form a small suborder. The
Laurineae are allied to the Berberideae and Monimeas by
their valvular anthers.—Cinnamon, camphor, benzoin, and
sassafras, are the products of this family: indeed all the
species are aromatic, warm, and stomachic.
Order 143. Hernandiacece. Blume.
Perianth petaloid, tubular, 4-8-parted, deciduous, with a
small involucre or outer perianth around the flowers that
contain pistils. Stamens perigynous definite, in two rows, of
which the outer is often sterile : anthers bursting longitu¬
dinally. Ovarium free, one-celled : ovule pendulous : style
one or none : stigma peltate. Fruit a fibrous drupe. Seed
solitary, pendulous. Albumen none. Radicle superior:
cotyledons somewhat lobed, shrivelled, oily.—Trees.
Leaves alternate, entire.—Ex. Hernandia, Inocarpus.
Allied to Laurineae and Myristiceae, differing from the
former by its anthers, from the latter by its want of albu¬
men. Mr Lindley has also explained its affinity to the
Thymeleae.—The bark, young leaves, and seed of Her¬
nandia, are slightly purgative. The seeds of the Inocar¬
pus are eaten, and have a taste similar to chestnuts.
Order 144. Myristacece. R. Brown.
Flowers unisexual. Perianth trifid, in the female deci¬
duous: estivation valvular. Stamens 3-12 (definite) : fila¬
ments combined closely into a cylinder: anthers connate
or distinct, two-celled, extrorse, bursting longitudinally.
Ovarium free, sessile, one-celled: ovule solitary, erect:
style very short: stigma somewhat lobed. Fruit baccate,
one-celled, two-valved. Seed solitary, erect, nut-like, co¬
vered by a deeply laciniated arillus. Albumen ruminated,
between fatty and fleshy. Embryo small, at the base of
the albumen. Radicle inferior: cotyledons foliaceous:
plumule conspicuous.—Trees, with often a red juice.
Leaves alternate, exstipulate, coriaceous, not dotted.—
Ex. Myristica (Plate CXX.)
Mr Brown remarks that the stamens or anthers, how¬
ever numerous, are always a multiple of the number of
the segments of the perianth, and therefore definite.—The
use of the mace or arillus, and albumen, of the nutmeg, is
well known, as highly aromatic. The bark, however, has
an acrid juice, and the fleshy part of the fruit is caustic.
Order 145. Proteacece. Juss.
Perianth more or less deeply 4-divided: estivation
valvular. Stamens perigynous, four (one sometimes
sterile), opposite the segments of the perianth: anthers
two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium solitary, free,
sessile or stalked, one-celled: ovules solitary, or rarely in
pairs: style simple: stigma discoid, slightly oblique.
Fruit dehiscent or indehiscent, one-celled. Seed sometimes
winged: testa thick. Albumen none. Embryo straight:
B O T
Iv nge- radicle inferior, and below the liilum: cotyledons some-
nii and times more than two.—Shrubs or small trees. Leaves
^bjlcters.jjgj-d, dry, opposite or alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Pro-
tea, Banksia, Persoonia.
A very distinct order, and scarcely to be confounded
with any other.—They are handsome evergreens, much
prized by gardeners, but of no use except as firewood.
Order 146. Elceagnece. Juss.
Perianth tubular, the limb entire or 2-4-toothed; con¬
sisting, in purely staminiferous flowers, of 3-4 tepals; per¬
sistent. Stamens three, four, or eight, alternate with the
segments of the perianth: anthers nearly sessile, two-celled,
erect, bursting on the inner side and longitudinally. Ova¬
rium free, one-celled : ovule solitary, ascending, on a short
funiculus: style short: stigma simple, subulate, glandular.
Fruit a crustaceous achenium, inclosed within the per¬
sistent, enlarged, and fleshy tube of the perianth. Seed
ascending. Embryo straight, surrounded by a thin fleshy
albumen: radicle short, inferior: cotyledons fleshy.—Trees
or shrubs. Leaves simple, entire, alternate or opposite, ex¬
stipulate, covered beneath with leprous scales. Flowers
dioecious or rarely bisexual.—Elceagnus, Hippopha'e.
This order is allied to several in the neighbourhood,
and also to Combretaceae.—The fleshy enlarged perianth
of several species is eaten.
Order 147. Penceacece. R. Brown.
Perianth coloured, more or less deeply 4-divided, regular,
persistent. Stamens perigynous, four (or eight, and then
the four additional ones are longer than the others), al¬
ternate with the segments of the perianth: anthers two-
celled, opening inwards and longitudinally. Ovarium free,
4-celled: ovules two, collateral in each cell, resupinately
erect, or pendulous; foramens near the hilum : style one,
entire or 4-fid: stigmas four, or one entire or 4-lobed.
Fruit a capsule, 4-celled, 4-valved, loculicide, with no per¬
sistent axis: seeds erect (by resupination), or pendulous,
two in each cell, rarely solitary, with an imperfect fungus¬
like arillus at the hilum: testa brittle: nucleus fleshy.
Radicle next the hilum.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite, sim¬
ple, entire, exstipulate. Flowers with two or more bracteas
at their base.—Ex. Pencea, Sarcocolla.
We have examined the structure of the seeds of this
order, and have come to the same conclusions as Gaertner,
Lindley, and Kunth. The nucleus seems quite homo¬
geneous, solid, and fleshy. There is no part in particular
that one can describe as albumen, or cotyledons, or ra¬
dicle ; but from the situation of the foramen in the ovule,
it may be presumed that the radicle points to the hi¬
lum. In those with erect seeds, the raphe is on the
outer side of the seed, that is, at the opposite side from
the placenta, and therefore we consider them resupinate.
— The Gum-resin called Sarcocolla is obtained from seve¬
ral species.
Order 148. Thymelece. Juss.
Perianth tubular, coloured, 4- (rarely 5-) cleft: estiva¬
tion imbricate. Stamens definite, perigynous, usually
eight, sometimes four (or more rarely two) and then oppo¬
site to the segments of the perianth : anthers two-celled,
bursting longitudinally. Ovarium free, one-celled : ovule
one, pendulous : style one : stigma entire. Fruit a nut or
a drupe. Albumen none, or thin and fleshy. Embryo
straight: radicle short, superior: cotyledons plano-convex :
plumule inconspicuous.— Shrubs, or rarely herbaceous
plants, with a tough bark. Leaves entire, alternate or
opposite, exstipulate.—Ex. Daphne, Passerina.
Allied to Santalaceae, Elaeagneae, and Proteaceae, from
which they are readily known by one or two of the cha¬
racters given.—The bark is caustic: it is composed of
tenacious interlaced fibres, easily separable, which are
sometimes worked into cordage: in the lace bark tree
ANY. 127
(Daphne Laghetto), the inner bark resembles a piece of Arrange-
fine lace; that of Daphne Gardneri, and some others, is ment and
manufactured into paper. The berries of D. Laareola are Characters,
poisonous to all animals except birds.
Order 149. Aquilarinece. R. Brown.
Perianth coriaceous, tubular, five-lobed. Stamens mona-
delphous; ten fertile, alternating with ten that are sterile
and sometimes petaloid: anthers erect, two-celled, bursting
longitudinally. Ovarium free, ovate, of two carpels, one-
celled : ovules two, suspended, acuminated, with the fora¬
men at the apex: stigma sessile, simple. Placentas parie¬
tal. Capsule pyriform, one-celled, two-valved, loculicide.
Seeds two (one to each placenta), arillate, or winged.—
Trees. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Aquilaria,
Gy r mops.
The above account of this little-known order we owe to
Mr Lindley; and, if his observations be correct, the seed
is probably suspended, and the radicle at the opposite ex¬
tremity from the hilum. On account of the capsule being
extremely compressed at the sutures of the valves, it is
very difficult to determine whether the margins are not so
much introflexed as to meet, and thus form a true disse¬
piment, and the fruit two-celled, as it has hitherto been
described by Gaertner and Lamarck. Gaertner, moreover,
describes and figures the seeds of Gyrinops as ascending.
Nothing yet is known of the internal structure of the
seed. Mr Brown arranges this order next to, if it do not
form part of, Chailletiaceae, and mentions its relation to
Thymeleae. The ambiguous kind of capsule, and append¬
age to the seeds, seem to point out some affinity with
Penaeaceae and Polygaleae. If the above description be
correct, this order borders very closely on the Samydeae.
Order 150. Chailletiacece. R. Brown.
Perianth five-partite, tepals persistent: estivation im¬
bricate (D. C.) or valvate (Lindl.). Stamens inserted
into the base of the perianth, and opposite its lobes,
with alternating, sterile, petaloid, often bifid, filaments,
each of which bas usually a gland at its base on the in¬
side : anthers ovate, versatile, two-celled. Ovarium free,
2-3-celled : ovules two in each cell, collateral; pendulous :
styles 2-3, distinct or combined: stigmas capitate. Fruit
an osteocarpium, with the epicarp rather dry and coria¬
ceous, or a capsule, 2-3-celled, one or two cells being often
abortive. Seeds solitary in each cell, pendulous. Albu¬
men none. Embryo thick: radicle short, superior : coty¬
ledons fleshy.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with
two stipules. Peduncles axillary, often cohering with the
petiole.—Ex. Chailletia, Tapura.
Plants with the appearance of Celtis (Amentaceae);
they are allied somewhat to Terebinthaceae, and also to
Rosaceae.— Chailletia toxicaria is said to be poisonous.
Order 151. Samydece. Gartner.
Perianth usually 5- (sometimes 3-7-) divided, coloured
on the inside: estivation somewhat imbricate, seldom
completely valvate. Stamens inserted on the tube of the
perianth, two, three, or four times as many as its seg¬
ments, either all fertile, or the alternate ones shorter, vil¬
lous or ciliated, and sterile: filaments monadelphous at
the base : anthers erect, ovate, two-celled. Ovarium free,
one-celled: ovules indefinite: style one, filiform : stigma
capitate, or slightly lobed. Placentae parietal. Capsule
coriaceous, one-celled, 3-5-valved, dehiscing imperfectly ;
the inside often somewhat pulpy, and coloured. Seeds
attached to the valves, not in any evident order, on the
papillose or pulpy part, with a fleshy arillus and excavated
hilum. Albumen fleshy. Embryo minute : radicle at the
opposite extremity from the hilum : cotyledons ovate,
foliaceous, plicate.—Leaves alternate, simple, with round
and linear pellucid dots mixed, stipulate.—Ex. Samyda,
Casearia.
128
BOTANY.
Arrange- The structure of the fruit shows great affinity with the
ment and Bixineae and Flacourtianeae; in some respects also it is
Characters. aj]je(j to Rosaceae; but it approaches most to Chaille-
tiaceae.—The bark and leaves are said to be slightly
astringent.
Order 152. Homalinece. R. Brown.
Perianth with a short tube, the limb 4-15-partite, with
usually as many alternating petaloid segments, either in
the same row or forming an inner series. Glands or
scales generally present in front of the outer or propel di¬
visions of the perianth. Stamens perigynous, alternating
singly, or in parcels of threes or sixes, with the outer seg¬
ments of the perianth: anthers three-celled, bursting lon¬
gitudinally. Ovarium partly cohering with the tube of the
calyx or free, syncarpous, one-celled : ovules numerous :
styles 3-5 (sometimes combined), simple, filiform, or subu¬
late : stigmas 3-5. Placentae 3-5, parietal. bruit bac¬
cate or capsular, one-celled. Seeds sometimes arillate.
Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albumen: radicle inferior,
pointing to the hilum : cotyledons foliaceous.—Trees or
shrubs. Leaves alternate, with deciduous stipules.—Ex.
Homalium, Pineda, Azara.
This order is closely allied to Bixineae and Samydeae.
Some botanists consider the alternate segments of the pe¬
rianth as petals, and arrange it near to Rosaceae. Ihe
properties are unknown.
Div. IV.—Monochlamydece. D. C.
10. Epista-
minece.
(10. Epistamineac. Juss.)
Order 153. Santalaceee. R. Brown.
Suborder 1. Exocarpeee. Perianth five- (rarely four-)
partite, or of three tepals. Stamens perigynous, as nume¬
rous as the segments of the perianth, and opposite to
them. Ovarium free, or partly cohering witn the tube of
the perianth : style short or none: stigma obtuse or lobed.
Fruit a nut or drupe. Seed solitary. Embryo minute,
in a fleshy albumen ; radicle superior.—Shrubs or trees.
Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Exocarpus, Anthobo-
lus. _ . .
Suborder 2. Santalece. Perianth 4-5-cleft: estivation
valvate. Stamens 4-5, opposite the segments of the pe¬
rianth, and inserted at their base. Ovarium cohering
with the tube of the calyx, one-celled : ovules 2-4, pen¬
dulous from near the apex of a central placenta: style
one: stigma often lobed. bruit nut-like or diupaceous.
Seed solitary. Embryo cylindrical, in the axis of a fleshy
albumen: radicle superior.—Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous
plants. Leaves alternate, or nearly opposite, exstipulate.
—Ex. Santalum, Thesium.
Suborder 3. Nyssece. Juss. Perianth 4-5-cleft. Sta¬
mens (in the bisexual flowers) opposite the segments of
the perianth, as numerous, and inserted at their base: in
the male flowers usually twice as many as the segments.
Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, one-
celled : ovule one, occasionally two, pendulous from the
apex of the cavity: style one: stigma simple or divided.
Fruit drupaceous. Seed solitary. Albumen fleshy. Radi¬
cle superior: cotyledons broad, foliaceous.—Trees. Leaves
alternate, exstipulate. Flowers polygamous.—Ex. Nyssa.
Notwithstanding that Exocarpese has the fruit wholly or
partly free, and therefore belongs to the Pei istarnineas,
and that Nyssese has no central placenta, and has folia¬
ceous cotyledons, these three suborders can scaicely be
separated. Cervantesia has petaloid scales alternating
with the stamens, and, according to Ruiz and Pavon, an
erect seed, an embryo at the apex of the albutnen, and an
inferior radicle, and therefore may be associated with.Zi.c0-
carpus till better understood. Sanders wood is the pro¬
duce of Santalum alburn.
Order 154. Aristolochiece. Juss. Amtigj E
Perianth tubular, three-cleft, regular, or sometimes very ment a# ^
unequal: estivation valvate. Stamens (6-12) a multiplej ^
of the segments of the perianth, epigynous, distinct, or
adhering to the style and stigmas. Ovarium cohering
with the tube of the perianth, 3-6-celled: ovules indefi¬
nite, horizontal: style simple, short: stigmas radiating, as
numerous as the cells of the ovary. Fruit dry or succu¬
lent, 3-6-celled. Seeds numerous. Embryo very minute,
placed at the base of a cartilaginous albumen.—Herba¬
ceous plants or shrubs, often climbing. Leaves alternate,
with often leafy stipules. Flowers axillary, solitary, bi¬
sexual.—Ex. Aristolochia, Asarum.
In this family the root is the most active part; it has,
particularly in Aristolochia, a bitter, aromatic, and some¬
times even slightly acrid taste. This acridity is pre¬
dominant in Asarum, which is emetic, whilst the other
plants are generally stimulant.
Order 155. Cytinece. R. Brown.
Suborder 1. Rhizanthece. Blume. Perianth divided:
estivation imbricated. Male flowers containing a solid
central column, from the apex of which arise some horned
processes : filaments none : anthers cohering with the co¬
lumn, extrorse, bursting longitudinally or by terminal pores.
Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth, one-cell¬
ed : ovules indefinite. Placentae several, broad, parietal.
Fruit a pulpy berry. Seeds indefinite, very minute.—
Parasitic plants. Stem simple. Leaves in the form of
scales. Flowers unisexual.—Ex. Cytinus, Raffiesia.
Suborder 2. Nepenthece. Link. Perianth four-parted:
estivation imbricated. Male flowers containing a solid
central column : filaments none: anthers about 16, sessile
on and agglomerated into a spherical head at the apex of
the column, extrorse, bursting longitudinally. Ovarium
free, four-cornered, spuriously four-celled: ovules inde¬
finite : stigma sessile, somewhat four-lobed. Placentae pa¬
rietal, constituting the spurious dissepiments. Fruit a
capsule, spuriously four-celled, four-valved, loculicide.
Seeds ascending, indefinite, very minute : testa loose, seta¬
ceous: tegmen ovate oblong, with a filiform process at
each extremity. Embryo oblong, in the midst of a fleshy
albumen : radicle pointing to the hilum : cotyledons plano¬
convex.—Leaves alternate, slightly sheathing at the base,
with a foliaceous petiole that is pitcher-shaped at the ex¬
tremity, with a lid-like lamina. Flowers unisexual, dense¬
ly racemose.—Ex. Nepenthes.
Notwithstanding the diversity of habit, we consider these
two to be extremely closely allied. In both, the solid central
column of the male flowers may be viewed, in whole or in
part, as an abortive pistillum. The stamens will thus be
epigynous, although in Nepenthes the ovarium be fiee.
Perhaps Mr Brown was right in uniting this order as a
section to the last.—The properties of Nepenthes are un¬
known. Cytinus and Raffiesia are astringents.
Div. IV.—Monochlamydece. D. C.
(11. Diclines. Juss. S 1. Angiospermae.) lfDi
v _ times.
Order 156. Datiscece. R. Brown. _ . i. A»gj
Flowers unisexual. Male: Perianth deeply divided.Sperniii
Stamens several: anthers linear, membranous, two-celled,
bursting longitudinally. Female: Perianth toothed. Ova¬
rium cohering with the tube of the perianth, one-celled:
ovules indefinite, parietal: styles three or four. Placen¬
tas parietal, as many as the styles. Fruit capsular, open¬
ing at the vertex, one-celled. Seeds indefinite, parietal:
testa reticulated. Albumen none. Embryo straight:
radicle pointing to the hilum.—Herbaceous branched
plants. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.—Ex. Datisca, U-
trameles.
BOTANY.
129
A:tnge- Mr Lindley considers this as a connecting link between
nj-itand Resedaceae and Urticeae; Mr Brown, however, thinks
Cl acters. tjiat they differ widely. Both the above genera are dice-
cious.
Order 157. Empetrece. Nuttal.
Flowers unisexual. Perianth gemmaceous, in four (rare¬
ly two) imbricated rows: each series of two or three hy-
pogynous scales alternating with those of the next row;
the inner often petaloid. Stamens 2-3, equal in number
to the scales of each series, and alternating with the in¬
nermost, hypogynous: anthers roundish, two-celled, burst¬
ing longitudinally at their margin. Ovarium free, seated
on the small fleshy discoid torus, with as many cells as
stamens, or twice or thrice as many: ovules solitary, as¬
cending: style one, short, deciduous: stigma radiating,
multifid. Fruit a nuculanium, seated within the persistent
perianth. Seeds solitary in each nucule, ascending : testa
membranous: embryo cylindrical, in the axis of a fleshy
albumen, and about the same length: radicle inferior:
cotyledons semicylindrical, much shorter than the radicle.
—Small heath-like shrubs. Leaves alternate, or some¬
what verticillate, exstipulate.—Ex. Empetrum, Corema,
Ceratiola.
Closely allied to Euphorbiacese. It has little or no affi¬
nity with the Ericese, with which it is usually arranged;
and as little with Coniferae, where Nuttal places it. Don
and most others view the inner series of the perianth as
petals, the next as a calyx, and the outer, when present,
as bracteas, and therefore consider them as allied to Celas-
trineae.
Order 158. Euphorbiacece. Juss.
Flowers unisexual. Perianth lobed (sometimes want¬
ing), with various internal glandular or petaloid scales
(abortive petals) alternating with the lobes. Stamens de¬
finite or indefinite, distinct or monadelphous: anthers two-
celled. Ovarium free, sessile, or rarely stalked, 2-3- or
sometimes many-celled; carpels arranged round a central
column: ovules solitary or in pairs, suspended: styles equal
in number to the cells, distinct or combined, sometimes
none: stigmas several, or one with several lobes. Fruit
of two, three, or more cocci, which are usually distinct
and elastically two-valved, sometimes indehiscent or close¬
ly cohering. Seeds solitary or in pairs, suspended, aril-
late. Embryo inclosed in a fleshy albumen: radicle su¬
perior, pointing to the hilum: cotyledons flat.—Trees,
shrubs, or herbaceous plants, often lactescent. Leaves
usually with stipules, opposite or alternate, sometimes none.
—Ex. Euphorbia (Plate CXXL), Buxus, Croton, lanipha
(Plate CXXII.)
This order is usually arranged among the Monochlamy-
deae, and next the Urticeae ; but if Coriarieae belong to the
Thalamiflorae, so ought the Euphorbiaceae, for the petaloid
bodies, often in this family reduced to mere glands, are of
the same nature in both. The stigmas of many Euphor¬
biaceae resemble much those of Coriarieae; and perhaps
the true place for them in a linear series is between the
Coriarieae and Celastrineae.—The plants of this order are
acrid, caustic, and poisonous. Their deleterious effects
are owing to the milky juice which most of them possess ;
but they may be deprived of this very easily by means of
heat, so that the root of the lanipha Manioc becomes a
wholesome food. The albumen of the seed contains much
fat and sweet oil, but the embryo is acrid and purgative.
It is impossible to give here the various modifications of
the properties to be found in this family. They are dis¬
cussed at length by Ad. de Jussieu, in his treatise on this
family.
Order 159. Urticacece. Juss.
Suborder 1. Urticece. Juss. Flowers unisexual, scatter¬
ed or clustered. Perianth membranous, lobed, persistent.
vol. y.
Stamens definite, distinct, inserted into the base of the pe- Arrange-
rianth, and opposite its lobes: filaments sometimes’curved mentond
inwards during estivation. Ovarium free, one-celled :Cliaracters‘
ovule solitary, erect: stigma simple. Fruit an indehis-
cent nut, surrounded by the membranous or fleshy peri¬
anth. Seed solitary, erect. Albumen 0, or very thin.
Embryo straight, or curved, or spiral: radicle superior,
remote from the hilum.—Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous
plants. Leaves alternate, hispid, or scabrous, stipulate.
—Ex. Urtica, Cannabis, Humulus.
Suborder 2. Ulmece. Mikbel. Flowers bisexual or
polygamous, scattered. Perianth campanulate, divided.
Stamens definite, inserted into the base of the perianth,
erect during estivation : ovarium free, two-celled : ovules
solitary, pendulous : style 0 : stigmas two. Fruit one or
two-celled (one of them abortive), a samara or a drupe.
Seed one, pendulous : albumen 0, or very thin. Embryo
straight: radicle superior : cotyledons foliaceous.—Trees
or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, stipulate.—Ex. Ul-
mus, Celtis.
Suborder 3. Artocarpeee. R. Brown. Flowers uni¬
sexual, in heads or catkins. Perianth usually divided,
sometimes tubular or entire. Stamens solitary or several,
straight during estivation. Ovarium free, or rarely coher¬
ing with the perianth, 1-2-celled : ovule suspended: style
one, filiform: stigma bifid. Fruit a sorosus or syconus,
which is sometimes, but very rarely, reduced to a single
flower. Seed solitary, suspended. Albumen thin or in¬
conspicuous. Embryo straight or curved : radicle point¬
ing superior.—Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants, with
milky juice. Leaves alternate : stipules deciduous, con¬
volute in vernation. Ex. Artocarpus (Plate CXXV.),
Morus, Ficus.
We follow Richard and some others in combining these
three. The Ulmaceae, however, from the two-celled ova¬
rium, ought perhaps, as has been done by De Candolle
and Duby, to be united to the Amentaceae. Mr Brown
says that they should be rejected on account of the pen¬
dulous ovules. But then he states Artocarpeae to have
the ovules erect. Mr Lindley, however, finds them sus¬
pended. We have in several species observed them to be
peritropal, and in general attached to a point opposite the
base of the style : the radicle is however always superior,
wherever be the hilum.—In the Urticeae the fibres of the
stem are very tenacious. The leaves of the hemp are
narcotic. The hop is extremely bitter, and the effluvia is
said to cause sleep. The nettles are well known for the
stinging property of the hairs on their leaves. The bark
of the Elm (Ulmus) is bitter and astringent. The fruit
of most of the Artocarpeae is edible ; but the juice is usu*
ally acrid, and contains more or less of caoutchouc. The
Antiaris toxicaria, the celebrated Upas or poison-tree of
Java, belongs to this tribe. Brosimum galactodendron, or
the cow-tree of Humboldt, is a solitary instance of the
milk being wholesome. The banyan-tree of India is the
Ficus religiosa.
Order 160. Monimiece. Juss.
Flowers unisexual, collected together, the males and
females into different involucres: involucre toothed or
lobed, valvular during estivation. Perianth 0. Stamens
numerous, covering the whole interior of the involucre :
anthers two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovaria seve¬
ral, sessile, and inclosed within the tube of the involucre,
each with one style and one stigma: ovule solitary, pen¬
dulous. Fruit a dry syconus. Seed pendulous. Embryo
in the midst of a copious albumen: radicle superior.—
Trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Flowers
axillary, in short racemes.—Ex. Monimia, Boldoa.
Closely allied to the Urticacese.—The bark and leaves
give out when bruised a highly aromatic smell.
R
130 B O T
Arrange- Order 161. Atherospermece. R. Brown.
meat and Flowers unisexual, collected together, males and fe-
Characters.ma|es usually in distinct, rarely in the same, involucres:
'~r~ involucre tubular, divided at the extremity, the divisions
usually in two rows, of which the inner, and sometimes
all, are petaloid, accompanied in the pistilliterous involucre
with a few scales. Stamens in the purely staminiferous
involucra very numerous, inserted into the bottom of the
involucrum, mixed with scales; in the involucra having
also pistilla, they are fewer, and arise from its orifice :
anthers adnate, two-celled, bursting with a valve that se¬
parates from the base to the apex. Ovaria several, usu¬
ally indefinite : ovule solitary, erect: styles simple, some¬
times arising from the side or the base: stigma undivided.
Achenia furnished with the persistent styles, become fea¬
thery, included within the enlarged tube of the involucre.
Seed solitary, erect. Embryo short, at the base of a soft
fleshy albumen : radicle inferior.—Trees. Leaves oppo¬
site, exstipulate. Flowers axillary, solitary. Ex. Athe-
rosperma, Laurelia.
The anthers indicate some affinity to the Berberideae
and Laurinea;. Mr Brown and Mr Bindley consider the
involucre a perianth. We have been induced to differ
from them only by the analogy subsisting between this
order and Monimieae, with which they agree in many very
important points ; like them they are aromatic.
Order 162. Lacistemece. Martius.
Perianth in several narrow divisions, covered by a di¬
lated bractea. Stamen one, hypogynous: anther two-
celled, separated by a thick two-lobed connectivum, burst¬
ing transversely. Torus a fleshy disc. Ovarium fiee,
one-celled : ovules several, ascending: style scarcely any:
stigmas two, three, or four; small, subulate, spreading.
Placentas parietal. Fruit capsular, 2-3- or 4-valved, locu-
licide. Seed usually (by abortion) solitary, suspended
from a long funiculus, with a fleshy arillus : testa crusta-
ceous. Embryo in a fleshy albumen : radicle straight, cy¬
lindrical, superior: cotyledons flat.—Small trees or shiubs.
Leaves simple, alternate, exstipulate. Flowers in axillary
clustered catkins.—Ex. Lacistema.
Martius and Bindley attribute to this a fleshy albumen;
St Hilaire and Kunth say there is none. Some authors
suppose the perianth to consist only of four pieces, accom¬
panied with one or more bracteae, and the whole sur¬
rounded by a large bractea. We, however, are rather in¬
clined to consider the supposed perianth as mere processes
from the toi'us, and consequently this tribe approaches
very near to the Chlorantheae. Although all the flowers
are bisexual, the upper ones only of the catkin are fertile,
whence we have arranged the order among the Diclines,
with which it is otherwise most allied.
Order 163. Chloranthece. R. Brown.
Flowers without a perianth, bisexual or unisexual, vv ith
a supporting scale. Stamens definite, lateral; if more than
one, connate : filament adhering slightly to the ovary: an¬
thers one-celled, bursting longitudinally, each adnate to a
fleshy connectivum, which coheres laterally in various de-
o-rees, so as to represent usually only one anther with se¬
veral cells. Ovarium one-celled, ovule solitary, pendulous:
stigma simple, sessile. Fruit drupaceous, indehiscent.
Seed pendulous. Embryo minute, at the apex of a fleshy
albumen : radicle inferior, pointing to the opposite extre¬
mity from the hilum : cotyledons divaricate.—Herbaceous
or suffrutescent plants. Stems jointed. Leaves opposite,
simple, with sheathing petioles, and minute intervening
stipules. Flowers in terminal spikes.—Ex. Chloranthus,
Ascarina, Hedyosmum.
Allied to Piperaceae. “ Their anthers consist of a fleshy
mass, upon the face of which the cell lies that bears the
pollen. Whether these anthers are one or two-celled, is a
ANY.
matter of doubt; one botanist considering those which Arrange, jrr
have two cells to be double anthers, another considei ing went and. jieii
those with one cell to be half anthers. —(Lindl.} Chlo- j fl-:
ranthus officinalis has an aromatic fragrant smell, which is ^
combined in the root with a somewhat bitter flavour, giv¬
ing it the same properties as Aristolochia serpentaria.
Order 164. Piperacece. Richard.
Suborder 1. Piperinece. Flowers without a perianth
but with a bractea, bisexual. Stamens definite or indefi¬
nite, arranged on one side, or all round the ovarium, to
which they adhere more or less: anthers one or two-celled,
with or without a fleshy connectivum: pollen smooth.
Ovarium solitary, free, one-celled : ovule solitary, erect:
stigma simple, sessile, rather oblique. Fruit somewhat
fleshy, one-celled. Seed erect. Embryo inclosed in a
fleshy endosperm, placed on the outside of the perisperm,
at the opposite extremity from the hilum.—Shrubs or her¬
baceous plants. Leaves opposite (sometimes alternate by
abortion), or verticillate, exstipulate. Flowers in spikes.
—Ex. Piper, Peperomia.
Suborder 2. Saururece. Richard. Flowers without
a perianth, seated on a scale or bractea, bisexual. Sta¬
mens three or six, clavate, hypogynous or cohering with
the angles of the germen, persistent: anthers continuous
with the filament, with a thick connectivum, and two
lobes bursting longitudinally. Ovaria four, apocarpous,
wfith one ascending ovule and a sessile recurved stigma to
each; or syncarpous, consisting of three or four carpella,
one or 3-4-celled, with several ascending ovules, and 3-4
sessile recurved stigmas. Fruit either consisting of four
fleshy achenia, or a one or 3-4-celled capsule, opening at
the apex and containing several ascending seeds. Seeds
with a membranous testa. Embryo minute, inclosed in a
fleshy endosperm, situated on the outside of a hard mealy
perisperm at the extremity remote from the hilum.—-Her¬
baceous plants, growing in marshy places, or floating in
water. Leaves alternate, stipulate. Flowers in spikes,
rarely with a four-leaved involucre at the base of the spike.
—Ex. Saururus, Aponogeton, Houttuynia.
This order has floated for some time between the Di-
cotyledones and Monocotyledones ; but what Richard and
others took for a monocotyledonous embryo, proves now to
be merely the embryonic sac, or endosperm. As to Hout¬
tuynia, we have referred it here, notwithstanding several
botanists have considered it as more allied to the Aroi-
deae.—The common pepper is well known as pungent, sti¬
mulant, and aromatic, and this represents the ordinary
property of the Piperineae.
Order 165. Amentacece. Juss.
Suborder 1. Salicinece. Richard. Flowers in uni¬
sexual amenta. Stamens distinct or monadelphous: an¬
thers two-celled. Ovarium free, one or two-celled: ovules
numerous, erect, attached to the bottom of the cell or to
the base of two parietal placentas: style one or none : stig¬
mas two. Fruit a coriaceous capsule, one or two-celled,
two-valved, loculicide. Seeds numerous, adhering as in
the ovary, comose. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: ra¬
dicle pointing to the hilum.— Frees or shrubs. Leaves
alternate, with stipules that are often deciduous. Ex.
Salix, Populus.
Suborder 2. Myricece. Rich. Flowers unisexual in
an amentum, which is sometimes globose. Stamens one
or several, each subtended by a scale : anthers two-celled,
2-4-valved, opening longitudinally. Ovarium one-celled,
with several hypogynous scales: ovule solitary, erect:
stigmas two, subulate. Fruit drupaceous, often covered
with waxy granules ; surrounded by the scales of the ova¬
rium become fleshy and adherent; or dry and dehiscent,
with the scales distinct. Seed solitary, erect. Albumen
0. Embryo straight: radicle short, superior : cotyledons
B O T
A mge- two, plano-convex.—Shrubs with resinous glands and
m c and dots, or leafless shrubs or trees, with filiform branches
CWacters* bearing membranous toothed sheaths. Leaves alternate.
 Ex. Myrica, Casuarina.
Suborder 3. Betulinece. Rich. Flowers unisexual in
an amentum, the males sometimes having a membranous
toothed perianth (or rather an expansion of the torus).
Stamens distinct, or rarely monadelphous: anthers two-
celled. Ovarium two-celled : ovules definite, pendulous :
style one or none : stigmas two. Fruit membranous, in-
dehiscent, by abortion one-celled. Seeds pendulous, not
comose. Albumen 0. Embryo straight: radicle superior.
—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate: stipules decidu¬
ous.—Ex. Betula, Alnus.
Suborder 4. Platanece. Juss. Flowers in unisexual
globose amenta. Stamens distinct, with several small
scales and appendages mixed among them : anthers linear,
two-celled. Ovaria terminated by a thick style, w’ith the
stigma lateral and adnate: ovules solitary or in pairs,
pendulous. Fruits in consequence of mutual compression
clavate, bony, with a persistent recurved style. Seeds
solitary, or rarely in pairs, pendulous, elongated: testa
thick. Embryo long, cylindrical, in the axis of a fleshy
albumen; radicle inferior.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves al¬
ternate, with scarious sheathing stipules.—Ex. Platanus.
Suborder 5. Cupuliferce. Rich. Flowers unisexual,
in amenta, the females sometimes aggregated. Stamens
5-20, generally distinct, inserted into the base of the
scales or of a membranous perianth. Ovarium seated in
a coriaceous involucrum (cupula), crowned by the rudi¬
ments of an adherent perianth, plurilocular: ovules two or
one, pendulous: stigmas several, nearly sessile, distinct.
Fruit a gland. Seed solitary, pendulous. Albumen 0.
Embryo large : radicle superior, small: cotyledons plano¬
convex.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.
—Ex. Quercus, Corylus, Fagus.
We leave this order entire, nearly as done by Jussieu.
With regard to the suborders, their limits are not yet well
fixed. Thus De Candolle excludes Liquidamber from the
Myricese, on account of the globular catkins and palmi-
nerved leaves, and alters materially the character of Pla-
tanecR for its reception ; but although more allied in habit
to Platanus, these two genera seem to differ wddely in the
structure of the seed.—As to medical properties, the Sa-
licineae have the bark bitter and febrifugal. The Myriceae
are aromatic. The bark of Betulineae is astringent and
somewhat febrifugal. Cupuliferae are tonic, stomachic,
and febrifugal. The bark of the oak is employed for tan¬
ning. Cork is the bark of the Quercus Suber. The Hazel,
Beech, and Sweet Chestnut, belong to this suborder.
Order 166. Stilaginece. Agardh.
Flowers unisexual. Perianth 3-5-partite. Stamens two
or more, arising from a tumid receptacle : filaments ca¬
pillary : anthers erect, two-lobed, with a fleshy connecti-
vum, and vertical cells opening transversely. Ovarium
free: ovules two : stigma sessile, 3-4-toothed. Fruit dru¬
paceous. Seed solitary, suspended. Embryo in the midst
of a copious fleshy albumen: cotyledons foliaceous.—
Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with deciduous sti¬
pules.—Ex. Stilago, Antidesma.
An order by no means understood. In some points it
appears to approach the Amentaceae, particularly Cupuli¬
ferae and Plataneae.
Order 167. Juglandece. D. C.
Flowers unisexual. Males in an amentum. Perianth
scaly, oblique, irregularly lobed. Stamens inserted on
the receptacle, indefinite : filaments short, distinct: an-
A N Y. 131
thers erect, two-celled, bursting longitudinally. Females Arrange-
with a single or double perianth: the exterior four-part- ment and
ed, the inner (when present) of four pieces. Ovarium Characters,
cohering with the perianth, one-celled: ovule solitary,
erect: styles one or two, very short, or none : stigmas
large, either two and lacerated, or discoid and four-lobed.
Fruit (a drupe) fleshy, containing a 2-4-valved, one-celled,
putamen. Seed four-lobed, with a membranaceous testa.
Albumen none. Embryo large : radicle superior: coty¬
ledons fleshy, two-lobed, wrinkled.—Trees. Leaves alter¬
nate, without pellucid dots or stipules.—Ex. Juglans.
Allied on the one side to Terebinthaceae, by which
view the inner segments of the female perianth may be
supposed a corolla, and on the other to the Amentaceae
(Cupuliferae).—The fruit of the walnut is much esteemed :
the rind is astringent. Some species are anthelmintic and
cathartic.
Div. IV.—Monochlamydece. D. C.
(11. Diclines. Juss. §2. Gymnospermae.) 11. Di-
Order 168. Coniferce. Juss. ^G^mno
Flowers unisexual. Male florets consisting of one or Spermo;.
several monadelphous stamens, collected in an amentum
about a common rachis : anthers two or many-lobed, burst¬
ing outwardly; often terminated by a crest, which is an
uncovered portion of the scale out of which each stamen
is formed. Females usually in cones, sometimes solitary.
Ovarium none (in the solitary flower), or spread open (in
the cone) and resembling a flat scale, destitute of style or
stigma, arising from the axil of a membranous bractea:
ovules exposed; in the cones in pairs on the face of the
ovarium, inverted; in the solitary flower erect. Fruit, a
solitary naked seed, or a cone. Seeds with a hard crus-
taceous testa. Embryo in the midst of a fleshy oily albu¬
men : radicle next the apex of the seed, having an organic
connection with the albumen.—Trees or shrubs; trunk
branched, abounding in resin. Leaves with the veins
parallel to each other.—Ex. Pinus, Taxus, Thuja.
There are often more than two cotyledons, but they
are opposite, whence perhaps they may be viewed as only
two, but multipartite. “ The structure of the Coniferm
differs so wddely from that of the true (or angiospermous)
Dicotyledons, that a single glance will in general enable
us to distinguish the one tribe from the other. In the
Coniferce there is only one regular system of pores, re¬
sembling a piece of the most delicate net-work. Each
mesh is bounded by straight lines crossing each other at
nearly right angles, and the concentric lines of the meshes
almost always approximate each other at the outer edge
of each annual layer of the wood. The structure of the
true Dicotyledons consists of a system of vessels separated
from each other by masses of cellular matter, and the ves¬
sels or pores are always bounded by curved lines.”1—This
order is of great importance on account of its timber. But
it is also valuable for its resinous productions; various
kinds of pitch, turpentine, and balsams being procured
from the different species. The large seeds of some are
eaten, and are wholesome. The berries of some species
of Juniper are diuretic.
Order 169. Cycadece. Rich. .
Flowers unisexual. Males naked, collected into cones ;
each floret of a single scale or anther, bearing the pollen
on its under surface in two-valved cells, which cohere to¬
gether by twos, threes, or fours. Females either collected
in cones, or surrounding the central bud in the form of
contracted leaves or scales (the expanded ovaria). Ovules
1 Nicol in Jameson’s New Phil. Journal, vol. x. p. 3G2,
132 B O T.
Arrange- exposed on the margin of the scale or contracted leaf,
ment and Embryo in the midst of a fleshy or horny albumen : radicle
Characters, next the apex 0f the see(jj from which it hangs by a long
funiculus, with which it has an organic connection.—Trees
with a simple cylindrical trunk. Leaves pinnatisect; ver¬
nation gyrate.—Ex. Cycas (Plate CXXVL), Zamia.
These trees increase by the development of a single ter¬
minal leaf-bud. The wood consists of concentric circles,
the cellular rings between which are very loose. Ihey
seem to hold a middle rank between the Coniferse and
Palms.—They abound in a mucilaginous juice. A kind
of Sago is obtained from the soft centre of Cycas circi-
nalis.
B. Endogenje. D. C. (Monocotyledones. Juss.)
12. Mono- (12. Monoepigynae. Juss.)
epigynse. Order 170. Balanophorea. Rich.
Flowers unisexual, in dense heads ; the receptacle co¬
vered with scales or bristles, and also here and therewith
peltate thick scales ; rarely naked. Male flowers pedicel¬
late. Perianth tripartite, equal, spreading, or in place of it
a thick truncate obconical scale. Stamens epigynous, l-o :
filaments united : anthers connate, opening longitudinally.
Females: Ovarium coheringwith the perianth, and crown¬
ed by its limb, one-celled: ovule solitary, pendulous:
style one, rarely two, filiform : stigma simple, terminal,^
slPhtly convex. Achenium crowned by the remains ot
the limb of the perianth, roundish. Embryo very minute,
roundish, inclosed in a hollow on the surface of a fleshy
cellular albumen.—Fungous-like, parasitical plants . stem
naked or covered with imbricated scales.—Ex. Balano-
phora, Helosis, Cynomorium.
Professor Richard considered this order most nearly
allied to the Hydrocharideae: there is also some affinity
withnhe Cytineae. Agardh makes them a section of Ur-
ticeae. May not what is taken for the embryo be the
endosperm, and what is called albumen the perispeim?
—Cynomoriutn is astringent.
Order 171. Hydrocharidece. Juss.
Flowers spathaceous, uni- or rarely bisexual. Peri¬
anth with the limb six-partite ; the three exterior seg¬
ments herbaceous, the three inner petaloid. Stamens epi-
gynous, definite or indefinite. Ovarium solitary, cohering
with the tube of the perianth, one or spuriously many-
celled : ovules indefinite : stigmas 3-6. Placentas parie¬
tal, sometimes projecting into the centre of the o\anum.
Fruit dry or succulent, indehiscent, one- or spuriously
many-celled. Seeds numerous, ascending: testa thin,
membranous. Albumen none. Embryo straight, cylin¬
drical: radicle at the opposite extremity from the hilum.
 Floating plants. Flowers spathaceous.—Lx. Hydro-
charis, Stratiotes, Vallisneria. _ .
Allied in some points to the Alismacese, but diftering
in the cohering ovarium. The spiral peduncles of Vallis¬
neria, and the process of fertilization in that plant, are
highly curious.
Le Rhone imp^tueux, sous son onde e'cumante,
Durant six mois entiers nous derobe une plante
Dont la tige s’alonge en la saison d’amour,
Monte au-dessus des Hots, et brille aux yeux du jour.
Les males, dans le fond jusqu’alors immobiles,
De leurs liens trop courts brisent les nceuds debnes,
Voguent vers leur amante, et fibres dans leurs feux,
Lui forment sur le fleuve un corte'ge nombreux:
On diroit une fete oil le dieu d’hymenee
Promene sur les flots sa pompe fortune'e;
Mais les terns de Ye'nus une fois accomplis,
La tige se retire en rapprochant ses plis,
Et va murir sous I’eau sa semonce fecondc.
A N y;
Order 172. Orchidece. JuSS. Arrange,
Perianth with a ringent, six-partite, limb: outer seg- ani:
ments usually coloured, of which the odd one is often upper-
most by a twisting of the ovary: inner segments more peta-
loid, the odd one or the labellum being frequently lobed and
unlike the others, and often spurred at the base. Stamens
in a double row, three, epigynous, united in a central co¬
lumn ; either the two lateral (opposite to the lateral inner
segment of the perianth) or the central one (opposite to
the odd exterior segment) being abortive; very rarely
all the three fertile : anther persistent or deciduous, two,
or four, or eight-celled: pollen powdery, or cohering in
definite or indefinite waxy masses. Ovarium one- (very
rarely three-) celled, cohering with the tube of the pe->
rianth : ovules indefinite : style forming part of the co-^
lumn of the stamens: stigma a viscid cavity in front of
the column, communicating directly with the ovary by
an open canal. Placentas three, parietal. Capsule three-
ribbed, three-valved, rarely baccate. Seeds very nume¬
rous : testa loose, reticulated. Albumen none. Embryo
a solid fleshy mass.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves simple,
quite entire.—Ex. Orchis, Goodyeria, Epidendrum, Cy-
pripedium.
Nearly allied to the following order. The botanical
world have to thank Mr Brown for first giving a correct
view of the organization of the flowers of these plants.
Apostasia has a regular flower, a three-celled ovary, and
three perfect stamens.—The Orchideae are beautiful to
the eye, but of little use. Salep is obtained from the roots
of Orchis mascula. Vanilla, used so much tor mixing
with chocolate, is the succulent fruit of a West Indian
species.
Order 173. Amomece. Juss.
Suborder 1. Scitaminece. R. Brown. Perianth in a
double row; exterior tubular, three-lobed, short; inner
elongated, tubular, trifid, segments nearly equal. • Sta¬
mens in two rows; the outer (projections of the torus)
sterile, resembling a trifid tubular corolla, of which the
intermediate segment (labellurn) is larger than the rest
(which are sometimes nearly abortive), and often three-
lobed : stamens of the inner row distinct, two sterile; one
intermediate, fertile, at the opposite side of the flower
from the labellum : filament not petaloid, often extended
beyond the anther: anther two-celled, opening longitu¬
dinally. Ovarium three-celled, or imperfectly so : ovules
several: style filiform: stigma dilated, hollow. Placenta
in the axis. Fruit usually capsular, three-celled: occa¬
sionally baccate. Seeds numerous. Embryo inclosed in
a membranous endosperm, surrounded by a farinaceous
albumen, that is deficient near the hilum.—Herbaceous
aromatic plants. Stems simple. Leaves sheathing : mid¬
rib central, with numerous diverging simple veins. Flowers
arising from spathaceous bracteas.—Ex. Amomum, Zin¬
giber. . .
Suborder 2. Cannecc. R. Brown. Perianth in a
double row ; exterior three-lobed, short; interior elongat¬
ed, tubular, trifid, segments nearly equal. Stamens in
a double row ; the outer (projections of the torus) sterile,
resembling a trifid tubular corolla, of which one of the
lateral segments is unlike the others : stamens of the inner
row distinct, petaloid; two sterile, one lateral fertile.
filament petaloid, entire or two lobed : anther opening
longitudinally, one-celled, seated on the margin of the
filament (the other cell belonging to the other margin being
always abortive). Ovarium three-celled (rarely one-cell¬
ed), ovules solitary and erect, or numerous and attached
to the axis: style petaloid or swollen: stigma either the
naked apex of the style, or hollow, cucullate, and incurv
| P
0
, 00
i! 'v'-
1 Castel, Pohne sur les Plantes.
BOTANY.
133
Arige-
mt and
2hi .'ters.
ed. Fruit capsular, three-celled; or baccate, one-celled,
one-seeded. Albumen (perisperm) bard, somewhat fa¬
rinaceous. Embryo straight, without endosperm : radicle
lying against the hilum.—Herbaceous plants, not aromatic.
Leaves and inflorescence as in the Scitamineae.—Ex.
Maranta, Canna, Phrynium.
The above view of the structure of these plants being
nearly that adopted by Lestiboudois, Richard, and Lind-
ley, is somewhat at variance with that proposed by Mr
Brown, who considers the outer row of our perianth as
accessory, and what is here called the outer sterile sta¬
mens to be the inner i’ow of the perianth. But this order
is closely allied to the Musaceae, and the affinity is con¬
firmed by the supposition of six stamens, although only
one be perfect.—The Scitamineaeare aromatic, cordial, and
stomachic: Ginger, Galangale, and Zedoary are the roots
or rhizoma; Cardamoms are the seeds of several species.
The Canneae are scarcely or not at all aromatic, and hence
the fecula which abounds in the root furnishes a delicate
article of food. Arrow-root is obtained from more than
one species, but principally from Maranta arundinacea, the
juice of the root of which is said to be a cure for wounds
inflicted by poisoned arrows.
Order 174. Musacece. Juss.
Perianth six-cleft, in two rows, more or less irregular.
Stamens six (some occasionally abortive), inserted on the
middle of the divisions of the perianth : anthers linear,
two-celled, introrse, often with a membranous petaloid
crest. Ovarium cohering with the tube of the perianth,
three-celled: ovules numerous, or rarely only three : style
simple: stigma usually three-lobed. Fruit either a three-
celled, three-valved, loculicidal capsule; or succulent and
indehiscent. Seeds sometimes surrounded by hairs : testa
usually crustaceous. Embryo in the axis of a farinaceous
albumen.—Stem scarcely any. Leaves sheathing, and
forming a spurious stem: limb separated from the petiole
by a round tumour, having a midrib with fine parallel di¬
verging veins. Flowers spathaceous.—Ex. Musa, Stre-
liizia.
By comparing this with the last order, their relation
will be readily perceived.—The young shoots of the Ba¬
nana (Musa sapientum) are eaten as a delicate vegetable.
The fruit of the same is nourishing, and either it, or that
of the Plantain (M. paradisaica), in some parts of the
world, forms the principal food of the natives.
Order 175. Iridece. Juss.
Perianth tubular, six-parted, in two often unequal rows.
Stamens three, epigynous, distinct or monadelphous, op¬
posite the outer segments of the perianth : anthers two-
celled, bursting outwardly. Ovarium cohering with the
tube of the perianth, three-celled: ovules numerous :
style one : stigmas three, dilated, often petaloid, and some¬
times two-lipped. Capsule three-celled, three-valved, lo-
culicide. Seeds numerous. Embryo cylindrical, inclos¬
ed within a fleshy or horny albumen : radicle pointing to
the hilum.—Plants usually herbaceous. Leaves equitant
and distichous, except in Crocus. Flowers with spatha¬
ceous bracteae.—Ex. Iris, Ixia, Crocus.
Allied on the one hand to the Amomeae, and on the
other to the Amaryllideae.—Of no great utility. The or¬
ris, however, is the root of Iris Florentina. Some other
species of Iris are purgative. Saffron is the dried stigmas
of a Crocus. The root of the common Iris, when cut by
an iron or steel knife, yields a beautiful purple dye.
Order 176. Burmanniecc. Sprung.
Perianth petaloid, tubular, six-cleft, the three outer seg¬
ments carinate, the three inner minute. Stamens three,
inserted on the tube, opposite the inner segments of the
perianth, with sometimes three alternating sterile filaments :
anthers erect, two-celled, opening transversely, with a
fleshy connectivum. Ovarium cohering with the tube of Arrange-
the perianth, three-celled, the cells being opposite the ment and
inner segments of the perianth : ovules indefinite : styles ^^aracters’
single: stigma three, dilated. Capsule crowned by the
withered perianth, three-celled, three-valved.1 Seeds in¬
definite, minute, striated.—Herbaceous plants, with radical
equitant leaves.—Ex. Burmannia.
Allied to Iridem in many respects, but differing by the
fertile stamens being alternate with the outer segments of
the perianth ; but this ought perhaps to be viewed as ac¬
cidental (however constant), as the return to the sym¬
metrical arrangement is exhibited in the position of the
carpellary leaves.
Order 177. Hccmodoracecc. R. Brown.
Suborder 1. Hcemodorece. Perianth petaloid, six-cleft.
Stamens inserted on the perianth, either three and oppo¬
site the inner segments of the perianth, or six: anthers
bursting inwardly. Ovarium cohering with the tube of
the perianth, or very rarely free, of three carpels, three-
or rarely one-celled: ovules 1-2, or numerous, to each car¬
pel : style simple : stigma undivided. Fruit capsular, three
valved, seldom indehiscent, somewhat nucamentaceous.
Seeds definite and peltate, or indefinite: testa charta-
ceous. Embryo minute, a farinaceous albumen: radicle
next the hilum.—Leaves equitant.—Ex. Hcemodorum,
Bilatris.
Suborder 2. Wachendorjiece. Perianth petaloid, six-
parted, irregular. Stamens three, inserted on the base of
the inner segments of the perianth : anthers bursting in¬
wardly. Ovarium free, three-celled: ovules solitary or
numerous : style simple: stigma undivided. Fruit capsu¬
lar, three-celled, three-valved. Seeds roundish.—Leaves
equitant.—Ex. Wachendorfia, Xiphydium.
This order is related both to Iridese and Amaryllideae.
Wachendorfieae, though allied in many respects to Haemo-
doreae, might perhaps, without great violence, be rather
placed between Liliaceae and Bromeliaceae.—The roots
of Hccmodorum, Dilatris, and Wachendorfia, yield a red
dye.
Order 178. Amaryllidece. R. Brown.
Perianth petaloid, regular, six-cleft; the outer segments
overlapping the inner, which are equitant. Stamens six
(rarely more, and then hexadelphous), inserted on the pe¬
rianth, sometimescoheringby their dilated bases into a kind
of cup : anthers bursting inwardly. Ovarium cohering with
the tube of the perianth, three-celled: ovules indefinite,
rarely 1-2: style one (rarely three) : stigma three-lobed
(rarely three). Fruit either a three-celled, three-valved,
loculicidal capsule, or baccate. Seeds numerous in the
capsular, 1-2 in the baccate species: testa neither black
nor crustaceous. Albumen fleshy. Embryo somewhat
straight: radicle next the hilum.—Roots usually bulbifer-
ous, rarely fibrous. Leaves ensiform, with parallel veins.
Flowers with spathaceous bracteas.—Ex. Amaryllis, Nar¬
cissus.
Allied to the Haemodoracese, but much more to Lilia¬
ceae and Asphodeleae. The coronas of Narcissus and some
other genera may be viewed either as a second row of
sterile cohering filaments between the fertile ones and the
perianth, or as a process of the torus, both considerations
tending to prove that the perianth is more of the nature
of a calyx than a corolla. Although having three styles
and stigmas, we refer Campynema here.—The juice of
the root of Hcemanthus toxicarius us poisonous. The
bulbs of some species of Narcissus and Pancratium are
emetic. Some Alstrcemerice are diuretic. Amaryllis
omata is astringent.
Order 179. Hypoxidece. R. Brown.
Perianth petaloid, usually six-parted, regular: estiva¬
tion imbricate. Stamens inserted into the base of the
134 B O T
Arrange- segments, equal to them in number: anthers introrse.
ment and Torus an epigynous fleshy disc. Ovarium cohering with
Characters.the tube of the perianth, three-celled: ovules numerous :
style single: stigma three-lobed. Capsule indehiscent,
sometimes succulent. Seeds numerous : testa black and
crustaceous : hilum lateral, rostelliform. Embryo in the
axis of a fleshy albumen.—Herbaceous, stemless (or near¬
ly so) plants. Leaves plicate.—Ex. Hypoxis, Curculiago.
Allied to Haemodoraceae, and also to Asphodoleae, par¬
ticularly in the black crustaceous seed.
Order 180. Barbaceniece.
Perianth petaloid, six-partite, regular, in a double series.
Stamens six, or in six (rarely three) fascicles, inserted
into the base of the segments : anthers introrse. Torus
an epigynous fleshy disc. Ovarium cohering with the
tube of the perianth, three-celled: ovules numerous : style
single : stigma three-lobed. Capsule three-celled, three-
valved. Seeds indefinite, cuneiform: testa coriaceous,
furrowed : hilum prominent.—Ex. BciTbctcenia^ 1 ellosici,
Xerophyta.
An order pointed out by Mr Don, as holding a middle
place between Hypoxidece, and Bromeliacece.
Order 181. Dioscorinece.
Suborder 1. Dioscorece. R. Brown. Flowers uni-(rare¬
ly bi-) sexual. Perianth six-cleft, equal. Stamens six, dis¬
tinct, or rarely monadelphous, inserted into the base of the
segments of the perianth: anthers introrse. Ovarium
cohering with the tube of the perianth, three-celled:
ovules one or two in each cell: style trifid: stigmas un¬
divided. Fruit a thin compressed capsule, with two of
the cells sometimes abortive. Seeds flat: testa membra¬
naceous. Embryo small, lying in a large cavity of a some¬
what horny albumen, near the hilum.—Twining shrubs.
Leaves alternate, occasionally opposite, veins generally
reticulated. Flowers small, spiked, each with 1-3 brac-
teae.—Ex. Dioscorea, Testudinaria.
Suborder 2. Tamece. Gray. Flowers unisexual. Peri¬
anth petaloid, six-parted. Stamens six, inserted into the
base of the segments of the perianth. Ovarium three-
celled : ovules two in each cell, erect: style one : stigmas
three, reflexed, acutely bifid. Fruit fleshy, three-celled,
indehiscent. Seeds ovate : testa membranaceous. Albu¬
men between cartilaginous and horny. Embryo minute,
lying at the extremity remote from the hilum.—Root
tuberous. Stem herbaceous, twining from left to right.
Leaves alternate. Flowers small, axillary, racemose.—Ex.
Tamus.
This order agrees in many points with Smilaceae, but
differs by the adherent fruit. According to Mr Lindley,
it makes a near approach in structure to the Dicotyledones,
the leaves being those of that class, while the stem, flower,
and seeds, are those of the Monocotyledones. The sub¬
orders are so closely allied that Testudinarici, till lately,
was considered a species of Tamus.—The tubers or yams
produced by Dioscorea are well known as an article of
food in all tropical countries.
B.—Endogen^e. D. C.
13. Mono- (13* Monoperigynae. Juss.)
perigynse. Order 182. Bromeliacece. Juss.
Perianth tubular, six-cleft, in two rows : the outer per¬
sistent, the inner petaloid, marcescent or deciduous. Sta¬
mens six (rarely more), inserted into the base ot the seg¬
ments of the perianth. Ovarium either entirely free,
or cohering more or less with the tube of the perianth,
three-celled: ovules indefinite : style single : stigma three-
parted, often twisted. Fruit capsular or succulent, three-
celled. Seeds indefinite. Embryo cylindrical, recurved,
lying in the base of a farinaceous albumen.—Plants, with
\ N Y.
scarcely any stem. Leaves rigid, channelled, often thorny Arrange,
or toothed at the margin.—Ex. Bromelia, Tillandsia. ment am
Sometimes the fruits in the same spike cohere together Character
into a mass ; by means of the perianth become succulent;
and this is the structure of the pine-apple.—The pine¬
apple is well known. The Agave Americana is remark¬
able for the quick growth of its flower stalk, reaching
sometimes to the height of thirty feet in ten days; and
as its growth is most rapid at first, one may almost see its
progress. The scape of several species, when withered, is
cut into slices for razor strops, for which it is well adapt¬
ed, on account of a very small portion of silica it is sup¬
posed to contain among the cellular substance. The fibres
of the leaves of some of these species serve for making
cordage.
Order 183. Smilacece. R. Brown.
Perianth petaloid, six-parted. Stamens six, inserted
into the base of the divisions of the perianth, rarely hypo-
gynous. Ovarium free, three-celled : ovules one or several
in each cell: style usually three-cleft: stigmas three. Fruit
a globose berry. Seeds with a membranaceous (neither
black nor crustaceous) testa. Albumen fleshyr cartilagi¬
nous. Embryo often remote from the hilum.—Herbaceous
or suffrutescent plants, often climbing. Leaves with the
veins sometimes reticulated.—Ex. Smilax, Paris, Conval-
laria.
Between Dioscorese and Asphodelese, from which last
it is principally distinguished by the testa of the seed.
—The species are in general diuretic. The roots of Tril¬
lium are emetic.
Order 184. Asphodelinece.
Suborder 1. Asphodelece. R. Brown. Perianth peta¬
loid, six-divided, regular. Stamens six, inserted upon the
perianth, or hypogynous; the three opposite the outer
segments of the perianth sometimes unlike the others, or
wanting, anthers bursting inwardly. Ovarium free, three-
celled, rarely apocarpous : ovules two ascending, or many,
in each cell: style one : stigma entire, or shortly three-
lobed. Fruit either a capsule, three-celled, three-valved,
loculicide ; or fleshy, and then sometimes tripartite. Seeds
with a black, crustaceous, brittle testa. Embryo includ¬
ed in a fleshy albumen.—Herbaceous plants or trees.
Leaves with parallel veins. Peduncles articulated at their
middle or near the apex.—Ex. Asphodelus, Scilla, Aloe,
Asparagus.
Suborder 2. Gilliesiece. Lindl. Perianth six- (or, by
the cohesion of the two outer anterior segments, five-)
parted, in a double row: the outer herbaceous, the inner
more coloured : estivation twisted. Stamens in a double
series; outer sterile, forming either a six-toothed urceolus
or three scale-like bodies, of which the anterior (labellum)
is very dissimilar to the others; inner of six fertile sta¬
mens, or a six-toothed urceolus, of which the three ante¬
rior teeth alone bear anthers. Ovarium free, three-celled:
ovules numerous : style one: stigma simple. Capsule
three-celled, three-valved, loculicide. Seeds numerous:
testa black and crustaceous. Embryo curved in the midst
of a fleshy albumen.—Herbaceous plants with tunicated
bulbs. Leaves grass-like. Flowers umbellate, arising
from spathaceous bracteas.—Ex. Gilliesia, Miersia.
Gilliesieae is a singular suborder ; and even the view we
have taken is neither that of Lindley nor Hooker. They
regard our perianth as bracteal or involucral leaves, and
the outer row of stamens as the perianth ; we consider
the whole structure as elucidated by that of the Amomese.
The inner row of the perianth appears at first sight to
consist of only two of the parts, while the others seem ex¬
ternal, but in estivation that series is formed of three of
them. The outer series of stamens (sterile) has subulate
appendages projected outwardly from the base. The As-
At
BOTANY.
A nge- phodelineae are most certainly distinguished from their al-
m s: and lies by the black brittle testa of the seed.—All species, at
Pieters.ieast of the Asphodeleae, contain a bitter stimulant prin-
ciple in a gummy viscid juice. The onion, leek, garlic, and
their allies, belong to the genus Allium. The roots of se¬
veral are purgative ; the Aloes are well known for this pro¬
perty. Gum Dragon is the styptic juice of Draccena
Draco.
Order 185. Liliacece. Juss.
Perianth coloured, regular, six-divided. Stamens six,
perigynous, opposite the segments of the perianth. Ova¬
rium free, three-celled: ovules indefinite : style one: stig¬
ma simple or three-lobed. Capsule three-celled, three-
valved, loculicide. Seeds numerous, usually flat, packed
one above the other in one or two rows: testa spongy,
dilated, often winged. Embryo straight, in the axis of
a fleshy albumen: radicle next the hilum.—Plants with
scaly bulbs or arborescent stems. Leaves with parallel
veins.
Tribe 1. Tulipece. D. C. Perianth deeply divided.
—Ex. Lilium, Fritillaria, Erythronium.
Tribe 2. Hemerocallidece. 11. Brown. Perianth tu¬
bular.—Ex. Hemerocallis, Polyanthes.
Closely allied to the last order, and also to Melanthacea?,
through Eryihronium. We can scarcely conceive why
this last has been sometimes placed in Asphodelete; for
the testa is brown and spongy, and not black and crusta-
ceous. The roots of most of the species of Lilium found in
the east of Siberia, particularly L. spectabile, ternifolium,
and Kamtschaticum, are eaten like potatoes, and known by
the name of Sarana (Capana, Russ.)
Order 186. Melanthacecc. Batscii.
Perianth petaloid, six-divided, the margin of the seg¬
ments generally involute in estivation. Stamens six : an¬
thers usually bursting outwards. Ovarium three-celled :
ovules numerous : style trifid or tripartite : stigmas three,
undivided. Capsule three-celled, usually septicidal, some¬
times loculicidal. Seeds with a membranous testa. Al¬
bumen dense, fleshy.—Leaves sheathing at the base, with
parallel veins.—Ex. Melanthium, Colchicum, Tofieldia.
This order requires revision. The positive characters
separating it from Liliaceae, depending on the divided
style, are slight.—Every species is poisonous, but particu¬
larly the genera Colchicum and Veratrum.
Order 187. Pontederiacece. Kunth.
Peiianth tubular, coloured, six-cleft, more or less irregu¬
lar : estivation circinate. Stamens three or six, unequal,
Perigynous. Ovarium free, or sometimes coherent at the
base, three- (or rarely one-) celled: ovules indefinite:
style one: stigma simple. Capsule three- (rarely one-)
celled, three-valved, loculicide. Seeds indefinite: testa
membranous: hilum small. Embryo straight, in the axis
of a somewhat farinaceous albumen: radicle next the hi¬
lum—Aquatic or marsh plants. Leaves sheathing at the
base : veins parallel—Ex. Pontederia, Heteranthera, Lep-
tanthus. 1
Distinguished from Asphodeleae by the testa of the
seed: the syncarpous ovarium and perigynous stamens
separate them from Alismaceae.
Order 188. Restiacece. R. Brown.
Suborder 1. Restiea;. Perianth 2-6-partite, sometimes
wanting. Stamens definite, perigynous, 1-6; when half
as many as the segments of the perianth they are oppo¬
site the inner divisions: anthers usually one-celled. Ova-
ium one or more-celled: ovules solitary, pendulous. Fruit
°r nucamentaceous. Seeds pendulous. Embryo
lcu ar’ on the outside of a farinaceous albumen, at the
f . 6011 y remote from the hilum.—Herbaceous or suf-
r>»lr!ACent P ants* Leaves simple, narrow, or none. Culms
j or protected by sheaths, which are usually slit (en-
135
tire in Eriocaulon alone), with the one margin overlapping Arrange-
the other. Flowers in spikes or capitula, separated by ™ent and
bracteolae or scales, and usually unisexual.—Ex. Restio, Characters>
Cenlrolepis, Elegia, Eriocaulon.
Suborder 2. Xyridece. Kunth. Perianth six-parted,
in two rows; outer glumaceous; inner petaloid, unguicu-
late. Stamens six, three fertile inserted upon the apex
of the claw of the segments of the inner row of the pe¬
rianth : anthers bursting outwardly. Ovarium single:
ovules indefinite : style trifid : stigmas obtuse, multifid or
undivided. Placentas three, parietal. Capsule one-celled,
three-valved. Seeds numerous. Embryo on the outside
of a farinaceous albumen, at the extremity remote from
the hilum.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves radical, with di¬
lated, equitant, scarious bases. Culms naked. Flowers
in terminal capitula.—Ex. Xyris, Abolhoda.
Closely allied to Junceae and also to Cyperaceae, from
which it is distinguished by the position of the embryo.—
The leaves and roots of Xyris Indica are employed against
the itch and leprosy. The tough wiry stems of Willde-
novia teres and some others are manufactured into bas¬
kets and brooms.
Order 189. Juncece. Juss.
Perianth six-parted, more or less glumaceous. Stamens
six, inserted into the base of the segments, sometimes
only three and opposite the outer series: anthers two-
celled. Ovarium 1-3-celled: ovules one, three, or many,
in each cell: style one: stigmas generally three, some¬
times only one. Fruit capsular, three-valved, loculicide,
sometimes indehiscent. Seeds with a testa neither black
nor crustaceous. Embryo inclosed within a firm, fleshy, or
cartilaginous albumen, seated near the hilum.—Herba¬
ceous plants. Leaves fistular, or channelled, or flat, with
parallel veins.—Ex. Juncus, Luzula.
Related to the Restiaceae and Asphodeleae, as also to
the Palmae.— 1 he leaves Flagellaria are supposed to
be astringent: the others have no particular medical pro¬
perties. Different species of Juncus are used for making
chair-bottoms, mats, &c., and the pith for the wicks of
candles.
Order 190. Palmce. Juss.
Flowers bisexual or polygamous. Perianth six-parted,
persistent, in a double row; the three outer segments
often smaller, the three inner sometimes deeply connate.
Stamens inserted into the base of the perianth, usually
six, seldom three, in a few polygamous genera indefinite
in number. Ovarium one-three-celled, or deeply three-
lobed : ovules three, rarely one. Fruit baccate or drupa¬
ceous, the flesh fibrous. Albumen cartilaginous, either ru¬
minate, or furnished with a central or lateral cavity. Em¬
bryo cylindrical, or flat and circular, small, usually at
a distance from the hilum, lodged in a lateral cavity at
the opposite side from the empty cavity of the albumen.
—Trunk arborescent, simple, occasionally shrubby and
branched. Leaves terminal, large: vernation plaited.
Spadix terminal, often branched; spatha one or many-
valved.—Ex. Sabal, Phoenix, Calamus, Borassus, Areca,
Cocos.
We have already said that there was a relation between
this and the Junceae. Pandaneae seems to have no affi¬
nity ; but between Calamus and Gramineae, particularly
the bamboo, many points of comparison present them¬
selves.—W ine, oil, wax, flour, sugar, salt, thread, uten¬
sils, weapons, habitations, and food, are obtained from this
order. The cocoa-nut, sago, date, and betel-nut, are well
known. The common cane that is imported is a species
of Calamus. The name Cocoineae may be given to a
“ section whose principal character consists in the origi¬
nally trilocular putamen having its cells, when fertile, per¬
forated opposite to the seat of the embryo, and, when abor-
136 B O T
Arrange- tive, indicated by foramina cceca.”1 From the fruits of
ment and this section only, the oil afforded by plants of this family
Characters. ig obtained.
B. EndogenjE. D. C.
14. Mono- (14. Monohypogynae. Juss.)
l!'l)o^n0e‘ Order 191. Commelinece. R. Brown.
Perianth in two rows; outer herbaceous^ tripartite;
inner petaloid, tripartite or trifid. Stamens six or fewer,
hypogynous : anthers of some filaments eithei wanting or
differently formed from the others. Ovarium three-celled :
ovules few in each cell: style one: stigma one. Capsule
2-3-celled, 2-3-valved, loculicide. Seeds often in pairs in
each cell: hilum usually linear and lateral. Albumen
densely fleshy. Embryo flat and circular (pulley-shaped),
lying in a cavity of the albumen, and at the opposite ex¬
tremity from the hilum : radicle projected from the centre
of the embryo.—Herbaceous plants. Leaves usually
sheathing at the base.—Ex. Commelina, Tradescantia.
Not very closely allied to either Juncem or Restiacem.
With some Palmae they agree in the singular embryo:
this is flat and circular, and the radicle projects from its
centre towards the outside of the seed, thus resembling a
pulley and its axis: moreover, in both orders the embryo
is remote from the hilum, the radicle pointing away from
it, and its position being indicated by an external papilla.
Order 192. Alismacece. R. Brown.
Suborder 1. Alismoidece. D. C. Perianth six-partite,
in two rows; outer herbaceous, inner petaloid. Stamens
definite or indefinite, hypogynous. Ovarium of several
one-celled carpels, apocarpous : ovules erect or ascending,
solitary in each ovarium, or in pairs at a distance from each
other: styles and stigmas several. Fruits of several dry,
indehiscent carpels. Seeds 1-2 in each cell. Albumen
none. Embryo cylindrical, curved like a horse-shoe : ra¬
dicle next the hilum.—floating plants. Leaves with pa¬
rallel veins.—Ex. Alisma, Sagittaria.
Suborder 2. Butomece. Rich. Perianth six-parted, in
two rows; outer usually herbaceous, inner petaloid. Sta¬
mens definite or indefinite, hypogynous. Ovarium of
three, six, or more, one-celled carpels, apocarpous or
syncarpous: ovules very numerous in each cell : stigmas
simple, as many as the carpels. Placentas ramified over
the inner surface of each carpel. Fruit of several follicles,
distinct and rostrate, or cohering into one mass. Seeds
minute, indefinite. Albumen none. Embiyo straight,
or curved like a horse-shoe: radicle next the hilum.
Aquatic plants. Leaves with parallel veins, often pos¬
sessing a milky juice. Flowers in umbels.—Ex. Butomus,
Li7Yi?iochciTis*
Suborder 3. Juncaginece. Rich. Perianth herbaceous,
rarely wanting. Stamens six, hypogynous. Ovarium of
three or six carpels, cohering firmly together: ovules one
pr two in each carpel, erect, approximated at their base.
Fruit dry. Seeds 1-2, erect. Albumen 0. Embryo
straight: radicle.at the opposite extremity from the hi¬
lum: plumule emitted through a lateral cleft, in the e.m-
bry0.—Herbaceous bog-plants. Leaves ensiform: veins
parallel. Flowers in spikes or racemes, minute.—Ex.
Triglochin, Scheuchzeria.
The limits of this order are not perhaps yet well un¬
derstood. According to Mirbel, the radicle in every
embryo, curved like a horse-shoe, is actually at the apex,
although by the curvature of the seed it may appear close
to the hilum ; and if this view be correct, Alismaceae ought
to consist of Alismoideae (to which might be attached Lim-
nocharis and the other genera of Butomeae with a cuived
ANY.
embryo), with perhaps the addition of Potameae; while Arrange
Butomus and Juncagineae, both with a decidedly ortho-went an #f':;
tropous embryo, ought to be rejected. The apocarpous™^ '1-
ovarium of Alismoideae makes this hold the same rank
among the Monocotyledones that is done by Ranunculaceae
among the higher organized vegetables.—Alismoideae and
Butomeae have an acrid herbage.
Order 193. Pandanece. R. Brown.
Flowers unisexual or polygamous, wholly covering the
spadix. Perianth 0. Filaments of the stamens with a
single two-celled anther. Ovaria one-celled, united to¬
gether in groups : ovules usually solitary, erect: stigma,
one to each ovary, sessile, adnate. Fruit either fibrous
drupes, collected several together, or baccate and plurilo-
cular. Seeds in tbe drupes solitary, in the baccate genera
several in each cell. Embryo in the axis of a fleshy albu¬
men : radicle pointing to the hilum: plumula inconspicu¬
ous.—Stem arborescent. Leaves imbricated in three rows,
long, amplexicaul, with the margin usually thorny. Ex.
Pandanus, Freycinetia.
Usually placed next the palms, but in reality much more
nearly allied to Aroidese (Typhaceae), of which Kunth
makes it a section.—The seeds of Pandanus are eatable,
as well as the flowers of P. odoratissimus ; the fruit of se¬
veral is used as aii article of food.
Order 194. Aroidece. Juss.
Suborder 1. Typhacece. D. C. Flowers unisexual,
arranged upon a naked spadix. Perianth three-parted.
Stamens three or six, opposite to the segments of the pe¬
rianth : filaments long and slender: anthers wedge-shaped,
erect, bursting outwardly. Ovarium single, free,, one-
celled : ovule solitary, pendulous: style short: stigmas
one or two, linear, simple. Fruit dry, indehiscent, one-
celled. Embryo in the centre of a farinaceous albumen,
straight, cylindrical: radicle next the hilum : cotyledon
cylindrical, with a short longitudinal lateral cleft near its
base: plumule of 2-3 leaves, the outer contained in the
cleft of the cotyledons, and partly protruded.—Herbaceous
marsh plants. Stems without nodi. Leaves sheathing at
their base, rigid, ensiform, with parallel veins.—Ex. Ty-
pha, Sparganium.
Suborder 2. Arinece. Flowers uni-, rarely bisexual,
arranged upon a spadix, often naked. Perianth 4-6-par-
tite, or wanting. Stamens definite and opposite the lobes
of the perianth, or indefinite, hypogynous : filaments very
short: anthers 1-2- or many-celled, ovate, bursting out¬
wardly. Ovarium free, one-celled, rarely three-celled:
ovules several, rarely solitary, ascending, peritropal, or
rarely pendulous: stigma sessile. Fruit succulent or dr),
indehiscent. Seeds solitary or several. Embryo m the
axis of a fleshy or farinaceous albumen (which is rarely
wanting), straight, cylindrical: radicle next the hilum,
rarely at the opposite extremity: cotyledon cylindrical,
with a short lateral cleft near its base: plumule 2-3-leaved,
the outer leaf contained in the cleft ot the cotyledon, and
partly protruded.—Herbaceous or suffrutescent plants.
Root often tuberous or thickened. Leaves sheathing at
the base, with parallel or branching veins, often cordate,
entire, or sometimes divided. Spadix usually inclosed in
a spatha.—Ex. Arum, Caladium, Pothos, Acorus. ,
Suborder 3. Pistiece. Rich. Flowers unisexual, in¬
closed in the same spatha. Stamens definite, 2-7, in a
spatha. Ovarium one in each spatha, one-celled: oyu es
two or several, erect or horizontal: style short: stigma
simple. Fruit membranous, one-celled, indehiscent. See
one or several: testa thick and spongy : chalaza thick, ad¬
hering to the apex of the cotyledon, and. separable Irom
the integuments. Embryo either large in the axis o ai
1 Brown, in Tuckey’s Voyage, p. 456.
BOTANY. 137
'e- thin and fleshy albumen, with a lateral cleft for the emission tary bracteole called a glume or sca/e, which are imbri- Arrange-
iuid of the plumule; or minute at the extremity of a copious cated on a common axis. Perianth rarely membranaceous, ™ent and
pers.farinaceous albumen, most remote from the hilum : radicle 2-3-valved, the valves distinct or united: generally entirely
pointing to the hilirm.—Floating plants. Flowers appear- wanting. Stamens hypogynous, definite (1-12), with some- '
ing from the margin of the stems.—Ex. Pistia, Lenina. times an additional row of abortive filaments or setee : an-
We continue to unite these suborders. The difference thers erect, two-celled : ovarium one-celled : ovule one,
between the two first is reduced to the structure of the erect: style single, three-cleft or bifid: stigmas undivided,
stamens, for the same number and position of the ovules or occasionally bifid. Fruit an achenium or nut. Embryo
occurs in both. As to Pistiese, there is as great a dif- lenticular, seated at the base of a farinaceous albumen,
ference between its constituent genera as betwixt either and covered by a very thin membranous projection of it:
and the true Aroideae. It is* difficult to determine the plumule inconspicuous.—Roots fibrous. Stems often with-
position of the radicle in Pistia; but as the inner integu- out joints. Sheaths of the leaves entire.—Ex. Cyperus,
ment (tegmen) of the seed is pendulous in the ovule, we Scirpus, Scleria, Carex.
are forced to suppose that the radicle points to the hilum, We have slightly altered the character of the order
although the embryo itself is at the other extremity, a from that usually given ; for while we consider Carex and
structure very uncommon. What we suppose the chalaza, some others to have a true perianth, we cannot regard
Mr Lindley, however, describes as an indurated foramen, the hypogynous setae of authors in the same light, they
and consequently, in both Lemna and Pistia, the radicle being more analogous to abortive stamens, and conse-
would be turned away from the hilum ; but this structure quently to a corolla. The Gyperaceae are closely allied
our own observations on Pistia do not confirm. The apex to the Gramineae.—The herbage of this order contains al-
ofthe seed, however, in that genus has a strong depression, most no nutritive principle. The i-oots of some are suc-
or orifice, caused by the separation of the chalaza, and its culent, and possess diaphoretic and demulcent properties:
attachment to the apex of the embryo.—All the Aroideae those of Cyperus esculentus are said to be eaten ; those
are acrid ; and this principle is sometimes so strong as to of Cyperus longus are bitter and tonic; those of Cyperus
render various species very poisonous. The flat under- odoratus have a warm aromatic taste. The Cyperus Papy-
ground stems, and the leaves of many, are however harm- rus yielded the paper of the Egyptians. Some species of
less, and, when boiled or roasted, ai’e even nutritive. Scirpus are used for making chair bottoms.
Order 195. Potamece. Juss. Order 198. Graminece. Juss.
Flowers bi- or unisexual. Perianth two or four-parted, Flowers usually bisexual, sometimes unisexual or poly-
often deciduous, sometimes wanting. Stamens definite, gamous; one, two, or more being seated on a common
hypogynous. Ovarium one or more, free, inserted on the raehis, which is contained within an involucre, that con-
receptacle or central spadix.: ovule solitary in each ova- sists of one or two valves (glumes'), or is rarely wanting;
rium: style one or none : stigma one, entire or rarely the whole constituting a locusta. Partial involucre simi-
two- or three-parted. Fruit dry, indehiscent, one-celled. lar to the glurfles, of two (rarely one) dissimilar valves
Seed solitary, pendulous, or suspended. Albumen 0. Em- (glumellce or palece) ; outer or lower simple, usually cari-
bryo straight or curved, with a lateral cleft for the emis- nate : inner with two nerves or keels, and hence formed
sion of the plumule: radicle very large, inferior, pointing of two pieces cohering by their contiguous margins. Lo-
to the extremity remote from the hilum.—Water plants, dicule (abortive stamens ?) of two (rarely one) hypogy-
Leaves very cellular, with parallel veins. Flowers minute, nous minute scales, sometimes wanting. Stamens hypo-
—Ex. Potamogeton, Naias, Zostera. gynous, 1-6, or rarely indefinite : anthers two-celled, ver-
The structure of the seed of Zostera is explained by satile : ovarium simple: ovule one: style one, bipartite,
that of Ruppia, where the great mass of the embryo is the rarely simple or tripartite : stigmas plumose or hairy. Pe-
radicle with a cleft for the emission of the plumule. If ricarp a caryopsis. Albumen farinaceous. Embryo len-
we suppose, with Richard, that in no case is the flower of ticular, external, lying on one side of the albumen near
Potameae bisexual, but that even in Potamogeton the pe- its base.—Culms cylindrical, hollow, jointed. Leaves al-
rianth is a four-partite spatha, we shall readily see how ternate : sheath split. Locustse of flowers arranged in
closely this order approaches to the Aroideae.—Of little spikes, racemes, or panicles.—Ex. Panicum, Arena, An-
use. Zostera is used for packing, and stuffing the beds thoxanthum.
of the poorer classes. The above, with some slight variations, is the account
Order 196. Podostemece. Rich. of the structure of these plants most usually adopted.
Flowers naked, bisexual, bursting through an irregular- Some botanists term the partial involucre the perianth,
ly lacerated spatha. Stamens hypogynous, definite or in- others view the lodicule in that light; perhaps if a peri-
definite, monadelphous, alternately sterile and shorter, anth be present, it must be looked for in the upper glu-
Ovarium free, spuriously two-celled: ovules numerous : mella alone. Their affinity with Cyperaceae is evident.—
styles two or none: stigmas two or three. Placenta form- This order, whether as furnishing food to man or beast,
ing the dissepiment. Fruit slightly pedicellate, capsular, is one of the most important in the whole vegetable king-
two-valved, septicide, the valves falling off from the dis- dom. Wheat, barley, oats, rice, guinea corn, millet, maize,
sepimental placenta. Seeds indefinite, minute.—Herba- and the sugar-cane, belong to it. The cuticle contains a
ceous, branched, floating plants. Leaves capillary or linear, large quantity of silex. This abounds so much in the sugar-
or irregularly lacerated, or minute and imbricated. Flowers cane, that by the mere using that plant for fuel in the
minute.—Ex. Podostemum, Lacis, Mniopsis. extraction of sugar, the fire-place is soon choked up by
The internal structure of the seed is still unknown, large masses of a coarse kind of glass. The siliceous mat-
Martius says it is homogeneous ; but we may rather com- ter of the bamboo is often secreted at the diseased joints,
pare them with the seeds of such Potamea: as consist al- and forms the mineral called Tabasheer. I he straw of
most entirely of an immense radicle ; and there are many different grasses is plaited, and made into ladies bonnets :
other points of resemblance between the two orders. Mr that used at Leghorn is the Hordeum pratense, which also
Lindley arranges Podostemeae between Piperaceae and grows wild in our own country. Seringe’s Herbarium
Callitrichineae (Halorageae).—No properties are known. Cereale, with the accompanying descriptions in his Ma-
Order 197. Cyperaeece. Juss. langes Botaniques, deserve to be carefully studied by such
Flowers bi- or unisexual, furnished each with a soli- as principally attend to the uses of this tribe of plants,
VOL. v. s
13S
BOTANY.
II.—Cellulares. D. C.
Arrange-
Characters. (15. Acotyledones. Juss. § 1. Ductulosje.1)
15. Acoty-
ledones.
§ 1. Duc-
tulosse.
Order 199. Equisetacece. D. C.
Sporules surrounded by elastic clavate filaments, and
inclosed in thecae arising from the scales of terminal cones.
—Vernation straight.—Ex. Equisetum.
The cuticle abounds in silex, and hence the plants of
the only genus of this order are very useful for polishing
furniture, &c.
Order 200. Filices. Juss.
Sporules inclosed in thecae arising from the back or
margin of the fronds, or rarely without thecae seated on
the back of a deformed frond (Lindl.).—Vernation cir-
cinate, in those without thecae straight.—Ex. Polypo¬
dium, Gleichenia, Osmunda, Dancea, Ophioglossum, Par-
keria.
Adopting Mr Lindley’s views already explained relative
to the formation of the thecae of ferns, he is led to the
conclusion that Ophioglossum and its allies have no thecae,
but that what is there called so are merely the involute
contracted segments of the deformed frond that bears
the sporules.—The fronds generally contain an astringent
mucilage, and are thus considered as pectoral and lenitive.
A few species have been employed for food. The caudex
of Aspidium Filix mas, and Pteris aquilina, bemg bitter
and astringent, have been used as anthelmintics, emmena-
gogues, and purgatives. Aspidium fragrans has been em¬
ployed as a substitute for tea.
Order 201. Marsiliacece. R. Brown.
Sporules inclosed in thecae which are contained within
closed involucra.—Ex. Marsilea, Salvinia.
Their properties are entirely unknown.
Order 202. Lycopodiacece. Swatz.
Sporules inclosed in axillary thecae.—Vernation circi-
nate.—Ex. Lycopodium, Isoetes.
The minute pulverulent matter contained in the one
kind of thecae is highly inflammable, and is collected
on the continent in. considerable quantities, particularly
from Lycopodium clavatum. It is used for artificial light¬
ning in the theatres. I^yc. clavatum and L. Selago excite
vomiting.
II.—Cellueares. D. C.
(15. Acotyledones. Juss. § 2. Eductulosa;.)
Order 203. Musci. Juss.
15. Acoty¬
ledones.
2. Eductu- Sp0rujes contained in thecae closed by an operculum or
lid, which falls off or is rarely adnate.—Stem with leafy
appendages.—Ex. Hypnum, Gymnostomum, Androca.
Of little or no use, except for packing.
Order 204. Hepaticce. Juss.
Sporules contained in thecae which are dehiscent (or
rarely indehiscent), and destitute of an operculum.—Plants
with leafy appendages.—Ex. Marchantia, Jungermannia.
Some species are slightly fragrant, but little is known
of their properties..
Order 205. Algce. Juss.
Plants without leafy appendages, and with very few ex¬
ceptions found in water. Sporules variously disposed.
—Ex. Fucus, Ulva, Conferva, Chara.
The Hcematococcus nivalis, or red snow plant, belongs to
this order.—The algae are of considerable importance in
our manufactures and domestic economy. “ Rhodome-
nia palmata, the dulse of the Scots, dillesk of the Irish,
and saccharine Fucus of the Icelanders, is consumed in Arrange,
considerable quantities throughout the maritime countries mentaii
of the north of Europe, and in the Grecian archipelago;Character,
Iridcea edidis is still occasionally used both in Scotland
and the south-west of England. Porphyra laciniata and
vidgaris is stewed, and brought to our tables as a luxury
under the name of Laver, and even the Ulva latissima, or
green Laver, is not slighted in the absence of the Por-
phyra. Enteromorpha compressa, a common species on
our shores, is regarded, according to Gaudichaud, as an
esculent by the Sandwich inlanders. Laurentia pinnati-
fida, distinguished for its pungency, and the young stalks
and fronds o?Laminaria digitata (the former called Pepper-
dulse, the latter Tangle) were often eaten in Scotland;
and even now, though rarely, the old cry, ‘ buy dulse and
tangle,’ may be heard in the streets of Edinburgh. When
stripped of the thin part, the beautiful Alaria esculenta
forms a part of the simple fare of the poorer classes of
Ireland, Scotland, Iceland, Denmark, and the Faroe Islands.
To go farther from home, we find the large Laminaria po¬
tatorum of Australia furnishing the Aborigines with a pro¬
portion of their instruments, vessels, and food. On the
authority of Bory St \ incent, the DurvilUxi utilis and
other Laminarice constitute an equally important resource
to the poor on the west coast of South America. In Asia
several species of Gelidium are made use of to render
more palatable the hot and biting condiments of the East.
Some undetermined species of this genus also furnish the
materials of which the edible swallows’ nests are com¬
posed. It is remarked by Lamaroux that three species
of swallow construct edible nests, two of which build at a
distance from the sea coast, and use the sea-weed only as
a cement for other matters. The nests of the third are
consequently most esteemed, and sold for nearly their
weight in gold. Gracillaria lichenoides is highly valued
for food in Ceylon and other parts of the East, and bears
a great resemblance to G. compressa, a species recently
discovered on the British shores, and which seems to be
little inferior to it. It is not to mankind alone that ma¬
rine Algae have furnished luxuries or resources in times
of scarcity. Several species are greedily sought after by
cattle, especially in the north of Europe. Rhoaomenia
palmata is so great a favourite with sheep and goats, that
Bishop Gunner named it Fucus ovinus. In some of the
Scottish islands, horses, cattle, and sheep, feed chiefly
upon Fucus vesicrdosus during the winter months ; and in
Gothland it is commonly giveR to pigs. Fucus serratus
also, and Chorda Filum, constitute a part of the fodder
upon which the cattle are supported in Norway. In me¬
dicine we are not altogether unindebted to the Algae.
The Gigartina helminthocorton, or Corsican moss, as it is
frequently called, is a native of the Mediterranean, and
held once a considerable reputation as a vermifuge. The
most important medical use, however (omitting minoi
ones), derived from sea-weeds, is through the medium of
Iodine, which may be obtained either from the plants
themselves or from kelp. French kelp, according to bir
II. Davy, yields more Iodine than British ; and, from some
recent experiments made at the Cape of Good Hope by
M. Ecklon, Laminaria buccinalis is found to contain more
than any European Algm. Iodine is known to be a power¬
ful remedy in cases of goitre. But were the Algae neither
‘ really serviceable either in supplying the wants, or in admi¬
nistering to the comforts, of mankind’ in any other respect,
their character would be redeemed by their usefulness in
* De Candolle arranges these, as has already been seen, among the Endogenae ; we have stated our reasons for their removal here.
The structure of each order of the Cellulares we have already described at sufficient length, and shall therefore refer to p. 57
p. 63.
BOTANY.
I ?x- the arts; and it is highly probable that we shall find our-
selves eventually infinitely more indebted to them. One
species (and I regret to say that it is not a British one) is
invaluable as a glue and varnish to the Chinese. This is
the GracMaria tenax, the Fucus tenax of Turner’s Histo-
ria Fucorum. Though a small plant, the quantity annu¬
ally imported at Canton from the provinces of Tokien and
Tche-kiang is stated by Mr Turner to be about 27,000
pounds. It is sold at Canton for 6d. or 8d. per pound,
and is used for the purposes to which we apply glue and
gum-arabic. The Chinese employ it chiefly in the manu¬
facture of lanterns, to strengthen or varnish the paper, and
sometimes to thicken or give a gloss to silks or gauze.
In addition to the above account, the substance of which
I have extracted from Mr Turner’s work, Mr Neill re¬
marks that ‘ it seems probable that this is the principal
ingredient in the celebrated gummy matter called Chin-
chow, or Hai-tsai, in China and Japan. Windows made
merely of slips of bamboo, crossed diagonally, have fre¬
quently their lozenge-shaped interstices wholly filled with
the transparent gluten of the Hai-tsai.’ On the southern
and western coasts of Ireland, our own Chondrus crispus
is converted into size for the use of the house-painters,
&c., and, if I be not erroneously informed, is also consi¬
dered as a culinary article, and enters into the composition
of blanc-mange, as well as other dishes. In the manufac¬
ture of kelp, however, for the use of the glass-maker and
soap-boiler, it is that the Algae take their place among the
most useful vegetables. The species most valuable for
this purpose are, Fucus vesiculosus, nodosus, and serratus ;
Laminaria digitata and bulbosa; Himanthalia lorea, and
Chorda Filum.,’1
Order 206. Lichenes. Juss.
Plants not growing in water, without leafy appendages.
Sporules lying in superficial disc.—Ex. Parmelia, Pamal-
lina.
Some Lichens were formerly supposed to grow in water.
This is still allowed by Fries, but he denies that they ever
fructify there; and he has further observed, that several
of what were termed Algae, upon being removed from that
element and exposed to the sun, produce shields and be¬
come Lichens. “ Lichens,” says De Candolle, “ present
two classes of properties, ls£, the dyeing properties, which
are developed by different agents, and especially by mace¬
ration in urine, properties which are common to all the
species, but particularly to such as approach most to the
consistence of a calcareous crust; 2d, medicinal properties,
which are most sensible in those species that are soft,
whether it be that these contain more mucilage, or that
they have been most experimented upon.” The Iceland
moss of the shops, which is the Cetraria Islandica, is tonic,
demulcent, and nutrient; and several others are nearly
equally suited to the same purpose. The Orchale or
Archill, and Cudbear, of various kinds, are all famed for
the dye they give out.
Order 207. Fungi. Juss.
Plants not growing in water, and wfithout leafy appen-
139
dages. Sporules in the substance of the plants, the whole Index,
of which may be viewed as organs of reproduction.—Ex.
SpJueria, Agaricus, Lycoperdum, Mucor, Uredo.
This order presents many anomalies. Some are whole¬
some, others extremely poisonous; nor does this diversity
of property seem at all connected with their external
forms, many most allied in appearance being extremely
distinct in their virtues; and the difficulty of distinguish¬
ing the two kinds is known by all who have turned their
attention to the subject. In this country, therefore,
scarcely more than one or two mushrooms are eaten; in
France, Italy, and Germany, more are used; and in Rus¬
sia many are employed which are elsewhere considered
as poisonous. Either the climate or the mode of cooking
must thus operate in rendering these wholesome. The
dry rot is caused by several species of parasitical Fungi,
as Polyporus destructor, Merulius vastator and lacrymans,
&c. The blights in corn, mildew, smut, and ergot, are also
Fungi of the same description. Mouldiness, whether in
cheese or on books, is also constituted of small parasiti¬
cal Fungi, and is best prevented by the presence of an
essential oil. Amadou or German tinder is prepared from
some kinds of Boletus (as B. ignarius and fomentarius),
and afterwards impregnated with nitre.
We have now presented an account of all the natural General
orders of plants acknowledged up to the present time ; and, considera-
on studying their characters, we are forced to draw the fol-
lowing conclusions. 1. That the difference between an ova¬
rium free, or adherent with the tube of the calyx, is weak¬
ened by many genera, as by comparing the Loaseae with
the allied family of Turneraceae, and by the genera of Dip-
saceae, in which the ovarium is adherent at the apex and
not below. 2. The difference between hypogynous and
perigynous stamens is often imperceptible, this depending
on the greater or less expansion of the torus: the same
may be said of the epigynous and gynandrous insertions.
3. Loculicide or septicide dehiscence of the fruit depends
only on the greater or less adhesion of the sides, or of the
middle of the valves; both, in certain states,-being liable,
to dehisce. 4. The parietal placenta is merely that modi¬
fication of the other kind in which the introflexed margin
of the valves is little apparent. 5. Petals may be accident¬
ally more or less combined by their margins into a gamo-
petalous corolla, or may be entirely absent; so that there is
no limit between gamopetalous, polypetalous, and apetalous
orders. 6. Stamens may be more or less combined, or
distinct. 7. Stamens may become abortive, and even
change into petals. 8. St Hilaire has shown that there
are many ambiguous states in the relative positions of the
radicle of the embryo and the hilum of the seed.
Thus the great characters for defining natural orders are
impaired. To none in particular can we trust at all times ;
and it is only by a combination of several tolerably constant
ones that, in the present state of our knowledge, we can
attain that most desirable end of botanical classification, the
natural approximation of genera. (u. u.)
INDEX OF ORDERS, SUBORDERS, AND TRIBES.
Order Order Order
Acanthacese 130 Alismaceae 192 Amaryllideae 178
Acerineae  43 Alismoideae 192 Amentaceae 165
Aizoideae  85 Algae '..205 Amomeae 173
Alangieae  70 Amaranthaceae 137 Ampelideae  48
1 Greville’s Algot Brit. p. xix.
BOTANY
140
Index. • ' Order
Amygdalese  62
Amyrideae  58
Anacardieae  58
Anonaceae  4
Apocyneae 115
Aquilarineae 149
Araliaceae  92
Arineae 194
Aristolochieae 154
Aroideae 194
Artocarpeae 159
Asclepiadeae 114
Asphodeleae   184
Asphodelineae 184
Atherospermeae 161
Aurantiaceae  85
Balanophoreae l^O
Balsamineae  49
Barbacenieae 180
Bauerieae  88
Begoniaceae. 141
Belvisiaceae  78
Berberideae  6
Betulineae 165
Bignoniaceae H8
Bignomeae 
Bixineae  17
Bombaceae    28
Borageae 123
Boragineae 123
Brexiaceae  51
Bromeliaceae 182
Bruniaceae  89
Brunoniaceae 101
Burmannieae 176
Burseraceae    58
Butomeas 192
Byttneriaceae  29
Cacteae  86
Callitricheae  74
Calycantheae  63
Calycereae    99
Campanulaceae 104
Campanuleae 104
Canneae   173
Capparideae  14
Caprifoliaceae  95
Caryophyllaceae  26
Caryophylleae  26
Cedreleae  47
Celestrineae  56
Ceratophylleae  64
Cercodeae  74
Chailletiaceae 1 150
Chenopodeae 138
Chlenaceae  32
Chlorantheae 163
Chrysobalaneae  62
Cimicifugeae  1
Cistineae  18
Cobaeeae 119
Columelliaceae 107
Combretaceae  67
Commelineae 191
Compositae 100
Coniferae 168
Connaraceae  59
Order
Convolvulaceae 121
Cordiaceae 122
Coriarieae  54
Corneae    93
Crassulaceae  84
Cruciferae  13
Cucurbitaceae  76
Cunonieae  88
Cupuliferae 165
Cycadeae 169
Cyperaceae 197
Cytineae 155
Datisceae 
Didymocarpeae.
Dilleniaceae 
Dioscorese 
Dioscorineae....
Diosmeae 
Dipsaceae 
Dipterocarpeae.
Droseraceae....
Drosereae 
156
118
2
,181
181
52
98
31
20
20
Order Index.
Hernandiaceae 143
Hippocastaneae  44
Hippocrateaceae  40
Homalineae 152
Humiriaceae  47
Hydrangeae  88
Hydrocereae    49
Hy drochar i deae 171
Hydroleaceae 120
Hydropeltideae  8
Hy drophylleae 124
Hypericinae  36
Hypoxideae 179
Bicineae HO
Illecebreae  83
Irideae 175
Jasminaceae H3
Jasmineae 113
Juglandeae 167
Juncagineae y.,.192
Junceae 189
Ebenaceae 109
Ehretieae 123
Elaeagneae 146
Elaeocarpeae  30
Elatineae  25
Empetreae 157
Epacrideae 106
Equisetaceae 199
Ericeae 106
Ericineae 106
Eriogoneae 140
Erythroxyleae  41
Escallonieae  88
Euonyineae  56
Euphorbiaceae 158
Exocarpeae 153
Labiatae 
Lacistemeae...
Laurineae.......
Leguminosae...
Lentibulariae..
Lichenes 
Liliaceae 
Lineae 
Loaseae 
Lobelieae 
Loganiaceae...
Loganieae 
Lonicereae 
Loranthaceae..
Lycopodiaceae.
Lythrarieae....
,128
162
142
, 60
131
206
185
. 49
. 75
,104
,116
,116
. 95
. 94
.202
. 64
Ficoideae  85
Filices 200
Flacourtianeae  16
Fouquieriaceae  81
Frankeniaceae  24
Fumariaceae  12
Fungi 207
Galacineae  84
Gentianeas H7
Geraniaceae  49
Geranieae...   49
Gesneriaceae 105
Gilliesiese 184
Globular ineae   133
Goodenieae 102
Goodenoviae   102
Gramineae .198
Grossularieae  87
Guttiferae  38
Haemodoraceae 177
Haemodoreae 177
Halorageae  74
Hamameiideae  90
Heliotropieas 123
Henierocallideae 185
Hepaticae 204
Magnoliaceae  3
Magnolieae  3
Malesherbieae  79
Malpighiaceae  42
Malvaceae  27
Marcgraaviaceae  39
Marsiliaceae 201
Melanthaceae 186
Melastomaceae  69
Meliaccae  47
Melieae  47
Memecyleae  68
Menispermaceae  5
Monimieae   160
Monotropeae 106
Moringeae  61
Musaceae 174
Musci 203
Myoporinae 129
Myriceae 165
Myristaceae....M 144
Myrsineae H2
Myrtaceae  72
Neillieae  62
Nelumboneae  0
Nepentheae 15^
Neuradeae...  
B O T
B O T
141
r Jsitrarieae   85
Nyctagineae 136
:1V Nymphaeaceae  9
Nymphaeeae  9
Nysseae 153
Ochnaceae  53
Olacineae  34
Oleineae 113
Onagrarias  73
Orchideae 172
Orobancheae 126
Oxalideae  49
Paeonieae 
Palmae 
Pandaneae  
Papaveraceae 
Papayaceae 
Parnassieae  
Paronychiaceae...
Paropsieae 
Passifloreae 
Passifloreae verae
Pedalineae 
Penaeaceae 
Persicariae 
Petiveriae 
Philadelpheae 
Phytolaccaceae...
Phytolacceae 
Piperaceae 
Piper ineae.........
Pistieae 
Pittosporeae 
Plantagineae 
Plataneae  
Plumbagineae....
Podophyllaceae..
Podostemeae  
Polemonideae 
Polemonieae 
Poly galeae 
Polygoneae 
Pomaceae 
1
190
193
11
77
20
, 83
. 79
79
79
.118
.147
.140
.139
. 71
.139
.139
.164
.164
.194
50
.135
.165
.134
. 7
,196
.119
.119
. 21
.140
. 62
Order
Pontederiaceae 187
Portulaceae  82
Potalieae 116
Potameae 195
Potentilleae  62
Primulaceae 132
Proteacese 145
Quillajeae  62
Ranunculaceae  1
Ranunculineae  1
Reaumurieae  37
Resedaceae    15
Restiaceae 188
Restieae 188
Rhamneae  57
Rhizantheae 155
Rhizoboleae  45
Rhizophoreae  65
Rosaceae  62
Roseae  62
Rubiaceae  96
Rutaceae  52
Ruteae  52
Salicarieae  64
Salicineae 165
Sambuceae  95
Samydeae 151
Sanguisorbeas  62
Santalaceae 153
Santaleae 153
Sapindaceae  46
Sapoteae Ill
Sarraceniaceae  10
Saurureae 164
Saxifragaceae  88
Saxifrageae  88
Scaevoleae 102
Scitamineae  173
Sclerantheae  83
Scrophularineae 127
Selagineae 129
Sempervivae  84
Simaroubeae..
Smilaceae 
Solaneae 
Spigelieae 
Spiraeeae 
Spondiaceae...
Stackhousieae
Staphyleae....
Stilagineae 
Stylidieae 
Symploceae....
Order Botticelli.
183
125
116
62
58
55
56
166
103
108
Tamariscineae   23
Tameae 181
Terebinthaceae  58
Ternstrcemiaceae  33
Tbymeleae 148
Tiliaceae  30
Tilieae  30
Tremandreae  22
Tropaeoleae  49
Tulipeae 185
Turneraceae  80
Typhaceae 194
Ulmeae 159
Umbelliferas  91
Urticaceae 159
Urticeae 159
Vaccinieae 106
Valerianeae  97
Verbenaceae 129
Verbeneae 129
Violarieae  19
Vivianieae....  26
Vochysiaceae  66
Wachendorfieae 177
Wintereae   3
Xyrideae 188
Zanthoxyleae  52
Zygophylleae  52
BOTANY Bay, a spacious bay on tbe south-east coast
of New Holland, so named by Captain Cook, by whom it
was discovered in 1770, from the profusion of hitherto
unknown plants growing on its shores. Great Britain has
established a settlement here for transported criminals.
The bay does not afford either good shelter or anchorage,
the water being too shallow for large vessels, which must
remain exposed to all the dangers of an open road ; and on
this account the British settlement, though it still retains
the name of Botany Bay, is at some miles distance. See
Australasia, and Wales, New South.
BOTANOMANCY (from /Sorcojj, an herb, and iJ,awua,
divination), an ancient species of divination, by means of
plants, especially of sage and fig leaves. The manner of
performing it was this: The persons who consulted wrote
their own names and their questions on leaves, which were
exposed to the wind; and as many of the letters as re¬
mained in their own places were taken up, joined together,
and considered as an answer to the question.
BOTH, John and Andrew,Flemish painters, and pupils
of Bloemart, were born at Utrecht about the year 1610.
The union of these brothers was remarkable ; they wrere
alike inseparable in their studies, their travels, and their
painting. John painted the landscape part of their pictures
in the manner of Claude Lorrain, and Andrew drew the
figures and animals in the style of Bamboche. They both
died in 1650; Andrew having been drowned at Venice,
and his brother John, through grief, having soon after¬
wards followed him to the grave. In the national gallery
of France there is a painting by these two masters repre¬
senting a Vieiv of Italy at Sunset.
BOTHNIA. See Russia.
BOTTICELLI, Alesandro, born at Florence in 1437,
learned the rudiments of painting under Filippo Lippi.
He executed several pictures for Pope Sixtus IV. and for
the city of Florence, for which he received large sums of
money; but he expended all his acquisitions in thought¬
less extravagance, and at last died in great distress, aged
seventy-eight. He was not only a painter, but a man of let¬
ters. Baldini, according to the general report, communi¬
cated to him the secret of engraving, then newly disco¬
vered by Finiguerra, their townsman. The famous edition
142
EOT
B O U
Bottle of Dante’s Inferno, printed at Florence by Nicholo Lorenzo
li della Magna in 1481, and to which, according to some au-
Bottrigari. thorS} Botticelli undertook to write notes, was intended to
]iave been ornamented with prints, one for each canto ; and
of these prints, as many as were finished were designed, it
not engraved, by Botticelli. It is remarkable that the two
first plates only were printed upon the leaves of the book,
and, for want of a blank space at the head of the first
canto, the plate belonging to it is placed at the bottom of
the page. Blank spaces are left for the rest, that as many
of them as were finished might be pasted on. 1 he two
first, as usual, are printed on the leaves; while the others,
seventeen in number, which follow regularly, are pasted
on the blank spaces; and these, apparently, were all that
Botticelli ever executed. About the year 1460 he is said
to have engraved a set of plates, representing the Prophets
and Sibyls. Basan tells us that he marked these plates
with a monogram composed of the two first letters of the
alphabet joined together. . . .. ,
BOTTLE, a small vessel for containing liquors, and
made of leather, of glass, or of stone. The word is formed
from butettus or botellus, a barbarous Latin word for a small
wine vessel; and a diminutive of bota, which denoted a but
or cask of that liquor. The ancient Jewish bottles were
made of the skins of goats or other wild beasts, with the
hair on the inside, well sewed and pitched together; and
an aperture in one of the paws served for the mouth of
the vessel. Bottles are now chiefly made of thick coarse
glass; but bottles of boiled leather are likewise made and
sold by the case-makers. Fine glass-bottles, covered with
straw or wicker, are called flasks or bettees. ihe quality
of the glass has sometimes been found to affect the liquor
in the bottle. , , ^ *
BOTTOM, in a general sense, denotes the lowest part
of a thing, in contradistinction to the top or uppermost
^ Bottom, in Navigation, is used to denote as well the
channel of rivers and harbours, as the body or hull of a
ship. Thus, in the former sense, we say, gravelly bottom,
clayey bottom, sandy bottom, and so forth ; in the latter, a
British bottom, a Butch bottom, and the like.
BOTTOMRY, fcenus nauticum, is a term applied to
that particular kind of transaction where a person lends
money to a merchant, who wants it to traffic, and is to
be paid a greater sum at the return of a certain ship,
standing to the hazard of the voyage; and, in this case,
although the interest be greater than that allowed by law,
it is not usury. . ,, . • *
BOTTONY. A cross bottony, in Heraldry, terminates
at each end in three buds, knots, or buttons, resembling
in some measure the three-leaved grass ; on which account
Segoing, in his Tresor Heraldique, terms it croix trefflee.
It is the badge of the order of St Maurice. .
BOTTOSCHANY, a city of the province of Moldavia,
in European Turkey. It is situated on a river of the same
name, which falls a little below into the Siena. It consists
chiefly of wooden houses, and has several Greek churches
and monasteries, with 4200 inhabitants, who have a consi¬
derable trade in wine, cattle, wool, honey, wax, and tobacco.
During the continental system the Jews and Armenians
of Bottoschany carried on a great smuggling trade m su¬
gar, coffee, and other colonial goods, with Brody, Leipsic,
and Brunn. . , -n j •
BOTTRIG ARI, Hercole, a person eminently skilled in
the science of music, though not a musician by profession,
was descended of a noble family of Bologna, and boin in that
city in the year 1531. He seems to have entertained a
strong predilection in favour of the ancient music; and he
attempted, as Yincentine and others had done, to intro¬
duce the chromatic scale into practice, but with no better
Bot1
Bovt k,
success than had attended the endeavours of his prede¬
cessors. He corrected Gogavino’s Latin version of Pto¬
lemy in numberless instances, and to so good purpose,
that Dr Wallis has in general conformed to it in the trans¬
lation of the same author, which he gave to the world many
years afterwards. He also translated into Italian Boetius de
Musica, with as much of Plutarch and Macrobius as re¬
lates to music; and besides this, he made annotations
upon Aristoxenus, Franchinus, Spataro, \ icentino, Zar-
Hno, Galislei, and, in short, on almost every-musical trea¬
tise he could lay his hands on, as appears by the copies
once belonging to him, which are now deposited in many
libraries in Italy. Bottrigari’s works contain greater proofs
of his learning and skill in music, than of his abilities as a
writer, his style being remarkably inelegant. Neverthe¬
less, he affected the character of a poet; and there is ex¬
tant a collection of poems by him, in 8vo, printed m 15o7.
Walther represents him as an able mathematician, and a
collector of curiosities ; and says that he was possessed of
a cabinet which the emperor Ferdinand II. had a great de¬
sire to purchase. He died in 1612, and not in 1609, as
stated by Mazzuchelli. From what has been said, a ge¬
neral idea may be formed of his works, a small portion of
which only has been printed, and a correct list cannot now
be obtained.
BOTTS. See Entomology, Index.
BOTZEN, a city, the capital of the circle of the Etsch,
in the Austrian province of Tyrol. It is situated at the
junction of the rivers Isach and Talfer, on the road from
Germany to Italy, with both of which countries great
commerce is carried on at four large fairs held annually
here. It was destroyed by fire during the hostilities of
1809, but is now rebuilt, and contains about 4000 inhabi¬
tants. There are some considerable silk manufactories in
the city. Long. 12. 3. E. Lat. 46. 47. 30. N.
BOUCHE of Court, the privilege of having meat and
drink at court scot-free. This privilege is sometimes only
extended to bread, beer, and wine. It was a custom an¬
ciently in use, as well in the houses of noblemen as in t e
king’s court. Thomas earl of Lancaster retained Sir John
de Ewre to serve him with ten men at arms in time of
war, allowing them bouche of court, with livery of hay and
oats, horse-shoes and nails. Sir Hugh Merril had the
same privilege for life, on condition of serving King E
ward II. ,
BOUFLERS, Louis Francis, Duke of, a peer and
marshal of France, and a general of distinguished reputa¬
tion, was the son of Francis count of Bouflers. Fie was born
on the 10th January 1644, and having early entered into the
army, was raised in 1669 to the rank of colonel of dragoons.
In the conquest of Lorraine he served under Marshal Cre-
qui. In the war against Holland he served under Turenne,
frequently distinguishing himself by his skill and bravery ;
and when that celebrated captain was killed by a cannon-
shot in 1675, he commanded the rear-guard during the re¬
treat of the French army. After performing various mili¬
tary services in Germany, in Flanders, and on the frontiers
of Spain, he gradually rose in rank as well as in reputation.
In 1690 he was created general of the army of the Mo¬
selle, and contributed materially to the victory of Fleu-
rus. In the following year he acted as lieutenant-genera
under the king in person ; and whilst investing Mons, he
was wounded in an attack on that place. He conducted
the bombardment of Liege, although it was defende
by an enemy superior in numbers, and afterwards forced
the allied generals to abandon Luxembourg. He was in¬
trusted with the command against King William at the
siege of Namur ; and for this and other important services
he was raised, in 1693, to the rank of marshal of France.
In 1694 he was appointed governor of French Flanders,
B O U
B O U
143
.igain-
ale.
and of the town of Lisle. By a skilful manoeuvre he
threw himself into Namur in 1695, and held out with un¬
exampled obstinacy against the army of the allies under
King William, sustaining four assaults, and only surren¬
dering the place after four months of open trenches and
the loss of 20,000 men to the besiegers. Having agreed
to a capitulation, he was arrested as prisoner of war, be¬
cause the French had not performed the stipulated terms
on which the garrison had surrendered ; and when he re¬
presented that the garrison should have been retained ra¬
ther than himself, he was answered that he was estimat¬
ed as worth more than 10,000 men. In the conferences
which were held with the Earl of Portland, and termi¬
nated in the peace of Ryswick, he had a principal share.
During the following war, when Lisle was again threat¬
ened with a siege by the Duke of Marlborough and Prince
Eugene, Bouflers was appointed to the command, and
made an obstinate resistance of four months. His mag¬
nanimity was not less remarkable than his military con¬
duct; for when a partizan represented to him that it
would not be difficult to kill Prince Eugene, he was told
by the marshal, that he might expect a great reward for
taking him prisoner, but the severest punishment if any
thing were attempted against his life. He was rewarded
and honoured by the king for his defence of Lisle, as if
he had been victorious. It was indeed a species of tri¬
umph. His generous enemy, appreciating his merits, al¬
lowed him to dictate his own terms of capitulation: “ je
signerai,” said Prince Eugene, “ tout ce que vous vou-
drezand he was as good as his word. £-' Apres quatre
mois de tranchee ouverte,” adds the prince in his Memoires,
“Bouflers m’envoya, le 8 decembre 1708, tous les articles
qu’il voulait que je signasse; ce que je fis sans restriction.”
When the affairs of France were threatened with the most
urgent danger, Bouflers, though a senior officer to Villars,
made an offer to serve under that general, and was with
him at the battle of Malplaquet. Here he again display¬
ed his military skill by conducting the retreat, so that he
lost neither cannon nor prisoners. He died at Fontain-
bleau in the year 1711, at the age of sixty-eight, and left
the character of a true patriot, as well as of a great com¬
mander. Madame de Maintenon said of him, that “ his
heart was the last part that died.”
BOUGAINVILLE, Louis Antoine de, a celebrated
circumnavigator, was born in Paris in 1729. His father
was a notary and one of the sheriffs of the city of Paris.
The parents of young Bougainville wished him to practise
as a lawyer, and, for this purpose, he was received advo¬
cate in the parliament of Paris ; but his own inclination
was averse to the profession, and he entered into the army
in the corps of musketeers.
He associated much with Clairaut and D’Alembert, who
happened to live in his neighbourhood; and from this in¬
tercourse he derived his knowledge of algebra and flux¬
ions. At the age of twenty-five he published his treatise
on the Integral Calculus, intended as a supplement and
continuation of L’Hopital’s treatise Des injiniment petits.
Bougainville, in his preface, declares that all he has done
”1 j!I? work is to place in a systematic order the formulae
ot different mathematicians.
He was raised to the rank of major in the Picardy regi¬
ment. He went to London as secretary to the French
T, l7S5\and WaS chosen a member of Royal Society,
bn • e_went to Canada as captain of dragoons, and
WQVln^ Istmguished himself in the ivar against England,
i as rewarded with the cross of the order of St Louis.
c • 16 Peace> the French government having con-
LLn i n Fqjec^ of Planting a colony on the Falkland
iiipni1 Sf i •°U^ainv*de unciertook to begin this establish-
a ns own expense. The Falkland Islands, to which
Bougainville gave the name of Malouines (that is, St Malo Bougain-
Islands), are in 51° south latitude, and 10° of longitude to vflIe<
the east of the meridian of Cape Horn. Fish is abundant
on their shores, and there is peat or turf for fuel, but no
wood. Bougainville began the settlement by landing some
families of French Canadians. The number of settlers
was increased afterwards to 150.
This colony excited the jealousy of the Spanish govern¬
ment ; and the government of France agreed that it should
be given up to the Spaniards, the Spanish government
undertaking to indemnify Bougainville for the expense he
had been at in forming the establishment.
As a consolation to Bougainville for the loss of his
colony he was appointed to command the frigate La Bou-
deuse of twenty-six eight pounders, and the transport
L'Etoile, to go on a voyage of discovery round the world.
He took with him Commercon as naturalist, and Verron
as astronomer.
This was the first voyage round the world performed
by the French. Since the first circumnavigation by Ma¬
gellan under the Spanish government in 1519, and that of
Drake under Queen Elizabeth in 1577, eleven other cir¬
cumnavigations of the world had been performed, part of
them by the Dutch and part by the English, and also se¬
veral voyages of discovery had been made in the Pacific
Ocean without circumnavigation.
The expedition commanded by Bougainville was at
Buenos Ayres at tbe time of the seizure of the Jesuits
of Paraguay. The missions on the river Araguay, in the
province of Paraguay, contained a population of 300,000
Indians, divided into parishes, and governed solely by
the Jesuit parish priests. No other Europeans but the
Jesuits were admitted into the country, in order that
the work of conversion might not be frustrated by bad
example. The produce of the labour of the Indians was
delivered into the hands of the Jesuits, who furnished
them with food and clothing. For this purpose the Jesuits
had warehouses filled with European and American mer¬
chandise, and also a number of slaves. They had schools
for instructing the Indians in music, painting, and other
arts. The Spanish government having determined on the
suppression of the Jesuits, took every precaution to pre¬
vent their being informed of the intended measure; and
they were arrested and sent to Europe without any at¬
tempt at resistance on their part.
Bougainville passed the Straits of Magellan, and an¬
chored for a week at Otaheite, where the English naviga¬
tor Wallis had touched eight months before. A young
man of Otaheite joined the expedition, and was taken to
Paris, where he staid thirteen months. On his way back
to his native country he died of the small-pox.
The numerous rocks and other dangers made Bougain¬
ville turn off to the north-east, and prevented him from
continuing a westerly course, so as to pass through the
channel which separates New Flolland from New Guinea.
These two islands, in his general chart, are laid down as
forming one, although he possessed some information of
the existence of the channel. Two years after, namely
in 1770, Captain Cook sailed through this channel, so dan¬
gerous by its coral reefs.
The expedition having now crossed all the meridians of
the Pacific Ocean, and suffering from the scurvy in conse¬
quence of scarcity of food, came to anchor in the Gulf of
Cajeli, a settlement of the Dutch East India Company in
the agreeable island of Borou, one of tbe Moluccas. The
governor liberally supplied the wants of the expedition.
He lived splendidly in a house built in the Chinese style,
and judiciously adapted to the warmth of the climate ; his
wife and daughters wore the Chinese dress. “ Sa maison
etoit la notre,” says Bougainville ; “ a toute heure on y
144
B O U
B O U
Ucmmin. trouvoit a boire et a manger, et ce genre de politesse en
r-iUoV uirrr. nr. mitrp. r>mir nui surtout se ressentoit encore
ville
Island.
irOUVUll cl UUllC Cl «  j,- c ,
vaut bien un autre pour qui surtout se ressentoit encore
de la famine.” It was the beginning of September, and
the expedition shortened their stay at Borou, in order to
take advantage of the latter part of the easterly monsoon,
which carried them to Batavia; from thence they pro¬
ceeded to the Isle of France. Commer9on remained at
the Isle of France that he might thence proceed to exa¬
mine the botany of Madagascar, as did V erron for the pur¬
pose of observing the transit of Venus.
In 1769 the expedition arrived at St Malo, after a voy¬
age of two years and four months, with the loss ot only
seven men out of upwards of 200.
Bougainville’s account of the voyage iswntten with
simplicity, and in a temper which inclined h™ t0 ^
obiects on the humorous side. FIis courage, the goo
humour with which he maintained subordination, and his
attention to the health and comforts of the crew, are every¬
where conspicuous. .
The art of making astronomical observations at sea was
not so much improved as it is now, and the methods for
ascertaining the longitude especially were very defective.
In consequence of this, Bougainville s charts are eirone-
ous, particularly in the longitudes. Neither did he remain
long enough in any place to make particular surveys.
Bougainville’s life was an active one, so that little o i
could be devoted'to study. On bis return to France his
time was passed in the company of the hlghes^cir^8
Paris. He had the command of a ship under De Gra.se
and D’Estaing ; and, in April 1781, when the French fleet
was beaten, he rallied some of the beaten ships, and
brought them into St Eustachio. After the peace, by which
the independence of the United States of America was
secured/Bougainville returned to Paris. The Academy of
Sciences was at that time composed of pensioned mem¬
bers, and of associates who had no salary; Bougainville
solicited and obtained the place of associate of the aca-
eHe had a project of making a voyage of discovery to¬
wards the north pole. As this did not meet with support
from the French government, he sent his plan to Admiral
Phipps ; Phipps, however, followed a different course from
that proposed by Bougainville, but he only got to the 80t i
decree of north latitude.
Recourse was had to Bougainville in order to repress
the mutinous disposition of the sailors in the French navy
before the breaking out of the Revolution ; but his efforts
were ineffectual. He had the rank of vice-admiral m
1791 In 1792 he escaped almost miraculously from tne
massacres of Paris, and went to live on his estate m Nor¬
mandy. He was much attached to the government, which
was then falling. He lived on his estate for some time;
it was the only part of his fortune that the Revolution
had left him. He was chosen a member of the Institute
at its first formation, and, in consequence, returned to re¬
side in Paris. He succeeded Borda as member of the
Board of Longitude. In his old age, under the govern¬
ment of Bonaparte, he enjoyed the dignity of senator, and
was created a count and member of the Legion of Honoui.
He retained his good-humoured liveliness and his men¬
tal faculties to the last, and died in 1811, aged eighty-
two. He was married, and had three sons who served in the
French army. He was always eager to promote science;
and he conducted himself during the Revolution in such
a manner as to obtain the respect of all parties. His
gW is written by Delambre, in the 31emoirs of the Insti¬
tute. . (B’ B-) •
Bougainville’s Island, in the South Pacific Ocean, is
high and mountainous, with extensive plains interposed,
gnd is entirely covered with trees. It is inhabited, and is
separated from the island of Bouka on the noith. Long. Bougeati
155. 20. E. Lat. 6. S. 11 '
5. Jh. i-ai. o.o. B "
BOUGEANT, William Hyacinth, a famous Jesuit,
born at Quimper 4th November 1690, first taught huma- ^
nityat Caen and Nevers, and afterwards settled at the
college of Louis the Great, where he employed himself in
writing several works. The principal of these are, L A
Collection of Physical Observations, extracted from the
best authors ; 2. A History of the Wars and Negociations
which preceded the treaty of Westphalia ; 3. The Female
Doctor, a philosophical amusement on the language of
beasts ; 4. The Marvellous Voyage of Prince Fanferedin
in Romancia; 5. Exposition of the Christian Doctrine;
and 6. Anacreon and Sappho, a dialogue in Gieek verse.
He died in 1743. , .
BOUGH, a term nearly synonymous with Branch. An¬
ciently green boughs formed part of the decoration of altars
and temples, especially on festive occasions. Boughs of
oak were offered to Jupiter, of laurel to Apollo, of olive
to Minerva, of myrtle to Venus, of ivy to Bacchus, or pine
to Pan, and of cypress to Pluto.
Bougie. See Surgery. . .
BOUGUER, Peter, an eminent French mathematician,
was born in 1698. His father was king’s professor of hy¬
drography at Croisic in Lower Brittany, one of the best
hydrographers of bis time, and author of an excellent
treatise on navigation. Young Bouguer was bred to ma¬
thematics from his infancy, and made rapid progress in
that science. At an early age he was appointed to suc¬
ceed his father in the chair of professor of hydrography,
after having undergone a strict examination in mathema¬
tics, so as completely to satisfy his examiners. In 1727
he gained the prize given by the Academy of Sciences of
Paris for his paper “ On the best manner of forming and
distributing the masts of ships.” Fie got two other prizes
from the academy in the course of four years : the one was
bestowed on him for his dissertation “ On the best method
of observing the altitude of stars at seathe other for his
paper “ On the best method of observing the variation of
the compass at sea.” These papers are published in the
Prix de VAcademic des Sciences. In 1729 he published a
work entitled Essai d’Optique sur la Gradation de la Lu-
miere, the object of which is to define the quantity of
light which is lost by passing through a given extent ot
the atmosphere. He finds the light of the sun to be 3UU
times more intense than that of the moon.
He was soon after made professor of hydrography at
Havre, whereby he had the advantage of being nearer
Paris than before; and he was chosen associate geometer
of the Academy of Sciences, an office which did not require
residence in Paris. In this office he was the successor ot
Maupertuis. Afterwards he was promoted in the acade¬
my to the place of pensioned astronomer, and came to re¬
side in Paris. .
It was resolved in France to send an expeditio
South America for the purpose of measuring a degree ot
the meridian near the equator. From that measurement,
compared with the length of a degree of the meridian in
other latitudes, the deviation from sphericity in the figure
of the earth might be known. The academy made choice
of four of its members to proceed on this voyage; they
were Godin, Bouguer, and De la Condamine, for the geo-
detical operation, and the younger Jussieu for observations
in natural history. Bouguer and his fellow-travellers sai-
ed from La Rochelle in 1735, and it was ten years before
he returned to France. The account of his operation
during the expedition is given by him m the Memoirs J
the Academy of Sciences, 1744, and in a separate work e
titled La Figure de la Terre determine paries Observa
tions de AIM. Bouguer et De la Condamine. 1 here is mw
B O U
B O U
i45
wise an account of this expedition published by Don
George Juan and Don Antonio de Ulloa, two scientific
naval officers, who accompanied the expedition by order
of the Spanish government. The length of a portion of
the meridian was measured on the ground by means of a
base and a set of triangles. Then, by observing the alti¬
tude of the i of Orion which passed near the zenith simul¬
taneously at the two ends of the meridian line that had
been measured, that line was found to contain 3° 7' of la¬
titude. A star near the zenith was employed, to the end
that the observation might not be affected by refraction;
g of Orion passed the meridian in the zenith near the mid¬
dle of the line measured, so that the distance of that star
south of the zenith of the northern extremity of the line
was 1° 25' 46"; and its distance north of the zenith of the
southern extremity of the line was 1° 4T 13", the sum of
these two numbers making 3° 7'. The altitude was taken
by zenith sectors of a long radius. The ground on which
these operations were performed was elevated 12,000 feet
above the level of the sea, and 4200 feet above the neigh¬
bouring city of Quito, and situate in a plain extending from
north to south, between the two ridges of the Cordillera.
The northern extremity of the arc w7as on the equator.
The length of the degree resulting was 56,767 toises ; but
this was the degree of a curve circumscribed round the
earth at the height of 12,000 feet above the level of the
sea; and the length of the degree at the level of the sea
deduced from this, with some other corrections, is 56,753
toises. This length of the degree of the meridian at the
equator was compared with the degree of the meridian
measured in France, with the degree measured in Lap-
land, and with the degree of longitude deduced in the
south of France. From this comparison it was concluded
that the equatorial diameter of the earth is to the polar dia¬
meter as 179 to 178, and that the equatorial radius of the
earth was about eight leagues longer than the polar. Since
the time of Bouguei’, degrees have been measured in dif¬
ferent climates with more accurate instruments than he
possessed; but the precise proportion of the equatorial
and polar diameters of the earth is not yet finally ascer¬
tained. Bouguer makes the excess of the equatorial dia¬
meter above the polar to be yfg; Sir Isaac Newton made
it t§U’ Laplace, calculating from the lunar motion,
Melanderhielm and Svanberg, from a degree measured
anew in Lapland in 1783, compared with the degree mea¬
sured in the province of Quito, jj-j. Bouguer found the
seconds pendulum of a line shorter at the summit of
Pichincha than at the level of the sea; that is, the force
of gravity was less by one 1200th part at that elevation.
He made some observations on the limit of perpetual
snow, a subject which has been elucidated since his time
by the researches of Humboldt, Von Buch, Wahlenberg,
and others. At the equator the limit of perpetual snow is
at 14,760 feet above the sea, a height equal to that of Mont
Blanc. In Mexico, in the latitude of 19° 20', it is at 13,800
feet, according to Humboldt. In latitude 28° 15', where
the Peak of Teneriffe is situate, it is supposed to be 11,700
feet: the Peak is only 11,454 feet, and has no perennial
snow. On Etna, in latitude 37° 30', the edge of the pe¬
rennial snow is at the height of 9000 feet. On Mount
Caucasus, in latitude 42° 30', the limit is at 9900 feet;
whilst on the Pyrenees, in latitude 42° 45', it descends to
8400 above the sea; and on the Swiss Alps, in latitude
46°, to 8220 feet. In Iceland, in latitude 65°, the edge
of the perennial snow is at the perpendicular height of
2892 feet from the sea. In Lapland, in latitude 67°, where
the summers are warmer than in Iceland, though the win¬
ters are colder, the perennial snow does not descend so
ffiw, attaining only to 3300 French feet from the sea, as
Von Buch and Wahlenberg ascertained by barometrical
VOL. v.
observations. When the latitudes are the same, a solitary Bouguer.
mountain will have the edge of the perennial snow higher
than a mountain surrounded by others, on account of the
warm winds from the neighbouring plains. A mountain
in an inland situation will have the border of the peren¬
nial snow higher than a mountain in the same latitude, and
situated in an island, the summers which reduce the limits
of the snow being warmer in the inland situation. When
the mass of perennial snow is large, glaciers are formed
which descend below the limit of perennial snow. Chim-
boraco has 5400 feet of its height covered with perpetual
snow, according to Humboldt. Bouguer thought he could
perceive that the clouds do not ascend higher than 2400
feet above the summit of Chimborazo. If there were
mountains whose height reached beyond the greatest
height to which the clouds attain, all the part of the moun¬
tain above the region of the clouds would be free from
snow, although exposed to intense cold. On Bouguer’s
supposition of the height to which the clouds ascend, the
upper limit of snow at Chimborazo would be at the height
of 22,200 feet above the sea; and the distance between
the upper limit of snow and the lower limit would be there
about 7800 feet.
Bouguer, whilst he was at the equator, made observa¬
tions to ascertain the obliquity of the ecliptic, which he
found to be 23° 28' 28". He also made some experiments
on the deviation of the plumb-line from the vertical, occa¬
sioned by the attraction of a neighbouring mountain, a
phenomenon afterwards investigated by Dr Maskelyne on
the mountain Schehallien.
The number of Bouguer’s papers contained in the print¬
ed Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, is a proof of the
assiduity with which he performed his duty in the aca¬
demy. His Heliometei' is described in the Memoirs of the
Academy for 1748. It is an object-glass micrometer, and
its essential parts consist of an astronomical dioptric tele¬
scope, with two object-glasses of the same focal length
placed side by side. When this instrument is directed to
the sun, each object-glass gives an image of that lumi¬
nary ; and the object-glasses are so placed that the limbs
of the two images touch when the diameter of the sun is
greatest, and when the diameter is less there is an inter¬
val between the limbs of the two images.
Some experimenters maintained that the plumb-line
had a diurnal oscillation ; Bouguer showed that it remains
at rest. He employed for this purpose a telescope, at¬
tached to the end of a chain 187 feet long, suspended
within the dome of the church of the Hospital of Invalids
at Paris : the telescope was directed to a distant mark, so
that any motion in this long pendulous system might be
seen by the deviation of the wires of the telescope from
the mark. The particulars of this experiment are to be
found in the Mem. de VAcademic des Sciences, 1754.
In the volume for 1739 and 1749 there are papers of
his on the astronomical refraction in the torrid zone, parti¬
cularly in cases where the star is seen at more than 90°
from the zenith, in consequence of the observer being in
a high situation. In the volume for 1747, he proposed, a
log of a new construction for measuring a ship’s way.
In the same collection there are papers of his on the
length of the pendulum, on the form of the prow which
suffers least resistance in passing through the water, and
on a variety of other subjects. He bestowed great pains
on his works, and his health at length became impaired
by a sedentary life, and too constant application to scien¬
tific pursuits. He died in 1758, aged sixty. His dispo¬
sition was naturally mild, and the dissensions that arose
between him and his fellow-traveller De la Condamine
caused him great vexation. He was impressed, from his
earliest years, with a conviction of the truths of Christi-
T
146 B O U
Bouhours. anity. By economy he had acquired a moderate fortune,
a part of which he bequeathed to the poor. ^
The following is a list of his principal works: 7 rmre
d'Optique sur la Gradation de la Lumiere, 172J and
1760. Entretiem sur la Cause de l Inclmaison t
bites des Planetes, 1734 ; another edition in 1749'^;e
de Navire, de sa construction, et de ses mouvemens, 1 /46 4to
La Figure de la Terre determinee, par les Observations de
Mess. Bouguer et de la Condamine, envoyes par oi
RoyauPerou; par M. Bouguer, 1749,4to. ^uveauTrade
de JNavigation, contenant la Theorie et la Prahque du
lotaqe, 1753. A new edition by De la Caille, 1761. ySo-
lution des Principaux Problemes sur la Manoeuvre des Vais-
seaux, 1757. Operations faites pour la -
are du Meridien entre Pans et Amiens; par Mess. Bou
suer, Camus, Cassini, et Pingre, 17o7.
8 After his return from South America he was editor of
the Journal des Savans. Some of his papers in the Me¬
moirs of the Academy have been mentioned
this article; his Eloge is contained in the volume tor
1758. vB-By,
BOUHOURS, Dominic, a celebrated French critic,
was born at Paris in 1628. He entered into the society
of Jesuits at the age of sixteen, and was appointed to read
lectures upon polite literature in the college of .<-leimont
at Paris, where he had studied; but he was so incessant¬
ly attacked with headachs, that he found himself unable to
execute the task assigned him. He afterwards undertook
the education of two sons of the Duke of Longuevil e,
which he conducted with great applause. Ihe duke
had such a regard for Bouhours that he died in lus arms;
and the “ account of the pious and Christian death ot
this great personage was the first work which Bouhours
gave the public. He was sent to Dunkerque to the Popish
refugees from England ; and, in the midst of his missionary
occupations, found means to compose and publish books.
Among these were Entretiens d'Ariste et d Eugene, n woik
of a critical nature on the French language. His book
was printed no less than five times at Pans, twice at tire-
noble, and afterwards at Lyons, at Brussels, at Amster¬
dam, at Leyden, and other places ; and it embroiled him
in quarrels with a great number of persons, particularly
Menage, who, however, lived in friendship with the author
before and after. The fame of this piece, and the plea¬
sure he took in reading it, recommended Bouhours so
effectually to the celebrated minister Colbert, that he in¬
trusted him with the education of his son the Marquis of
Seunelay. He afterwards wrote several other works, the
chief of which are, l.Remarks and Doubts upon the trench
Language, 1694; 2.Dialoguesupon the art of Thinking Well
in works of Genius, 1687 ; 3. The Life of St Ignatius, 1679 ;
4. The Art of Pleasing in Conversation ; 5. 1 he Lite ot
St Francis Xavier, apostle of the Indies and of Japan,
1682. This last work was translated from the french
into English by Mr Dryden, and published at London in
the year 1668, with a dedication to James II. s queen
prefixed. Bouhour’s works may be divided into two classes,
namely, those of a religious, and those of a purely literary
character; and the number of the one is nearly equal to
that of the other. It was his practice indeed to publish
alternately a book on literature and a work on some sub¬
ject of piety ; which gave occasion to a wag, in a satirical
epitaph, to remark of him “ qu il servait le monde et e
ciel par semestre.” His Pensees ingenieuses des Armens
et des Modernes, though at once instructive and amusing,
exposed him to censure as well as ridicule, on account ot
some strange misjudgments and omissions. Either from
spite oi^misconception, he has classedBoileau with the least
esteemed of the Italian satirical versifiers, thus placing
him in the worst company he could possibly find; and what
BOU
is still more extraordinary, he has ingeniously omitted, in Bouka
his Thoughts on the Moderns, all mention of the illustrious ||
name of Pascal. This gave occasion to a variety of epi-Bouknger.
grams at the expense of the worthy father, particulaily to
the following by Madame Deshoulieres:
Pere Bouhours, dans vos Pensees,
La plupart fort embarrassees,
A moi vous n’avez point pensd.
Les celebres auteurs que votre livre cliante,
Dans une liste triomphante
Je ne vois point mon nom place ;
Mais aussi dans le meme role
Yous avez oublie Pascal,
Qui pourtant ne pensait mal:
Un tel compagnon me console.
BOUKA, or Lord Anson’s Island, in the South Pa¬
cific Ocean, lying south of Bougainville’s Island, is co¬
vered with wood from the shore to the centre, which is of
considerable height. Along the beach are extensive plan¬
tations of cocoa-nut trees. Their canoes are ingeniously
constructed ; and they are remarkably dexterous in the use
of the bow and arrow, bringing down birds on the wing
with almost unerring certainty. Long, of the north cape,
153. 34. E. Lat. 5. 0. S. T .
BOULAINVILLIERS, Henry de, Lord of Saint Saire,
and an eminent French writer, was descended from a very
ancient and noble French family, and born at Saint Saire
in 1658. He received his education among the fathers
of the oratory, at the college of Juilli, where he discovered
from his infancy the uncommon abilities for which he wTas
afterwards distinguished. Fie applied himself principally
to the study of history; and his performances in this de¬
partment are numerous and considerable, but deformed
by an extravagant admiration of the feudal system, which
he regarded as the chef d'ceuvre of the human mind. To
this idea he incessantly recurs in all his writings, and
misses no opportunity of regretting those good old times,
in which the people, enslaved by petty tyrants alike igno¬
rant and barbarous, had neither industry, nor commerce,
nor property, and in which a hundred seigneurs, the op¬
pressors of the country and the enemies of the king, com¬
posed what he is pleased to consider the most perfect of
all governments. Fie was the author of a History of the Ara¬
bians; Fourteen Letters upon the ancient Parliaments of
France ; a History of France to the reign of Charles V 111.;
and the State of France, with historical memoirs concern¬
ing the ancient government of that monarchy, to the b’hp
of Hugh Capet, “ written,” says M. Montesquieu, “ with
a simplicity and honest freedom worthy of that ancient
family from which their author was descended. M. Bou-
lainvilliers died at Paris in 1722, and after his death was
published his Life of Mahommed. .
BOULANGER, Nicholas Anthony, a very singular
Frenchman, was born at Paris in 1722, and died there m
1759, aged only thirty-seven. During his education he
is said to have come out of the college of Beauvais almost
as ignorant as he entered it; but struggling hard against
his unaptness to learn, he at length oyeicame it.
seventeen he began to study mathematics and architec¬
ture; and in three or four years made such progress, as
to be useful to the Baron of Thiers, whom he accompanied
to the army in the capacity of engineer. Subsequently
he had the superintendence of the highways and bridges,
and he executed several public works in Champagne, Bur¬
gundy, and Lorraine. The author of his life, in the JJic-
*tionnaire des Hommes celebres, writes, that in this province
a terrible spirit discovered itself in him, which he himsel
did not discover before; and this was, it seems, the spirit
of “ thinking philosophically.” In cutting through moun¬
tains, in directing and changing the courses of rivers, and
in breaking up and turning over the strata of the earth, he
B O U
Bo; nger saw a multitude of different substances, which, he thought,
j evinced the great antiquity of it, and a long series of re-
volutions which it must have undergone. From the re-
volutions in the globe, he passed to the changes that must
have happened in the manners of men, in societies, in go¬
vernments, in religion; and he formed many conjectures
upon all these. To be further satisfied, he wanted to
know what, in the history of ages, had been said upon these
particulars; and, that he might derive information from the
fountain head, he learned first Latin, then Greek, and after¬
wards Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldaic, and Arabic ; and, by dint
of unwearied perseverance, acquired such a stock of erudi¬
tion, that, if he had lived, he would have been one of the
most learned men in Europe. But, as we have observed,
death stepped in and cut him off in the full vigour of life,
while ardently pursuing his studies. His principal works
are, 1. Traite du Despotisme Oriental, 2 vols. 12mo, 1761.
2. L’Antiquite devoilee, 3 vols. 12mo, 1761; posthumous.
3. He furnished to the Encyclopedie the articles Deluge,
Corvee, Guebres, Langue Hebrdique, and Economic Poli¬
tique. 4. He left behind him, in manuscript, a Dictionary,
which may be regarded as a concordance of ancient and
modern languages. As a man, he is said to have been of
a sweet, calm, and engaging temper; which, however, it
is very difficult to reconcile with the dark, impetuous, ar¬
dent spirit, which appears to have animated him as a
writer. During the latter period of his life he was con¬
nected with a set of writers, illustrious in point of talent,
but utterly devoid of all principle, who openly professed
themselves the enemies of religion, and were heated with
the idea of effecting its destruction. In the society of
these men, whose opinions he participated, Boulanger
contributed his share to the common enterprise, by the
arguments which he drew from his studies and the hypo¬
theses he had conceived; but several of the irreligious
writings which have been ascribed to him are neverthe¬
less not of his composition, and his memory ought there¬
fore to be exonerated from the opprobrium which has in
consequence been cast upon it. He was a speculative in¬
fidel, not a common blasphemer, and ought not to be held
answerable for the abominations which weaker and worse
men have published in his name.
Boulanger, John, an engraver, was a native of France,
and born at Amiens in 1607. His first manner of en¬
graving appears to have been copied, in some degree,
from that of Francis de Poilly; but soon after he adopted
one of his owrn, which, though not original, he nevertheless
greatly improved. He finished the faces, hands, and all
the naked parts of his figures, very neatly, with dots in¬
stead of strokes, or strokes and dots; and the effect,
though singular enough, is by no means unpleasing. In
some few instances, howrever, the coarse graving of his
draperies and back ground presents so violent a contrast
to the neater work of the flesh, that the outline of the
latter is rendered hard, and the general appearance of it
flat and chalky. He did not draw the naked parts of his
figures correctly, or in good taste; whilst his draperies
are heavy, and the folds not well marked. However, his
best prints possess merit, and are deservedly held in con¬
siderable esteem.
BOULAY, C^sar Egasse du, in Latin Bulceus, was
born at St Ellier, on the Lower Maine, in the beginning
of the seventeenth century, and became professor of hu¬
manity at the college of Navarre, as well as register, rec¬
tor, and historiographer of the university of Paris. He
died in 1678, after having published several works. The
principal of these are, a History of the University of Pa¬
ris, in Latin, 6 vols. folio, 1665 and 1673; and the The¬
saurus of Roman Antiquities, in one volume folio.
BOULDER-WALL, a kind of wall built of round flints
B o u 147
or pebbles, laid in strong mortar, and used where the sea Boulder,
has a beach cast up, or where there are plenty of flints. wall
BOULETTE, in the manege. A horse is called bou- II
lette when the fetlock, or pastern joint, bends forward,:
and out of its natural situation, whether through violent
riding, or by reason of the animal being too short jointed,
in which case the least fatigue will bring it down.
BOULOGNE, an arrondissement of the department of
the Pas de Calais, in France, extending over 348 square
miles, comprehending six cantons and 100 communes, and
containing 76,220 inhabitants. The chief city, of the
same name, on the sea shore, is divided into the lower
and the upper town, together having six churches, a hos¬
pital, 1600 houses, and 16,650 inhabitants. In the sum¬
mer it is resorted to for sea-bathing both by English and
French visitors. It is a place of some trade, but its har¬
bour is only capable of admitting vessels at high tides.
Long. 1. 30. 43. E. Lat. 50. 43. 33. N.
BOULTER, Dr Hugh, was born in or near London,
of reputable and wealthy parents. He was educated at
Merchant-Tailor’s School before the Revolution, and was
from thence admitted a commoner of Christ-church in
Oxford. Some time afterwards he Avas chosen a demy
of Magdalen College, at the same election with Mr Addi¬
son and Dr Wilcox. From the merit and learning of the
persons elected, this was commonly called by Dr Hough,
president of the college, the “ golden election.’’ Pie af¬
terwards became fellow of the same college; in which
station he continued till the year 1700, when he was in¬
vited to London by Sir Charles Hodges, principal secre¬
tary of state, who made him his chaplain, and recom¬
mended him to Dr Tennison, archbishop of Canterbury;
but for his first preferments he was indebted to the Earl
of Sunderland, by whose interest and influence he was
promoted to the parsonage of St Olave in Southwark, and
the archdeaconry of Surrey. Here he continued discharg¬
ing very faithfully and diligently every part of his pasto¬
ral office, till he was recommended to attend George I.
as his chaplain when he went to Hanover in 1719. He
had the honour to teach Prince Frederick the English
language; and by his conduct he so won the king’s fa¬
vour, that he promoted him to the deanery of Christ¬
church and the bishopric of Bristol in the same year.
As he was visiting his diocese five years afterwards, he
received a letter from the secretary of state, acquainting
him that his majesty had nominated him to the arch¬
bishopric of Armagh and primacy of Ireland. This ho¬
nour he would gladly have declined, and desired the se¬
cretary to use his good offices with his majesty to excuse
him from accepting it. At this juncture Ireland hap¬
pened to be in a great flame, occasioned by Wood’s pro¬
ject; and the ministry thought that the bishop would
greatly contribute to quench it by his judgment, mode¬
ration, and address. The king therefore laid his absolute
commands upon him, and he submitted, but with some
reluctance. As soon as he had taken possession of the
primacy, he began to consider the country in which his
lot was cast for life as his own, and to promote its true in¬
terest with the greatest zeal and assiduity. Accordingly,
he exerted himself in performing the noblest acts of be¬
neficence and public spirit. In seasons of the greatest
scarcity he was more than once instrumental in prevent¬
ing a famine which threatened that nation. On one of
these occasions he distributed vast quantities of corn
throughout the kingdom, for which the House of Com¬
mons passed a vote of public thanks; and at another
time two thousand five hundred persons were fed at the
poor-house in Dublin, every morning, and as many every
evening, for a considerable time together, mostly at the
primate’s expense. When schemes were proposed for the
148
B O U
B O U
Boulton.
Boultine advantage of the country, he encouraged and
them not only with his counsel, but his purse. He ha
great compassion for the poor clergy of his diocese, who
were disabled from giving their children a proper educa¬
tion; and he maintained several of these children in t
university. He erected four houses at Di og ie a
reception of clergymen’s widows, and purchased an estate
for the endowment of them. His charities foi augme -
ing small livings and buying glebes amounted to upwards
of L.30,000, besides what he devised by will for the like
purposes in England. In short, the instances he gave
of his generosity and benevolence of heart, his \iitue,
piety, and wisdom, are almost innumerable, and the his¬
tory of his life is his noblest panegync. This excellent
prelate died at London, on the 2d June 1 <42, and was
terred in Westminster-abbey, where a beautiful monu¬
ment of finely-polished marble was erected to Ins me-
m°BOULTINE, a term which workmen use for a mould¬
ing, the convexity of which is just one-fourth of a circle ;
being the member just below the plinth in the Tuscan
and Doric capitals. , ,
BOULTON, Matthew, a manufacturer and practical
engineer of great celebrity, son of Matthew Boulton, by
his wife Christian, daughter of Mr Peers °f Chester, was
born at Birmingham on the 14th of September 1728, and
died in August 1809. . .
He was educated at a neighbouring grammar-school,
kept by Mr Ansted of Deritend, and was called early into
active life upon the death of his father in 1745. The va¬
rious processes by which the powers of the human mind
have given facility to the artist in rendering the difierent
forms of matter obedient to his command, afforded ample
scope for the exercise of his inventive faculties, in im¬
proving the manufactures of his native place. 1S^
attempt was a new mode of inlaying steel; and he suc¬
ceeded in obtaining a considerable demand for the pio-
ducts of his manufactory, which were principally export¬
ed to the Continent, and not uncommonly re-imported for
domestic use, as of foreign manufacture.
In 1762, his fortune being already considerable, he pur¬
chased a tract of barren heath in the neighbourhood of
Birmingham, with a single house on it, and there found¬
ed, at the expense of L.9000, the manufactory which has
been so flourishing, and so well known under the name of
Soho. His workmen wrere at first principally employed
in the imitation of or moulu, and in copying oil paintings
with great accuracy, by means of a mechanical process
which was invented by a Mr Egginton, who afterwards
distinguished himself by various works in stained glass.
Mr Boulton finding the force of horses inadequate to
the various purposes of his machinery, erected in 1767 a
steam-engine, upon the original construction of Savery,
wdiich, notwithstanding the inconvenience of a great loss
of steam from condensation, by its immediate contact
with the water raised, has still some advantages from the
simplicity of the apparatus which it requires, and has
even lately been found to succeed well upon a small scale.
But Mr Boulton’s objects required a still more powerful
machine, and he had the discernment to perceive that
they might be very completely attained by the adoption
of the various improvements lately made in the steam-
engine by Mr Watt ot Glasgow, who had obtained a pa¬
tent for them in 1769, the privileges of which were ex¬
tended in 1775, by an act of Parliament, to a term of 25
years. IVIr Boulton induced this ingenious and scientific
inventor to remove to Birmingham. They commenced a
partnership in business, and established a manufactory of
steam-engines, in which accurate execution kept pace so
well with judicious design, that its productions continued
to be eaually in request with the public after the expira- Bounty,
tion of the term of that legal privilege which at first gave ^
the proprietors the exclusive rlght of supplying them,
and which had been confirmed in 1<92 by a decision of
the Court of King’s Bench against some encroachments
on the right of the patentee. It was principally for the
purpose of carrying on this manufactory with greater
convenience, that the proprietors established an iron-
foundery of their own at Smethwick, in the neighbourhood
In 1785 Mr Boulton was made a fellow of the Royal
Society, about the same time with Withering, and several
others of his scientific neighbours. In 1788 he turned his
attention to the subject of coining, and erected machinery
for the purpose, so extensive and so complete, that the
operation was performed with equal economy and preci¬
sion, and the coins could not be imitated by any single
artist for their nominal value ; each of the stamps coining,
with the attendance of a little boy only, about eighty
pieces in a minute. The preparatory operation of lami¬
nating and cutting out the metal is performed in an adjoin¬
ing room; and all personal communication between the
workmen employed is rendered unnecessary, by the me¬
chanical conveyance of the work from one part ot the ma¬
chinery to another. A coinage of silver was executed at
this mint for the Sierra Leone Company, and another of
copper for the East Indies, besides the pence and half¬
pence at present in circulation throughout England, and
a large quantity of money of all kinds for Russia. In ac¬
knowledgment of Mr Boulton’s services, and in return for
some specimens of his different manufactures, the Em¬
peror Paul made him a present of a valuable collection ot
medals and of minerals.
Mr Boulton obtained, in 1797, a patent for a mode of
raising water by impulse, the specification of which is
published in the ninth volume of the Repertory oj Arts,
p 145. It had been demonstrated by Daniel Bernoulli,
in the beginning of the last century, that water flowing
through a pipe, and arriving at a part in which the pipe
is suddenly contracted, would have its velocity at first
very greatly increased; but no practical application o
the principle appears to have been attempted, untd an
apparatus was set up in 1792 by Mr Whitehurst, for Mr
Egerton of Oulton, in Cheshire, consisting ot an air-vessel,
communicating with a water-pipe by a valve, which was
forced open by the pressure or rather impulse of the wa¬
ter, when its passage through the pipe was suddenly
stopped by turning the cock in the ordinary comse 0 ^°"
mestic economy; and although the pipe through which
the water was forced up was of moderate height, the an-
vessel, which was at first made of lead, was soon burst by
the “ momentous force,” as Mr Whitehurst very properly
terms it. The apparatus had excited much attention in
France, under the name of Montgolfier’s hydraulic ram;
and Mr Boulton added to it a number of ingenious modi¬
fications, some of which, however, are more calcu ate o
display the vivid imagination of a projector, than t e
sound judgment of a practical engineer, which had m ge¬
neral so strongly characterized all his productions.
He died, after a long illness, in possession of consider¬
able affluence and of universal esteem, leaving a son am
a daughter to profit by the wealth and respectability which
he had acquired. He was buried on the 24th of August,
at Handsworth, near Soho, attended by a procession o
600 workmen, and by a numerous train of his “'^ntls
and acquaintance. (Monthly Magazine, October 180 , p*
368.) > . (L* Lv
BOUNTY, in Commerce, a premium paid by govern¬
ment to the exporters of certain commodities. See Poli¬
tical Economy.
BOURBON.
149
Co >on
BOURBON, an island in the Indian Sea, about 400
miles to the east of Madagascar. It was discovered by
the Portuguese in 1545, as appears by a date inscribed by
them upon a pillar when they first landed. They gave it
the name of Mascarenhas, but do not appear to have
formed any establishment; so that when the French set¬
tled in Madagascar, this island was totally desolate. In
1642, De Pronis, agent for the French East India Com¬
pany, took possession of the island, but used it merely as
a place of banishment for offenders. The exiles, however,
gave so favourable a report, that, in 1649, De Plarcourt,
then governor of Madagascar, formed an extensive settle¬
ment, to which, from the royal family of France, he gave
the name of Bourbon. The colonists, however, finding
their situation uncomfortable, and receiving no support
from Madagascar, embraced the offer of an English cap¬
tain, and in the year 1658 embarked for Madras. When
the last great blow was given to the French at Madagas¬
car by the natives, who surprised and cut them off in one
night, there escaped as many men as, with their wives,
who were natives, filled two canoes; and these being
driven by the wind on the isle of Bourbon, formed a fresh
colony, who, for want of an opportunity to remove, were
constrained to remain in and to cultivate it. It was not
long before a further supply of inhabitants arrived. A pi¬
rate who had been committing depredations in the Indian
seas, returning to Europe, ran ashore and had his vessel
dashed to pieces on the rocks, so that the crew were
forced to join the former inhabitants ; and as they had on
board their vessel a great many Indian women whom they
had made prisoners, they lived with them, and in process
of time had a numerous posterity. As East India ships
touched frequently here when too late to double the
Cape, many of the sailors deserted and became planters in
the isle of Bourbon. When the place grew more populous,
the people naturally became more civilized, and desirous
of living in a more commodious manner; which induced
them to build small vessels, and make trips to Madagas¬
car in order to purchase slaves, whom they employed in
their plantations to cultivate aloes, tobacco, and other
products, with which they carried on a small trade when
ships of any nation anchored in their roads for refresh¬
ments. In this situation the French East India Company
put in their claim; and assuming the property of the
island, sent thither five or six families and a governor. At
first the inhabitants expected to reap some benefit from
their new masters; but finding very little, and considering
the governor as tyrannical, they revolted at the instigation
of a priest, and seized and put him into a dungeon, where
he died. Some of the ringleaders were punished, a kind
of fort was erected, and a few guns placed on it; but in
other respects, within the last forty years, the island was
in no state of defence. The number of inhabitants in the
year 1717 was computed at 2000, viz. 900 free and 1100
slaves. When the present French India Company became,
by their charter, possessed of the island of Bourbon, they
began very diligently to improve it; raising new forts and
batteries, so as to render it in a manner inaccessible, and
importing the coffee-tree from Arabia, which has suc¬
ceeded so well, that it has become an extensive object of
culture, and is considered as only second to that of Ye¬
men. The clove-tree was also introduced with success.
In 1811 Bourbon was captured by a British force, but re¬
stored at the general peace.
bture The physical structure of this island presents many
'ispect. striking features. It does not, like the Isle of France, con¬
sist of a level plain, from which conical hills arise in de¬
tached masses. The whole island is as it were one moun¬
tain, having its most elevated points in the centre, and
thence sloping gradually down to the sea. This great
mass, however, is split into two portions, of which the Bourbon,
loftiest, situate in the northern part, is called the Gros
Morne, and its summit the Piton des Neiges or Snowy Peak.
There is here no present action of volcanic fire; but the
frequent occurrence of deep valleys or basins, rapid rivers
bordered by perpendicular walls of rock, hillocks precipi¬
tated into these valleys and torrents, basaltic prisms often
disposed in regular colonnades, strata thrown into the
most irregular positions,—all these, in M. Bory de St
Vincent’s opinion, indicate terrible physical revolutions in
former times. The northern mountain is entirely volca¬
nic, and the phenomena present themselves in an extraor¬
dinary state of frequency and activity. This writer not only
conceives both these mountains to have been originally vol¬
canic, but the whole island to have been thrown up by
the action of subterranean fire. They appear to him also
to have formerly composed only one, having an interme¬
diate summit higher than that of either now is. The vol¬
canic agitations, however, having hollowed the internal
part of this great mass, the exterior crust fell in, and re¬
duced the island to the shattered state which it now ex¬
hibits. To a great extent indeed it is divided into two
portions by an immense hollow, bordered with perpendi¬
cular walls of rock, which, after running parallel for seven
or eight miles, form an arch and unite. At the foot of the
volcano is found an immense track of what the inhabitants
call Brule, or burnt country, supposed to have been form¬
ed by the lava spreading into a species of fiery lake, and
then consolidating into the present surface. It is desti¬
tute of all vegetation whatever; and its colour is of the
gloomiest black, the surface being broken by holes, cre¬
vices, and innumerable asperities of every description.
These, joined to its hard and brittle consistence, render it
impossible to tread on it without the severest injury to the
feet. Those of our traveller’s attendant negroes were se¬
verely lacerated; and his own, though defended by strong
shoes, were wounded in several places.
The streams of Bourbon are mere mountain torrents,
which descend from steep to steep, and throw themselves
into the sea. In their fall they dig deep ravines, bordered
by lofty and almost perpendicular walls. The largest
river, however, that of St Denis, has only a course of
seven or eight miles. These deep and foaming torrents,
the rude surface of the ground, and the perpendicular
rents by which it is everywhere broken, render travelling
through Bourbon a most arduous undertaking. M. Bory
de St Vincent was assured that his plan of reaching the
two principal peaks was altogether impracticable ; but his
enterprise and love of science enabled him to surmount
all the intervening difficulties.
In the ascent to the summit of the volcanic mountain,
the obstacles encountered were truly formidable. Some¬
times the sides of nearly perpendicular rocks were to be
climbed; at other times a road was to be made by cutting
down the bushes and filling up the crevices; whilst a mist,
which rises every day from the sea, rendered it impossible
to distinguish his companions at the smallest distance.
At length they reached the summit of the Mamelon cen¬
tral. The crater here, to which the name of Dolomieu
was given, consists of a cavity forty fathoms in diameter,
and about eighty feet deep, the bottom filled with con¬
fused piles of greyish coloured lava. Ihe. sides showed
none of that soft lava which forms a species of varnish
over the interior of other craters; they consisted of irre¬
gular fragments of hard and compact substances. ^ur
author here notices the error of those who expect, when
they reach the summit of a crater, to look down into an
unfathomable abyss. The fact is, that from whatever
depth the liquified substances may have ascended, as soon
as the conflagration ceases, they harden and fill up the
150 BOURBON.
Bourbon, opening, so that only a very small void remains. Being
led, however, by a sulphureous smell, to the left side of the
present crater, they discovered a deep hollow like a tun¬
nel, the walls of which were composed of burning lava;
while beneath, two columns of fiery matter, rising to the
height of 120 feet, threw up a bloody light, which shone
brightly, even amid the blaze of a tropical noon. This
spectacle, accompanied with a sound similar to that of
a mighty cascade, filled their minds with terror and ad¬
miration.
Our traveller, in ascending, had supposed the Mamelon
central to be the highest peak of the volcanic mountain ;
but he now discovered, at the distance of about 200 fa¬
thoms, a still more elevated point, which, after himself, he
named Bory. It is a vast elliptic basin, the largest dia¬
meter of which is 120, and the smallest 100 fathoms.
The sides rise perpendicularly like walls, and are 200 feet
high at their greatest elevation. There were some bro¬
ken parts, however, by which the travellers could descend
into the abyss. They found it tolerably level; but the
volcanic ashes with which it was bestrewed hid the sco¬
riae and other substances which filled it. In the centre
was a crevice, the depth of which they could not discover.
This crater was entirely silent.
The travellers spent the night on the crater Dolomieu;
but the tremendous sounds, the blaze of light, and the
singularity of their situation, scarcely allowed them to
close their eyes. At about 1200 feet beneath, they per¬
ceived a stream of lava issuing from the mountain, the
outlet, probably, of those liquified substances which they
saw fermenting at the bottom of the crater.
The crater is said to have been formed during a violent
eruption of the volcano in 1791. In the beginning of June
a burning vapour appeared rising from the summit, then
the side of the mountain opened, and a vast torrent of lava
rushed into the sea. On the 17th of July a subterranean
noise, like the discharge of cannon, was heard throughout
the island; after which there rose from the top of the
mountain an enormous column of smoke, of a deep black,
with white spots interspersed. The inhabitants, who had
never before witnessed such a phenomenon, were struck
with consternation: Soon, however, the column fell down,
and formed a species of arch over the volcano. The fall¬
ing in of the interior, undermined by the previous dis¬
charge, is supposed to have been the cause of the tre¬
mendous sound, and of the ultimate opening of the crater.
This is, perhaps, the most active volcano in nature.
Since the Christian era, Etna has made only twenty-seven
eruptions, and Vesuvius twenty-four. But a resident at
Bourbon assured our author, that, from 1785 to 1802, the
mountain had vomited flames at least twice every year,
and eight of the streams had entered the sea. The lava,
however, scarcely ever issues from the summit of a crater,
but generally from openings far down the mountain, and
sometimes almost on a level with the sea. It is remark¬
able, also, that earthquakes, which so generally desolate
volcanic countries, are here unknown, or, at least, so
slight, as to occasion no serious inconvenience. The con¬
stant escape of the subterraneous fire through the chan¬
nel of the volcano may probably be the chief cause which
prevents it from shaking the surrounding regions. Ano¬
ther usual accompaniment, that of warm springs, is also
wanting; and none of the waters are impregnated with
any species of gas. No petroleum has been found, nor
any metal, except iron.
Our traveller next made an excursion to the Piton des
Neiges, which forms the summit of the Gros Morne, the
highest mountain in the island. This undertaking proved
still more arduous. The season was favourable; yet,
when they had mounted about half-way, a prodigious rain
came on; and the road lay through wet and swampy Bom
grounds, which were soon entirely covered with water. "V
The mists became so thick, that nothing could be distin¬
guished. The negroes, accustomed to a milder air, were
benumbed; and, refusing to proceed, would have perish¬
ed with cold, had not the Frenchmen driven them for¬
cibly on, till they came to a spot where they found shel¬
ter and refreshment. They spent here two nights, and
on the third day were able to reach their destination.
The view from the summit appeared to our traveller to
equal the most majestic scenes of the Alps and the Py¬
renees. In the island beneath, every object was visible
as on a map; while, on every side, the immeasurable ex-f
tent of ocean mingling with the skies, made them feel as
if insulated on this spot from the rest of the universe.
The thermometer was so low as 8°. Here considerable
masses of rock were observed, undermined to such a de¬
gree that a very slight effort was sufficient to throw them
down the precipices, where, displacing others, they rolled
to a great depth, and caused prodigious havock. Every
part of the mountain, indeed, appears furrowed and shat¬
tered by the violent action of the rains, which have al¬
ready sensibly diminished its magnitude, and are likely to
do so more and more.
M. Bory does not appear to have instituted any inves¬
tigation into the height of these mountains. Professor
Jameson, in his Geognosy, estimates that of the Gros
Morne at 9600, and that of the volcano at 7680 feet above
the level of the sea. The French traveller gives a co¬
pious, but not very precise account of its geological fea¬
tures. The lower part of the Gros Morne is composed of >
basalt, a substance which abounds in every part of the
island, and which, from the manner in wdiich it is con¬
nected with and surrounded by lava, is conceived by
our author to have been universally crystallized from a
state of fusion. He notices, also, the frequent occurrence
of what he calls trappean lava ; though this, as well as
much of the basalt, would probably, by the disciple of
Werner, be referred to some of the newer formations of
trap. On some of the precipices at the summit of the
Gros Morne, there appeared an immense depth of hori¬
zontal strata, which might have rendered an igneous ori¬
gin improbable, had it not been so clearly proved by other
phenomena. Large blocks of granite are found in the
rivers which flow at the foot of the Gros Morne.
It is now time to take a view of the political and com-Politi j
mercial aspect of Bourbon. By the revolutionists it was and «
called Reunion; but this name, which was never fully es-™^11
tablished, maybe now supposed to have again given place
to its ancient appellation. The island is divided into
eleven parishes, St Denis, containing the capital of that
name, St Marie, St Susanne, St Andre, St Benoit, St
Rose, St Joseph, St Pierre de la Riviere d’Abord, St Louis
du Gaul, St Leu, and St Paul. St Denis can scarcely be
called a city; the streets resemble roads in the country,
being covered with grass and sand, under which are often
concealed sharp pointed stones, which inflict severe wounds
on the feet. The houses are built of wood, and are agree¬
able ; they are constructed entirely with a view to cool¬
ness. The furniture is slender, and many of the rooms are
not even carpeted; a deficiency not arising from absolute
poverty, but from the difficulty, in this remote situation,
of procuring the artificial conveniences of life. The houses
in the country are of a peculiar construction, very long,
very narrow, and tapering to a point.
The island is distinguished into the windward and lee¬
ward quarters; of which the former, descending by a
gentle slope, and refreshed by continual breezes, is fertile
and smiling; while the latter is comparatively rude, dry,
and barren. The torrents, continually washing away the
B O U
jrbon. soil, are supposed to augment the sterility. Only a nar-
' row slope, about a league and a half inward from the sea,
is under regular cultivation. The interior consists of im¬
mense forests, inhabited by a species of fugitive mulattoes,
who live almost in a state of nature. The population in
1763 was estimated by Bory de St Vincent at 4000
whites and 15,000 slaves. If these numbers are at all
accurate, the increase must have been very great. The
enumeration of 1827 gave 18,747 whites, 6387 free people
of colour, 41,340 males, and 22,107 female slaves ; in all
88,581.
The staple production of this island is coffee. The first
plants were early brought from Arabia, and soon flourish¬
ed to such a degree, that the coffee of Bourbon was only
second to that produced in the parent district. During
the revolution, the want of a regular market, by diminish¬
ing the encouragement to careful cultivation, sensibly
lowered the quality. It is still, however, produced in
large quantity. Next to it ranks the article of cloves.
The clove-tree is of very easy cultivation; the chief dis¬
advantage is the precariousness of the produce. It has
been known in one year to yield only 1000 lbs., and in the
next 500,000 lbs. Cotton, likewise, has been long a staple
of the island; but a violent hurricane in 1801, and a dis¬
ease which afterwards made its appearance among the
plants, discouraged a number of the planters, who accord¬
ingly began to employ their lands in the culture of coffee.
During the last ten or twelve years the culture of coffee,
cotton, and cloves, has diminished, partly from local causes,
and partly from the low price which they bear in Europe.
On the other hand, that of sugar has very remarkably in¬
creased. In 1820 the produce was only from four to five
millions of kilogrammes; in 1828 it had risen to thirteen,
and in 1829 to twenty-nine millions. In 1827 the quan¬
tity of land employed in the production of sugar was stat¬
ed at 8241 hectares, coffee 8909, spices 4993, grains
28,840. Bourbon labours under the serious disadvantage
of not possessing a single harbour, nor any roadstead in
which vessels can ride with safety. The trade, there¬
fore, can be conducted only through the medium of Mau¬
ritius, and is entirely in the hands of the merchants of
that island.
Bourbon, Nicholas, a Latin poet of the sixteenth cen¬
tury, was a native of Vandeuvre, near Bar-sur-Aube, and
the son of a blacksmith. He was so learned in the belles-
lettres, and particularly in Greek, that Margaret de Va¬
lois appointed him preceptor to her daughter Jane d’Al-
bret of Navarre, the mother of King Henry IV. After a
residence of several years at court he retired to Cande,
where he had a benefice, and died about the year 1550.
He wrote eight books of Nugce; a poem on the forge,
which he has entitled Ferraria ; Pcedologia, sive de Pue-
rorum moribus Libellus ; Tabellce Elementarice ; and a Dia-
ogue on the death of hrancis of Valois and the accession
of Henry. Erasmus praises his Nugce.
Bourbon, Nicholas, a celebrated Greek and Latin poet,
was nephew to the preceding. He taught rhetoric in
several colleges of Paris; and the Cardinal de Perron
caused him to be nominated professor of eloquence in the
ftoyai College. He was also canon of Langres, and one
o the forty of the French academy. At length he retired
to the fathers of the oratory, where he died in 1644, aged
seventy. He is esteemed as one of the greatest Latin poets
invest)8 P°ems were printed at Paris
Bourbon-Vendee, an arrondissement in the depart-
n o endee, in France, extending over 630 square
es, an comprehending eight cantons and seventy-three
communes, with 65,171 inhabitants. The chief place,
0 m same name, formerly La Roche-sur-Yon, and
B O U
then Ville Napoleon, has been built since the civil war
tre dePartment to which it belongs.
BOURCHHER, John, Lord Bernars, grandson and heir
ot a lord of the same name, who was descended from Tho¬
mas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester, and had been
kmght of the Garter and constable of Windsor-castle.
Under Edward IV. this Lord John was created a knight
of the Bath on the marriage of the Duke of York, second
son of Edward IV., and was first known by quelling an in-
suilection in Cornwall and Devonshire, raised by Michael
Joseph, a blacksmith, in 1495, which service recommended
him to the favour of Henry VII. He was a captain of the
pioneers at the siege of Therounne, under Henry VIII. by
whom he was made chancellor of the exchequer for life,
and lieutenant of Calais and the Marches; appointed to
conduct the Lady Mary, the king’s sister, into France on
the marriage with Louis XII.; and had the extraordinary
fortune of continuing in favour with Henry VIII. for the
space of eighteen years. He died at Calais in 1532, aged
sixty-three. By King Henry’s command he translated
Froissart’s Chronicle, which was printed in 1532 by Ri¬
chard Pinson, the scholar of Caxton, and the fifth on the
list of English printers. His other works were a whimsi¬
cal medley of translations from French, Spanish, and Ita¬
lian novels, which seem to have been in vogue then, as
they were afterwards in the reign of Charles II. These
were, the Life of Sir Arthur, an Armorican Knight; the
Famous Exploits of Sir Hugh Bourdeaux; Marcus Au-
iclius; and the Castle of Love. He composed also a
book on the duties of the inhabitants of Calais; and a
comedy entitled Ite in \ineam, which is mentioned in
none of our catalogues of English plays. Anthony Wood
says it was usually acted at Calais after vespers.
BOURDALOUE, Louis, a celebrated preacher among
the Jesuits, and one of the greatest orators that France
has ever produced, was born at Bourges on the 20th of
August 1632. At the age of sixteen he entered the So¬
ciety of Jesus, of which he was destined to become one
of the greatest ornaments, and there completed his stu¬
dies. His able masters, who early distinguished his ta¬
lents, successively confided to him the chairs of humanity,
of rhetoric, of philosophy, and of moral theology; and it
was only after passing through these different probation¬
ary employments that he arrived at the eminent post
which was designed for him, and was deemed qualified for
mounting the pulpit.
In order to form an idea of the difficulties which he had
to surmount, and of the talents which he displayed, it is only
necessary, on the one hand, to call to mind the ridiculous
manner gnd inflated style of the preachers of that period ;
and, on the other, to figure the young Jesuit at issue with
the bad taste as well as the bad habits of the time; combat¬
ing at once the passions, the vices, the weaknesses, and the
errors of humanity, and overcoming his enemies, sometimes
with the arms of faith, and sometimes with those of reason.
At first he preached for some time in the province, but his
superiors afterwards called him to Paris. This took place in
1669, at the most brilliant epoch of the age of Louis XIV.,
when nothing was talked of but the victories of Turenne,
the festivities of Versailles, the master-pieces of Corneille
and Racine, the encouragement afforded to the arts, and
the general impulse given to the human mind. Bourdaloue
suddenly appeared in the midst of these fascinations, and,
far from diminishing their effects, the severity of his mi¬
nistry, and the gravity of his eloquence, served rather to
enhance their splendour. His first sermons met with pro¬
digious success, and all voices were raised in loud ap¬
plause of the preacher. Madame de Sevigne, sharing the
universal enthusiasm, wrote to her daughter that “ she
had never heard anything more beautiful, more noble,
151
Bourchler
II
Bourda¬
loue.
152
Bourda-
loue.
B O U
more astonishing, than the sermons of Father Bourdaloue.
Louis XIV. also wished to hear him, and the new preacher
was in consequence sent to court, where he preached the
Advent in 1670, and the Lent in 1672; and he was after¬
wards called for the Lents of 1674, 1675, 1680, and 1682,
and for the Advents of 1684, 1689, and 1693. This was
a thing unheard of before, the same preacher being rarely
called three times to court. Bourdaloue, however, ap¬
peared there ten times, and was always received with the
same ardour. Louis XIV. said that “ he loved bettei to
hear the repetitions of Bourdaloue than the novelties ot
any one else.” After the revocation of the edict of Nantes,
he was sent to Languedoc to preach to the Protestants,
and confirm the newly-converted in the Catholic faith,
and in this delicate mission he managed to reconcile the
interests of his ministry with the sacred rights of huma¬
nity. He preached at Montpellier in 1686, with prodi¬
gious success; Catholics and Protestants being all equally
eager to recognise in this eloquent missionary the apostle
of truth and of virtue.
In the last years of his life Bourdaloue abandoned the
pulpit, and devoted himself to charitable assemblies, hos¬
pitals, and prisons, where his pathetic discourses and in¬
sinuating manners never failed of their eflect. He had
the art of adapting his style and his reasonings to the
condition and the understanding of those to whom he ad¬
dressed either counsel or consolation. Simple with the
simple, erudite with the learned, and a dialetician with
sophists and disputants, he came off with honour in all the
contests in which zeal for religion, the duties of his sta¬
tion, and love of mankind, led him to engage. Equally re¬
lished by the great and by the commonalty, by men ot
piety and by people of the world, he exercised till his
death a sort of empire over all minds ; and this ascendancy
he owed as much to the gentleness of his manners as to
the force of his reasonings. “ His conduct,” says one of
his contemporaries, “ is the best answer that can be
made to the Lettres Provinciales'.' No consideration was
ever capable of altering his frankness or conupting his
probity. , , . „ . .
Boileau, who detested the Jesuits, ioved and often visit¬
ed Bourdaloue. He may with justice be regarded as the
reformer of the pulpit and the founder of Christian elo¬
quence among the French. That which distinguishes
him from other preachers is the force of his reasoning,
and the solidity of his proofs. Never did Christian orator
infuse into his discourses more majesty, dignity, energy,
and grandeur. Like Corneille, he has been charged with
overlabouring his diction, and accumulating idea upon
idea with a needless superfluity of illustration, of speak¬
ing more to the understandings than to the heaits of his
auditors, and sometimes enervating his eloquence with
too frequent a use of divisions and subdivisions. But
even in subscribing to these criticisms, which are to a
certain extent well founded, it is impossible not to admire
the inexhaustible fecundity of his plans,—the happy ta¬
lent, velut imperatoria virtus, which he possessed, of dis¬
posing his reasonings in the order best calculated to com¬
mand victory,—the exact, constrictive logic with which
he excludes sophisms, contradictions, and paradoxes,——
the art with which he lays the foundations of our duty in
our interest,—and, finally, the inestimable secret of con¬
verting the details of manners and habits into so many
proofs" of his subject. Parallels have often been drawn
between Bourdaloue and Massillon; but the talents o
these great pulpit orators lay in different directions, and
they may therefore be more fitly contrasted than com-
pared. If Massillon is now read with a more lively inte¬
rest, he owes this advantage to the charms of his style ra¬
ther than to the force of his reasonings. Among the cri-
B O U
tics of the present day, the preference is unhesitatingly iL
given to the rival of Racine, to the painter of the heart, JJt
to the author of the discourse on the small number of the ^ x
elect; but if we consult the contemporaries of Massillon
himself, we shall find that they assign him only the se¬
cond rank. According to them, Bourdaloue preached to
the men of a vigorous and masculine age; Massillon to
those of a period remarkable for its effeminacy. Bourda¬
loue raised himself to the level of the great truths of re¬
ligion ; Massillon conformed himself to the weakness of
the men with whom he lived. Ihe bishop of Clermont
will always be read; but if the simple Jesuit could raise
his commanding voice from the tomb, and again roll forth
a majestic stream of divine truth, the courtly accents of
his rival would no longer be heard, and the charms of his
diction would be forgotten. Ihe first part ot his cele¬
brated Passion, in which he proves that the death of the
Son of God is the triumph of his power, has generally
been considered as the great masterpiece of Christian elo¬
quence. Bossuet has said nothing stronger or more elevat¬
ed. The second part, however, is inferior to the first, though,
considered by itself, alike beautiful and convincing.
The discourses of Bourdaloue have been described by
a celebrated French critic as embodying in them a com¬
plete course of theology. This is perhaps going a little
too far; but still their general merit is very great, and
for nothing are they more distinguished than their com¬
prehensiveness. As to the diction of this great preacher,
it is always natural, clear, and correct; sometimes de¬
ficient in animation, but without vacuity or languor, and
generally relieved by outbreakings of much force and
originality. With regard to his proofs, again, nothing
can be more irresistible, when he confines himself to the
exposition of the great doctrines and precepts of Chris¬
tianity. He generally promises to demonstrate, but he
does so because he is conscious of his strength; and he
never fails to keep his word. t! Au total, says the critic
above referred to, “ je croirais que Massillon vaut mieux
pour les gens du monde, et Bourdaloue pour les piedica-
teurs; 1’un attirera le monde a la religion, par tout ce
quelle a de douceur et de charmes; 1’autre eclairera et
affermira le Chretien dans sa foi, par tout ce quelle a de
plus haut en conception et de plus fort en appuis.” Two
editions of Bourdaloue’s works were published at Pans m
1707 and the years immediately following, by Pere Bre-
tonneau, a Jesuit; one in 14 volumes 8vo, and the other,
from which the editions of Rouen, Toulouse, and Amster¬
dam, were afterwards printed, in 15 volumes 12mo. The
works are distributed as follows, viz. 1- Deux Avents, pre-
die devant le Roi, 1 vol.; 2. Careme, 3 vols. 8vo, or 4 vols.
12mo ; 3. My stores, 2 vols.; 4. Fetes des Saints, Vetures,
Professiones, Oraisons Funebres, 2 vols.; 5. Doniinicales,
3 vols.; 6. Exhortations et Instructions Chretiennes, 2 vols.;
7. Retraite Spirituelle, 1 vol.; 8. Pensees, in 2 and in 3 vols.
In 1812, the Abbe Sicard published at Paris, in 8vo and
in 12mo, Sermons Inedits de Bourdaloue; and soon after
appeared the Versailles edition of the (Euvres de Bour¬
daloue in 16 volumes 8vo. (Vie de P. Bourdaloue, par
Madame de Pringy ; Esprit de Bourdaloue, par 1 Abbe de
la Porte ; and Biographic Universelle.') (Av
BOURDEAUX, an arrondissement in the department
of the Gironde, in France, extending over 1668 square
miles, and comprehending eighteen cantons and 153 com¬
munes, with a population of 222,268 persons. Ihe capita
is the city which gives its name to the arrondissement.
is the see of an archbishop, and situated in a broad plain,
in a circular form, on the left bank of the river Garonne,
about 45 miles from its mouth, oyer which is a bridge
3600 feet in length. It is a well-built city, and, since the
return of peace, its trade has flourished, while a great im-
B O U
•delot provcmcnt has taken place both in its extent and its beau-
S ty. Some of the streets are peculiarly striking, especially in
rget. the quarter called Chapeau Rouge, as well as several of the
^ public buildings, particularly the palace, the grand theatre,
the exchange, and the cathedral. As a place of commerce
it is superior to any other in France, and vessels sail to and
arrive from every part of the world. The chief articles
exported are wine, brandy, and liqueurs. It is also a
manufacturing city, and in it are large refineries of sugar,
snuff and tobacco mills, potteries, glass-houses, and other
branches of industry. As a sea-port, Bourdeaux possesses
between 300 and 400 ships, employed chiefly in the trade
with the colonies. The inhabitants are said to have in¬
creased so as now to amount to 100,000, besides the sol¬
diery. Long. 0. 40. 4. W. Lat. 44. 50. 14. N.
BOURDELOT, John, a learned French critic, who
lived at the close of the sixteenth and beginning of the
seventeenth centuries. He distinguished himself by an¬
notations on Lucian, Petronius, and Heliodorus ; a Uni¬
versal History ; Commentaries on Juvenal; a Treatise on
the Etymology of French words ; and several other works
which were never published. There was also an Abbe
Bourdelot, nephew of John, who changed his name from
Peter Michon to oblige his uncle. He was a celebrated
physician in Paris, and gained great reputation by a Trea¬
tise on the Viper, and other w'oi'ks. He died in 1685.
BOURDON, Sebastian, a painter, born at Montpelier
in 1616. He studied seven years at Rome, and acquired
so great a reputation, that, on his return to France, he was
appointed rector of the academy of painting in Paris, being
the first who held that office. He succeeded better in
landscapes than in history. His pieces are seldom finish¬
ed, and those which received his last touches are not al¬
ways the finest. The most esteemed of all his perform¬
ances is the martyrdom of St Peter, drawn for the church
of Notre Dame, and kept as one of the choicest rarities of
that cathedral. Bourdon was a Calvinist, and much valued
and respected, even in a Catholic country, because his
life and manners were unexceptionable. He died in 1673,
aged fifty-four.
BOURG, an arrondissement of the department of Ain, in
France, 672 square miles in extent, comprehending ten
cantons and 119 communes, with 111,927 inhabitants.
The capital, a city of the same name, on the river Rey-
souse, has several cotton manufactories and tanneries, and
7417 inhabitants. Long. 5. 8. E. Lat. 46. 12. N.
BOURGANEUF, an arrondissement of the department
of the Creuse, in France, comprehending four cantons
and forty-nine communes, with 33,249 inhabitants. Its
extent is 368 square miles. The chief place is a market-
town of the same name, containing 2150 inhabitants.
BOURGES, an arrondissement of the department of the
Cher, in France, extending over 942 square miles, con¬
taining ten cantons and 121 communes, with 89,594 inha¬
bitants. The chief place, a city of the same name, is si¬
tuated at the confluence of the rivers Aron and Evre. It
still retains the old Roman walls, and eighty lofty towers.
It is also the see of an archbishop, and, besides the ca¬
thedral, has sixteen churches, and several hospitals and
other charitable foundations. The inhabitants are 18,200.
Long. 17. 11. E. Lat. 47. 4. N.
BOURGET, Dom John, an ingenious French anti¬
quary, was born at the village of Beaumains, near Falaise,
in 1724. He was educated at the grammar school at Caen,
whence he was removed to the university of that place,
and there pursued his studies with great diligence and
success till 1745, when he became a Benedictine monk of
the abbey of St Martin de Seez. Some time after this he
was appointed prior claustral of this abbey, and continued
six years in that office. He was then nominated prior of
vol. v. -
B O U
153
Tiron en Perche; and being translated to the abbey of Bourgoing.
St Stephen at Caen, in the capacity of sub-prior, he ma-
naged the temporalities of that religious house during two
years, as he did their spiritualities for one year longer;
after which he resigned his office. His superiors, sensible
of his merit and learning, removed him to the abbey of Bee,
where he resided till 1764. He was elected an honorary
member of the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1765 ;
and the same year returned to the abbey of St Stephen
at Caen, where he continued till the time of his death.
These honourable offices, to which he was promoted on
account of his great abilities, enabled him not only to
pursue his favourite study of the history and antiquities of
the principal Benedictine abbeys in Normandy, but like¬
wise gave him access to all their charters, deeds, register-
books, and other documents. These he examined with
great care, and left behind him, in manuscript, large and
accurate accounts of the abbeys of St Peter de Jumieges,
St Stephen, and the Holy Trinity at Caen, founded by Wil¬
liam the Conqueror and his Queen Matilda, with a particular
history of the abbey of Bee, all written in French. The
History of the Royal Abbey of Bee, which he presented to
Dr Ducarel in 1764, is only an abstract of his larger
work. This ancient abbey, which has produced several
archbishops of Canterbury, and other prelates of England,
is frequently mentioned by our old historians. The death
of Bourget, which happened on new-year’s day 1776, was
occasioned by his unfortunate neglect of a hurt he had
received in his leg by falling down two or three steps in
going from the hall to the cloister of the abbey of St Ste¬
phen at Caen.
BOURGOING, John Francis de, was born of an an¬
cient family at Nevers, on the 20th November 1748. He
was educated at the military school of Paris, and devoted
himself particularly to the study of the languages. At the
age of seventeen he was sent by the government to Stras-
burg, where he studied public law under the celebrated
Professor Kugler. Having spent three years there, he
received a commission in the regiment of Auvergne.
When scarcely twenty, he was appointed secretary of
legation at the diet of Ratisbon; and after having been
employed during four years in the discharge of various
diplomatic functions, he returned to his regiment, where
he continued to occupy himself with the study of public
law. In 1777 he went as first secretary to M. de Mont-
morin, who was appointed ambassador to the court of
Madrid. Eight years afterwards, Montmorin having been
recalled, Bourgoing remained eighteen months at Ma¬
drid in the character of charge d’affaires. It was during
this long residence in Spain that he collected the mate¬
rials for his Tableau de TEspagne Moderne. On his return
to France in 1787, he was sent as minister plenipoten¬
tiary to Hamburg; and, in 1791, he went in a similar ca¬
pacity to Madrid, where he remained until the month of
March 1793. Having again returned to France during
the most troublesome period of the Revolution, he retired
t'i his native town, where for some time he filled the first
municipal office. The revolution of the 18th Brumaire
(10th November 1799) drew him at length from the bosom
of privacy. In 1801 the first consul appointed him minis¬
ter plenipotentiary at the court of Denmark, and after¬
wards at that of Sweden. In 1808 he was sent as minister
plenipotentiary to Saxony. At Dresden he was attacked
by the complaint which terminated his life ; and he died
at Carlsbad, whither he had repaired for the benefit of
the waters, on the 20th of July 1811, at the age of sixty-
three.
Bourgoing was a man of the most disinterested integri¬
ty ; and he died poor, although he had been employed in
various situations in which he might have found opportu-
u
154
B O U
Bour- nities of acquiring wealth. He left a family of five children,
guignons three sons and two daughters. The following is a list of
P his publications: 1. Nouveau Voyage in Espagne, ou Fa-
{>l£nu de I'etat actual de cette Monarchie, first published in
1789, 3 vols. 8vo. The fourth edition augmented, was
published under the title of Tableau de l Espagne Moderne,
in 1807, in 3 vols. 8vo, with an atlas. This is the best
known and most esteemed of his works, and has been
translated into various languages. 2. Memoires Histori-
ques et Philosophiques sur Pie VI. et sur son Pontificate,
2 vols. 8vo, 1798; second edition, 1800. Some prefer the
first edition of this work, although the second is continu¬
ed to the death of Pius VI. 3. Histoire des Flibustiers,
traduite de VAllemand de M. dArchenholtz, Paiis 1801,
8vo. 4. Histoire de XEmpereur Charlemagne, traduction
libre de VAllemand du Prof. Hegewisch, 1805, 8vo. 5. Cor¬
respondence dun jeune Militaire, ou Memoir es du Marquis
de Lusigny et d'Hortense de S. Just, 1178, 2 vols. 12mo.
Bourgoing translated some other works from the German,
and published several tracts of little importance. In 1808
he published an edition of the Travels of the Due du Cha-
telet in Portugal; and he was the editor of the Corre¬
spondence of Voltaire with Bernis. (K-)
BOURGUIGNONS, or Burgundians, one of the north¬
ern nations who overran the Roman empire, and at length
settled in Gaul. They were of great stature, and warlike
in their disposition ; for which reason the emperor Valen-
tinian engaged them in his service against the Germans.
They lived in tents, close to each other, that they might the
more readily unite in arms on any unforeseen attack ; and
these conjunctions they called burgs, which were to them
exactly what towns are to us. Sidonius Apollinaris tells us
that they wore long hair, took great pleasure in singing, and
were fond of praise for their vocal talents ; that they ate
enormous quantities, and anointed their hair with butter,
deeming that unction extremely ornamental. Their crown
was at first elective, and the authority of their kings ex¬
pired with the occasion that had produced it. They were
not only accountable for their own misconduct, but like¬
wise for the accidents of nature and the caprice of fortune ;
being deposed if they lost a battle, or if they succeeded
ill in any enterprise, or if any event did not correspond
with the expectations of the public. Nor were they more
favourably treated in case of a bad harvest or vintage, or
in the event of an epidemical distemper ravaging the state.
At first the Burgundians were governed by many kings,
and henden was the title of the royal dignity. But in lat¬
ter times they were subject to one sovereign, and became
humane and civilized, especially when Christianity was
propagated in their country. Before that epoch their
religion was much the same with that of the other north¬
ern nations. They had many priests, the chief of whom
was distinguished by the name of sinistrus. He was per¬
petual, and they paid him great respect and veneration.
BOUR1GNON, Antoinette, a famous female preach¬
er and pretended prophetess, was born at Lisle in 1616.
At her birth she was so deformed that it was debated
some days in the family whether it would not be propel
to stifle her as a monster; but her deformity diminish¬
ing she was spared, and afterwards attained such a modi-
cmn of beauty, or rather so far diminished in ugliness,
that she had her admirers. From her childhood to her old
ao-e she had an extraordinary turn of mind. She set up
as a reformer, and published a great number of books fill¬
ed with very singular notions; the most remarkable of
which are entitled The Light of the W orld, and I he Testi¬
mony of Truth. She was naturally an enemy to reason
and common sense, which she maintained ought to give
place to the illumination of divine faith ; and asserted, that
whenever any one was born again by embracing her doc-
B o U
trine, she felt the pains and throes of a woman in labour. Boui-
Of her pretended visions and revelations there have been ||
published many disgusting instances, which we shall not Bout
shock the reader by repeating. Besides these and other ^
extravagancies, she had some very repulsive qualities. Her
temper was morose and peevish, her cupidity excessive, her
character as a woman questionable, and her habits eccen¬
tric and unfeminine. She dressed like a hermit, and tra¬
velled through France, Flolland, England, and Scotland,
where she made a strong party of some thousand secta-
rists, known by the name of Eourignonists. She died at
Franeker in October 1680. Her principal works are,
1. Treatise on the Blindness of Men, and the Light bom
in Darkness ; 2. The New Heaven and the Reign of Anti¬
christ ; 3. A Treatise on the Solid Virtue ; 4. The Renew¬
al of the Evangelical Spirit; and, 5. Innocence recognised
and Truth discovered, addressed to the celebrated Ar-
nauld. This strange woman pretended that the true
church was extinct, and that God had commissioned her
to re-establish it. The object of her works was to guide
her followers to an imaginary perfection, and to make them
renounce all forms in favour of an interior and mystic wor¬
ship. Though possessed ofa considerable fortune, to which
she had succeeded, she never gave any thing to the poor,
on the pretence that they might make a bad use of her
liberality, and that the benefits we have received from God
ought only to be employed for his greatest glory; a strange
perversion of the charitable spirit of the gospel. Yet by
an absurd though not unfrequent inconsequence of con¬
duct, this woman bequeathed all her property to an hospi¬
tal. Her mind was lively and acute, her style easy, and
her eloquence seductive ; endowments which enabled her
to make, at different times, a considerable number of pro¬
selytes.
BOURNE, a market-towm of the hundred of Aveland,
in the county of Lincoln, 97 miles from London. It is
situated in a pleasant country, very productive in corn and
cattle; and is at the head of a fine stream, which runs to
Spalding. The market is held on Saturday. The inha¬
bitants amounted in 1801 to 1474, in 1811 to 1591, and
in 1821 to 2029.
BOURO, an island in the East Indian Ocean, between
the Moluccas and Celebes. It is well cultivated, and is
now subject to the Dutch, who have built a fortress there.
Some mountains in it are exceedingly high, and the sea
on one side is uncommonly deep. It produces nutmegs
and cloves, as well as cocoa and banana trees, besides
many vegetables introduced by the Dutch. It is about
50 miles in circumference. Long. 129. E. Lat. 4. 30. S.
BOUSSAC, an arrondissement of the department of
the Creuse, in France, extending over 370 square miles,
and comprehending four cantons and fifty-seven com¬
munes, with 32,439 inhabitants. The capital is a market-
town of the same name, at the junction of the rivers Be-
ron and Creuse. ;
BOUTS-RIMES, a popular term in the French poetry,
signifying certain rhymes, disposed in order, and given to
a poet, together with a subject, to be filled up with verses
ending in the same words, and in the same order. I he
invention of the bouts-rimes is ascribed to one Ducot, a
poet, in the year 1649. In fixing the bouts, it is usual to
choose such as seem the remotest, and have the least con¬
nection. Some good authors fancy that these rhymes are
of all others the easiest; that they assist the invention, and
furnish new thoughts. Sarrasin has a poem on the defeat
of the bouts-rimes. But the academy of Lanternists at
Toulouse contributed towards keeping in countenance the
bouts-rimes, by proposing annually a set of fourteen, to be
filled up on the glories of the Grand Monarque, and by ot-
fering a medal as the reward of the victorious sonneteer.
BOW
B O W
155
The following, filled up by Commire, is a specimen of these
conceits:
Tout est grand dans le rot, Vaspect seul de son buste
Rend nos Jiers ennemis plus froiis que des glaqons ;
Et Guillaume id attend que le terns des moissons,
Pour se voir succomber sous up bras si rpbuste,
Qu'on ne nous vante plus les miracles d' Auguste.
Eouis de lien r'egner lui feroit des leqons ;
Horace en vain regale anx dieux dans ses chansons;
Moins que mon Mr os il etoit sage et juste.
BOUTON. See Booton.
BOUZIERS, an arrondissement of the department of
the Ardertne, in France, extending over 519 square miles,
and comprehending eight cantons and 144 communes,
with 56,157 inhabitants. The chief place is the market-
town of the same name, on the banks of the river Aisne,
which here forms two islands. The inhabitants are only
about 1800.
BOVEY-TRACY, a market-town in the hundred of
Teignbridge and county of Devon, 188 miles from London.
It is remarkable for the production of a pipe-clay of great
value in the potteries, and for a peculiar kind of coal. A
court for the duchy of Lancaster is held here. The mar¬
ket is held on a Thursday. The inhabitants amounted in
1801 to 1431, in 1811 to 1485, and in 1821 to 1685.
BOW (arcus), a weapon of offence, made of wood, horn,
or other elastic matter, which, being strongly bent by
means of a string fastened to its two ends, throws out an
arrow with great force in suddenly recovering its natural
state. It is also called the long-bow, by way of distinction
from the cross-bow or arbalest.
The bow is the most ancient and the most universal
of all weapons. It has been found to obtain amongst the
most barbarous and remote tribes, and it is an invention
at once so obvious and so simple that no nation has miss¬
ed it.
The use of the bow and arrow was first abolished in
France under Louis XL and in their place were introdu¬
ced the Swiss arms, that is, the halberd, pike, and broad¬
sword. The long-bow was formerly in great vogue in Eng¬
land most of our victories in France were acquired by it,
and many laws were made to regulate and encourage its
use. The parliament under Henry VIIL complain “ of
the disuse of the long-bow, heretofore the safe-guard and
defence of this kingdom, and the dread and terror of its
enemies.”
The art of using bows is called archery, and those prac¬
tised therein are denominated archers or bowmen. See
Archery.
The strength of a bow may be calculated on this prin¬
ciple, that its spring, or the power whereby it restores
itself to its natural position, is always proportional to the
distance or space it is removed therefrom.
The most barbarous nations often excel in fabricating
those things which they have the greatest necessity for
in the common offices of life. The Laplanders, who sup¬
port themselves almost entirely by hunting, have an art of
making bows which we, in these more genial parts of the
world, never arrived at. Their bow is constructed of two
pieces of tough and strong wood, shaved down to the same
size, and flattened on each side; the two flat sides of the
pieces being brought closely and evenly together, and then
joined by means of a glue made of the skins of perch,
which they make superior in strength to ours. The two
pieces, when once united in this manner, never separate,
and the bow is of much more force to expel the arrow
than it could possibly have been under the same dimen¬
sions if formed only of one piece.
Among the ancients, the bow-string was made of horse
hair, and hence called km/ce; though Homer’s bow-strings
were frequently made of hides cut into small thongs,
whence ro£a (3ona. The uppermost part of the bow, to Bow
which the string was fastened, was called xogcowi, being com- II
monly made of gold, and the last thing towards finishing ^ow
the bow. The Grecian bow<s were frequently beautified h'an<'
with gold or silver, whence aurei arcus, and the epithet of 1
Agyugorogog bestowed on Apollo. But the matter of which
they we're ordinarily composed seems to have been wood,
although they were anciently, Scythian-like, made of horn,
as appears from the description of the bow of Pandarus in
Homer.
The invention of the bow is usually ascribed to Apollo,
and it was communicated to the primitive inhabitants of
Crete, who are said to have been the first of mortals that
understood the use of bows and arrows. Accordingly,
even in later'ages, the Cretan bows were famous, and pre¬
ferred by the Greeks to all others. Some, however, pre¬
ferred to honour Perses, the son of Perseus, as the inven¬
tor of the bow; while others ascribe it to Scythus, son of
Jupiter, and progenitor of the Scythians, who were excel¬
lent in this art, and by many reputed the first masters of
it. From them it was derived by the Grecians, some of
whose ancient nobility were instructed by the Seythians
in the use of the bow, which in those days passed for a
most princely education. It was first introduced into the
Roman army during the second Punic war.
The Scythian bow was famous for its incurvation, which
distinguished it from the bows of Greece and other nations,
being so great as to form a half moon or semicircle; and
hence the shepherd in Athenaeus, describing the letters in
Theseus’s name, and expressing each of them by some ap¬
posite resemblance, compares the third to the Scythian
bow, meaning not the more modern character 2, but the
ancient C, which is semicircular, and bears the third place
in the name of the hero, ©HCEVC, as spelt in ancient
Greek.
Cross-Bow is also called arbalest or arbalet, which word
is derived from arbalista, or rather arcubalista, “ a bow
with a sling.” The arbalet consists of a steel bow set in
a shaft of wood, furnished with a string and a trigger; and
it is bent with a piece of iron fitted for that purpose. It
serves to project bullets, large arrows, darts, and other mis¬
siles. The ancients had large machines for throwing many
arrows at once, called arbalets or balistce.
Bow, in Ship-Building. See Ship-Building.
Bow-Net or Bow-wheel, an engine for catching fish,
chiefly lobsters and craw-fish. It is made of two round
wicker baskets, pointed at the end, one of which is thrust
into the other; while at the mouth is a little rim, four or
five inches broad, and bent somewhat inwards. It is also
used for catching sparrows.
Bow-Line or Bowling, a rope fastened near the middle
of the leech, or perpendicular edge of the square sails, by
three or four subordinate parts called bridles. It is only
used when the wind is so unfavourable that the sails must
be all braced sideways, or close hauled to the wind. In
this situation the bow-lines are employed to keep the wea¬
ther or windward edges of the principal sails tight, for¬
ward, and steady, without which they would always be
shivering, and rendered incapable of service. To check the
bow-line is to slacken it when the wind becomes large.
Bow-Pieces are the pieces of ordnance at the bow of
a ship.
Bow-Bearer, an inferior officer of the forest, who is
sworn to make inquisition of all trespasses against vert or
venison, and to attach offenders.
BOW ISLAND, in the South Pacific Ocean, is situated
towards the eastern extremity of the Society Isles. It is
a low-lying island, about ten or twelve leagues in compass,
and has the extraordinary figure of a bow. Long. 141.
12. W. Lat. 18. 23. S. mi lavfaod
156 B O W
BOW
Bower
II
Bowver.
BOWER, in Gardening, a place under covert of trees,
differing only from an arbour as being round or square,
and made with a kind of dome or ceiling at top, whereas
the arbour is always built long and arched.
BOWL denotes either a ball of wood for the use of
bowling, or a vessel of capacity to contain liquors.
BOWLDER Stoxes, small stones of a roundish figure,
and no determinate size, found on the sea-shore, and on
banks, or rather channels, of rivers.
BOWLING, the art of playing at bowls. This game is
practised either in open places, as bares and bowling-greens,
or in close bowling-alleys.
The skill of bowling depends much on a knowledge of
the ground, and the right choice of a suitable bowl; as for
close alleys the flat bowl, while for green swards, plain and
level, the bowl as round as a ball is preferred.
The terms used in bowling are, to boivl wide, which is
when the bias does not hold, or is not strong enough;
narrotc, when it is too strong or holds too much; Jinehj
bowled, is when the ground is well chosen, and the bowl
passes near the block, even though it goes much beyond
it; bowling through, or a yard over, is done in order to
move the block ; an over-bow^ is that 'which goes beyond it;
a bowl laid at hand, is that put down within the gamester's
reach to be in the wray of the next bowler, and hinder his
having the advantage of the best ground; bowling at
length, is neither bowling through nor short; a dead length,
is a just or exact one ; throwing or flinging, is discharging a
bowl with a strength purposely too great for a length, in
order to carry off either the block or some near bowl;
bold-room, or missing icood, is when a bowl has free pas¬
sage without striking on any other; get off, is when a bowl,
being narrow, is wanted to be wider; bowl best at block, is
that nearest the block ; and drawing a cast or bowl, is to win
it by bowling nearer without stirring either the bowl or
block. A bowl is said to rub when it meets with some ob¬
stacle in the ground which retards its motion and weakens
its force ; and it is gone when far beyond the block. Block
signifies a littlebowl laid for a mark, and is also called ajack.
Mark is a proper bowling distance, not under so many
vards, and being at least a yard and a half from the edge
of the green ; ground, is a bag or handkerchief laid down
to mark where a bowl is to go; lead is the advantage of
throwing the block and bowling first; cast, is one best
bowl at an end; and end, is a hit, or when all the bowls
are out. The game, or up, is five casts or best bowls.
Bowlisg- Green, in Gardening, a kind of parterre in a
grove, laid with fine turf, requiring to be frequently mow¬
ed, and laid out in compartments of divers figures, with
dwarf-trees and other decorations. Bowling-greens are of
English origin, but have been adopted by the French and
Italians, who have them only for ornament, being unac¬
quainted with or not fancying the exercise, on account of
which they were first made in England.
BOWSPRIT, or Boltsprit, a kind of mast, resting
slope wise on the head of the main stern, and having its
lower end fastened to the partners of the fore-mast, and
further supported by the fore-stay. It carries the sprit-
sail, sprit-top-sail, and jack-staff; and its length is usually
the same with that of the fore-mast.
BOWYER, William, the most learned printer of his
a^e, was born at W hitefriars, in London, on the 1 ith De¬
cember 1699. His father, whose name was also William,
had been eminent in the same profession; and his mater¬
nal grandfather, Icabod Dawks, was employed in printing
the celebrated Polyglot Bible of Bishop \\ alton. At a
proper age he was placed for grammatical education under
the care of Mr Ambrose Bonwicke, a nonjuring clergyman
of piety and learning, who then lived at Deadly, near
Leatherhead, in Surrey. Here Mr Bowyer made great pro¬
gress in literature, and a firm attachment commenced be- Bcwv
twixt him and his master. On the 30th of January 1713
the whole property of the elder Mr Bowyer was destroyed
by fire, on which occasion Mr Bonwicke generously un¬
dertook the education of his pupil for a year. In 1716
young Mr Bowyer was admitted a sizar at St John’s Col¬
lege, Cambridge, where Dr Robert Jenkin was at that
time master, lie continued at the college under the tui¬
tion of the reverend Dr John Newcombe till June 1722,
during which period he probably took his degree of bache¬
lor of arts; and he appears to have been desirous of obtain¬
ing a fellowship, though it is not certain that he ever stood
a candidate for that honour. Soon after this he had an
opportunity of repaying the kindness which Mr Bonwicke
had shown him, by officiating some time after his death in
the capacity of schoolmaster for the benefit of his family,
Mr Bowyer now entered into the printing business
along with his father. One of the first books which re¬
ceived the benefit of his correction was the complete edi¬
tion of Selden, in three volumes folio, by Dr David Wil¬
kins. This edition was begun in 1722, and finished in
1726; and Mr Bowyer’s great attention to it appeared in
his drawing up an epitome of Selden de Synedriis, as he
read the proof sheets. In 1727 he drew up an excellent
sketch of William Baxter’s Glossary of Roman Antiqui¬
ties, called “ A view of a book entitled Reliquice Baxteriana,
in a letter to a friend.” By this first public proof of Mr
Bowyer’s abilities, Dr Wotton and Mr Clarke were highly
pleased; but as it vras never published, and a very few
copies printed, it is seldom found with the glossary. In
1727 Mr Bowyer lost his mother. In October 1728 he
married Miss Ann Prudom, his mother’s niece, a very ac¬
complished lady, by whom he had two sons, W illiam and
Thomas; the former of whom died in nonage, and the
latter survived his father. In 1729 Mr Bowyer published
a treatise, entitled “ A Pattern for young Students in the
University, set forth in the Life ot Ambrose Bonwicke,
some time scholar of St John s College, Cambridge; but
although this treatise was generally ascribed to Mr Bow¬
yer, it w as in reality the production of Mr Ambrose Bon¬
wicke the elder. About this time Mr Bowyer appears to
have written a pamphlet against the Separatists, though
neither the title nor the occasion of it are now remember¬
ed. The same year, through the friendship of the Right
Honourable Arthur Onslow, he was appointed printer of
the votes of the House of Commons ; which office he held
under three successive' Speakers for near fifty years. In
1731 Mr Bowyer published, and, it is believed, translated,
Voltaire’s Life of Charles XII. This year also his wife
died. He remained a widower till 1747, when he married
a very benevolent and worthy woman, Mrs Elizabeth Bill?
by whom he had no children. In 1733 he published a
piece in two sheets 4to, entitled “ The Beau and the Aca¬
demic,” being a translation from a Latin poem recited that
year at the Sheldonian theatre; and in 1736 he was ad¬
mitted into the Society of Antiquaries, where he became
an active and useful member. In 1737 Mr Bowyer lost
his father. In 1742 he published a translation of Trapp s
Latin Lectures on Poetry, in which he was assisted by Mr
Clarke, though the latter had a contemptible opinion ot
the performance.
In 1749 Mr Bowyer, along with Dr Burton, was viru¬
lently attacked by Dr King, in a piece entitled FJoguon
famce inserviens Jacci Etonensis sive Gigantis, or the
"praises of Jack Eaton, commonly called Jack the Giant.
This abuse was probably occasioned by Mr Bowyer s ha¬
ving hinted in conversation some doubts concerning the
doctor’s skill in Latin. He, however, drew up some stric¬
tures in his own defence, which he intended to insert a
the end of a preface to Montesquieu’s Reflections; but bj
r
BOW
?r. Mr Clarke’s advice they were omitted. In 1750 a prefa-
tory critical dissertation and some notes were annexed by
our author to Kuster’s Treatise De usu Verborum medio-
rum; a new edition of which, with further improvements,
appeared in 1773. He likewise wrote, about the same
time, a Latin preface to Leede’s Veteres Poetce citati. Be¬
ing soon after employed to print an edition of Colonel
Bladen’s translation of Caesar’s Commentaries, that work
received considerable improvements from Mr Bowyer’s
hands, with the addition of notes signed Typogr. In the
subsequent editions of this work, though printed by ano¬
ther person during Mr Bowyer’s lifetime, the same signa¬
ture was unjustly retained. In 1751 he wrote a long pre¬
face to Montesquieu’s Reflections on the Rise and Fall
of the Roman Empire; translated the dialogue between
Sylla and Socrates; and made several corrections on the
work from the Baron’s Spirit of Laws, improving it with
notes of his own. A new edition, with many new notes,
was printed in 1759. In 1751 he also published a trans¬
lation of Rousseau’s paradoxical oration, which gained the
prize at the academy of Dijon in 1750, and first announced
that singular genius to the attention and admiration of
Europe. On the publication of the third edition of Lord
Orrery’s Remarks on the Life and Writings of Dr Swift,
in 1752, Mr Bowyer wrote and printed, but never publish¬
ed, “ Two Letters from Dr Bentley in the Shades below,
to Lord Orrery in a Land of Thick Darkness.” The notes
signed B, in the ninth quarto volume of Swift’s works, are
extracted from these letters. In 1753 he endeavoured to
allay the ferment occasioned by the Jews’ Bill; and with
this view he published, in quarto, “ Remarks on the Speech
made in Common Council, on the Bill for permitting per¬
sons professing the Jewish religion to be naturalized, so
far as prophecies are supposed to be affected by it.” This
little tract was written with spirit, and well received by
those who were superior to narrow prejudices. Its design
was to show, that, whatever political reasons might be al¬
leged against the bill, Christianity was in no danger of
being prejudiced by the protection promised to the Jews.
The same year some of Mr Bowyer’s notes were annexed
to Bishop Claton’s translation of “ A Journal from Grand
Cairo to Mount Sinai and back again.” In 1754i Mr Bow¬
yer, with a view of lessening his fatigue, entered into part¬
nership with a relation ; but some disagreement arising,
the connection was dissolved in three years. On the
death of Mr Richardson in 1761, Mr Bowyer succeeded
him as printer to the Royal Society, through the favour
of the Earl of Macclesfield ; and, under the friendship of
five successive presidents, he enjoyed that office till his
death.
In 1763 Mr Bowyer published an excellent edition of
the Greek Testament, in two vols. 12mo. It appeared un¬
der the following title: Novum Testamentum Grcecum ; ad
fidem Grcecorum solum Codicum MSS. nunc primum im-
pressum, adstipulante Joanne Jacobo Wetstenio, juxta Sec-
tiones Jo. Alberti Bengelii division; et nova interpretatione
swpius ittustratum: Accessere in altero volumine, Emenda-
tiones Conjecturales virorum doctorum undecunque collectce.
This sold with great rapidity. The Conjectural Emenda¬
tions were well received by the learned, and are thought
to be a valuable work. The president and fellows of
Havard College in Cambridge expressed their approbation
of this edition in very high terms, in a letter to Mr Bow¬
yer, w’ritten in the year 1767. “ This work,” say they,
“ though small in bulk, we esteem as a rich treasure of
sacred learning, and of more value than many large vo¬
lumes of the commentators.” A second edition of the
Conjectures on the New Testament, with very consider¬
able enlargements, was separately published in one volume
o'o in 1772. Bishop Warburton having censured a pas-
B O W 157
sage in the former edition, Mr Bowyer sent him a copy Bowyer.
of this book, with a conciliatory letter. Dr Warburton’s
Divine Legation had received very considerable advantage
from Mr Bowyer’s corrections, and this even in an edition
which was necessarily given to another press. In 1761 he
was employed to print his lordship’s Doctrine of Grace.
A second edition being soon wanted, and Mr Bowyer not
having been intrusted with the care of it, he prepared a
series of letters to the bishop in his own defence; and of
these, together with a few he had formerly received from
that great writer, he afterwards printed twelve copies, of
which ten were subsequently destroyed. However, there is
the best authority for asserting, that notwithstanding any
little altercations which happened, Dr Warburton always
retained a sincere regard for our typographer. In 1765,
at the request of Thomas Hollis, Esq. Mr Bowyer wrote
a short Latin preface to Dr Wallis’s Grammaticce Linguce
Anglicance. He wrote also a large English preface for
the same work, which, however, was not printed. In 1766
he entered into partnership with Mr Nichols, who had
been trained by him to the profession, and had for several
years assisted him in the management of his business.
The same year Mr Bowyer wrote a Latin preface to Jo-
annis Harduini, Jesuitce, ad Censuram Scriptorum veterum
Prolegomena. In 1767 he was appointed to print the jour¬
nals of the House of Lords and the rolls of Parliament.
This year he printed Mr Clarke’s excellent and learned
work on The Connection of the Roman, Saxon, and Eng¬
lish Coins, and wrote some notes upon it, which are inter¬
spersed throughout the volume with those of the author.
Part of the Dissertation on the Roman sesterce was like¬
wise Mr Bowyer’s production ; and the index, which is an
uncommonly good one, was drawn up by him entirely.
In January 1771 Mr Bowyer lost his second wife. In
the Philosophical Transactions of this year was printed a
very ingenious Inquiry into the Value of the ancient Greek
and Roman Money, by Mr Matthew Raper. But his opi¬
nions not coinciding with those of Mr Bowyer, the latter
printed a small pamphlet, entitled Remarks oceccsioned by
a late Dissertation on the Greek and Roman Money. In
1773 three little tracts were published by him, under
the title of Select Discourses, treating, 1. Of the corre¬
spondence of the Hebrew months with the Julian, from
the Latin of Professor Michaelis ; 2. Of the Sabbatical
years, from the same ; 3. Of the years of Jubilee, from an
anonymous writer in Masson’s Histoire Critique de la Re-
publique des Lettres. In 1774 he corrected a new' edition
of Schrevelius’s Greek Lexicon; to which he added a
number of words, which he himself had collected in the
course of his studies. Considerable manuscript additions
were also made by him to the lexicons of Hederic and
Buxtorf, the Latin ones of Faber and Littleton, and the
English Dictionary of Bailey; and he left behind him
many other proofs of his critical skill in the learned lan¬
guages. In 1774 wras published The Origin of Printing,
in two Essays. The original idea of this valuable tract
was Mr Bowyer’s, but it was completed by Mr Nichols.
Although our author, during the last ten years of his
life, had been afflicted with the palsy and stone, he not
only preserved a remarkable cheerfulness of temper, but
was enabled to support the labour of almost incessant
reading; and he regularly corrected the learned works,
especially the Greek books, which came from his press.
This he continued to do till within a few weeks of his
death, which happened in November 1777, when he had
nearly completed his seventy-eighth year. For more than
half a century Mr Bowyer was unrivalled as a learned
printer, and many of the most masterly productions of
this kingdom issued from his press. To his literary and
professional abilities he added an excellent moral charac-
158
BOX
Boxing.
Bowjevs ter; and he was particularly distinguished by his inflexi¬
ble probity, and an uncommon alacrity in relieving the
necessitous.
BOWYERS, artificers whose business is to make bows ;
in which sense bowyers are distinguished from fletchers,
who made arrows. The bowyers’ company in London was
incorporated in 1820.
BOX, in its most common acceptation, denotes a small
chest or coffer for containing articles.
Dice-Box, a narrow deep cornet, channelled within, by
which the dice are shaken and thrown. This answers to
what the Romans called fritillus. Besides the fritil/us,
the Romans, for greater security, had another kind of dice-
box called pyrgus, vv^/og, and sometimes turricula. It was
placed immovably in the middle of the table, being perfo¬
rated or open at both ends, and likewise channelled with¬
in ; and over the top was fixed a kind of funnel, into which
the dice were cast out upon the fritillus, and, descend¬
ing, fell through the bottom on the table; by which all
practising on them with the fingers was effectually pre-
-vented.
BOXERS, a kind of athlete, who combat or contend
for victory with their fists. Boxers are the same as the
pugiles among the Romans. The ancient boxers battled
with great force and fury, so as to dash out each other s
teeth, break bones, and sometimes to kill each other.
The disfigurements which the boxers underwent were such
that they frequently could not be known, and were thus
rendered the subject of many railleries. In the Greek
Anthology there are four epigrams of the poet Lucilius,
and one of Lucian, in which their disfigurements are plea¬
santly enough exposed.
BOXHORNIUS, Marc Zuerius, a learned critic, born
at Bergen-op-Zoom in 1612, was professor of eloquence at
Leyden, and at length of politics and history in the room
of Heinsius. He published, 1. Theatrum urbium Hollan-
dte, Amsterdam, 1632; 2. Scriptures historte Auguste,
cum notis, Leyden, 1632; 3. Poete satyrici minores, cum
commentis, 1632; 4. Notes on Justin, Tacitus; and a great
number of other works. He died in 1653, aged forty-one.
BOXING, the exercise of fighting with the fists, either
naked or with a stone or leaden ball grasped in them. In
this sense boxing coincides with the pugillatus of the Ro¬
mans. When the champions had <s<pcugcu, or balls, whether
of lead or stone, it was properly denominated ff^a/go/xa^/a.
The ancient boxing differed from the pugna ccestuum, in
which the combatants had leathern thongs on their hands,
and balls to offend their antagonists withal; though this
distinction is frequently overlooked, and fighting with the
ccestus ranked as part of the business of ptigiles. Three
species of boxing may be distinguished, namely, where
both the head and hands were naked; where the hands
were armed and the head naked; and where the head
was covered with a kind of cap, called amphotides, and
the hands also furnished with the ccestus.
Boxing is an ancient exercise, having been in use in the
heroic ages. Those who prepared themselves for it used
all the means that could be contrived to render themselves
fat and fleshy, that they might be the better able to en¬
dure blows. Hence corpulent men or w'omen w^ere usually
BOY
called pugiles, according to Terence. Siqua est habilior Bos:
paulo, pugilem esse aiunt. ||
Boxing, among sailors, is used to denote the rehears- v
ing the several points of the compass in their proper order.
Boxing is also used for the tapping of a tree, to make
it yield its juice. The boxing of maple is.performed by
making a hole wfith an axe or chisel in the side of the tree,
about a foot from the ground, that the liquor of which su¬
gar is made may flow out through it.
BOYAR, a term used for a grandee of Transylvania,
Wallachia, or Moldavia.
BOYAU, in Fortification, a ditch covered with a para¬
pet, which serves as a communication between two prin¬
cipal trenches.
BOYCE, Hector, a distinguished historian, was bom
at Dundee about the year 1465, being descended of a fami¬
ly which for several generations had possessed the barony
of Panbride or Balbride. The orthography of his sur¬
name is extremely fluctuating ; it is to be found under the
various modifications of Boece, Boeth, Boeis, Boys, Boyse,
Boyes, Boyis, Boiss, and Boyce. The first of these, we
strongly suspect, was never a name belonging to any liv¬
ing man in Scotland: it was formed by the French from
the name of the latest Roman classic, and on that account
appears to have been adopted by Bellenden in his transla¬
tion of the history. The real Scotish name is a mono¬
syllable; and we adhere to the orthography of Boyce, as
being most common in our owm time. He received the first
rudiments of learning at Dundee, and completed his course
of study in the university of Paris, where he took the de¬
gree of B. D. He was appointed a professor of philoso¬
phy in the College of Montaigu; and in this seminary he
became intimately acquainted with Erasmus, who in two
epistles has testified his esteem for Boyce’s character.1
In his academical station he had already distinguished
himself by his talents and attainments, when King’s Col¬
lege was founded at Aberdeen by the munificence ot
William Elphinstone, bishop of the diocese. The papal
bull for the erection of a university had been obtained in
the year 1494, but the buildings were not sufficiently ad¬
vanced, nor did the lectures commence, till about the year
1500. It w7as not without some degree of hesitation that
he consented to quit the lettered society of Paris, and to
become principal of this new college ; but having at length
accepted the conditions, he proceeded to Aberdeen, and
experienced a kind reception from the canons of the ca¬
thedral, several of whom he has commemorated as men
of learning. It was a part of his duty as principal to read
lectures on divinity. The sub-principal was his friend
William Hay, a native of the same county, who had been
his fellow-student at Dundee and at Paris, and who at
length succeeded him as head of the college.2 The prin¬
cipal's brother, Arthur Boyce, doctor of the canon, and
licentiate of the civil law, was appointed professor of fltf
canon law, and afterwards became a judge of the court ot
session.3 The common branches of science and literature
were taught with zeal and success ; and the prosperity of
the institution w'as greatly promoted by the talents and by
the reputation of Boyce.
The emoluments of his office were not such as appea1
i Erasmi Opera, tom. i. tom. iii. col. 1784, edit. Clerici.-The first of these epistles introduces a catalogue of his own writing*.
Here his learned correspondent is named Hector Boeotius, nor has Dr Jortin subjoined his more common appellation. {Life of Er
In^Orem's ^Description of King's College, Aberdeen, p. 154-7, he is erroneously called William Gray. _ in
3 Bovce has mentioned his brother in very favourable terms : “ Arthurus Boetius, mihi germanus, in pontificio jur ’
civico (ut dicunt) licentiatus, vir multse doctrinse, plus Uterarum indies consecuturus, ^
biscum jura pie et scite profitetur. Est in eo vis et gravitas eloquendi, a vulgan gen p • (
Episcoporum Viice, p. 63. edit. Edinb. 1825, 4to.)
BOYCE.
B «. very dazzling to modern eyes. “ Boethius, as president of
the university,” says Dr Johnson, “ enjoyed a revenue of
forty Scottish marks, about two pounds four shillings and
sixpence of sterling money. In the present age of trade
and taxes, it is difficult even for the imagination so to
raise the value of money, or so to diminish the demands
of life, as to suppose four and forty shillings a year an
honourable stipend; yet it was probably equal, not only
to the needs, but to the rank of Boethius. The wealth of
England was undoubtedly to that of Scotland more than
five to one, and it is known that Henry the Eighth, among
whose faults avarice was never reckoned, granted to Roger
Ascham, as a reward of his learning, a pension of ten
pounds a year.”1 But it is necessary to recollect that this
was not the only preferment which Boyce enjoyed: he
was not only principal of King’s College, but was likewise
a canon of Aberdeen, and rector of Tyrie in the same
county. Under the date of July 14, 1527, we find a
<( grant to Maister Hector” of an annual pension of fifty
pounds, to be paid by the sheriff of Aberdeen out of the
king’s casualties. And on the 26th of July 1529 was issued
a “ precept for a lettre to Mr Hector Boys, professor of
theology, of a pension of L.50 Scots yearly, until the king
promote him to a benefice of 100 marks Scots of yearly
value; the said pension to be paid him by the customers
of Aberdeen.” In 1533 and 1534, one half of his pension
was however paid by the king’s treasurer, and the other
half by the comptroller; and as no payment subsequent
to that of Whitsuntide 1534 has been traced in the trea¬
surer’s accompts, he is supposed to have obtained his be¬
nefice soon after that period.2
His earliest publication, the lives of the bishops of Aber¬
deen, appeared under the subsequent title: “ Episcopo-
rum Murthlacensium et Aberdonensium per Hectorem
Boetium Vitae.” Impressa sunt hcec prelo Ascensiano, ad
Idus Maias anno Salutis M.D.XXII. 4to. This little
volume, which is of great rarity, was lately reprinted, for
the members of the Bannatyne Club. “ Hectoris Boetii
Murthlacensium et Aberdonensium Episcoporum Vitae,
iterum in lucem editae.” Edinb. 1825, 4to. Of the bishops
of this diocese the seat was originally at Murthlack, in
the county of Banff, but it was afterwards transferred to
Aberdeen. His notices of the early prelates are neces¬
sarily brief and unsatisfactory, and the most interesting
portion of the book is that which relates to his liberal
patron Bishop Elphinstone ; of whose private history and
public services he has given a circumstantial detail, which
occupies nearly one third of the volume. Here we like¬
wise find an account of the foundation and constitution of
the college, together with some notices of its earliest
members.
His more famous work, the history of Scotland, was
published after an interval of five years : “ Scotorum His-
tonas a prima gentis origine, cum aliarum et rerum et gen¬
tium illustratione non vulgari: pramiissa epistola nuncu-
159
patoria, tabellisque amplissimis, et non pcenitenda Isagoge, Boyce,
quae ab hujus tergo explicabutur diffusius. Quae omnia
impressa quidem sunt lodoci Badii Ascensii typis et opera;
impensis autem nobilis et praedocti viri Hectoris Boethii
Deidonani, a quo sunt et condita et edita.” Fol. The
title and colophon have no date, but the commendatory
epistle by Alexander Lyon, precentor of the cathedral of
Elgin, bears the fifteenth of March 1527. This edition
contains seventeen books. Another edition, containing the
eighteenth book and a fragment of the nineteenth, was pub¬
lished by Ferrerius, w ho has added an appendix of thirty-
five pages.3 Paris. 1574, fol. Though published at Paris,
the latter edition appears from the colophon to have been
printed at Lausanne.
The composition of Boyce’s history displays much ta¬
lent ; and if the style does not always reach the standard
of ancient purity, it displays a certain vein of elegance,
which generally renders it attractive. The author’s love of
his native country, and his anxiety to emblazon the heroic
deeds of his countrymen, are conspicuous in every part of
the wmrk; nor must we leave unnoticed those aspirations
after political freedom, by which he was honourably distin¬
guished at a period when the human mind was so general¬
ly chained to the earth by the most slavish maxims of sub¬
mission. It may be recorded as commendation, instead of
reproach, that his principles of polity have been represent¬
ed as no better than those of Buchanan. Boyce’s imagi¬
nation was howrever stronger than his judgment: of the
extent of the historian’s credulity, his narrative exhibits
many unequivocal proofs ; and if this circumstance admits
of a sufficient excuse from the common propensity of the
age in which he lived, his wrork presents strong indications
of another fault, for which it is not so easy to find an apo¬
logy. According to Bishop Lloyd, he put Fordun’s tales
“ into the form of an history, and pieced them out with a
very good invention, that part in which he chiefly excel¬
led.”4 He professes to have obtained from the monastery
of Icolmkill, through the good offices of the earl of Argyle
and his brother the treasurer, certain original historians
of Scotland, and among the rest Veremundus and Camp¬
bell, of whose writings not a single vestige is now to be
found. In his dedication to the king, he is pleased to
state that Veremundus, a Spaniard by birth, was archdea¬
con of St Andrew’s, and that he wrote in Latin a history
of Scotland from the origin of the nation to the reign of
Malcolm the Third, to whom he inscribed his work. Ac¬
cording to Bishop Stillingfleet, whose opinion has been
adopted by many other writers, these historians never ex¬
isted except in Boyce’s fertile imagination.5 From the
charge of downright fabrication he has very recently been
vindicated by Mr Maitland; but notwithstanding the in¬
genuity of the defence, wre find it extremely difficult to
divest ourselves of a strong impression, that the historian’s
account of his original materials, if not destitute of truth,
is at least destitute of verisimilitude. His propensity to
Johnson’s Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland, p. 29. Lond. 1775, 8vo.
Maitland’s Biographical Introduction to Bellenden, p. xxiii.
3 Joannes Ferrerius, a native of Piedmont, resided for several years in Scotland under the patronage of Robert Reid, abbot of
inloss, and afterwards bishop of Orkney. In the dedication of one of his works to this prelate, he mentions Hector and Arthur
ovce, together with several other scholars of Aberdeen. “ Aberdoniis rector a Kynkell, homo studiosus et politicus, me semper
ompiexus est humanissime. Idem fecit Hector ille Boethius, historiarum vestrarum scriptor nunquam satis laudatus; ut interim
nnttam Arthurum Boethii fratrem germanum, utriusque juris peritissimum, Gulielmum Haye, theologum syncerum, ac Jacobum
hivwu-Cf oc?-ore m*dico peritissimo Roberto Gray. Adde his Joannem Vaus, virum cum literis turn moribus ornatissimum, et de
jw entute Scotica bene meritum.” (Auditum Visu prsestare, contra vulgatum Aristotelis Placitum, academica Johannis Ferrerii Pe-
Amii aiV H1SSCTtalio- Paris. 1539, 4to.) With respect to his literary character, see Lord Hailes’s Examination of some of the
torv 'fTvT ku t ie high Antiquity of Regiam Majestatem, p. 20. Edinb. 1769, 4to. Among various other works, he wrote a his-
aJ 1 liie ahbots of Kinloss, which is printed, though not without abbreviation, in Martene and Durand’s Veterum Scrivtorum et
Monumcntorum Collectio, tom. vi.
i s Historical Account of Church Government in Great Britain and Ireland, pref.
otillingfleet’s Antiquities of the British Churches, p. 255.
160
Boyce.
BOY
the marvellous1 was at an early period exposed in the fol¬
lowing tetrastich ‘of Leland, which Dempster has erro¬
neously ascribed to Humphrey Lhuyd :2
Hectoris historici tot quot mendacia scripsit,
Si vis ut numerem, lector amice, tibi,
Me jubeas etiam fluctus numerare marinos,
Et liquid! Stellas conuumerare poll.3
Lhuyd, who attacked him in different works, spoke of
his fabrications without management or scruple ; nor did
he experience much better treatment from Stamhurst, an
Irish writer of considerable reputation.5 Of his merits as
an historian, a very unfavourable estimate has more re¬
cently been formed by Lord Hailes and Mr Pinkerton.
But, in the opinion of Mr Wallace, a learned lawyer, his
« elegant style and correct composition, not to add beau¬
tiful genius and fine fancy, are conclusive proofs that his
understanding could not be inaccurate.”® And, as Mr
Maitland has remarked, “ in forming a final estimate ol
the literary character of Boece, we must bear in mind,
that when scholar-craft, in this country at least, was raie,
he was a scholar, and contributed, by reviving ancient
learning, to dispel the gloom of the middle ages ; and that,
wdiile the history of his country existed only m the rude
pao'e of the chroniclers who preceded him, or in the fading
records of oral tradition, he embodied it in narrative so
interesting, and language so beautiful, as to be worthy of
a more refined age.”7 , „ . ,
Boyce’s history of Scotland was translated into the ^cotisu
language by John Bellenden, archdeacon of Moray and
canon of Ross, of whom we have already presented our rea¬
ders with a copious notice. While the learned archdeacon
was engaged in translating the work into prose, another in¬
dividual was engaged in the more formidable task of trans¬
lating it into verse. A copy of this metrical version, con¬
taining about 70,000 lines, is preserved in the library of the
university of Cambridge : a leaf seems to be wanting at the
beginning, and the manuscript has suffered some other
mutilations. The name of the versifier does not appear,
nor has it been ascertained from any other document; but
we learn from the prologue, that his labours, like those of
Bellenden, were intended for the benefit of the young
monarch. From the concluding lines, it is ascertained
that he began his task in April 1531, and concluded it
in September 1535. His verses are not distinguished
by any considerable degree of energy or elegance, and
the writer is chiefly to be commended for his perseverance.
The prologue, which is unfortunately mutilated, contains
an account of his motives for engaging in this laborious
undertaking: it is conducted in the form of a dialogue be¬
tween the translator and a certain lady, who is probably
some allegorical personage. The following is perhaps
the most curious passage which it contains.
C E.
Bot yit, scho said, I dreid in my intent Boy
That to his grace it be ovir eloquent;
For quhy the termis poleist ar perfyte
Of eloquence, in rycht plesand indyte.
In Latene toung sententiouslie and schort,
Quhilk for to heir is plesand and confort.
Madame, I said, quha wes it drew that stone ?
Ane man, scho said, of sic hie laud and glone,
In Albione sen stories wes begun, _
Wes nevir nane sic amang our poetis fun.
Madame, I said, quhat is that mannis name ?
Ane Hector Boyis, said scho, of nobill fame,
Maister in art, doctor in theologie,
In all science ane profound clerk is he.
Madame, I said, now tell me or ye ga,
Quhat is the caus that ye commend it sua.
That sail I do, quoth scho, and yow wald heir.
Our old storeis befoir thir mony yeir,
Tha wrar distroyit all with Inglismen
In AYallace weir, as it is eith to ken :
Syne efterwart quhen that tha wreit the stone,
Aid eldaris deidis to put into memorie,
Tha maid tha bukis, thair tractatis, and thair tabiiis,
Part be ges, and part be fenzeit fabillis,
Part tha fand in aid bladis of bukis,
Part in lous quairis, hand wer in nukis :
Tha tuke sic cuir sic thingis to considder,
Svne in ane volume pat thame altogidder,
Without ordour, fassoun, or effect;
Mikill wantit, and all the lave suspect.
Madame, said I, now gar me vnderstand
Into quhat place that he tha stories fand.
That sail I do, than said scho, with gud w'ilL
Intill ane place callit Ecolumkill,
Ane abbai sumtyme of authoritie,
In Iona vie, within the Occident se,
Quhilk oft syis had of kingis corps the cuir;
Lang of the aid thair wes thair sepultuir: _
And thair wes keipit thair storeis and bukis,
As in this libell yow sail se quhen yow luikis :
And in that place thair wes thir stories fand,
Sum in lows quairis, and uther sum weill band.
As Beid, Turgot, and Weremund alsua,
Corneill Campbell, and mony uther ma,
All tell and fynd ane fassoun and effect,8
In ornat spech, and nothing to suspect.
And for this caus I half socht to ye heir:
Hartlie as now thairof, I ye requeir,
Translait this libell in our mother toung,
And preis ye nocht my purpois to impugn.
The kingis grace I knaw is nocht perfyte
In Latyn toung, and namelie in sic dyte;
It wil be tedious, that dar I tak on hand.
To reid the thing he can not vnderstand:
War it translatid in our vulgar toung,
Out throw that realme the rumor [sould be roung-j
In the year 1528, soon after the publication of his his¬
tory, Boyce took the degree of D. D. at Aberdeen; and on
this occasion the magistrates voted him a present of a tun
of wine when the new wfines should arrive, or, according
* One of the letters of Joseph Scaliger contains the subsequent passage relative to Boyce s story of th“.^riiac^S’°r * navieforum,
« Nam de conchis anatiferis fabula prorsus est. Null® enim anates ex conchis producuntur, sed ex garbores
quibus conchse adherent, anates quasdam nasci certum est. Etiam arbores anatiferasesse in ultima^cotm, ubi nullae pro ^
sunt, hactenus mentita est scriptorum vernilitas.” (Scahgen Epistolcr, P-729. Lugd. Bat. H.27, 8vo.) See 1 ke -
celii Analogue Microcosmi ad Macrocosmon, col. 835. Lutetise Paris. 1611, fol. It is just as easy to believe that bird"f™W ^°bevond
as that they are produced from rotten wood; so that the philosophy of Scahger seems to have conducted him but a little y .
the region of absolute credulity.
2 Dempsteri Historici Ecclcsicisticci Gcntis Scotorum^ p. 98. J^ononisgj 10275 4to.
3 Lelandi de Rebus Britannicis Collectanea, vol. v. p. 126. _ , . , T,orctrin<Tere
4 “ Ut hominem impurissimum suis depingam coloribus,” says Lhuyd, “ fucusque et prsestigia quibus omnium °f,ul0® P
conatur, aperiantur, aliquas ejus vanissimas nugas, et omnibus cordatis pro mendaens cogmtas, leviter attmgamus.
Britannicce Descriptionis Fragmentum, f. 32, a. Col. Agrip. 1572, 8vo.) In another work, Be Mona Drmdum Insula, Eputola, ne P
in a similar strain : “ Ut Hectoris Boethii innumera mendacia hinc facilius dignoscantur.”
5 Stanihursti de Rebus in Hibernia gestis libri quattuor, p. 18. Antverpise, 1584, 4to.
c Wallace’s Nature and Bescent of Ancient Peerages, p. 451. edit. Edinb. 1785, 8vo.
7 Biographical Introduction to Mr Maitland’s edition of Bellenden s 1 ranslation, p. xxxv.
8 This line, which is scarcely intelligible, ought perhaps to have stood thus:
All hail and fyne in fassoun and effect.
BOY
yd. to his option, the sum of twenty pounds to purchase a
new bonnet.1 He appears to have survived till the year
1536; for on the 22d of November in that year, the king
presented John Garden to the rectory of Tyrie, vacant by
the death of “ Mr Hector Boiss.” He died at Aberdeen,
and, according to the most probable conjecture, he had then
attained or at least approached the age of seventy, (x.)
BOYD, Mark Alexander, a younger son of Robert
Boyd of Pinkill in Ayrshire, was born on the 13th of Ja¬
nuary 1562. He is said to have come into the world pro¬
vided with a couple of teeth. He learned the rudiments
of the Latin and Greek languages at Glasgow under two
grammarians, but was of so high and untractable a spirit,
that they despaired of ever making him a scholar. Hav¬
ing quarrelled with his masters, he beat them both, burnt
his books, and forswore learning. His uncle, James Boyd
of Trochrig, was at that time archbishop of Glasgow; and,
as he soon lost his father, his academical studies were con¬
ducted under the superintendence of this relation. After
he entered the university, he was engaged in some very
riotous proceedings, which have been particularly detailed
by the able biographer of Melville. While he was yet a
youth he followed the court, and exerted the usual means
of obtaining preferment; but the fervour of his temper
soon precipitated him into quarrels, from which he came
off with honour and safety, though frequently at the ha¬
zard of his life. As he was nearly related to Lord Boyd,
it is probable that he relied chiefly on his patronage; but,
as Lord Hailes remarks, “ all that we learn of his profi¬
ciency at court is, that he fought one duel, and was en¬
gaged in numberless broils.” With the approbation of his
iriends, he went to serve in the French army, and carried
with him his little patrimony, which he soon dissipated at
play. He was shortly after roused by that emulation which
is natural to superior minds, and applied himself to letters
with unremitted ardour, till he attained to no mean profi¬
ciency as a scholar. Leaving his native country in 1581,
when only in his twentieth year, he was not yet past the
age of academical study; and he attended the lectures of
several professors in the university of Paris, particularly
those of Passerat, professor of eloquence, and of Gene-
brand, professor of Hebrew. Having next directed his
attention to the civil law, he went to Orleans, and became
a pupil of J. Robert, “ a man principally known for hav¬
ing dared to become the antagonist of Cujacius.” But
Rom the university of Orleans he speedily removed to
that of Bourges, where he is said to have obtained the
friendship of Cujacius, by writing some verses in obsolete
Latin; and, as one of his biographers has suggested, that
learned man could not fail to relish verses which approach¬
ed the standard of the twelve Tables.
The plague having driven him from Bourges, he sought
a place of refuge at Lyon; and, when the infection ex¬
tended to that city, he retired into Italy, where he con¬
tracted a friendship with a person whom he names Cor¬
nelius Varus. Having been seized with an ague, he re¬
turned to Lyon to try the effect of change of air; and
the only regret which he felt in quitting Italy, is said to
iave arisen from his being thus deprived of the literary
conversation and salutary advice of his friend. It was
about the year 1585 that he revisited France. In 1587
ie served with the royal forces opposed to the mercenary
army of Germans and Swiss, which had invaded that
country to support the king of Navarre. He served un-
ei an olflcer of cavalry, who was a Greek by birth; and,
BOY
during this campaign, he was wounded by a shot in the an¬
cle. In 1588 he took up his abode in Toulouse, and applied
himself to the study of the civil law under Roaldes, a pro¬
fessor of eminence. About the same period he appears to
have written several tracts on the science of jurisprudence,
and even to have projected a systematical work on the law
of nature and nations. But his studies met with an un¬
foreseen interruption, in consequence of the tumults which
ensued at Toulouse, and during which the first president
Duranty, the advocate-general Dafis, and other indivi¬
duals of inferior quality, were murdered b}' the inhabitants.
During this season of outrage Boyd was thrown into pri¬
son; and, as innocence afforded him no security, he was
exposed to imminent danger of his life; but he owed his
deliverance to the intercession of some of his friends.
He now retired to Rochelle; but as the climate did not
agree with his constitution, he afterwards fixed his resi¬
dence at Fontenay in Poictou. In this retreat he devot¬
ed much of his time to study, and occasionally resumed
the avocation of a soldier, for which he retained a violent
propensity. He is reported to have acted as preceptor
to a young French gentleman of the reformed religion,
but of such an engagement his own writings communicate
no information. About the year 1591 he appears to have
formed a design of reading lectures on the civil law; and
the heads of his prelections on the Institutes of Justinian
are still preserved among his other papers in the Advo¬
cates Library.
His friends in Scotland, and among others Patrick
Sharpe, under whom he had studied in the university of
Glasgow, urged him to return to his native country; but,
according to his own account, the state of his health had
long obliged him to live obscurely in France, and his
scanty circumstances would not allow him to make a toler¬
able figure in Scotland. He endeavoured however to
strengthen his interest in his native land, by dedicating to
James the Sixth a collection of his poems and epistles,
printed at Antwerp, 1592, in 12mo. Three years after¬
wards, while preparing to return home, he received intelli¬
gence of the death of his elder brother William, for whom
he apparently cherished a very sincere affection. Of his
subsequent history, few particulars have been recorded.
We are however informed that he at length returned to
Scotland; and, after a short residence having undertaken
to accompany the earl of Cassilis in his travels, he com¬
pleted this engagement, and once more revisited his native
country, where he died of a slow fever, on the 10th of
April 1601. At the time of his death he was only in the
fortieth year of his age.
Boyd appears to have been a person of a restless and tur¬
bulent disposition; and, as he added courage to strength,
his sword must at least have been as formidable as his pen.
He was tall, robust, and well-proportioned, and, possessing
a handsome and pleasing countenance, he had much of
the gallant bearing of a soldier. His literary vanity was
not the least conspicuous part of his character. He was
however a man of genius; and if his disposition and cir¬
cumstances had been more favourable for persevering and
systematic exertion, he might have secured a high reputa¬
tion among the scholars of the age.2
BOYER, Abel, a well-known glossographer and histo¬
riographer, born at Castres in France in 1664. Upon the
revocation of the edict of Nantes, he went first to Ge¬
neva, then to Franeker, where he finished his studies, and
finally came to England, where he applied himself so as-
161
2 Kennedy’s Annals of Aberdeen, vol. ii. p. 367.
Delicirr'pS f SketC" °fthe Life of Mark Alexander Boy,
JJehcta? Poetarum Scotorum, tom. i. p. 142.
VOL. V. 1
M‘Crie’s Life of Melville, vol. i. p. 85—Boyd’s Latin poems occur in the
162
Boyer
II
Boyle.
BOY
siduously to the study of the English language, and made
so great a proficiency therein, that he became an author
of considerable note, and was employed in writing se¬
veral periodical and political works. He was for many
years concerned in a newspaper called the Post-boy, of
which he had the principal management. He likewise
published a monthly work entitled the Political State of
Great Britain. He wrote a life of Queen Anne in folio,
which is esteemed a very good chronicle of that period ot
the English history. But he is best known by a Dictio¬
nary and Grammar of the French language, which he com¬
piled, and which are still reckoned good in their kind.
He also wrote, or rather translated from the French of M.
de Racine, the tragedy of Iphigenia, which he published
under the title of The Victim. It was performed with
success at Drury-Lane, and is very far from being a bad
play. He died at Chelsea in 1729.
Boyer, in Navigation, a kind of Flemish sloop, or small
vessel of burden, having a boltsprit, a castle at each end,
and a tall mast, chiefly fitted for the navigation of rivers,
and in many of its parts resembling a smack.
BOYLE, Richard, one of the greatest statesmen of the
seventeenth century, and generally styled the Great Earl
of Cork, was the youngest son of Mr Roger Boyle, and
born at Canterbury on the 3d of October 1566. He stu¬
died at Bennet College, Cambridge, and afterwards be¬
came a student in the Middle Temple. Having lost his
father and mother, and being unable to support himself in
the prosecution of his studies, he became clerk to Sir
Richard Manhood, one of the barons of exchequer; but
finding that by his employment he could not improve his
fortune, he went to Ireland in 1588 with fewer pounds in his
pocket than he afterwards acquired thousands a year. He
was then about twenty-two years of age, with a graceful per¬
son and many accomplishments, which enabled him to ren¬
der himself useful to some of the principal persons employ¬
ed in the government, by drawing up for them memorials,
cases, and answers. In 1595 he married Jean, the daugh-
ter and co-heiress of William Ansley, who had fallen in
love with him ; and she, dying in lo99, left him an estate of
L.500 a year in land. In consequence of various services,
and the great ability he displayed, he gradually rose to the
highest offices, and even to the dignity of the peerage of
Ireland, to which he was raised by King James I. on the
29th of September 1616, by the style and title of Baion
of Youghall, in the county of Cork; four years after he
was created Viscount Dungarvan and Earl ot Coik; an
in 1631 he was appointed lord-treasurer of Ireland, an
honour that was made hereditary to his family. He par¬
ticularly distinguished himself by the noble stand he
made when the fatal rebellion broke out in Ireland in the
reign of Charles I.; and in his old age he acted with as
much braver and military skill as if he had been trained
from his infancy to the profession of arms. Having turn¬
ed the castle of Lismore, his principal seat, into a fortress
capable of demanding respect from the Irish, he immedi¬
ately armed and disciplined his servants and Protestant
tenants; and, with their assistance, and a small army
raised and maintained at his own expense, which he put
under the command of his four sons, he defended the pro¬
vince of Munster, took several strong castles, and killed
upwards of three thousand of the enemy. During this
time he paid his forces regularly; and when all his money
was exhausted, he, like a true patriot, converted his plate
into coin. He died on the 15th of September 163L
Boyle, Pichard, Earl of Burlington and Coik, son of
the former, was a nobleman of unblemished loyalty, in
troubled times, and of untainted integrity in a period
of the greatest corruption. He was born at \ oughall in
October 1612, while his father was in the beginning of
BOY
his career, being then only Sir Richard Boyle ; and he dis- Bovlc
tinguished himself by his loyalty to King Charles I. He ^
not only commanded troops, but raised, and, for a long
time, paid them, continuing to wait upon the king as long
as any place held out for him in England ; and it was only
in the last extremity he was forced to compound for his
estate. He contributed all in his power to the Restora¬
tion ; on which King Charles II. raised him to the dignity
of Earl of Burlington or Bridlington, in the county of York,
in the year 1663. He died in January 1697-8, in the
eighty-sixth year of his age.
Boyle, Roger, Earl of Orrery, younger brother of the
former, and the fifth son of Richard, styled the Great
Earl of Cork, was born in April 1621, and, by the credit of
his father with the lord-deputy Falkland, was raised to the
dignity and title of Baron Broghill when only seven years
of age. He was educated at the college of Dublin, where
he soon distinguished himself as an early and promising
genius. He afterwards made the tour of France and
Italy, and on his return assisted his father in opposing
the rebellious Irish. Upon the execution of the king, he
retired to Marston in Somersetshire, and buried himselt
in the privacy of a close retirement; but being at length
ashamed to remain a tame spectator of what was passing
around him, he resolved to attempt something in favour
of the king; and under the pretence of going to the Spa
for the recovery of his health, he determined to cioss the
seas and apply himself to King Charles II. for . a com¬
mission to raise what forces he could in Ireland, in order
to restore his majesty, and recover his own estate, ror
this purpose he prevailed on the Earl of Warwick to pro¬
cure a license for his going to the Spa, and having raised
a considerable sum of money, came up to London to pro¬
secute his voyage. But he had not been long in town
when he received a message from Cromwell, who was
then general of the parliament’s forces, intimating that
he intended to wait upon him. The Lord Broghill was
surprised at this message, having never had the least ac¬
quaintance with Cromwell; and desired the gentleman who
brought it to let the general know that he would wait
upon his excellency. But while he was waiting the return
of the messenger, Cromwell entered the room, and alter
an exchange of civilities, told him in a few words that the
committee of state were apprised of his design of going
over and applying to Charles Stuart for a commission to
raise forces in Ireland, and that they were determined
to make an example of him, if he himself had not diverte
them from that resolution. The Lord Broghill intenup-
ed him by assuring him that the intelligence which the
committee had received was false, and that he neither
was in a capacity nor had any inclination to raise dis¬
turbances in Ireland; but Cromwell, instead of making
any reply, drew some papers out of his pocket, being
the copies of several letters which the Lord Brog n 13
sent to those persons in whom he most confided, and pu
them into his hands. Lord Broghill, upon the perusal ot
these papers, finding it to no purpose to dissemble any
longer, asked his excellency’s pardon for what he had said,
returned him his humble thanks for his protection
the committee ; and entreated his direction how to e iav
in such a delicate conjuncture. Cromwell told him, tnai
though, till this time, he had been a stranger to his pe
son, he w'as not so to his merit and character, e ia
heard how gallantly his lordship had behaved in the insn
wars; and therefore, since he was named lord-heutenan
of Ireland, and the reducing of that kingdom had n
become his province, he had obtained leave of the co
mittee to offer his lordship the command of a general o -
cer if he would serve in that war ; adding, that he saoui
have no oaths or engagements imposed upon him,
I
BOY
BOY
163
hp nblicred to draw his sword against any but the Irish in some disorder, and his majesty on the point of remov- Boyte-
]o;te obliged to draw i * e .7 the great Ear] of Clarendon, lord high chancellor;'-^-
^Tnrd Broehill was infinitely surprised at so generous and there also existed a misunderstanding between the
nnd unexpected an offer. He saw himself at liberty, by royal brothers. Lord Orrery undertook to reconcile the
oil the rules of honour, to serve against the rebellious king with the Duke of \ork; and this he effected by pre-
Irish whose barbarities were equally detested by the vailing on the latter to ask his majesty s pardon for some
royal party and by the parliament. He desired, however, steps which he had taken in support of the Lord Chan-
some time to consider of what had been proposed to him. cellor. T 1 j r i rv c i u- m .11
But Cromwell briskly told him, that he must come to On his return to Ireland Lord Orrery found himse f call-
some resolution that very instant; that he himself was ed to a new scene of action, ihe Dutch war was then at
80 ’ ^ -1 ‘in  its height; and the French, in confederacy with the Hol-
about to return to the committee, who were still sitting;
and that if his lordship rejected their offer, they had
determined to send him to the Tower. Upon this Lord
Broghill, finding that his liberty and life were in the ut¬
most danger, gave his word and honour that he would
landers, were endeavouring to stir up the ashes of rebel¬
lion in Ireland. The Duke de Beaufort, admiral of France,
had formed a scheme for a descent upon Ireland ; but this
ost U4ui ci, n.c         was rendered abortive by the extraordinary diligence,
foithfulfy serve8against"the Irish rebels; upon which Crom- military skill, and prudent measures of Lord Orrery,
well once more assured him, that the conditions which he In midst of all his labours, a dispute, founded on mu-
had madewith him should be punctually observed, and then tual jealousy, arose betwixt him and his old friend the
ordered him to repair to Bristol; adding, that he himself Duke of Ormond, then lord lieutenant; but the bad effects
would soon follow him into Ireland. Lord Broghill, there- of it were soon felt by both disputants, who resorted to
fore went over into that country, where, by his conduct England to defend their respective interests and preten-
and’intrepidity, he performed many important services, sions, and were attacked by secret enemies, who suggested
and fully justified the opinion which Cromwell had con- many things to their prejudice. This quarrel, though of a
ceived of him. By his own interest he raised a gallant private beginning, became at last of a public nature; and
troop of horse, which wras soon increased to a regiment of producing, first, an attempt to tiame an impeachment
1500men; and these he led into the field against the Irish against the Duke of Ormond, occasioned in the end, by
rebels. He was speedily joined by Cromwell, wdio placed way of revenge, an actual impeachment against the Earl
the highest confidence in his new ally, and found him of the of Orrery. But the latter defended himself so well
greatest consequence to the interest of the commonwealth, against the charge of high crimes, and even of treason
When Cromwell became Protector, he sent for Lord itself, that the prosecution came to nothing. He never-
Broghill occasionally to take his advice. And we are theless lost his public employments; but retaining the
told, that the latter, not long after his coming to England, king’s favour, he still came frequently to court, and some-
formed a project for engaging Cromwell to restore the old times to council. After this revolution in his affairs, he
constitution. The basis of the scheme was to be a match made several voyages to and from Ireland, was often con-
between the king, Charles II., and the Protector’s daugh- suited by his majesty on affairs of the utmost consequence,
ter. As his lordship maintained a secret correspondence and, on all occasions, gave his opinion and advice with
with the exiled monarch and his friends, it was imagined the freedom of an honest plain-dealing man and a sincere
friend.
that he was beforehand pretty sure that Charles was not
averse to the scheme, or he would not have ventured to
propose it seriously to Cromwell, who at first seemed to
think it not unfeasible. But the Protector soon changed ... . .
his mind, and told Broghill that he thought his project im- power of medicine; and having, in his last illness, given
practicable: “ For,” said he, “ Charles can never forgive the strongest proofs of Christian patience, manly courage,
me the death of his father.” In fine, the business came to and rational fortitude, he breathed his last on the 16th of
In 1678, being attacked more cruelly than ever by his
old enemy, the gout, he made his last voyage to England
for medical advice. But his disorder was beyond the
nothing, although his lordship had engaged Cromwell’s
wife and daughter in the scheme; but he never durst let
the Protector know that he had previously treated with
Charles about it.
On the death of the Protector, Lord Broghill conti-
October 1679, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. His lord-
ship w'rote, 1. A work entitled The Art of War; 2. Par-
thenissa, a romance, in one volume folio; 3. Several poems;
4. Dramatic pieces, in two volumes ; 5. State tracts, in one
volume folio ; and some other pieces. Mr W alpole, speak-
nued attached to his son Richard, till, seeing that the ing of this nobleman, says, he never made a bad figure but
honesty and good-nature of that worthy man would in- as a poet. As a soldier, his bravery was distinguished, his
fallibly render him a prey to his enemies, he did not stratagems were remarkable; as a statesman, it is sufficient
think it advisable to sink with a man whom he could not to say that he possessed the confidence of Cromwell; as a
The dark clouds of anarchy seemed now' to be man he was grateful, and would have supported the son of
save.
gathering over the British island. Lord Broghill saw the
storm preparing, and deemed it prudent to retire to his
command in Ireland, where, shortly after, things took
a turn extremely favourable to the design of the king’s
restoration. In this great event Lord Broghill was not a
his friend ; but, like Cicero and Richelieu, he could not be
content without being a poet, though ill qualified to shine
in this character, and though his poetical writings were
flat and trivial.
Boyle, Robert, one of the greatest philosophers as well
little instrumental; and, in consideration of his eminent as best men that our own or indeed any other nation has
services, Charles created him Earl of Orrery by letters
patent bearing date the 5th September 1660. He was soon
after made one of the lords justices'of Ireland; and his
conduct, whilst at the head of affairs in that kingdom,
was such as to add greatly to the general esteem in which
his character was previously held.
His lordship’s active and toilsome course of life at
produced, was the seventh son and the fourteenth child
of Richard Earl of Cork, and was born at Lismore in the
province of Munster in Ireland, on the 25th January
1626-7. Before he went to school, he was taught to
w'rite a very fair hand, and to speak Latin and French, by
one of the earl’s chaplains, and a Frenchman whom his
lordship kept in the house. In the year 1635 his father
length brought on disease and infirmity; but notwith- sent him over to England, that he might be educated at
standing these, on the king’s desiring to see his lordship, Eton school, under Sir Henry Wotton, who wras the Earl
he went over to England in 1665. He found the court of Cork’s old friend and acquaintance. Here he soon
164 BOY
Boyle, discovered a force of understanding which promised great
things, and a disposition to cultivate and improve it to the
utmost. Whilst he remained at Eton, several very ex¬
traordinary accidents befel him, of which he has given us
an account; and three of these were very near proving
fatal to him. The first was the sudden fall of the cham¬
ber where he lodged, while he was in bed; when, besides
the danger he incurred of being crushed to pieces, he had
certainly been choked with the dust during the time he lay
under the rubbish, if he had not had presence of mind
enough to wrap up his head in the sheet, which gave him
an opportunity of breathing without hazard. A little time
after this he would have been crushed to death by a horse
that reared suddenly, and threw himself backwards, if he
had not happily disengaged his feet from the stirrups, and
cast himself from the back of the animal before he fell.
The third accident proceeded from the carelessness of an
apothecary’s servant, who, by mistaking the phials, brought
him a strong emetic instead of a cooling medicine.
He remained at Eton, upon the whole, between three
and four years; and then his father removed him to his
own seat at Stalbridge in Dorsetshire, where he remained
for some time under the care of one of the chaplains, who
was the parson of the place. In 1638 he attended his
father to London, and remained with him at the Savoy,
till his brother Mr Francis Boyle espoused Mrs Elizabeth
Killigrew; then, towards the end of October, within four
days after the marriage, the two brothers, Francis and
Robert, wrere sent abroad upon their travels, under the
care of Mr Marcombes. Embarking at Rye in Sussex,
they proceeded to Dieppe in Normandy, and travelled
by Rouen to Paris, and thence to Lyons; from which
city they continued their journey to Geneva, where their
travelling companion had a family, and there pursued
their studies without interruption. Mr Boyle, during his
stay there, resumed his acquaintance with the mathematics,
or at least with the elements of that science, of which he
had before gained some knowledge.
In September 1641 he quitted Geneva, after having
spent twelve months in that city, and, passing through
Switzerland and the country of the Grisons, entered Lom¬
bardy ; then, taking his route through Bergamo, Brescia,
and Verona, he arrived at Venice, where he made a short
stay, and returning to the Continent, spent the winter at
Florence. Here he employed his spare hours in reading
the modern history of Italy, and in studying the works of
Galileo, who died in a village near this city during Mr
Boyle’s residence there. It was at Florence that he ac¬
quired the Italian language, which he understood perfect¬
ly, though he never spoke it so fluently as the French. Of
the latter he was such a master, that, when occasion re¬
quired, he passed for a native of France.
About the end of March 1642, he went from Florence
to Rome, and surveyed the numerous curiosities of the
Eternal City. Amongst these, he tells us, “ he had the
fortune to see Pope LTrban VIII. at chapel, with the car¬
dinals, who, severally appearing mighty princes, in that
assembly looked like a company of common friars.” He
visited all the adjacent villages which had anything curious
or antique belonging to them; and would probably have
made a longer stay, had not the heats disagreed with his
brother. He returned to Florence, thence proceeded to
Leghorn, and so by sea to Genoa; then passing through
the county of Nice, he crossed the sea to Antibes, and
thence travelled by land to Marseilles. He was in that
city in May 1642, when he received his father’s letters,
informing him that a rebellion had broken out in Ireland,
and with what difficulty he had procured the L.250 then
remitted to them in order to defray the expenses of their
journey home. They never received this sum; and were
BOY
obliged to repair to Geneva with their governor Mar- Borl
combes, who supplied them with as much as carried them
thither. They continued there a considerable time with¬
out either advice or supplies from England; upon which
Marcombes was obliged to take up, upon his own credit,
some jewels, which were afterwards disposed of with as
little loss as might be; and w ith the money thus raised
they continued their journey to England, where they ar¬
rived in the year 1644. On their arrival Mr Boyle found
that his father was dead; and though the earl had made
ample provision for him, by leaving him the manor of
Stalbridge in England, as well as other considerable estates
in Ireland, yet it was some time before he could receive
any money. Howrever, he procured protections for his
estates in both kingdoms from the powers then in being;
and he also obtained leave to go over to France for a short
space, probably to settle accounts with his governor Mr
Marcombes.
In March 1646 he retired to his manor at Stalbridge,
where he resided for the most part till May 1650. He
made excursions sometimes to London, sometimes to Ox¬
ford; and in February 1647 he went over to Holland,
but made no considerable stay anywhere. During his
retirement at Stalbridge he applied himself with incredible
industry to studies of various kinds, particularly to those of
natural philosophy and chemistry. He omitted no oppor¬
tunity of making the acquaintance of persons distinguish¬
ed for parts and learning, to whom he was always a ready,
useful, and generous assistant, and with whom he maintain¬
ed a constant correspondence. He w'as also one of the first
members of that small but learned body of men which,
when all academical studies were interrupted by the civil
wars, secreted themselves, about the }rear 1645, and held
private meetings, first in London, and afterwards at Oxford,
for the purpose of canvassing subjects of natural know¬
ledge upon the plan of experiment which Lord Bacon had
delineated. They then styled themselves the Philosophic
College ; and after the Restoration, when they were incor¬
porated and openly recognised, they took the name of
the Royal Society.
In the summer of 1654 Mr Boyle executed a design
which he had formed for some time of residing at Oxford.
Oxford was indeed the only place at that time in England
where he could have lived with much satisfaction ; for here
he found himself surrounded with a number of learned
friends, such as Wilkins, Wallis, Ward, Willis, Wren, and
others, suited exactly to his taste, and who had resorted
thither for the same reasons as himself. It was during
his residence here that he improved the air-pump, and by
numerous experiments was enabled to discover several
qualities of air. He was not satisfied with w'hat he had
done, however, but laboured incessantly in collecting and
digesting, chiefly from his own experiments, the mate¬
rials requisite for his purpose. He declared against the
philosophy of Aristotle, as having in it more words than
things, as promising much and performing little, and as
giving the inventions of men for indubitable proofs, in¬
stead of building upon observation and experiment. He
w'as so zealous for the true method of learning by expe¬
riment, that though the Cartesian philosophy then made
a great noise in the world, yet he could never be per¬
suaded to read the works of Descartes, lest he should be
amused and led aw'ay by plausible accounts of things
founded on conjecture, and merely hypothetical. But
philosophy, and inquiries into nature, though they en¬
gaged his attention deeply, did not occupy it entirely.
We find, indeed, that he still continued to pursue critical
and theological studies. In these he had the assistance
of some great men, particularly Dr Edwrard Pococke, Mr
Thomas Hyde, and Mr Samuel Clarke, all of great emi-
boy BOY 165
nence for their skill in the oriental languages. He had veral Subjects, 1665, 8vo. This piece is addressed to So- Boyle.
^ also a strict intimacy with Dr Thomas Barlow, at that phronia, under which name he concealed that of his sister
time head keeper of the Bodleian library, and afterwards the Viscountess of Ranelagh,andit exposed him to the only
Bishop of Lincoln, a man of various and extensive learn- severe censure that ever was passed upon him. In order
ing. In the year 1659 Mr Boyle, becoming acquainted with to ridicule these discourses, Dean Swift wrote A Pious
the unhappy circumstances of Saunderson, afterwards bi- Meditation upon a Broomstick, in the style of the Honourable
shop of Lincoln, who lost all his preferments on account Mr Boyle. But, as his noble relative Lord Orrery ob-
of his attachment to the royal party, conferred upon him served, “ To what a height must the spirit of sarcasm arise
an honorary stipend of L.50 a j^ear. This was given to in an author, who could prevail on himself to ridicule so
encourage him to apply himself to the writing of “ Cases good a man as Mr Boyle? The sword of wit, like the
ofConscience;” and accordingly he printed his lectures Z)e scythe of time, cuts down friend and foe, and attacks
Obligatione Conscientiee, which he read at Oxford in 1647, every object that lies in its way. But, sharp and irresis-
and dedicated to his friend and patron. tible as the edge of it maybe, Mr Boyle will always remain
On the restoration of Charles II. Mr Boyle was treated invulnerable.”
with great civility and respect by the king, as well as by The same year he published an important work, entitled
the Lord Treasurer Southampton, and the Lord Chancellor New Experiments and Observations upon Cold, 1665, 8vo.
Clarendon. He was solicited by the latter to enter into In the year 1666 he published Hydrostatical Paradoxes
holy orders, not only out of regard to him and his family, made out by new Experiments, for the most part physical
but chiefly with a view to serve the church itself; for Mr and easy, in 8vo; and also the Origin of Forms and Quali-
Boyle’s noble family, his distinguished learning, and, above ties, according to the Corpuscular Philosophy, illustrated
all, his unblemished reputation, induced Lord Clarendon by considerations and experiments. This last treatise did
to think that any ecclesiastical preferments he might at- great honour to IMr Boyle, whether we consider the quick-
tain would be worthily discharged, so as to do honour to ness of his wit, the depth of his judgment, or his indefa-
the clergy and service to the established communion. Mr tigable pains in searching after truth. But we must not
Boyle considered all this with due attention; but he also forget to observe, that, both in this and the former year,
reflected, that, in the situation of life which he then oc- he communicated to Mr Oldenburg, secretaryr to the Ro\ral
cupied, whatever he wrote with respect to religion would Society, several curious and excellent short treatises of
have much greater weight as coming from a layman; his own, and others transmitted to him by his learned
that, m point of fortune, he needed no accessions, and in- friends both at home and abroad, which are printed and
deed never had any appetite for such ; and that, by taking preserved in the Philosophical Transactions,
orders, he would neither enhance his character nor enlarge In the year 1668, Mr Boyle, having resolved to settle
the sphere of his usefulness, but rather the reverse. He in London for life, removed for that purpose to the house
chose, therefore, to pursue his philosophical studies in of his sister, the Lady Ranelagh, in Pall-Mall. This proved
such a mannei as might conduce to the support of religion, beneficial to the learned in general, and particularly to the
and began to communicate to the world the fruits of these lioyal Society^ to whom he gave great and continual as-
studies. . # sistance, as the several pieces communicated to them, and
Ihe nrst of these were printed at Oxford in 1660, in 8vo, printed in their Transactions, abundantly testify. Those
under the title of New Experiments, Physico-mechanical, who applied to him, either to desire his help or to com-
touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects; and Seraphic municate any new discoveries in science, he had fixed
Love, or some Motives and Incentives to the Love of God, hours for receiving ; and, besides, he carried on an exten-
patnetically discoursed of in a letter to a friend. Certain sive correspondence with persons of learning in all parts of
icJi10 iC i e!SayS -and °ther tracts’ in 4t0’ appeared in Europe. In the year 1669 he published A Continuation of
ibbl; and the Sceptical Chemist, m 1662, but it was re- New Experiments, touching the Weight and Spring of the
printed about the year 1679, in 8vo, with the addition of Air; to which is added, A Discourse of the Atmospheres of
ivers expeiiments and notes. . _ Consistent Bodies: and the same year he revised and made
in tne year 1663, the Royal Society having been incor- many additions to several of his former tracts, some of
porated by King Charles II., Mr Boyle was appointed one which were now translated into Latin, in order to gratify
ot the council; and as he might be justly reckoned among the curious abroad. He also gave to the world, at this
the founders of that learned body, so he continued one of time, Tracts about the Cosmical Qualities of Things, the
the most useful and industrious of its members during the Temperature of the Subterraneous Regions,and the Bottom
whole course of his life. In June 1663 he published Con- of the Sea; to which is prefixed, an Introduction to the
siderations touching the usefulness of Experimental Natu- History of Particular Qualities. This book occasioned much
in Philosophy, 4to, and Experiments and Considerations speculation, as it seemed to contain a vast treasure of
upon Colours; to which was added, a Letter, containing knowledge which had never before been communicated
bservatmns on a Diamond that shines in the Dark, 8vo. to the world, and which, too, was grounded upon actual
118 treatise, which is full of curious and useful remarks experiments, or arguments justly drawn from them, instead
n the hitherto unexplained doctrine of light and colours, of that notional and conjectural philosophy which in the
siows great judgment, accuracy, and penetration; and beginning of the seventeenth century had been so much in
may be said to have led the way to that more full and fashion,
amp e development of the subject which was reserved for In the year 1671 he published Considerations on the
on §^nius of Sir Isaac Newton. Considerations. Usefulness of Experimental and Natural Philosophy (part
1 efl irMmiQ6 ° f 10 Scriptures, in octavo, also appear- second), 4to; and, A Collection of Tracts upon several use-
tlerl J r and WaScyan- extract a larger work, enti- ful and important points of Practical Philosophy, 4to ; both
i-I j f °n Scripture, which was afterwards pub- of which works were received as new and valuable gifts
r i/Xrir Peter Pett, a friend of Mr Boyle’s. to the learned world. An essay concerning the Origin and
mines ™ l ii T,38 electe1d int0 the company of the royal Virtues of Gems, 8vo, appeared in 1672; also, A collection
tion of • 1 tUS/c:a. e was engaged in the prosecu- of tracts upon the relation between flame and air, and se-
ahrmrl Vanous £?od designs, which prevented his sending veral other useful and curious subjects; besides which he
year fofl11^-1^311868 ^ltller of> religion or philosophy. The furnished, in this and the former year, a great number of
J owing came forth Occasional Reflections upon se- short dissertations upon a variety of topics, addressed to
166
BOY
BOY
Boyle.
the Royal Society, and inserted in their Iransactions.
Essays on the strange Subtility, great Efficacy, and deter¬
minate Nature of Effluvia, to which were added a variety
of Experiments on other Subjects, came out in 1673, 8vo.
A collection of tracts upon the saltness of the sea, tie
moisture of the air, the natural and preternatural state of
bodies, to which is prefixed a dialogue concerning cold, was
published in 1674, 8vo. The excellency of theology, com¬
pared with philosophy, appeared in 1673. Ibis discourse
was written in the year 1665, while Mr Boyle, to avoid
the great plague which then raged in London, was forced
to wander from place to place in the country, and had
little or no opportunity of consulting books. It contains
a great number of curious and useful, as well as just and
natural observations. A collection of tracts containing
suspicions respecting hidden qualities of the air, with an
appendix touching celestial magnets, animadversions upon
Mr Hobbes’s problem about a vacuum, and a discourse of
the cause of attraction and suction, was published in 1674 ;
and some considerations about the reconcileableness of
reason and religion, by a layman; to which is annexed
a discourse about the possibility of the resurrection, ap¬
peared in 1655. Both these pieces were of his compo¬
sition ; but he thought fit to mark the former with the
final letters of his name. Amongst the papers which he
communicated to the Royal Society this year, were two
connected into one discourse; the one entitled An expe¬
rimental discourse of quicksilver growing hot with gold;
the other relating to the same subject; and both of them
containing discoveries of the utmost importance.
In the year 1676 he published Experiments and Notes
about the mechanical origin or production of particular
qualities, in several discourses on a great variety of sub¬
jects, and, among the rest, on electricity. In 1618 he com¬
municated to Mr Hooke a short memorial of some obser¬
vations made upon an artificial substance that shines with¬
out any preceding illustration; which that gentleman
thought fit to publish in his Lectiones Cutleriance.. His
historical account of a degradation of gold produced by an
anti-elixir, made a great noise both at home and abroad,
and is looked upon as one of the most remarkable pieces
that ever fell from his pen; since the facts contained in
it would have been esteemed incredible, if they had been
related by a man of less integrity and piety than Mr
Boyle. The regard which Newton had for Mr Boyle
appears from a letter which the former wrote to him, to¬
wards the close of this year, stating his sentiments of that
ethereal medium which he afterwards considered in his
Optics as the cause of gravitation. This letter is to be
found in the life of Mr Boyle by Dr Birch.
In the year 1680, Mr Boyle published the Aerial Noc-
tiluca, or some new phenomena, and a process of a facti¬
tious self-shining substance, 8vo. This year the Royal
Society, as a proof of their sense of his great worth, and
of the services which, throughout a course of years, he
had rendered them, elected him as their president; but
being extremely sensitive in regard to oaths, he declined
the intended honour, in a letter addressed to “ his much
respected friend Mr Robert Hooke, professor of mathe¬
matics at Gresham College.” He published a Discourse
of things above Reason, inquiring, whether a philosopher Bovl
should admit any such, 1681, 8vo ; New Experiments and '—y,
Observations upon the icy Noctiluca, to which is added a
chemical paradox, grounded upon new Experiments, 1682,
8vo; and a continuation of New Experiments, Physico-
mechanical, touching the spring and weight of the air,
1682, 8vo. In 1683 he published nothing except a short
letter to Dr Beale, in relation to the making of fresh water
out of salt; but in 1684 he gave to the public two very
considerable works, namely, Memoirs for the natural his¬
tory of Human Blood, especially the spirit of that liquor,
8vo; and Experiments and Considerations about the po¬
rosity of bodies.
In 1685 Mr Boyle obliged the world with Short Me¬
moirs for the natural experimental history of Mineral
Waters, with directions as to the several methods of try¬
ing them; an essay on the great effects of even languid
and unheeded motion, which was received with great and
general applause; a treatise of the Reconcdeableness of
specific medicines to the Corpuscular Philosopny, to which
is annexed a discourse about the advantages of the use of
simple medicines, 8vo ; and a theological tract of the high
veneration man’s intellect owes to God, peculiarly for his
wisdom and power, 8vo.
In the beginning of the succeeding year came out his
Free Inquiry into the vulgarly received notion of Nature,
a piece which was greatly admired; and in 1687 he pub¬
lished the martyrdom of Theodora and Didymia, a juve¬
nile performance. But his Disquisition about the final
causes of natural things, in 8vo, appeared in 1688.
Mr Boyle now began to find that his health and strength,
notwithstanding all his care and caution, gradually declin¬
ed ; a circumstance which put him upon using every pos¬
sible method of husbanding his remaining time for the
benefit of the learned. With this view he no longer com¬
municated particular discourses or new discoveries to the
Royal Society, because it could not be done without with¬
drawing his thoughts from occupations which he thought
of still greater importance. In order the more steadily to
attend to these, he resigned his post of governor of the cor¬
poration for propagating the gospel in New England; and
even went so far as to signify to the world, by public adver¬
tisement,1 that he could no longer receive visits as usual.
Among the other works which by this means he gain¬
ed time to finish, there is reason to believe that one was
a collection of elaborate processes in chemistry, concern¬
ing which he wrote a letter to a friend, stating, that “he
left it as a kind of hermetic legacy to the studious disci¬
ples of that art.” Besides these papers, which were com¬
mitted to the care of one whom he esteemed his friend,
he left many behind him at his death relating to chemis¬
try, which, by a letter directed to one of his executors, he
desired might be inspected by three physicians whom he
named, and that some of the most valuable might be pre¬
served. ,
In the meantime Mr Boyle published some other works,
as Medicina Hydrostatica, or, Hydrostatics applied to the
Materia Medica, 1690, 8vo; The Christian Virtuoso,
which are subjoined, A discourse about the distinction
that represents some things as above reason, but not con-
i This curious intimation begins in the following manner Mr Boyle finds ^msetf ^
rdny of W.
MhXTihenrt* -U™!, tot, without be htaKtt fill up «»
H-SS Lr, with „
signifying when he did, and when he did not, receive visitors.
BOY
■I trary to reason; and the first chapters of a discourse en-
^-y'V titled Greatness of mind promoted by Christianity. Lastly,
he published, in the spring of 1691, Experimenta et Obser-
vationes Physicce, treating of several subjects relating to
natural philosophy, in an experimental way, 8vo.
About the beginning of summer he began to feel such
an alteration in his health as induced him to think of set¬
tling his affairs; and accordingly, on the 18th of July he
sigiTed and sealed his last will, to which he afterwards
added several codicils. In October his distemper increas¬
ed; and on the last day of December 1691 he departed
this life, in the sixty-fifth year of his age. He was buried
in St Martin’s Church in the Fields, Westminster, on the
7th of January following; and his funeral sermon was
preached by Dr Gilbert Burnet, bishop of Salisbury. In
this discourse the bishop tells us, that he was the better
able to give a character of the deceased from the many
happy hours he had spent in conversation with him in the
course of twenty-nine years. He gives a large account of
Mr Boyle’s sincere and unaffected piety, more especially
of his zeal for the Christian religion, without having any
narrow notions concerning it, or mistaking, as so many do,
a bigoted heat in favour of a particular sect, for that zeal
which is an ornament of a true Christian; and he men¬
tions as a proof of this, his noble foundation for lectures
in defence of the gospel against infidels of all sorts. Mr
Boyle was at the charge of the translation and impression
of the New Testament into the Malayan tongue, which he
sent over all the East; he gave a noble reward to the person
who translated Grotius’s book On the Truth of the Christian
Religion into Arabic; and he was at the charge of a whole
impression, which he took care to have distributed in all
the countries where that language was understood. He had
resolved to have carried on the impression of the New Tes¬
tament in the Turkish language; but the Levant Com¬
pany thought it became them to be the promoters of the
design, and so suffered him only to contribute largely to¬
wards it. He expended L.700 on the edition of the Irish
Bible, which he ordered to be distributed in Ireland ; and
he contributed liberally to the impression of the Welsh
Bible. He gave, during his life, L.300 to advance the de¬
sign of propagating the Christian religion in America;
and as soon as he heard that the East India Company
were entertaining propositions for a similar design in the
East, he sent L.100 as a beginning and an example, in¬
tending, however, to extend his contribution as soon as
the scheme had been fairly commenced. In other respects
his charities were so bountiful and extensive, that they
amounted to upwards of L.1000 a year. Of his merits as
an inquirer into nature, Dr Boerhaave, after declaring
Lord Bacon to be the father of experimental philosophy,
says, that “ Mr Boyle, the ornament of his age and coun¬
try, succeeded to the genius and inquiries of the great
Chancellor Verulam. Which (he adds) of Mr Boyle’s
writings shall I recommend ? All of them. To him we
owe the secrets of fire, air, water, animals, vegetables,
fossils ; so that from his works may be deduced the whole
system of natural knowledge.” This may now appear ex¬
travagant and exaggerated ; but at the time it was not un¬
reasonably considered as only a just tribute to extraordi¬
nary merit and indefatigable perseverance.
In his person Mr Boyle was tall, but slender; and his
countenance was pale and emaciated. His constitution was
so delicate, that he had divers sorts of cloaks to put on when
he went abroad, according to the temperature of the air;
and in this he governed himself by the thermometer. He
escaped the small-pox indeed ; but for nearly forty years
he laboured under such feebleness of body, and such de¬
pression of strength and spirits, that it is astonishing how
he could read, meditate, make experiments, and write, as
BOY
he did. He had likewise a weakness in his eyes, which
made him very tender of them, and extremely apprehen- ^
sive of such distempers as might affect them. He also ima¬
gined, that if sickness should confine him to bed, it might
increase the pains of the stone to a degree above his strength
to support; and this was the ground of the caution with
which he was observed to live. But as to life itself, he had
that just indifference for it which became a philosopher
and a Christian. Mr Boyle was never married. In the
memorandum of his life set down by Bishop Burnet, it is
remarked that he abstained from marriage, at first out of
policy, but afterwards more philosophically; and we find
from a letter of Dr John Wallis to him, dated Oxford, 17th
July 1669, that he had had an overture made to him in
regard to the Lady Mary Hastings, sister to the Earl of
Huntingdon. But it does not appear from any of his pa¬
pers that he had ever entertained the least thoughts of
the kind; and there is a letter of his, written when he
was young to Lady Barrymore, his niece, which almost
shows that he never did.
We shall conclude this account of Mr Boyle with a list
of his posthumous works, which are as follow: 1. The
General History of the Air designed and begun ; 2. Gene¬
ral Heads for the Natural History of a Country, great or
small, drawn out for the use of Travellers and Navigators ;
3. A paper of the honourable Robert Boyle’s, deposited
with the secretaries of the Royal Society, October 14,
1680, and opened since his death, being an account of his
making the phosphorus, September 30, 1680; 4. An Ac¬
count of a way of examining Waters as to Freshness or
Saltness; 5. A free Discourse against customary Swear¬
ing, and a Dissuasive from Cursing, 1695, 8vo ; and 6. Me¬
dicinal Experiments, or a Collection of choice remedies,
chiefly simple and easily prepared, useful in families, and
fit for the service of the country people; being the third
and last volume published from the author’s original ma¬
nuscript, 1698, 12mo. Editions *of all his works have
been printed at London, in five volumes folio, and six
volumes 4to.
Boyle, Charles, Earl of Orrery in Ireland, and Baron
of Maston in the county of Somerset, was the second son
of Roger second Earl of Orrery, and was born in August
1679. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, and
soon distinguished himself by his learning and abilities.
Like the first Earl of Orreryq he was an author, a soldier,
and a statesman. He translated the life of Lysander from
the Greek of Plutarch ; and he published a new edition of
the epistles of Phalaris, which engaged him in a literary dis¬
pute, in which he defended the genuineness of those epis¬
tles against Dr Bentley. He was three times member
for the town of Huntingdon; but his elder brother, Lio¬
nel Earl of Orrery, dying without issue on the 23d of Au¬
gust 1703, he succeeded to that title; and, entering into
the queen’s service, obtained a regiment, upon which he
behaved with so great bravery, that, in 1709, he was rais¬
ed to the rank of major-general, and sworn one of her
majesty’s privy-council. At the battle of the Wood he
gave the strongest proofs of intrepid courage, remaining
at the head of his regiment in the hottest part of the ac¬
tion till the victory was decided. His lordship had the
honour of being appointed the queen’s envoy to the states
of Brabant and Flanders; and having honourably dis¬
charged this trust, he was raised to the dignity of Bri¬
tish peer, by the title of Lord Boyle, Baron of Maston, in
Somersetshire. He received several additional honours
in the reign of King George I.; but having had the mis¬
fortune to fall under the suspicion of the government, he
was committed to the Tower, and remained there some
time in confinement. He was at length admitted to bail,
however; and nothing being found that could be regarded
16'
Boyle.
108 BOY
Boyle, as sufficient ground for prosecution,he was discharged. His
lordship died, after a slight indisposition, on the 21st of
August 1731. To his tutor Mr Atterbury he probably
owed in good part the relish he possessed for the writings
of the ancients. He made these his constant study, and
seems to have entertained a very unreasonable degree of
contempt for the greater part of our modern wits and au¬
thors. His lordship had also a turn for medicine, which
led him not only to buy and read whatever was published
on that subject, but also to employ his friends to send him
accounts of herbs and drugs from foreign countries.
Boyle, John, Earl of Cork and Orreiy, a nobleman dis¬
tinguished for his learning and genius, was the only son
of Charles Earl of Orrery, and was born on the 2d of Ja-
nuary 1707. He was educated at Christ Church College,
Oxford ; but, as he himself declares, early disappointments,
indifferent health, and many untowards accidents, render¬
ed him fond of retirement, and of improving his talents
for polite literature and poetry. Of these he has left se¬
veral favourable specimens. He also wrote a translation
of the Letters of Pliny the Younger, with various notes,
for the service of his eldest son Lord Boyle, in two vo¬
lumes 4to. This was first published in 1751. The year
following he published the Life of Dean Swift, in several
letters, addressed to his second son Hamilton Boyle; and
he afterwards printed Memoirs of Robert Cary, Earl of
Monmouth, a manuscript presented to him by a relation,
with explanatory notes. He died in 1762.
Boyle’s Lectures, a course of eight sermons or lectures
preached annually, and originally set on foot by the Ho¬
nourable Robert Boyle, whose design, as expressed in
a codicil annexed to his will in 1691, was to prove the
truth of the Christian religion against infidels, without de¬
scending to any controversies among Christians, and to
answer new difficulties or scruples that might from time
to time arise. For the support of this lecture Mr Boyle
assigned the rent of his house in Crooked-lane to some
learned divine within the bills of mortality, to be elected
for a time not exceeding three years, by Archbishop Ten-
nison and others. But the fund proving precarious, the
salary was ill paid; and to remedy this inconvenience,
the archbishop procured a yearly stipend of L.50 for ever,
to be paid quarterly, charged on a farm in the parish of
Brill in the county of Bucks. To this appointment we
are indebted for many elaborate defences both of natural
and revealed religion.
BOYNE, a river of Ireland, which rises in Queen’s
County in the province of Leinster, and running north¬
east by Trim and Cavan, falls at last into the Irish Chan¬
nel a little below Drogheda. It is memorable for a battle
fought on its banks between James II. and King William
III. in which the former was defeated.
BOY'SE, Boys, or Bois, John, one of the translators of
the Bible in the reign of James I. was son of William Bois,
rector of West Stowe, near St Edmundsbury, Suffolk, and
born at Nettlestead in Suffolk on the 3d of January 1560.
He was taught the first rudiments of learning by his fa¬
ther ; and his capacity was such, that at the age of five
li*i was able, it is said, to read the Bible in Hebrew. He
went afterwards to Hadley school; and at fourteen was
admitted of St John’s College, Cambridge, where he dis¬
tinguished himself by his skill in Greek. Happening to
catch the small-pox when he was elected fellow, he caused
himself to be carried for admission in blankets, in order to
preserve his seniority. He applied himself for some time
to the study of medicine ; but, fancying himself affected
with every disease he read of, he quitted that science.
He was during ten years principal Greek lecturer in his
college, and read every day. He voluntarily read a Greek
lecture for some years at four in the morning, in his own
BOY
chamber, which was frequented by many of the fellows. i>
On the death of his father, he succeeded to the rectory of 0.
West Stowe. At the age of thirty-six he married the daugh¬
ter of Mr Holt, rector of Buxworth, in Cambridge-shire,
whom he succeeded in that living in October 1596. On his
quitting the university, the college gave him L.100. Butins
young wife, who had been bequeathed to him with the liv¬
ing, which was an advowson, having proved a bad economist,
and he himself being wholly addicted to his studies, he
soon became so much involved in debt that he was oblig¬
ed to sell his choice collection of books, consisting of al¬
most every Greek author then extant. When a new trans¬
lation of the Bible was directed to be made, Mr Bois
was elected one of the Cambridge translators. He per¬
formed not only his own, but also the part assigned to
another, with great reputation. Lie was also one of the
six who had met at Stationers’ Hall to revise the whole;
which task they performed in nine months, having each,
from the company of stationers, during that time, thirty
shillings a week. He afterwards assisted Sir Henry Sa-
vile in publishing the works of St Crysostom. In 1615
Dr Lancelot Andrews, bishop of Ely, bestowed on him,
unasked, the prebend in his church. He died on the 14th
of January 1643, in the eighty-fourth year of his age, and
left a great many manuscripts behind him, particularly a
Commentary on almost all the books of the New Testa¬
ment. When Bois was a young student at Cambridge, he
received from the learned Dr Whitaker three rules for
avoiding those distempers which usually attend a seden¬
tary life, to which he adhered with equal constancy and
success. The first was, To study always standing; the
second, Never to study in a window; and the third, Never
to go to bed with his feet cold.
Boyse, Samuel, a man remarkable for the fineness of
his genius, the lowness of his manners, and the wretch¬
edness of his life. He was born in 1708, and received
the rudiments of his education at a private school in Dub¬
lin. When he was but eighteen years old, his father, a
non-conformist clergyman, sent him to the university of
Glasgow, that he might finish his education there. But
he had not been a year at the university, when he fell in
love with the daughter of a tradesman in that city, and
was imprudent enough to interrupt his education by mar¬
rying her before he had entered into his twentieth year.
The natural extravagance of his temper soon exposed him
to want; and as he had now the additional charge of a
wife, his reduced circumstances obliged him to quit the
university, and go over with his wife (who also carried a
sister along with her) to Dublin, where they relied on the
old clergyman for support. Young Boyse was of all men the
farthest removed from the character of gentleman. He had
no graces of person, and still fewer of manners or conversa¬
tion. Never were three people of more libertine habits than
young Boyse, his wife, and his sister-in-law; yet the two
women wore such a maskof decency before the old non-con¬
formist gentleman, that his fondness was never abated. 4 he
estate which he possessed in Yorkshire was sold to dis¬
charge his son’s debts ; and his means were utterly wasted,
so that, when seized with his last sickness, he was entirely
supported by presents from his congregation, and at length
buried at their expense. We have no further account of
Boyse till we find him soon after his father’s death at Edin¬
burgh. At this place his poetical genius raised him many
friends, and some patrons of eminence. He published a
volume of poems in 1731, to which are subjoined The
Tahlature of Cebes, and A Letter upon Liberty, inserted in
the Dublin Journal, 1726, by which he obtained con¬
siderable reputation. These poems are addressed to the
Countess of Eglintoun. This amiable lady was the pa¬
troness of all men of wit, and greatly distinguished Boyse
BOY
BOY
169
while he resided in Scotland. Upon the death of the Vis-
-J countess Stormont, Boyse wrote an elegy, which was much
applauded by her ladyship’s relations. This elegy he en¬
titled The Tears of the Muses, as the deceased lady was
a woman of the most refined taste in the sciences, and a
great admirer of poetry. The Lord Stormont was so much
pleased with this mark of attention paid to the memory
of his lady, that he ordered a handsome present to be
given to Boyse by his attorney at Edinburgh. The no¬
tice which Lady Eglintoun and the Lord Stormont took
of our poet recommended him likewise to the patronage
of the Duchess of Gordon, who was so solicitous to raise
him above necessity, that she employed her interest in
procuring the promise of a place for him. She gave him
a letter, which he was next day to deliver to one of the
commissioners of the customs at Edinburgh. But it hap¬
pened that he was then some miles distant from the city;
and that the morning on which he was to have proceeded
to town with her Grace’s letter of recommendation prov¬
ed rainy. This slender circumstance was enough to dis¬
courage Boyse, who never looked beyond the present
moment. He declined going to towm on account of the
rainy weather; and thus letting slip the opportunity, the
place was bestowed upon another, which the commissioner
declared he kept for some time vacant in expectation of
seeing a person recommended by the Duchess of Gordon.
Having defeated all the kind intentions of his patrons to¬
wards him, Boyse at last fell into contempt and poverty,
which obliged him to quit Edinburgh. He communicated
his design of going to London to the Duchess of Gordon,
who, having still a high opinion of his poetical abilities,
gave him a letter of recommendation to Mr Pope, and ob¬
tained another for him to Sir Peter King, the lord chan¬
cellor of England. Lord Stormont recommended him to
the solicitor general his brother, and many other persons
of the first fashion. Upon receiving these letters he
quitted Edinburgh with great caution, despised by all,
and regretted by none but his creditors. Upon his arri¬
val in London, he went to Twickenham in order to de-
. liver the Duchess of Gordon’s letter to Mr Pope ; but that
gentleman not being at home, Mr Boyse never gave him¬
self the trouble to repeat his visit. He wrote poems ; but
these, though possessing some intrinsic merit, were lost to
the world, by being introduced with no advantage. He
had so great a propensity to low company, that his ac¬
quaintance were generally of such a cast as could be of
no service to him ; and those in higher life he addressed
by letters, not having sufficient breeding or common good
manners to converse familiarly with them. Thus unfit to
support himself in the world, he was exposed to a variety
of distresses, from which he could invent no means of ex¬
tricating himself except by writing mendicant letters. Yet
this man, of so abject a spirit, was voluptuous and luxuri¬
ous ; he had no taste for any thing elegant, but was to the
last degree expensive. Often wdien he had received a
guinea in consequence of a supplicating letter, he wmuld
go into a tavern, order a supper to be prepared, drink of
the richest wines, and spend all the money that had just
been given him in charity, without having any one to par¬
ticipate the regale with him, and whilst his wife and child
were starving at home.
About the year 1740, Boyse, reduced to the last extre¬
mity of human wretchedness, had not a shirt, a coat, nor
any kind of apparel, to put on; the sheets in which he
jay were carried to the pawn-broker’s, and he was ob-
iged to be confined to his bed with no other covering
than a blanket. He had little support except what he
got by writing letters in the most abject style; and he
remained for six weeks in the situation we have describ¬
ed. During this time he had some employment in writ-
vol. v.
ing verses for the Magazines. He sat up in bed with the
blanket wrapt about him, through which he had cut a
hole large enough to admit his arm, and placing the pa¬
per upon his knee, scribbled in the best manner he could
the verses he was obliged to write; whatever he got by
these, or by begging letters, being barely sufficient for the
preservation of life. And perhaps he would have remain¬
ed much longer in this distressful condition, had not a
compassionate gentleman, upon hearing the circumstance
related, ordered his clothes to be taken out of pawn, and
enabled him to appear abroad again.
About the year 1745 Boyse’s wife died. He was then
at Reading, and pretended much concern when he heard
of her death. His business at Reading was to compile a
review of the most material transactions at home and
abroad during the war; and in this he has included a
short account of the rebellion. Upon his return from
Reading, his behaviour was more decent than it had ever
been before; and hopes were entertained that a reforma¬
tion, though late, might be wrought upon him. He was
employed by a bookseller to translate Fenelon on the Ex¬
istence of a God; and during the time he was occupied in
this he married a second wife, a woman in low circum¬
stances, but well enough suited to his taste. He now be¬
gan to live with more regard to character, and supported
a better appearance than usual; but whilst his circum¬
stances were mending, and his irregular appetites losing
their hold, bis health visibly declined. While suffering
from a lingering illness, he had the satisfaction to observe
a poem of his, entitled The Deity, recommended by two
writers of very opposite principles and talents, Mr Field¬
ing the novellist, and the Reverend James Harvey, author
of The Meditations.
Boyse’s mind was often religiously disposed; he fre¬
quently talked upon this subject, and probably suffered a
great deal from remorse of conscience. The early impres¬
sions of his education were never entirely obliterated ; and
his whole life was a continued struggle between his rea¬
son and his passions, as he was always violating the dic¬
tates of the one, while he fell under the dominion of the
other. It was in consequence of this war in his mind
that he wrote his poem entitled The Recantation. In
May 1749 he died in obscure lodgings near Shoe-lane,
under the influence, it is believed, of sentiments very dif¬
ferent from those in which he had spent the greater part
of his life. An old acquaintance of his endeavoured to
collect money to defray the expenses of his funeral, and
spare his remains the dishonour of being buried by the
parish; but his efforts were vain, and the corpse of this
son of the Muses was, with very little ceremony, hurried
away by the parish-officers.
Never was a life spent with less grace than that of
Boyse, and never were good abilities given to less pur¬
pose. His genius was not confined to poetry alone. He
had a taste for painting, music, and heraldry; with the
last of which he was very well acquainted. His poetical
pieces, if collected, would form six moderate volumes.
Many of them are scattered in The Gentleman s Magazine,
marked with the letter Y, and the signature Alceus. Two
volumes were published in London. An ode of his in the
manner of Spenser, entitled The Olive, was addressed to
Sir Robert Walpole, which procured him a present of ten
guineas. He translated a poem from the High Dutch of
Van Haren, in praise of peace, upon the conclusion of
that of Aix-la- Chapelle; but the poem which procured
him the greatest reputation was that upon the attributes
of the Deity. He was employed by Mr Ogle to translate
some of Chaucer’s tales into modern English, which he
executed with great spirit, and received at the rate of
threepence a line for his. trouble. Mr Ogle published a
Y
Boyse.
170
BRA
B Quadro complete edition of Canterbury Tales modernized; and
'I Boyse’s name is put to such tales as were done by him.
Bracciolini. -   -- .... . ... . . ■ i _ —
In 1743 Boyse published, without his name, an ode on
the battle of Dettingen, entitled Albion's Triumph.
B QUx\DRO, Quadrato, or Durale, in Music, called
by the French b quarre, from its figure \\. This is what
we call B natural or sharp, in distinction to B mol or flat.
If the flat b be placed before a note in the thorough bass,
it intimates that its third is to be minor; and if placed
with any cipher over a note in the bass, as b 6, or b 5,
it denotes that the fifth or sixth thereto are to be flat.
But if the quadro fc| be placed over any note, or with a
cipher, in the thorough bass, it has the contrary effect;
for thereby the note or interval thereto is raised to its
natural order.
BRA, a city of the province of Alba, in the kingdom of
Sardinia. It stands on the river Stura, and contains 11,200
inhabitants, who find employment in the cultivation of
silk, and the extensive manufacture of silk goods, and in
making linen and coarse cloth.
BRABANCIONES, in the writers of the middle age,
a kind of Netherlands soldiery, infamous for rapine ; a sort
of commissioned banditti, who hired themselves to fight
for any one who could pay them. The word is variously
written by the historians of those days ; but every variety
is derived from the country of Brabant, which was the
chief nursery of these troops. They are also frequently
confounded with the Routiers, Roturiers, Ruptarii, Ru-
terarii, Corteraux, and others.
BRABANT. See Netherlands.
BRABEUTES, or Brabeuta, in Antiquity, an officer
among the Greeks, who presided at the public games, and
decided such disputes as occurred among the antagonists
in the gymnastical exercises. The number of brabeutse
was not fixed; sometimes there was only one, but more
commonly they amounted to nine or ten.
BRACCIOLINI, Francis, an Italian poet, a native of
Pistoja, and the friend of Pope Urban VIII. was born
about the year 1566. Removing to Florence, he was ad¬
mitted into the academy there, and devoted himself to
literature. At Rome he entered into the service of Car¬
dinal Maffeo Barberini, with whom he afterwards went to
France. After the death of Clement VIII. he returned
to his own country, and for some years prosecuted his
studies in retirement. When his patron Barberini was
elected pope, under the name of Urban VIII., Bracciolini
repaired to Rome, where he was well received, and made
secretary to the pope’s brother, Cardinal Antonio. He
had also the honour conferred on him of taking a surname
from the arms of the Barberini family, which were bees ;
and he was afterwards known by the name of Bracciolini
dell Api. He resided in Rome during the whole of Ur¬
ban’s pontificate, frequenting the most illustrious aca¬
demies, and listened to with general applause, but, at the
same time, censured for his sordid avarice. On the death
of this pontiff he returned to his native city, where he
died in the year 1645. Bracciolini, was a copious writer.
There is scarcely any species of poetry, epic, dramatic,
pastoral, lyric, or burlesque, which he did not attempt.
He is principally noted for his mock-heroic poem entitled
Scherno degli Dei, which disputes priority of date with
Tassoni’s Secchia Rapita. In merit, indeed, its inferio¬
rity is acknowledged, yet it obtained considerable applause.
Of his serious heroic poems, the most celebrated is the
Croce Racquistata, which by some is placed next to the
great works of Ariosto and Tasso, sed magno intervallo.
He celebrated the elevation of his patron Urban VIII. in
a poem of twenty-three books, which shows with what
facility he could write verses. His dramatic pastoral, en¬
titled L'Amoroso Sdegno, is accounted one of the best pro-
BRA
ductions of the age in which it was written; and some of Brace
his tragedies met with much applause, particularly his ||
Evandro. The following is a pretty correct list of his ac-
knowledged works : 1. La Croce Raquistata, poema eroico,
canti xv. Paris, Rueles, 1605, 8vo; 2. Lo Scherno degli
Dei, poema eroico-giocoso, canti xiii. klorence, 1618,4to;
3. LElezione di Papa Urbano VIII. Rome, 1628, 4to; 4.
La Rocella espugnata, Rome, 1630, 12mo; 5. La Bul-
gheria Convertita, poema eroico in xx. canti, Rome, 1637,
12mo; 6. EEvandro, TArpalice, la Pentesilea, tragedies,
Rome, 1612, 1613, and 1615, 8vo; 7. EAmoroso Sdegno,
favola Pastorale, Venice, 1597 ; 8. Era e Leandro, favola
Marittima congli intermedj Apparenti, Rome, 1630, 12mo;
and R Monserrato, a drama, Rome, 1629,12mo. The titles
of his other and less considerable performances may be
found in Mazzuchelli.
Brace is commonly taken for a couple or pair, and ap¬
plied by huntsmen to several kinds of game, as a brace of
bucks, foxes, hares, grouse, and the like.
Brace, in writing or printing, a crooked line inclosing
a passage, as in a triplet.
Braces, in the sea-language, are ropes belonging to all
the yards of a ship except the mizen, two on each yard,
reeved through blocks that are fastened to pennants, seiz¬
ed to the yard-arms. Their use is either to square or tra¬
verse the yards. Hence tcHorace the yard is to bring it
to either side. All braces come aftward on. Thus the
main brace comes to the poop; the main-top-sail brace
comes to the mizen-top, and thence to the main shrouds;
the fore and fore-top-sail braces come down by the main
and main-top-sail stays; and so of the rest. But the mizen-
bowline serves to brace to the yard, and the cross-jack
braces are brought forwards to the main-shrouds, when
the ship sails close on a wind.
BRACELET, an ornament worn on the wrist, and
much used among the ancients. It was made of different
materials, and in different fashions, according to the age
and quality of the wearer. Iheword is trench, btacelet;
which Menage derives further from braceletum, a diminu¬
tive of bracile, a word occurring in writers of the age of
Justinian; all formed from the Latin brachium, an arm.
It amounts to the same with what was called by the an¬
cients armilla, brachiale, occabus ; and in the middle ages
boga, bauga, armispatha.
BRACHMINS, or Brachmans, a branch of the an¬
cient Gymnosophists or philosophers of India. See Bra-
MINS.
BRACHYGRAPHY, the art of short-hand writing.
See Short Hand.
BRACHYLOGY, (from Pgaxvs, short, and Xoyos, ex¬
pression), in Rhetoric, the expressing of any thing in the
most concise manner. This, as far as is consistent with per¬
spicuity, is a virtue and beauty of style; but if obscurity
be the consequence, which is often the case, it becomes a
blemish and defect. Quintilian gives an instance of bra-
chylogy from Sallust: Mithridates corpore ingenti pennde
armatus ; “ Mithridates, as it were, armed with the huge¬
ness of his stature.” f
BRACKE, or Brache, a bailiwick in the duchy oi
Oldenburg, containing three towns, with 6108 inhabitants.
The chief place, of the same name, is situated on the Wi¬
ser, and is of importance from the ships, which requne a
greater depth of water than is to be found near Bresner,
commonly remaining to discharge or receive their cargoes
there. It contains only 1100 inhabitants.
BRACKENHEIM, a bailiwick in the circle of the
Neckar, of the kingdom of Wirtemburg. It extends over
ninety-eight square miles, and comprehends five cities, two
market-towns, and twenty-nine villages, with 24,096 inha¬
bitants. The city, which gives name to the bailiwick, is
BRA
Bra: t situated on the river Zaber, and contains an ancient castle,
|! and 1684 inhabitants, who produce some good wine.
5rad 4 BRACKET, among carpenters and others, means a kind
^ of wooden stay, serving to support shelves and the like.
Brackets, in a ship, the small knees, serving to support
the galleries, and commonly carved. The timbers that
support the grating in the head are also called brackets.
Brackets, in Gunnery, are the cheeks of the carriage
of a mortar. Being made of strong planks of wood, of
almost a semicircular figure, and bound round with thick
iron plates, they are fixed to the beds by four bolts, which
are called bed-bolts, and, rising up on each side of the mor¬
tar, serve to keep her at any elevation by means of some
strong iron bolts, called bracket-bolts, which go through
these cheeks or brackets.
BRACKLEY, a borough and market-town of the hun¬
dred of King’s Sutton, in Northamptonshire, sixty-three
miles from London. It had formerly much trade in wool,
and some manufactures; but now chiefly depends on the
agriculture of its vicinity. It has two churches, a hand¬
some market-house, an endowed free school, and an hos¬
pital. The market is held on Wednesday. It returns two
members to Parliament, chosen by the corporate body
under the influence of the Earl of Bridgewater. The in¬
habitants amounted in 1801 to 1495, in 1811 to 1580, and
in 1821 to 2236.
BRACTON, Henry, Lord Chief Justice of England in
the reign of Henry III., was probably a native of Devon¬
shire. He was educated at Oxford, where he took the
degree of doctor of laws, and was made one of the itine¬
rant judges about the year 1244. Ten years after he be¬
came chief justice, and had the Earl of Derby’s house in
London assigned him for his town residence during the
minority of that nobleman. He is said to have filled this
important office with singular reputation during twenty
years. The time of his death is not known; probably it
occurred in the reign of Edward I. He wrote De Legibus
et Consuetudinibus Anglice, which is one of the most an¬
cient and most methodical books on the laws of England.
I His method is copied from that of Justinian. This work
was printed at London in 1569, folio; and in 1640, in 4to.
BRADFORD, or Bradforth, a market-town in the
wapentake of Morley, of the west-riding of Yorkshire, 197
miles from London, and situated on a branch of the river
Aire. It is built partly on the side of a steep hill, with
some of the streets looking over the houses in the others.
It has extensive manufactures of worsted stuffs, and, dur¬
ing the war, had several founderies for cannon, and other
heavy iron articles. The market is held on Thursday.
The parish church is a remarkably fine Gothic edifice,
with a melodious peal of bells. The inhabitants amounted
in 1801 to 6393, in 1811 to 7761, and in 1821 to 13,064.
The whole parish of Bradford, comprehending twelve
townships or chapelries, contained, in 1801, 28,985 inha¬
bitants, who in 1821 had increased to 52,954.
Bradford, a market-town in the hundred of the same
name, of the county of Wilts, 104 miles from London. It
is situated on the banks of the river Avon, near to the
Kennet and Avon Canal, having, by those two channels,
communication with London and with Bristol. It is a
great manufacturing place for broad cloths and cassimeres.
The streets are narrow, crooked, and ill built; but the si¬
tuation is sheltered, and it is very healthy. There are
good markets on Monday and Saturday. The inhabitants
amounted in 1801 to 8540, in 1811 to 9230, and in 1821
to 10,231.
Bradford, John, a divine, and martyr to the Reforma¬
tion, was born in the early part of the reign of Henry
VIII. at Manchester, in Lancashire. Being a good pen¬
man and accountant, he became secretary to Sir John
BRA 171
Harrington, who was several times employed by King Brading
Henry, and his successor Edward VI., as paymaster to il
the troops abroad. Bradford at this time was a gay man, Bradley.
and to support his extravagance made free with the king’s
money; but being at last unable to endure the reflection
of his guilt, he determined to make restitution, and ac¬
tually repaid the money. Quitting his employment of se¬
cretary about the year 1547, he took chambers in the In¬
ner Temple, and for some time studied the law; but find¬
ing in himself an inclination to preach the gospel, he re¬
moved the following year to Catherine-hall, Cambridge,
where he applied with uncommon assiduity to the study
of divinity, and in a much shorter time than usual was
admitted to the degree of master of arts, and soon after
made fellow of Pembroke-hall. Bishop Ridley, who in
1550 was translated to the see of London, being charmed
with Bradford’s application and zeal, now sent for him to
the metropolis, ordained and appointed him his chaplain.
In 1553 he wtis also made chaplain to Edward VI.; during
which time he became one of the most popular preachers
in the kingdom. Such a reformer was too dangerous to be
tolerated in the succeeding reign. Accordingly, Mary had
hardly got possession of the crown when Bradford’s perse¬
cutions began. He was first confined in the Tower for sedi¬
tion, where he continued a year and a half. During this
time he wrote several epistles, which were dispersed in
various parts of the kingdom. He was afterwards removed
to other prisons, and at last brought to trial before that
court of inquisition in which Gardiner sat as chief inquisi¬
tor, where he defended his principles to the last, in con¬
tempt of their utmost power. They condemned him to
the flames, and he was accordingly burnt alive in Smith-
field, on the 1st of July 1555. His works are, 1. Seventy-
two Letters, written to various people, whilst the author
was in prison, and printed in Bishop Coverdale’s collection ;
2. Ten Letters, printed in Fox’s Acts and Monuments ; 3.
Complaint of Verity, 1559, 8vo; 4. Three Examinations
before the Commissioners, and his Private Talk with the
Priests, with the Original of his Life, 1561, 8vo; 5. Two
Notable Sermons 1574, 8vo, 1631; 6. Godly Meditations
and Prayers, 1614, 24to; 7. Treatise of Repentance,
1622; with several translations and other pieces.
BRADING, a town on the eastern side of the Isle of
Wight, in the county of Hampshire, ninety-nine miles
from London. It has a harbour capacious but shallow,
and dry at low water. It has little trade, depending
chiefly on the rural inhabitants in its vicinity. A new
church has been recently built here. The inhabitants
amounted in 1801 to 1529, in 1811 to 1715, and in 1821
to 2023.
BRADLEY, Dr James, a celebrated English astrono¬
mer, the third son of William and Jane Bradley, was born
at Sherborne in Dorsetshire in the year 1692. He was
educated for the university at North Leach by Mr Egles
and Mr Brice, who kept a boarding-school there; and
from North Leach he was sent to Oxford. His friends
intending him for the church, his studies were regu¬
lated with that view; and as soon as he was of sufficient
age to receive holy orders, the Bishop of Hereford, who
had conceived a great esteem for him, gave him the living
of Bridstow, and soon after he was inducted to that of
Welfrie in Pembrokeshire. But notwithstanding these
advantages, from which he might have promised himself
still further advancement in the church, he at length re¬
signed his livings, that he might be wholly at liberty to
pursue his favourite study of mathematics and astronomy.
He was nephew to Mr Pound, a gentleman favourably
known to the learned world by many excellent observa¬
tions, and who would have enriched it with more, if the
journals of his voyages had not been burnt at Pulo Con-
BRA
BRA
dore, when the place was set on fire, and the English who
had settled there cruelly massacred, Mr Pound himself
very narrowly escaping with his life. With this gentle¬
man Mr Bradley passed all the time he could spare from
the duties of his function ; and perhaps he sometimes tres¬
passed upon them. He was then sufficiently acquainted
with the mathematics to improve by Mr Pounds convei-
sation; yet it does not appear that, in this study, he had
any preceptor but his genius, or any assistant but his la¬
bour and perseverance.
It may easily be imagined that the example and con¬
versation of Mr Pound did not render Bradley fonder of
his profession than he was before. He continued, however,
as yet to fulfil the duties of it, though at this time he had
made such observations as laid the foundation of those
discoveries which afterwards distinguished him as one of
the best astronomers of his age. Although these observa¬
tions were made as it were by stealth, they gained him
at first the notice and then the friendship of the Lord
Chancellor Macclesfield, Mr (afterwards Sir Isaac) New¬
ton, Mr Halley, and many other members of the Royal
Society, into which he was soon elected a member. About
the same time the chair of Savilian professor of astronomy
becoming vacant by the death of the celebrated Dr Keil,
Mr Bradley was elected to succeed him on the 31st of
October 1721, being then just twenty-nine years old ; and
he had for his colleague Mr Halley, who was professor of
geometry on the same foundation. Bradley, upon his
being elected to this professorship, gave up both his liv¬
ings, and with great joy quitted a situation in which his
duty was directly at variance with his inclination. From
this time he applied himself wholly to the study of his
favourite science; and in the year 1727 he published his
Theory of the Aberration of the Fixed Stars, which is al¬
lowed' to be one of the most useful and ingenious disco¬
veries of modern astronomy. Three years after this dis¬
covery, by which Mr Bradley acquired great reputation,
he was appointed lecturer in astronomy and physics, at
the Museum of Oxford.
He pursded his studies with equal application and de¬
light; and in the course of his observations, which were
innumerable, he discovered that the inclination of the
earth’s axis upon the plane of the ecliptic was not always
the same, but that it varied backwards and forwards some
seconds, and that the period of these variations was nine
years. This period seemed altogether unaccountable, as
it could not be supposed to have any thing in common
with the revolution of the earth, which is performed in
one year. Mr Bradley, however, discovered the cause of
this phenomenon in the Newtonian system of attraction,
and published his discovery in 173/'; so that in the space
of about ten years he communicated to the world two of
the finest discoveries in modern astronomy, which will for
ever form an epoch in the history of that science.
Mr Bradley always preserved the esteem and friend¬
ship of Mr Halley, who, being worn out by age and in¬
firmities, thought he could do nothing better for the ser¬
vice of astronomy than procure for Mr Bradley the place
of regius professor of astronomy at Greenwich, which
he had himself held for many years with great reputation.
With this view he wrote many letters, which have been
since found among Mr Bradley’s papers, desiring his per¬
mission to apply for a grant ol the reversion of it to him,
and even offering to resign in his favour, if it should be
thought necessary; but before Mr Halley could bring
this kind project to bear, he died. Mr Bradley, however,
obtained the place afterwards, by the favour and interest
of Lord Macclesfield, who was subsequently president of
the Royal Society. As soon as the appointment of Mr
Bradley to this place became known, the university of Ox¬
ford sent him a diploma creating him doctor of divinity. Bradiet
The appointment of astronomer at Greenwich placed
Mr Bradley in his proper element, and he pursued his
observations with unwearied diligence. However nume¬
rous the collection of astronomical instruments at the ob¬
servatory at Greenwich, it was impossible that so accurate
an observer as Dr Bradley should not desire to increase
them, as well to answer those particular views, as in ge¬
neral to make observations with greater exactness. In
the year 1748, therefore, he took the opportunity of the
annual visit made by the Royal Society to the observatory,
in order to examine the instruments and receive the pro¬
fessor’s observations for the year, to represent so strongly
the necessity of repairing the old instruments, and pur¬
chasing new ones, that the society thought proper to re¬
present it to his majesty, and he gave them L.1000 for
that purpose. This sum was laid out under the direction
of Dr Bradley, who, with the assistance of Mr Graham
and Mr Bird, furnished the observatory with as complete
a collection of astronomical instruments as the most skil¬
ful and diligent observer could desire. Dr Bradley, fur¬
nished with such assistance, pursued his observations with
new assiduity ; an incredible number of which were found
after his death, and put into the hands of the Royal So¬
ciety.
It has been already observed, that when Dr Bradley
was elected to the professor’s chair at Oxford, he gave up
his two livings, which were at such a distance that he
could not possibly fulfil the duties of them himself; but
it happened, that after he was settled at Greenwich, the
living of that parish, which is very considerable, became
vacant, and was offered to him, as he was upon the spot to
perform the duty, and had the claim of uncommon merit
to the reward. This, however, Dr Bradley, to his honour,
refused, fearing that the duties of the astronomer vyould
too much interfere writh those of the divine. His majesty,
on hearing of the refusal, was so pleased writh it, that he
granted him a pension of L.250 a year, in consideration of
his great abilities and knowledge in astronomy and other
branches of the mathematics, which had proved so ad¬
vantageous to the commerce and navigation of Great Bri¬
tain, as is particularly mentioned in the grant, dated the
15th of February 1752. Dr Bradley, about the same time,
was admitted into the council of the Royal Society. In
the year 1748 he was admitted a member of the Royal
Academy of Sciences and Belles-lettres of Berlin, upon
the death of M. Crevier, first physician to his Catholic
majesty ; in the year 1752, a member of the Imperial Aca¬
demy at Petersburg; and in 1757, of that instituted at
Bologna.
Dr Bradley was still indefatigable in his observations,
and every honour he received became an incitement to
obtain new distinction ; but his corporeal abilities at
length declined, though his intellectual suffered no abate¬
ment. In the year 1780 he became extremely weak and
infirm; and towards the end of June 1762 he wras attack¬
ed with a total suppression of urine, which on the 12th of
Julyr following put an end to his life, in the seventieth
year of his age. He was buried at Mitchin Hampton, m
Gloucestershire, in the same grave with his mother an
his wife. In the year 1744 he married Susannah Peach,
the daughter of a gentleman of that name in Gloucester¬
shire, by whom he had only one daughter. _
As to his character, he was remarkable for a placid gentle
modesty, very uncommon in persons of an active temper
and robust constitution; yet, with this untroubled equa¬
nimity of temper, he was compassionate and liberal in the
highest degree. Although he was a good speaker,. an
possessed the rare but happy art of expressing his ideas
with the utmost precision and perspicuity, yet no man
BRA
,idni|t i was a greater lover of silence, and he never spoke except
II when he thought it absolutely necessary. He did indeed
a(ls!|r think it necessary to speak when he had a fair opportu-
^ nity to communicate any useful knowledge in his own
way; and he encouraged those who attended his lectures
to ask him questions, by the exactness with which he an¬
swered, and the care he took to adapt himself to every
capacity. He was not more inclined to write than to
speak, for he has published very little. He had a natural
diffidence, which made him always afraid that his works
would injure his character; and he therefore suppressed
many, which probably were well worthy of the public at¬
tention. He first became known, as it were, in spite of
himself; but the distinction which he avoided followed
him. He was acquainted with many of the first persons
in this kingdom, eminent for rank as well as abilities ; he
was honoured by men of learning in general; and there
was not an astronomer of any eminence in the world with
whom he had not a literary correspondence. Upon the
whole, it may be said of Dr Bradley, that no man culti¬
vated eminent talents with more success, or had a better
claim to be ranked among the greatest astronomers of his
age.
BRADN1NCH, a town of the hundred of Hayridge, in
the county of Devon, 170 miles from London, and six from
Exeter. It is a poor manufacturing place, but has a cor¬
poration, and formerly returned two members to Parlia¬
ment ; but the inhabitants were relieved from the expense
on the plea of poverty, on payment of five marks, in the
reign of Henry VII. The inhabitants in 1801 amounted
to 1187, in 1811 to 1321, and in 1821 to 1511.
BRADS, among artificers, a kind of nails used in build¬
ing, which have no spreading heads as other nails have.
They are distinguished among ironmongers by six names ;
as joiners-brads, flooring-brads, batten-brads, bill-brads,
quarter-heads, and the like. Joiners’-brads are for hard
wainscot; batten-brads are for soft wainscot; bill-brads
are used when a floor is laid in haste, or for shallow joists
subject to warp.
I BRADSHAW, Henry, a Benedictine monk, was born
at Chester about the middle of the fifteenth century.
Discovering an early propensity to religion and literature,
he was received while a boy into the monastery of St
Werberg in that city; and having there imbibed the ru¬
diments of education, he was afterwards sent to Glouces¬
ter College, in the suburbs of Oxfoi’d. Here for a time he
studied theology with the novices of his order, and then
returned to his convent at Chester, where, in the latter
part of his life, he applied himself chiefly to the study of
history, and wrote several books. He died in the year
1513, the fifth of Henry VIII. His poetry is not inferior
to that of any of his contemporaries. His works are, 1.
De antiquitate et magnificentia Urbis Cestrice ; 2. Chroni-
con ; 3. The Life of the glorious virgin St Werberg, print¬
ed at London, 1521, 4to, in verse. The life of St Wer-
I berg forms only part of this work, which contains also a
description of the kingdom of Mercia, a life of St Ethel-
dred, a life of St Sexburg, the foundation and history of
Chester, and the chronicles of some kings.
BRADSHAW, John, descended of an ancient family,
originally from Derbyshire, and born in 1586, officiated as
president of the court, assembled at Whitehall, which tried
Charles I. and condemned that unfortunate prince to lose
his head on the scaffold. Being appointed speaker or
president of the Parliament under Cromwell, he had a
guard assigned him for the safety of his person, together
vyith apartments in Westminster, a sum of L.5000 ster¬
ling, and considerable territorial domains. But he was
not destined to enjoy long the recompense of the judicial
service he had rendered ; for, according to the pamphlets
BRA 173
of the time preserved in the British Museum, he with- Bradwar-
drew from Parliament, and died in obscurity on the 31st din
October 1659, a year after the death of the Protector. Ji
On the restoration of Charles II. the bodies of Bradshaw, , ‘ai -vr-
Cromwell, and Ireton, were disinterred, suspended on the '
gallows at Tyburn, and then burned. But several collec¬
tors of anecdotes have asserted that Bradshaw’s remains
escaped this posthumous indignity; for, according to
them, having caused a report of his death to be circulat¬
ed, he passed into the colonies under a feigned name, in
order there to enjoy the fortune he had acquired ; and sig¬
nalized himself in various contests in which the colonists
were involved with the native Indian tribes. Some sup¬
pose that he retired to Barbadoes; others that he sought
refuge in Jamaica, the conquest of Cromwell, where his
epitaph is said to have been met with, written in the style
of the most ardent republican. {Gentlemans Magazine,
vol. liv. p. 834.) In Peveril of the Peak this story is put
into the mouth of one of the characters, Major Ralph
Bridgenorth, and told with admirable felicity, though, of
course, with very considerable embellishment.
BRADWARDIN, Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury,
surnamed the Profound Doctor, was born at Hartfield in
Sussex about the close of the thirteenth century. He
was educated at Merton College, Oxford, where he took
the degree of doctor of divinity, and acquired the reputa¬
tion of a profound scholar, a skilful mathematician, and
an able divine. Authors are not at one as to his first pre¬
ferments. Pitt says he was professor of divinity at Ox¬
ford. They agree, however, in asserting, that from being
chancellor of the diocese of London, he became a cour¬
tier and confessor to Edward III. whom he constantly at¬
tended during his war with France; assisting that victo¬
rious prince with his advice, animating the troops, and
fervently praying for their success. After his return from
the war he was made prebendary of Lincoln, and subse¬
quently archbishop of Canterbury. He died at Lambeth in
the year 1349, forty days after his consecration, and was
buried in St Anselm’s Chapel, near the south wall. His
works are, 1. De causa Dei, printed at London, 1618, pub¬
lished by J. PI. Savil; 2. De Geometria speculativa, Paris,
1495, 1512, 1530 ; 3. De Arithmetica practica, Paris, 1502,
1512; A. De Proportionibus, Paris, 1495, Venice, 1505,
folio ; 5. De Quadratura Circuli, Paris, 1495, folio.
BRADY, Robert, a physician and historian of the
seventeenth century, was born in the county of Norfolk,
and admitted into Caius College, Cambridge, in 1643.
Pie took his degree of bachelor of physic in 1653, was
created doctor in that faculty in 1660, and the same year
elected master of his college in pursuance of the king’s
mandate to that effect. In 1685 he received the appoint¬
ment of keeper of the records in the Tower of London,
and soon after was chosen regius professor of physic in
the University of Cambridge. In 1679 he wrote a letter
to Dr Sydenham on the influence of air, which was pub¬
lished among the works of that learned person. But his
largest and most considerable perfornvance was An In¬
troduction to the old English History, and A Complete His¬
tory of England from the first entrance of the Romans unto
the end of the reign of King Richard II., in three volumes
folio, usually bound in two. In his Introduction Dr Brady
maintains, first, that the representatives of the Commons
in parliament, knights, citizens, and burgesses, were not
introduced until the forty-ninth of Henry III.; secondly,
that William Duke of Normandy made an absolute con¬
quest of the nation; and, thirdly, that the succession to
the crown of England is hereditary, descending to the
nearest blood, and not elective;—principles which were
afterwards adopted by Plume as the basis of his History.
In the year 1681 Brady was chosen one of the represen-
II f
174 BRA
Brady tatives for the university of Cambridge, in the parliament
II which met at Oxford; and again, 1685, in the parliament
Bra£- of James II., to whom he afterwards became physician in
ordinary. But the Revolution put a stop to his public
career, and he died in August 1700, immediately after
the publication of his History. Dr Brady s other produc¬
tions were, 1. An Answer to Mr Petyts Book on Parlia¬
ments, London, 1681, 8vo; and, 2. An Historical lrpa"
tise of Cities and Burghs or Boroughs, ibid. 1690, folio,
reprinted in 1704.
Brady, Nicholas, an English divine, the son of Nicho¬
las Brady, an officer of the king’s army in the civil war,
was born at Bandon in the county of Cork in October
1659. He continued in Ireland till he was twelve years
of age; at which period he was sent over to England, en¬
tered at Westminster School, and thence in due time re¬
moved to Christ Church, Oxford, where he remained
about four years. He then returned to Dublin, where
his father resided, and immediately commenced bachelor
of arts at Trinity College, which afterwards, on his at¬
taining due standing, presented him with a diploma con¬
ferring the degree of doctor in divinity. His first eccle¬
siastical preferment was to a prebend in the Cathedral of
St Barry at Cork, to which he was collated by Bishop
Wettenhall. He was a zealous promoter of the Revolu¬
tion, and suffered in consequence. When the troubles
broke out in Ireland in 1690, Brady, by his influence,
thrice prevented the burning of the town of Bandon, after
as many orders had been issued for its destruction; and
the same year, being deputed by the people of Bandon,
he went over to England to solicit parliament for the re¬
dress of some grievances they had suffered while King
James was in Ireland. What success attended this mis¬
sion we know not; but Brady soon afterwards, quitting
his preferments in Ireland, settled in London, where he
was chosen minister of St Catherine Cree Church, and
lecturer of St Michael’s Wood-street. He subsequently
became minister of Richmond in Surrey, and Stratford-
upon-Avon in Warwickshire, and at length rector of Clap-
ham in Surrey, which, together with his living of Rich¬
mond, he held till his death. He was also chaplain to
the Duke of Ormond’s troop of horse-guards, and to their
majesties King William and Queen Mary. He died in
May 1726, aged sixty-six. Dr Brady was accounted a
man of an agreeable temper, and had the reputation of
being a polite gentleman, an excellent preacher, and an
indifferent poet. His name is familiar as the translator, in
conjunction with Mr Tate, of a new version of the Psalms,
which was licensed in 1696. He also translated Virgil’s
iEneid, published by subscription in 1726, in four vols.
8vo; and a tragedy entitled The Rape, or the Innocent
Imposture, both very indifferent performances. His prose
works consist of Sermons, three volumes of which were
published by himself, and other three by his eldest son,
who was a clergyman at Tooting in Surrey.
BRAEMAR, a district of Scotland, in the county of
Aberdeen. See Aberdeenshire.
BRAG, a game at cards, where as many may partake
as the cards will supply; the eldest hand dealing three
to each person at one time, and turning up the last card
all round. This being done, each gamester puts down
three stakes, one for each card; and the first stake is won
by the best card turned up in the dealing round; begin¬
ning from the ace, king, queen, knave, and so downwards.
When cards of the same value are turned up to two or
more of the gamesters, the eldest hand gains; but it is to
be observed that the ace of diamonds wins, to whatever
hand it be turned up. The second stake is won by what
is called the brag, which consists in one of the gamesters
challenging the rest to turn up cards equal to his. But
BRA
it is to be observed that a pair of aces is the best brag, a Bra^ ^
pair of kings the next, and so on ; and a pair of any sort || ^
wins the stake from the most valuable single card. In W
this consists the great diversion of the game; for, by'wY'l'j
the artful management of the looks, gestures, and voice,
it frequently happens that a pair of fives, trois, or even
deuces, outbrags a much higher pair, and even some pairs
royal, to the no small merriment of the company. The
knave of clubs is here a principal favourite, making a pair
with any other card in hand, and with any other two cards
a pair royal. The third stake is won by the person who
first makes up the cards in his hand one and thirty; each
dignified card going for ten, and drawing from the pack,
as usual in this game.
BRAGA, a city, the capital of the province Entre
Douro-e-Minho, in Portugal. It is situated on an elevated
plain near the river Savado, is fortified and defended by a
citadel. The streets are irregular and ill paved, and the
houses large, but of an antique fashion. It has an arch¬
bishop, and, besides the cathedral, six churches, seven mo¬
nasteries, an archiepiscopal palace, and several hospitals.
The inhabitants amount to 18,000, who are occupied in
various manufactures, chiefly for the consumption of the
kingdom. Long. 8. 16. W. Lat. 41. 33. N.
BRAGANZA, a city, the capital of the province of Tras
os Montes, in Portugal, and the place from which the reign¬
ing family originated. It is situated on the river Fervenca,
one of the tributary streams of the Sabor, is surrounded
with walls, and contains about 5000 inhabitants, employed
chiefly in the silk trade. Long. 6. 36. W. Lat. 41. 47. N.
BRAHE, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer, descended
of an illustrious family, originally of Sweden, but settled
in Denmark, was born on the 14th December 1546, at
Knudstorp, in the county of Schonen. He was taught
Latin when seven years old, and studied five years under
private tutors. His father dying, his uncle sent him, in
April 1559, to study philosophy and rhetoric at Copenha¬
gen. The great eclipse of the sun, on the 21st of August
1560, happening at the precise time the astronomers had
foretold, he began to look upon astronomy as something
divine, and purchasing the Ephemerides of Stadius, gained
some notion of the theory of the planets. In 1562 he
was sent by his uncle to Leipsic to study law; but astro¬
nomy wholly engrossed his thoughts, and he employed all
his pocket-money in purchasing books on that science.
Having procured a small celestial globe, he used to wait
till his tutor went to bed, in order to examine the constel¬
lations and learn their names; and when the sky was
clear, he spent whole nights in viewing the stars. In 1565
a difference arising between Brahe and a Danish noble¬
man, they fought, and the former had part of his nose cut
off, which defect he so artfully supplied with one made of
gold and silver, that it was scarcely perceptible. It was
about this time that he began to apply to chemistry, pro¬
posing nothing less than the discovery of the philosophers
stone. In 1571 he returned to Denmark, and was fa¬
voured by his maternal uncle Steno Belle, a lover of learn¬
ing, with a convenient place at his castle of Herritzvad,
near Knudstorp, for making his observations, and build¬
ing a laboratory. But having married a country girl be¬
neath his rank, this occasioned such a violent quarrel be¬
tween him and his relations, that the king was obliged to
interpose in order to reconcile them. In 1574, by Ins
majesty’s command, he read lectures upon the theory of
comets at Copenhagen ; and the year following he began
his travels through Germany, and proceeded as far as
Venice. He then resolved to remove his family, and
settle at Basel; but Frederick II. king of Denmark being
informed of his design, and unwilling to lose a man who
was capable of proving such an ornament to his country,
promised to enable him to pursue his studies, to bestow
L Up0n him for life the island of Huen in the Sound, to erect
an observatory and laboratory there, and to defray all the
expenses necessary for carrying on his designs. Tycho
Brahe readily embraced this proposal; and accordingly
the first stone of the observatory was laid on the 8th of
August 1576. The king also gave him a pension of two
thousand crowns out of the treasury, a fee in Norway, and
the canonry of Roschild, which brought him in a thousand
more. James VI. of Scotland, afterwards raised to the
crown of England, going to Denmark in order to marry
the Princess Anne, paid a visit to our author in his retire¬
ment at Uranienburg, made him several presents, and
with his own hand wrote a copy of verses in his praise;
but soon after the death of King Frederick he was de¬
prived of his pension, fee, and canonry; upon which, find¬
ing himself incapable of bearing the expenses of his ob¬
servatory, he went to Copenhagen, whither he brought
some of his instruments, and continued his astronomical
observations in that city, till Valkendorf, chamberlain to
the household of Christian IV., by the king’s order, com¬
manded him to discontinue them. He then removed his
family to Rostock, and afterwards to Holstein, in order to
solicit Henry Ranzou to introduce him to the emperor;
and that gentleman complying with his request, he was
received by the emperor at Prague with the utmost civi¬
lity and respect. That prince gave him a magnificent
house till he could procure one for him better fitted for
astronomical observations ; assigned him a pension of three
thousand crowns; and promised, upon the first opportu¬
nity, a fee for him and his descendants. But he did not
long enjoy his good fortune; for, on the 24th of October
1601, he died of a retention of urine, in the fifty-fifth year
of his age, and was interred in a very magnificent manner
in the principal church at Prague, where a noble monu¬
ment was erected to his memory. His skill in astronomy
is universally known, and he is famed as the inventor of a
new system, which he endeavoured, though without suc¬
cess, to establish upon the ruins of that of Copernicus.
He was very credulous with regard to judicial astrology
and presages. If he met an old woman when he went
out of doors, or a hare upon the road in a journey, he used
to turn back immediately, persuaded that it was a bad
omen. When he lived at Uranienburg, he had in his
house a madman, whom he placed at his feet at table, and
fed with his own hands. As he imagined that every thing
spoken by mad persons presaged something, he carefully
observed all that this man said ; and because it sometimes
proved true, he imagined it might always be depended
on. A mere trifle put him in a passion ; and against per¬
sons of the first rank, with whom it was his duty to keep
on good terms, he openly discovered his resentment. He
was very apt to rally others, but highly provoked if the
same liberty was taken with himself. His principal works
are, I. Progymnasmata Astronomica, Uranienburg, 1588
and 1589, 2 vols. 4to; 2. De Mundi AEthcrei recentioribus
phamomenis, 1588, 4to; 3. Epislolarum Astronomicarum
libri duo, Francfort, 1610, 4to ; 4. Calendarium Naturale
Magicum, 1582; 5. Oratio de Disciplinis Mathematicis,
Copenhagen, 1610, 8vo. His observations were collected
by his disciples, and published in 1666 in Historice Coe-
lestis xx. libris.
It was the friendship of Tycho which formed Kepler,
and directed him in the career of astronomy. Without
this friendship, and without the numerous observations
of Tycho, of which Kepler found himself the depositary
after the death of his master, he would never have been
able to discover those great laws of the system of the
world which have been called Kepler’s laws, and which,
combined with the theory of central forces discovered by
Huygens, conducted Newton to the grandest discovery Brahilow
which has ever been made in the sciences, namely, that II
of universal gravitation. Brahmins.
BRAHILOW, or in Turkish Ibrahil, a city on the
northern bank of the Danube, in the province of Wal-
lachia, in European Turkey. It has a strong citadel to
defend the passage over the river, which is here divided
into several branches. The trade of the place is consi¬
derable, both in corn and in preserved sturgeons. It is
said to contain, besides the garrison, 12,500 inhabitants.
Long. 27. 49. E. Lat. 44. 56. N.
BRAHMAPOOTRA, or Burrampooter, the largest
river in India, which rises on the opposite side of the
same narrow range of snow-clad mountains from which the
Ganges flows. Its source has never been exactly explor¬
ed, but it is supposed to be about the 32d degree of north
latitude and 82d of east longitude. After winding east¬
ward with a rapid current through Thibet, to the south of
the Himalaya Mountains, where it is called Sanpoo, it
washes the border of the territory of Lassa, and passes
within thirty miles to the south of this capital of the Teshoo
Lama. Thence it flows in a widely extended bed, and
through many channels, in which is formed a multitude
of islands. It receives the Painomtchieu, and many other
lesser streams, before it passes Lassa, and penetrates the
frontier mountains that divide Thibet from Assam. It
then makes a vast sweep, and extending far to the east,
until it approaches within 220 miles of Yunan, the most
western province of China, it makes a sudden curve in east
longitude 96, first to the south and afterwards to the west,
where it enters the province of Assam. Here it receives
numerous tributary streams; and in longitude 91° 18' it
divides into two great branches, which inclose an island of
120 miles in length. Continuing its course westward, it
enters the province of Bengal, near to the town of Goal-
para ; after which it makes a circuit round the Garrow
Mountains ; and then altering its course to the south, it is
joined by the Megna in latitude 24° 10', in the district of
Dacca ; and finally unites with the Ganges, about 40 miles
from the sea. This great river, including its windings, has
a course of about 1650 miles in length. Until 1765, the
Brahmapootra was unknown in Europe as a great river,
and Major Rennell, on exploring it, was surprised to find
it larger than the Ganges. A small portion of the Brahma¬
pootra flows through territories known to Europeans, and
its navigation is supposed to be obstructed by cataracts
on its entrance into Assam. This great river, during a
course of 400 miles through Bengal, in all respects re¬
sembles the Ganges, except in one particular, namely, that
during the last 60 miles before its junction with the Ganges
it forms a stream which is regularly from four to five miles
wide, and, but for its freshness, might be considered an
arm of the sea. The junction of the two mighty streams
of the Brahmapootra and the Ganges produces an im¬
mense body of fi’esh water, such as is only exceeded by
some of the great rivers in Africa, which lie entirely with¬
in the limits of the tropical rains, or the Amazons and
Orinoco in South America. The bore, which is known to
be occasioned by the sudden influence of the tide into a
river or narrow strait, prevails in all the passages between
the islands and sands situated in the gulf formed by the
confluence of the Brahmapootra and the Ganges, in a
greater degree than in other rivers. (f.)
BRAHMINS, Bramins, Brahmans, or Brachmans,
called by the Greek writers, the name employ¬
ed to designate that body or order of priests who have al¬
ways been the sole guardians, preceptors, and ministers of
the Hindu religion. It is formed, by a slight modification,
from that of Brahma, which is itself a derivative from
Brahm, the Supreme Being, indicating the first of the
176
BRAHMINS.
Brahmins, three divine hypostases of the Hindu mythology, the
/ creator of the world under Brahm, and the author of the
sacred books called Vedas.
The Brahmins constitute the first or highest of the four
tchadi or castes into which the Hindu nation continues to
be divided, as it has been from a very remote antiquity.
The origin of this singular division or classification, which
prevailed in ancient Egypt as it still does in the penin¬
sula of India, and which was based upon nearly the same
principles in both, is hid in the obscurity of ages. Each
caste has its peculiar privileges, duties, and laws, all of
which are incommunicable and unalienable. I he more
honourable the caste is, the more numerous are the re¬
strictions to which its members are subjected, and the
higher the prerogatives they enjoy. The fourth caste has
the fewest observances to follow, but it has also the least
portion of respect, and is the most limited in its rights
and privileges. Every individual remains invariably in
the caste in which he is born; practises its duties as pre¬
scribed in the laws relative thereto ; and is precluded fiom
ever aspiring to a higher, whatever may be his genius, his
virtue, his patriotism, or his courage. The law which de¬
termines every man’s position in society is immutable;
and dreadful are the penalties which await him who ven¬
tures to dispense with even the most absurd rules laid
down in it. To this point of honour the Hindu patiently
sacrifices not only health, but life itself; degradation and
infamy await him who transgresses its dictates; yet, al¬
though the code of which this constitutes part has been
in force for a long series of ages, the people have never
(perhaps for this very reason) thought of moderating its
rigour or mitigating its oppression.
The leading castes among the Hindus are, as we have
already observed, four. These are, first, the Brahmins;
secondly, the Kshatriyas, or soldiers, including the princes
and sovereigns, and hence sometimes called the caste of
Rajahs or Rajeputras; thirdly, the Vaisyas, consisting of
agriculturists and shepherds; and, fourthly, the Sudras
or labourers. It is with the first of these, however, namely
the Brahmins, that we are at present exclusively concern¬
ed. This is the sacred or sacerdotal caste, the members
of which have maintained an authority more exalted, com¬
prehensive, and absolute, than the priests of any other
people, excepting perhaps those of ancient Egypt before
the Persian invasion under Cambyses. According to the
received Brahminical tradition, that priesthood^ originally
proceeded from the mouth of Brahma, which is the seat
of wisdom, and thus, by the mere fact of their genesis,
became invested with an undoubted superiority over the
other castes, which sprung from inferior organs or mem¬
bers of the hypostatical creator; as the Kshatriyas from
his heart, the Vaisyas from his belly, and the Sudras from
his feet. Of the Brahmins there are seven subdivisions,
which derive their origin from the seven Rishis or Peni¬
tents, the most sacred personages acknowledged by the Hin¬
dus. The Rishis are of high antiquity, being mentioned
in the Vedas; and they are believed to have occasionally
exercised a salutary superintendence over the gods them¬
selves, visiting with their holy displeasure such of the divine
impersonations as had been guilty of any irregularity. Their
residence was fixed in the remote and elevated regions of
the north; and hence the Brahmins of the north are es¬
teemed as the noblest, from their proximity to the great
fountain. The Gymnosophists, or Brahmins of antiquity,
lived much more secluded than those of modern times,
who mingle to a considerable extent in secular concerns.
But the latter have made almost no change in their rules
of abstinence, their ablutions, and multiplied ceremonies.
Their great prerogative consists in being the sole deposi¬
taries and expounders of the Vedas or sacred books, four
in number, for each of which there is a separate class or Brahrej
branch of the Brahmins. This prerogative they guard yj
with the most jealous care, affirming, that if a Sudra or other
profane person were to attempt to read even the title of
these books, his head would instantly cleave asunder; and
a Brahmin bold enough to exhibit the sacred volumes to
profane eyes would incur the penalty of irretrievable ex¬
pulsion from his caste. Yet, with much judgment, they
make an exception as to the miracle in favour of Eu¬
ropeans ; nor has it been found expedient to enforce the
law of caste against such Brahmins as may have indulged
them with a perusal or even with copies of the Vedas.
The great body of the Brahmins profess to pay equal
veneration to the three hypostases of the godhead, Brah¬
ma, Vishnu, and Siva. But some attach themselves ex¬
clusively to one of these impersonations; while others,
admitting the divine emanation of three, exhibit only a
preference in their homage, founded on certain fanciful
distinctions. Thus Vishnu and Siva, though nominally
co-ordinate with Brahma, have long been objects of par¬
tiality with individuals who, in virtue of such preference,
are formed into sects, distinguished by the name of the
hypostasis to which their chief homage is paid. The wor¬
shippers of Vishnu are denominated Namadhari, from bear¬
ing in their foreheads the mark called Kama, consisting
of three perpendicular lines, crossed at the lower extre¬
mity by a horizontal one, so as to form a sort ol trident;
and their dress is of a deep orange colour. The devo¬
tees of Siva are denominated Lingamhari, from wearing
the Lingam stuck in their hair, or attached to the arm in
a tube of gold or silver. The former are notorious for in¬
temperance, and on that account disliked by the people;
the latter, for the most part, observe great moderation both
in eating and drinking. The devotees of Vishnu account as
sacred the monkey, the garuda, and the cobra capella; and
any of their number who inadvertently kills one of these
animals is obliged to expiate his supposed crime by a far¬
cical sacrifice, in which it is pretended that a human vic¬
tim is immolated and brought to life again. The mum¬
mery of this mock expiation is abundantly ridiculous. A
little blood is drawn from a superficial wound in the thigh,
inflicted with a knife; the victim is then supposed to be
slain, and remains motionless until the farce ot resuscita¬
tion is performed, when he of course comes to life again.
This is performed with immense ceremony, in the presence
of a great concourse of spectators, who are commonly
feasted on the fine levied from the culprit; and a similar
punishment is 'sometimes inflicted for other offences. Ihe
worshippers of Vishnu and Siva, though separated by a
very thin wall of partition, are continually at variance,
each sect not only striving to exalt their ovvn divinity, but
to revile that of their adversaries. The former consider
the wearing of the Lingam as the most heinous of all sins,
the latter, on the other hand, maintain that all who bear
the Nama will, after death, be tormented in hell with a
three-pronged fork, resembling that tridental mark. But
these sectarian notions are less prevalent among the Brah¬
mins than the other castes. Brahmins of the Vishnu faith
are only to be found in the provinces situated to the south
of the Krishna, and they are regarded ’with contempt by
their more tolerant brethren, who, in consequence, refuse
to admit them to their tables or to their ceremonies, and
anxiously exclude them from any public employments
which happen to be at their disposal. The sects of the
Nama and the Lingam are further split into subdivisions,
which dispute warmly on the subjects of their differences,
but are ever ready to unite wThen the general interests of
the order are concerned. _
There are four stages in the life of a Brahmin. Ilie
first commences at the age of from seven to nine, when
B R A II
Srali ns. he is invested with the triple cord, which is suspended
from the left shoulder, and forms the badge of his order.
The youth thus initiated is denominated Brahmachari. At
this stage he is occupied in learning to read and write;
in committing to memory portions of the Vedas, and the
efficacious forms of prayer called the Mantras; and in
acquiring other knowledge. It is his duty to abstain from
the use of betel, to put no ornaments in his hair, to bathe
daily, and to offer the sacrifice called Homam twice a
day; but subjects so young seldom observe the rules
strictly. A certain proficiency, indeed, is enjoined in
committing to memory the sacred books ; but neither in
this nor in the acquisitions which are deemed scientific is
there much emulation. They are not slack, however, in
learning to understand the privileges belonging to their
caste, which are great and various. One of these is a
right to ask alms, which they do not in the style of men¬
dicants, but in that of confident yet not insolent claimants ;
another is, an exemption from taxes of all kinds, whether
general or local; and a third consists in an immunity from
capital, and generally from corporal punishment, however
heinous the crimes they may commit, imprisonment being
the only penalty to which they are liable. At this stage
also they learn the different points of bodily purity which,
as good Brahmins, it is necessary for them to observe
through life. These are so numerous as to be excessively
burdensome, and to impose on them the duty of constant
and jealous vigilance. Not only are they defiled by touch¬
ing a dead body, but even by attending a funeral. Child¬
birth and constitutional changes render females impure ;
and certain ablutions and forms of prayer are necessary
to remove the stain. An earthen vessel, if it has been
used by a profane person, or applied to certain specified
purposes, becomes so polluted that it cannot be used again,
and must be broken ; but metallic vessels may be purified
by washing. Leather and all kinds of skins, except those
of the tiger and antelope, are held to be excessively im¬
pure ; and the boots and gloves of Europeans are to them
the most disagreeable of all articles of dress. Brahmins,
in walking or sitting, must take care they do not touch a
bone, a broken pot, a rag, or a leaf from which any one
has eaten; in drinking, they must pour the liquid from
above, without touching the vessel with their lips; and
they are forbidden to touch the greater part of animals,
particularly the dog, which is accounted the most pollut¬
ing. The water which they drink must be carefully
drawn, though never by a Sudra; and if two Brahmins
draw water together, their pitchers must not come in con¬
tact, otherwise one or both must be broken. Animal food
of all kinds is strictly prohibited ; and among the Lingam
branch of the order the prohibition is most rigidly ob¬
served, notwithstanding which this class or sect has always
been remarkable for great slovenliness in their external
habits. The Brahmins are also taught to entertain a
horror of spiritual defilement, resulting from perversity of
will, or the actual commission of sin; and although the
different modes in which it is contracted are but obscure¬
ly indicated, the rules for purification by means of ablu¬
tions, penances, and ceremonies, are very fully and dis¬
tinctly laid down.
The second stage of a Brahmin’s life is the state of
Lrilqistha, which takes place when he is married, and has
children; both these circumstances being essential to its
constitution. Marriage is an important object to a Brah¬
min, inasmuch as it iisures him consideration and respec¬
tability in society. Hence, when he becomes a widower,
he falls from his station, and is consequently under a
moral necessity of re-entering the married state. But the
case is quite different with widowed females, who are not
permitted to marry a second time. The Sunnyassis, how-
vol. v.
MINS. 177
ever, probably in imitation of the ancient Rishis, lead lives Brahmins,
of celibacy ; and the acting priests, called Gurus, also live
in a state of single blessedness, although their morality
in this particular is sufficiently relaxed. When a Brah¬
min, therefore, takes his wife home and has children by
her, he enters his second state, or that of Grihastha. His
daily duties and ceremonies now become more multiplied
and imperative ; and every act of his life must be perform¬
ed according to certain rules, some of them sufficiently
repugnant to European notions of propriety. These ob¬
servances, which from their number and incessant recur¬
rence would seem burdensome and oppressive, become so
habitual from daily practice that they are not felt as gall¬
ing or irksome. On the contrary, the Brahmins perform
all of them cheerfully, and no innovation is ever proposed.
Some Hindu writers, indeed, have turned them into ridi¬
cule, and joked at the expense of a ritual which they
nevertheless continued in practice to observe. But, from
all that we can learn, the authors who have indulged in
this license were never Brahmins, but generally Sudras,
or men of the lowest caste, who had been contaminated
by association with Europeans. Yemana, Agastya, Pata-
natupulai, and Tiruvaluven, a Pariah, the principal scoffers,
answer to this description ; they are all modern, and either
Sudras or men of no caste whatever. If any ancient au¬
thors wrote in the same strain, their names and their
works have equally perished. At the same time, although
speculative scepticism be but rarely avowed, practical
transgressions are secretly indulged in, especially in large
towns, where concealment is easy and temptation strong.
Nor is this all. Many Brahmins habitually engage in
transactions and employments which appear altogether at
variance with their professions and pretensions. They are
commonly the political functionaries or agents of the na¬
tive princes, and of the Mahommedan governments, which
find it convenient to employ these hereditary ministers of
religion, from the influence they possess over the minds of
the people. Some of them, particularly in Gujerat, em¬
bark in commercial speculations, and become merchants,
bankers, or general agents. Others, again, carry messages
between distant places, or are sent as vakeels on difficult
and important missions; the veneration in which they are
universally held securing them from molestation in the
discharge of such tasks. A third class act as coolies or
porters, in which character they alone are exempt from
the demands of the tax-gatherer. Many of them enter the
Company’s native army, and often rise to the rank of sub-
adhar. In a word, they are as much alive to selfish con¬
siderations and interests as any other tribe or caste, and
ready, on all occasions, to avail themselves to the utter¬
most of the privileges and immunities belonging to their
order. Their rapacity, in fact, is only exceeded by their
cunning; nor is there to be found in any country a set
of more artful impostors. The Hindus are all expert in
disguising the truth ; but tliQ Brahmins, in this respect,
possess an unquestioned superiority. They are supple,
insinuating, false; acute in discerning, and skilful in tak¬
ing advantage of the foibles of others; naturally vindic¬
tive and proud, yet, from habit and cunning, patient and sub¬
missive; evincing on all occasions the most perfect self-com¬
mand, and ever ready to profit by the indiscretion, weak¬
ness, or simplicity of those with whom they may have to do.
One of their prime resources is flattery, which they lavish
with unbounded profusion on any person whom they wish to
cozen or hope to conciliate ; experience having convinced
them, that even those who pretend to repudiate their adula¬
tion nevertheless lay a portion, at least, of the grateful unc¬
tion to their souls. In matters of religious opinion they are
upon the whole tolerant; they almost never anathematize
Moslemins, Christians, and others of different creeds; nor
z
178
BRAHMINS.
Brahmins, do they seem to be at all actuated by the fierce spirit of
proselytism and persecution. But this forbearance may
perhaps be the consequence, not of any virtue in the
Brahmins, but of the low estimation in which they hold
the objects of their own worship ; for, undoubtedly, they
sometimes treat the latter with an indifference boideiing
on contempt, and in their adorations are influenced by
their secular interests rather than by the spirit of devo¬
tion, flattering those divinities whose functions they con¬
nect with their worldly affairs, and giving themselves no
concern about the others.
The distance at which they keep themselves from Eu¬
ropeans, and the unwillingness they evince to admit the
latter to their temples or their ceremonies, may seem in¬
consistent with what has just been advanced. But then
conduct in this respect arises solely from the unclean¬
ness which they attach to our habits; and were Euro¬
peans to conform a little more to their manners and piac-
tical prejudices, there can be no doubt that the conse¬
quence would be a closer intimacy and unbounded to¬
leration. This was fully experienced by the Abbe Du¬
bois, who having carefully studied the manners of the
Hindus, and uniformly treated their habits with respect
and tenderness, was often invited by the Brahmins of
his acquaintance to enter their temples and join in their
ceremonies. Among the sacerdotal order of India it is
a prevalent sentiment that different religions are formed
for different nations, and that each serves every neces¬
sary purpose to the souls of its believers and professors.
But in their attachment to their civil institutions the
Brahmins are less liberal and conciliating, consider ing
every thing different from these or opposed to them as the
product of absolute barbarism. The Moors they hate for
their arrogance, and despise for their ignorance of some
branches of mathematical science known to themselves,
such as those connected with the construction and ex¬
planation of the almanack. In the European masters of
India, they admire their humanity in war, the moderation
and impartiality of their government, the general upright¬
ness of their conduct in the intercourse of life, and the
benevolent generosity of their dispositions ; but these fa¬
vourable impressions are apt to be forgotten when they
think of the grossness and hatefulness of their prevailing
habits, such as eating animal food, and admitting the de¬
tested Pariahs into their domestic service. Such things
are pre-eminently odious to Hindus, and both, we think,
might have easily been avoided. No extraordinary effort
of self-denial would have been necessary to enable_ Euro¬
peans to abstain from the use of beef, which is an insipid
food in India; and, with regard to the Pariahs, although
it would undoubtedly be wrong to countenance tne biai-
mins in their barbarous treatment of the inferior castes,
and of those who are considered as of no caste, yet legu-
lations might have been adopted by which men of high
caste would have been spared the gross insults they are
at present exposed to, and every humane purpose at the
same time attained.
The third state of a Brahmin is denominated Vanapras-
tha, or that of inhabitants of the desert. The order of
Brahminical anchorites prevailed at a former period, but
it is now scarcely to be found, and appears to be very
nearly, if not altogether, extinct. The members of it
were usually styled Rishis, or Penitents. They were
honoured by kings, and respected by the gods, who, on
account of the odour of their sanctity, seem to have con¬
sidered them as in some degree their superiors. I bey
practised self-denial according to certain rigid rules, and
performed peculiar sacrifices and religious obseivances.
Their pious acts and intentions were often thwarted by
giants, and even by gods, who seem to have had no iclisli
for the severe discipline of the order; but in the end the Brahmin,
Penitents always prevailed, and sometimes took the gods '—yv '
roundly to task for their misdeeds. They were the depo¬
sitaries of the more sublime doctrines of theology, and
practised magical incantations.
The fourth state of a Brahmin is called Sunnyassi, and
is reckoned so pre-eminently holy that, in a single gene¬
ration, it imparts a greater stock of merit than could be
accumulated during ten thousand in any other sphere of
life. As a natural consequence, when a Sunnyassi dies,
he is believed to pass at once into the region of Brahma
or Vishnu, exempt from the penalty of being re-born on
earth, or animating in succession different bodies, conform¬
ably to the metempsychosis of the Hindu mythology. In
preparation for this state, a Brahmin performs all the rites
of the Vanaprastha, and in addition renounces every
worldly connection, takes up the profession of mendicity,
and lives solely by alms. He must previously, however,
have devoted several years to the married and paternal
state, and thus discharged the debt which he owed to his
forefathers. When duly qualified and disposed for enter¬
ing the holy state of Sunnyassi, he is installed as such
with many Mantras and other ceremonies. His duties
now increase in number and severity. He must every
morning rub his whole body over with ashes, restrict him¬
self to one meal a day, give up the use of betel, avoid
looking at women, shave his beard and head every month,
and wear wooden clogs on bis feet; in travelling, he must
carry his seven-knotted bamboo staff in the one hand, his
gourd in the other, and the antelope skin under his arm,
in other words, display the three badges of bis order; and
he must erect a hermitage on the bank of .a river or a lake.
Contemplation, and a supposed communion with the Deity,
amounting in its highest form to a participation of the di¬
vine essence, constitute the ulterior duties of this class of
devotees. Need we wonder that, being thus privileged
to indulge in all manner of extravagances, and to give full
swing to an excited imagination, their practices should be
in the highest degree preposterous, and their fantasies
equally wild and ridiculous ? In fact, the tricks which
they perform are endless. The highest act of merit among
them is “ to subdue all sensation, and retain the breathwith
sucb determined perseverance, that the soul, quitting the
body, bursts through the crown of the head, and flies to
re-unite itself with the Great Being, or Para-Brahma.
Accordingly, one of their fantastical exercises consists in
suppressing their breath as long as possible, till they al¬
most swoon away, and bring on most profuse perspiration.
Another consists in putting themselves in the most irk¬
some and ridiculous postures, and remaining so for a con¬
siderable length of time, indeed till exhaustion or decie-
pitude ensue. To stand on one leg till it swells and u -
cerates; to stand on the head till the brain becomes dis¬
ordered, and delirium ensues; to keep one arm extended
aloft in the air till the muscles become rigid, and the
power of withdrawing it is lost for ever; such are among
the most approved practices of the Sunnyassis. But still
the most extravagant and fatal efforts of these extraordi¬
nary devotees seem to have been confined to former times.
We may add, that the Sunnyassis are not, like the Vana-
prasthas, burned when they die, but interred. This is
the case with the Lingamhari, or worshippers of Siva; but
a Sunnyassi, even although he had, during life, attac e
himself to the worship of Vishnu, is interred vyhen dead,
and the ceremony is both pompous and expensive..
From the classes of Vanaprastha and Sunnyassi have
sprung numerous sects of fanatics, such as the Djogis, wio
seek to propitiate the Deity by mutilating their bodies,
or braving the force of fire and the inclemency of the sea¬
sons ; the Panduris, who carry about small figures of 1
B R A H
’rali is.most indecent description, as provocatives to devotion;
and the Vairagis, who form a kind of mixed order of
monks and nuns, consecrated to the god Krishna and his
mistress Rada, whose history they celebrate in songs, ac¬
companied with the tinkling of cymbals. It is also said
that some of the Brahmins, under the denominations of Pa-
shandia and Sarwagina, maintain libertine and atheistical
opinions ; and it is probable that the number of those who
secretly cherish such sentiments is much greater than that
of the class or sect which openly avows them. Supersti¬
tion, when sustained neither by fanaticism nor enthusiasm,
is the natural parent of that infidelity by which it is ulti¬
mately undermined.
From what has been stated in the course of this expo¬
sition, some idea may be formed of the general character
of the sacerdotal caste in India. According to the best
authorities on the subject, the number of Brahmins who
are respectable for their knowledge and their virtue is ex¬
ceedingly small; whilst the great majority of these here¬
ditary priests is completely devoted to ambition, intrigue,
and voluptuousness, and disgraced by an avarice, a mean¬
ness, and a cruelty, which inspire strangers with no senti¬
ments towards them but those of contempt and aversion.
The charity which they place so high in the scale of du¬
ties and virtues, being equally confined by the law of caste,
and the operation of that intense selfishness by which the
whole tribe is characterised, has no human beings except
Brahmins for its objects. Towards the other castes they
cherish no feeling of humanity, and cautiously abstain
from any reciprocation of kindness; they exact every
thing in virtue of their rank, functions, and pretended
sanctity, but take care to give nothing in return. Instead
of the retired and contemplative life which appears to
have been observed by the order in ancient times, and to
which they still profess to devote themselves, they are
immersed, as we have already seen, in pursuits the most
foreign to and inconsistent with the duties and character
of a priesthood; and, accordingly, they have declined alike
in dignity, in reputation, and in knowledge. Yet their
influence as a body still remains unshaken; neither the
j violence of conquest, nor the shock of revolution, nor even
the power of time itself, appears to have sensibly impaired
their dominion over the minds of the other castes. The
institutions to which they owe their ascendancy, and by
which it will in all probability be maintained for ages yet
to come, have struck their roots so deeply, and become
so intimately identified with the genius, character, habits,
sentiments, feelings, prejudices, and daily usages of the
people, as to resist the operation of all those natural, mo¬
ral, and political causes which bring about changes in
other countries, and, amidst all the evils incident to con¬
vulsions and innovations, ultimately contribute to the ge¬
neral advancement. In India, society appears to have been
arrested at a particular stage of its natural progress, and
re-constituted so as never to exceed the limit which it had
attained before its onward tendencies were paralyzed,
and the characteristic of immutability firmly established.
Hence it may be considered as forming what the school¬
men would probably have denominated a political nunc
stems; as standing to other communities of men in nearly
the same relation that eternity bears to time : and hence,
also, the permanency of an influence which the possessors
of it take no means to extend or improve, in the convic¬
tion that it can never be materially abridged.
Ihe authenticity as well as the antiquity of the sa¬
cred books of the Brahmins has been alternately assert¬
ed and denied, with equal zeal and pertinacity. With¬
out entering into this question, however, it may be sa¬
tis actory to show of what materials these writings really
consist; for if they are utterly worthless and contemp-
M I N S. 179
tible in themselves, as indeed seems to be the case, it Brahmins,
matters but little to inquire whether they be genuine
or spurious, of ancient or comparatively modern origin.
And, on this subject, we prefer citing authorities to de¬
livering any opinion of our own. “ The sacred writ¬
ings of the Brahmins,” says an able writer in the Quar¬
terly Revieio, “ have been long mentioned with those
phrases of solemn w'onder, which would still have misled
the public, if the translations and extracts of them which
have successively appeared had not discovered their pue¬
rility and imposture. It is therefore important that the
Sanscrit books, which have been held up as so sacred and
so ancient, and which some of our learned Orientalists ob¬
viously prefer to the Jewish historian, should be given to
Europe in the languages familiar to every one; that we
may not be blinded by the erroneous admiration of cre¬
dulous and misjudging enthusiasts, but be enabled to criti¬
cise fairly, and judge impartially for ourselves.” (Vol. ii. p.
68.) Mr Mill, speaking of Sanscrit poetry generally, pro¬
nounces a judgment still stronger than that delivered by
the Reviewer. “ These fictions,” says he, “ are not only
more extravagant and unnatural, less correspondent with
the physical and moral laws of the universe, but are less in¬
genious, more monstrous, and have less of any thing that
can engage the affection, awaken sympathy, or excite ad¬
miration, reverence, or terror, than the poems of any other,
even the rudest people, with whom our knowledge of the
globe has yet brought us acquainted. They are excessively
prolix and insipid. They are often, through long passages,
trifling and childish to a degree which those acquainted
with only European poetry can hardly conceive. Of the
style in which they are composed, it is far from too much
to say, that all the vices which characterise the style of rude
nations, and particularly those of Asia, they exhibit in per¬
fection. Inflation, metaphors perpetual, and those the most
violent and strained, often the most unnatural and ridicu¬
lous, obscurity, tautology, repetition, verbosity, confusion,
incoherence, distinguish the Mahabharat and Ramayan.”
(History of British India, vol. ii. p. 46.) The following
passage, extracted from a most masterly article which ap¬
peared in the Edinburgh Review (vol. xv. p. 175), is, if
possible, still more to our present purpose. “ It may be
said,” the Reviewer observes, “ that in a country of which
the actual condition is so imperfectly known, investigation
should first be directed to the existing state of society,
which admits of being accurately ascertained, and may
lead to practical conclusions highly beneficial to the com¬
munity, before we attempt to explore the obscure paths
of remote antiquity, by the feeble lights afforded by a few
mutilated or suspicious documents. The Indian nations,
it may be contended, have no claim to any extraordinary
attention, either from the philosopher or the historian:
their boasted civilization has rather been asserted than
proved; neither their literature nor their arts indicate any
considerable progress in the pursuits which refine and
adorn mankind ; and some of their customs betray a fero¬
city scarcely to be found amongst the most savage nations.
But, even admitting that it would be desirable to trace
the remote revolutions which this people have undergone,
the little probability of attaining any deductions which
may be relied on with confidence ought to induce us to
relinquish so hopeless a task. The Puranas appear to be
extravagant romances, which, however amusing as poeti¬
cal compositions, can furnish no additions to authentic his¬
tory, whatever portion of it they may be supposed inci¬
dentally to contain. When we find gods and heroes ming¬
ling in doubtful fight; events natural and supernatural
succeeding each other indifferently; a fact probably his¬
torical, followed by another evidently allegorical; the only
rational conclusion is to consider the whole of these poems
180
BRAHMINS.
Brahmins, as works of imagination, and to appreciate their merits by
the rules applicable to similar compositions amongst other
nations. But if such be the judgment we must pass on
the Puranas, the Hindu compositions of a later date are
not better entitled to attention, unless with respect to
poetical excellence : and it probably may be affiimed that
the Hindus cannot produce a single historical composition;
whilst the Mahommedans of the same country have am¬
ply, and even ably, illustrated all the events subsequent
to their entrance into Hindustan.”
Such are the judgments which have been pronounced
bv some of the ablest writers of our time, respecting the
sacred writings of the Brahmins, and the impossibility of
deducing any sound or rational conclusions from these
fanciful and extravagant compositions. But, on the other
hand, it has been contended, with much plausibility and
some degree of justice, that an indiscriminate accumula¬
tion of diets is no object with the philosopher, and only a
subordinate one with the historian ; that in proportion to
the peculiarity and reputed antiquity of the i ehgious and
civil institutions subsisting amongst any people, it is na¬
tural to feel curiosity as to their origin ; that the minute
peculiarities which discriminate the nations of Europe
scarcely produce any sensible modification of character,
or exhibit to our observation any beings whose manner of
thinking and acting is materially different from our own;
that, in order accurately to appreciate the efficacy of re¬
ligious dogmas and civil institutions in modifying the cha¬
racter of a people, our observation should be particular¬
ly directed to those nations which, in these respects, dif¬
fer most widely from ourselves; that to this souice may
be traced much of the instruction as well as amusement
derived from a perusal of the classic compositions of anti¬
quity ; that, from the same cause, the manners of savage
tribes have attracted and deserved the attention of the
philosopher, although these are in general extiemely uni¬
form, and little modified by any other circumstance than
the greater or less facility of obtaining food ; that, never¬
theless, it is not amidst a people in such a stage of society
that the influence of moral impressions can be accurately
ascertained ; that a nation must have advanced some steps
in civilization, must have cultivated the aits,, and been
tinged with science, before it becomes susceptible of that
indelible stamp which defies the efforts of time; and that
if, upon these grounds, the peculiarities of the Hindu in¬
stitutions, opinions, and manners, deservedly render them
the object of philosophic research, the gradations by which
such a state of society was attained must be highly inte¬
resting, and can only be discovered through the medium of
such literary monuments as are still extant among them.
Their sacred books, therefore, must ever possess a value,
independent of all that may be said of their contents, 01
objected to the antiquity claimed for them. They em¬
body evidence of the existence of peculiar modes of think¬
ing, and forms of belief, as well as of the effects produced
by peculiar institutions, civil and religious ; .and, as such,
they can never cease to be regarded with interest, both
by the philosopher and the historian.
Of ancient Brahminical science the principal remains
are their astronomical tables and trigonometrical methods,
both of which have given occasion to frequent and learn¬
ed discussion in this and other countries of Europe. At
present, however, we can only refer the reader to the
works of Bailly, Playfair, and Delambre, in which he will
find the subject treated with equal learning, ingenuity,
and scientific precision, though in opposite views, and with
very different aims. As to the science of the modern
Brahmins, it seems, as we have already remarked, to be
confined to the construction and explanation of the alma¬
nack ; and even this scanty amount of knowledge is the
portion of but few of their number. They have indeed fal- Brahnw
len from the proud eminence which was occupied by their
order when the sages of Greece travelled into India to
learn wisdom in that great storehouse of knowledge, and
afterwards to carry it back to their own country, in order
to plant there the first seeds of civilization. But there is
one species of learning for which they have always evinced
a singular aptitude and inclination ; we mean metaphysical
speculation, which possesses many attractions to men re¬
markable alike for the indolence of their habits and the
extreme subtilty of their genius. In this department of
research they had accordingly explored the whole cycle
of systems, distinctions, classifications, refinements, and
doubts, long before the western world had emerged from
primeval barbarism; and in India the human mind had
exhausted itself in endeavouring to detect the laws which
regulate its own operations, when the philosophers of
Greece were only beginning to enter within the precincts
of metaphysical inquiry. Nor is it by any means certain
that the latter are entitled to the credit they have receiv¬
ed on the score of originality ; that they did not borrow
rather then invent; and that to the Gymnosophists of India
belongs the honour of framing those systems which have
been, perhaps too hastily, attributed to their disciples. It
is even doubtful whether Aristotle himself did not derive
both the materials and the arrangement of his system of
logic from the same source. In a Mahommedan history,
quoted by Sir William Jones, it is expressly mentioned
that Callisthenes, having procured a regular treatise on
logic, somewhere in the Punjab, transmitted it to Aristotle;
and although this does not certainly prove that the Greek
philosopher adopted as his own the system which had been
sent him by his pupil, it at least warrants a conjecture that
he might have done so; more especially as the syllogistic
method was undoubtedly known in India long before his
time, and as the fact must have been discovered by the
numerous learned and accomplished men who accompanied
Alexander’s expedition. But be this as it may, one thing
is pretty certain, that there is scarcely a hypothesis ad¬
vanced by metaphysicians in ancient or modern times,
which may not be found in some of the Brahminical writ¬
ings. In these we meet with materialism, atomism, pan¬
theism, Pyrrhonism, idealism, and every other fanciful va¬
riety of opinion which has yet been imagined or promulgat¬
ed respecting God, the world, and the human soul. Ihe
Brahmins could boast of their Spinozas, their Berkeleys,
and their Humes, long before Alexander dreamt of passing
the Indus, and erecting a throne on the banks of the sacred
stream. That Pythagoras borrowed from them the greater
part of his mystical philosophy, his notions respecting the
properties of numbers as expressive of physical laws, his
doctrine of the transmigration of souls, and the arguments
by which he inculcated the unlawfulness of eating animal
food, seems to admit of no doubt wdiatever; for all these
thingsareof the very essence of Brahminism, and are to this
hour taught and enforced by the sacred order in India.
Egypt and India, as we have already observed, are the
only two countries in which the institution of castes has
obtained in its most rigid form. This identity is of itself
sufficiently remarkable ; but there are other points of ie-
semblance which w'e think even more striking. In ancient
Egypt the cow was a principal object of religious adora¬
tion, and as such accounted peculiarly sacred; and we
need scarcely add that, in India, the same superstition has
prevailed to an equal, if not greater extent, ever since the
introduction of the Brahminical religion. The Egyptians
worshipped Apis or the sacred bull, and the figure of this
animal forms part of every hieroglyphical inscription, either
as a symbol or a phonetical character. In some of their
festivals the Brahmins exhibit the same species of idolatry,
V'
BRA BRA 181
lral|i ck with rites and observances exactly similar to those an-
[oui ns.ciently practised in the country of the Pharaohs; and,
judging by the inscriptions on their monuments, this type
of animal worship must have prevailed in India from the
earliest times. The astronomical character of the Egyp¬
tian mythology is well known to those who have studied
its details; it seems to have been merely a reflex image of
Tsabaism, or the worship of the host of heaven, the form
of idolatry which first obtained among “ the world’s gray
fathers” in the regions of the East. But the same thing,
in the same sense, may be predicated of the Hindu my¬
thology, in its purest form, before it was overlaid with
the monstrous and fantastical inventions of a juggling
priesthood. What inference, then, ought we to deduce
from these and numerous other facts of a similar descrip¬
tion which might be mentioned ? Did Egypt derive its
superstitions from India, or has India borrowed its my¬
thology from Egypt, or have both drawn from a common
source? Which is the original and which the copy, or
are both merely copies from an original no longer extant ?
These are questions to which, in the present state of our
knowledge, it is difficult, if not impassible, to give a satis¬
factory answer; although speculation has been busy on
the subject, some contending in favour of Egypt, others
in favour of India, and others, again, seeking a common
source in that intermediate region, which formed as it were
the cradle of the human race. We have no intention
whatever to enter into these disputations, or to hazard
conjectures respecting a subject in regard to which no
safe or certain data have as yet been obtained. We may
nevertheless be permitted to observe, that the question
is chiefly one of pure chronology; that on this subject
much still remains to be done before wre can arrive at any
well-founded conclusion respecting the comparative anti¬
quity of these ancient nations ; but that, in as far as we are
at present able to see our way, the balance of probability
appears to incline pretty decidedly in favour of the coun¬
try of the Pharaohs.
See Abbe Dubois, Description of the Character and Cus¬
toms of the People of India, English translation; Malte-
Brun’s Universal Geography, vol. iii. English translation;
Maurice’s Indian Antiquities ; Asiatic Researches ; Colonel
Kennedy’s Researches into the Nature and Affinity of An¬
cient and Hindu Mythology ; Religion of the Brahmins ;
Ayeen Akberry; Dow’s Hindustan, preliminary disserta¬
tion ; Institutes of Menu, translated by Sir William Jones ;
Quarterly Review, voh i.; Edinburgh Review, vols. x. and
xv.; Klaproth’s Asia Polyglotta; Kennedy’s Origin and
Affinity of Languages. (a.)
BRAHOOICK Mountains, a chain of mountains so
called by Colonel Pottinger, from the Brahooes, who
inhabit them. They run along the eastern frontier of
Persia, and extend 280 miles in length from south-east to
north-east, and about 200 miles in their utmost breadth,
under latitude 28. N. This range of mountains springs
abruptly to a conspicuous height and grandeur, out of the
sea at Cape Mowaree, in longitude 66° 58' E. latitude 25°
N., whence it assumes a north-easterly direction for ninety
miles. It there projects a ridge east by north, the base of
which is washed by the river Indus, at the foot of Sehwan.
From the separation of this chain, in latitude 25° 45', to
that of 30°, the primitive body runs due north, now mark¬
ing the western limits of Sinde, Kutch Gundava, and a
part of Sewestan, as it formerly did that of Hindustan. It
thence once more regains its original inclination to the
north-east, and decreases in elevation so rapidly, that in
t ie course of forty miles it sinks down to a level, and be¬
comes incorporated with the hills inhabited by the Kau-
ds and by other Afghan tribes. To the westward the
rahooick Mountains are far more complicated. At their
emergence from the ocean their breadth does not exceed Braintree
thirty miles from the one base to the other; but from the II
latitude of twenty-five and a half degrees, they progres- Bramah-
sively sweep round to north, north-north-west, north-west, v^v'^
and west-north-west, expanding over several degrees of
longitude, and sending forth many collateral chains. The
main range stretches away towards the north, to the
twenty-eighth degree of north latitude, where it meets
the sandy desert about the sixty-fourth degree of east
longitude; it afterwards sinks, like the eastern front, to an
equality with the Afghan hills, among which it is lost.
This chain of mountains reaches in some parts to a great
altitude, and has many peaks covered with snow. (Pot-
tinger’s Travels in Beloochistan and Sindef (f.)
BRAINTREE, a market-town in the hundred of Hink-
ford and county of Essex, 40 miles from London. It ivas
the first seat of the baize manufacture introduced into
England by the Flemings in the reign of Elizabeth, but
that trade is nearly altogether removed to the north of
England. It is situated in a very beautiful and fertile
district, and a silk manufactory has recently been esta¬
blished. There is a market on Wednesdays. The inha¬
bitants amounted in 1801 to 2821, in 1811 to 2298, and
in 1821 to 2983.
BR AKEL, a circle in the Prussian government of Min-
den and province of Westphalia. It extends over 134
square miles, or 85,760 acres, and contains five cities, thirty
villages, and fifteen hamlets, and a population of 21,201
persons. It is well cultivated and fertile. The dense po¬
pulation finds employment in making the coarse linen
well known by the name of paderborns. The chief town
has the same name as the circle, is situated on the river
Brucht, and contains 380 houses, with 2550 inhabitants.
BRAMA, or Bruma, a pagan deity of the East Indies.
See Brahmins.
BRAMAH, Joseph, a practical engineer and machi¬
nist, was born at Stainborough, in Yorkshire, on the 13th
of April 1?49. His father rented a farm on the estate of
Lord Strafford; and, being the eldest of five children, he
was intended for the same employment. He exhibited at
a very early age an unusual talent for the mechanical
arts, and succeeded, when he was quite a boy, in making
two violoncellos, which were found to be very tolerable
instruments; as well as in cutting a single block of wood
into a violin, chiefly by means of tools which were forged
for him by a neighbouring smith, whom, at a subsequent
period of his life, he induced to assist him in London
as one of his principal workmen. Notwithstanding the
ingenuity which he had thus displayed, his destination
in life might have precluded its further cultivation, had
he not, fortunately for himself and for the public, been
incapacitated, when he was about sixteen, by an acci¬
dental lameness in his ancle, for the pursuit of agricul¬
tural labour. He was then apprenticed to a carpenter
and joiner, who seems, however, to have contributed but
little towards his improvement in mechanical knowledge.
When the term of his engagement had expired, he ob¬
tained employment for some time in the workshop of a
cabinet-maker in London, and soon after established him¬
self as a principal in that business. Another accidental
confinement left his mind at liberty for a time to occupy
itself with reflection and invention; and he employed his
involuntary leisure in the improvement of some of the
most humble, but not the least useful, of domestic con¬
veniences. He obtained a patent for his inventions, and
established a manufacture of these anti other similar ar¬
ticles in Denmark Street, Soho, where he continued to
simplify and improve the arrangement of the pumps and
pipes subservient to his principal purpose. He procured
in 1783 a patent for a water-cock, intended to allow the
BRA
fluid a more uninterrupted passage through it than ;ras
practicable in the ordinary construction. He afterwards
removed to Piccadilly, and established the various branches
of his manufactory in some extensive premises at Pimlico.
In 1784 Mr Bramah took out a patent for his improve¬
ment in locks, which certainly appear to be of very mate¬
rial importance. Their peculiar character depends on the
arrangement of a number of levers or sliders, in such a
manner as to preserve, when at rest, a uniform situation,
and to be only pressed down by the key to certain un¬
equal depths, which nothing but the key can ascertain;
the levers not having any stop to retain them in their ic-
quired situation, except that which forms a part of the
key. The construction is more particularly detailed in
the specification of the patent {Repertory of Arts, vol. v.
p. 217), as well as in the inventor’s Dissertation on Locks,
8vo; and some additional modifications, allowing the key
to be varied at pleasure, are described in a patent, dated
in 1798. It is not easy to say why the application for an act
of parliament to prolong the privilege proved unsuccess¬
ful, unless it was supposed that the inventor had been al¬
ready sufficiently remunerated for the share of ingenuity
which his contrivance exhibited; but the report, that one
of these locks had been readily opened, before a committee
of the House of Commons, by means of a common quill,
was a gross misrepresentation of the fact; the quill having
in reality been previously cut into the required shape from
the true*key. The experiment, in fact, only served to show
the perfection of the workmanship, so little force being le-
quired to overcome the resistance when properly applied.
For different modifications of pumps and fire-engines
Mr Bramah took out three successive patents, the two
last being dated in 1790 and 1798. {Repertory, vols. n.
hi.) His “ rotative principle” consists in making the part
which acts immediately on the water in the form of a
slider, sweeping round a cylindrical cavity, and kept in
its place by means of an eccentric groove; a const! uction
which was very possibly suggested by his own inventive
mind, but which had been before described, in a form
nearly similar, by llamelli, Cavalleri, Amontons, Prince
Rupert, and Hr Hooke. 4 he third patent related chiefly
to the attachment of a considerable reservoir of water to
the fire-engine in a cylindrical form, and to the furnishing
of it with wheels of its own, of a proper size and strength
to allow it to be conveniently worked.
There was somewhat more of originality in the idea of
applying practically, to the purpose of a pi ess, the w ell-
known principle of the hydrostatic paradox, by which,
as by a lever with arms capable of infinite variation, the
smallest imaginable weight is made capable of holding in
equilibrium a force incomparably greater. Mr Bramah s
patent for the invention is dated in the year 1796 {Reper¬
tory, voh vi. p. 289), and it has been one of the most suc¬
cessful of his numerous speculations. He added to it, in
a subsequent patent, the contrivance of a “ retainer,” for
keeping goods in a constant state of pressuie foi an un¬
limited time after their removal from the press. I he
apparatus has certainly a considerable advantage in the
great steadiness with which the force can be applied, in
the facility with which it can be regulated, and the con¬
venience with which it can be continued without altera¬
tion ; and it has been extensively applied, both on a small
and ’on a large scale, for copying writings, for pressing
o-unpowder, for proving cables and chains, for laising
weights of various kinds, and for drawing piles, and pull¬
ing up trees by the roots. _
A simple but a very convenient arrangement of little
pumps and pipes has been very generally employed in
public-houses under the name of the beer-machine: for
this Mr Bramah took out a patent in 179 describing it
BRA
as part of an apparatus for retaining, drawing, and clari- Bramah,
fying liquors {Repertory, vo\. ix. p. 361). He prefaces
his specification with some general observations on the
right of an inventor to a property, both in the objects
which he selects for his improvements, and in the means
which he employs for the attainment of them; and de¬
mands of the public justice an ample security for both
these rights, grounding this claim on his resolution to
make a clear and unreserved disclosure of all his inven¬
tions. Besides the method of pumping up the liquors
from the various casks through flexible pipes, without the
necessity of entering the cellar, he describes a mode of
converting every cask into a forcing pump, excluding the
air, and raising the liquor to any part of the house, by a
load on its head, which is to be converted into a piston.
Fie mentions also a filtering machine, a vent peg, a me¬
thod of making pipes, and a new form of stop-cocks.
In 1801 he obtained a patent for some improvements in
the construction of steam-engines, particularly relating to
the boilers ; and in 1802, one for a very elaborate and ac¬
curate machine for producing smooth and parallel surfaces
on wood and other materials. The tools ot different kinds
employed in this machine, such as gouges, spokeshaves,
and planes, are carried with a considerable velocity by a
rotatory motion, and come successively in contact with
the wood, which is placed on a movable carriage gra¬
dually advancing. The centre or gudgeon of the axis or
shaft, instead of a common step, is supported by a barrel
of oil, to which it is fitted by a collar; and this arrange¬
ment not only diminishes the friction very considerably,
but allows the height of the shaft also to be very easily
and accurately regulated by means of a small foicing
pump. The inventor thinks this liquid support likely to
be as permanent as it is advantageous; but it may be
apprehended, that the constant friction of such a collar
would cause it to require frequent repairs, in order to
prevent the escape of the oil so powerfully compressed.
The machine has been erected on a large scale in the
arsenal at Woolwich, and is employed with perfect suc¬
cess. The specification includes the description of a
mode of turning spherical surfaces, either convex or con¬
cave, by the simple contrivance of a tool, movable on an
axis precisely perpendicular to that of the lathe; and of
cutting out concentric shells, by fixing, in the same man¬
ner, a curved tool, nearly of the same form as that which is
employed by the common turners for making woodenbowls.
An improvement in the processes for making paper,
with the assistance of new machinery, in large sheets,
was secured to the inventor by a patent in {Reper¬
tory, second series, vol. viii. p. 1). The description is
accompanied by that of a mode of drying the papei on
sliding frames, hung on lines like sashes, and of keep¬
ing it in a state of compression by retainers adapted to
the hydrostatic press; but Mr Bramah had not leisure
to introduce these arrangements into actual practice, al¬
though he had been at a considerable expense in pre¬
paring the apparatus.
Flis next invention was, however, very effectually car¬
ried into execution in a particular department, notwith¬
standing its unpromising appearance, as generally state
in the specification of the patent, which he obtaine 111
1806 {^Repertory, second series, vol. x. p. 329). Fie pro
poses to facilitate the process of printing by means of a
roller, composed of a number of circular plates, closely
fitted together, and turning on the same axis, each bear¬
ing twenty-six letters, with figures, spaces, and various
marks, either engraved or projecting, and capable of being
shifted at pleasure, so as to express any single line by
proper combination of the plates. This is descnoed as
substitute for common printing, copperplate engraving)
BRA
>ran. and calico printing; and the ink is intended to be sup-
^"vWplied by a trough fixed above, and in contact with the
cylinder. Now it is obvious that such a machine would
be insufferably tedious and inconvenient for every purpose
of common printing, which it would be scarcely possible
to perform by its means; but when we discover that the
inventor had probably in view the apparatus which he
constructed the next year for the Bank of England, for
numbering and dating their notes, we shall be aware that
the means were admirably adapted to the end; a single
line only being here wanted at once, in which a single fi¬
gure was to be changed at each step, and that in a regu¬
lar order. In fact, during the immense temporary circu¬
lation of one and two pound notes, the Bank has been
able, by this machinery, under the management of about
twenty clerks, to perform the labour of 120, who were
before required for the purpose.
Mr Bramah procured a patent in 1809 for a mode of
making and holding pens for writing, calculated to save the
substance of the quill, by cutting a number of pens out of it,
instead of a single one; and those who are not in the habit of
making their own pens may often find a convenience in the
portable form in which this and other similar “ pterophori”
are arranged. In 1812 he brought forward his patent for
the construction of main pipes, to be carried through the
principal streets of a metropolis, of sufficient thickness to
withstand a great force, to which the water within them
is intended to be subjected, by proper pumps, furnished
with air-vessels; so that the water may not only be ready
for the immediate extinction of fires, without the neces¬
sity of bringing an engine to the spot, but may also fur¬
nish a convenient moving power for various mechanical
purposes, such as raising weights, by means of tubes
sliding out of each other, like those of a telescope. He
observes that he has frequently had occasion to employ a
hydrostatic pressure, in many of his operations, equivalent
to that of a column of water 20,000 feet high, which is
about four tons for every square inch. He also asserts
that he can form 500 tubes, each five feet long, capable
of sliding within each other, and of being extended, in a
few seconds, by the pressure of air forced into them, to a
length of 2500 feet; and, with a power of this kind, he
seems to have imagined that he could raise wrecks, and
regulate the descent of weights of various descriptions.
His improvements in wheel-carriages, for which he ob¬
tained a patent in 1814, consisted in fixing each wheel to
a separate movable axis, having its bearings at two dis¬
tinct points of its length, but loosely inclosed between
these points in a cylinder filled with oil; and, in some
cases, he proposes to fix the opposite wheels to the same
axis, though with a power of turning very stiffly round it,
in order to lessen the lateral motion of the shafts in very
rough roads. He also suggests the use of pneumatic
springs, formed by pistons, sliding in cylinders, as a sub¬
stitute for common springs of metal.
dhe purpose of Mr Bramah’s last patent was the pre¬
vention of the dry rot, by laying on the timber meant to
be preserved from it, a thin coat of Parker’s Roman ce-
nient, much diluted with water; but he does not appear
to have pursued this experiment, having transferred his
light in the invention to other hands.
In addition to the seventeen patents which have been
mentioned, he took out two or three others of less im¬
pel tance, at different times; besides a variety of contri¬
vances, which he did not think it necessary to appropriate
o nmself by a legal privilege. Mr Nicholson has men-
ioned a double plunger for a forcing pump, as described
° nm by Mr Bramah (Nich. Jour. vol. vii. p. 50), which,
11 e orm he has delineated, is certainly possessed of
io particular advantage, producing only with a large ap-
BRA 183
paratus the effect of a much smaller. Mr Bramah had Bramba-
erected, in the latter years of his life, some large ma- nan-
chines at the Thames bank for sawing stones and timber;
he had begun to devise some improvements in bridges
and in locks for canals; and he had at one time been ac¬
tually employed in the execution of some water-works
belonging to the department of the civil engineer, which
he completed with ability and with success. His great
and various exertions appear in some measure to have
exhausted the strength of his constitution; and his last
illness was immediately occasioned by a severe cold, taken
in the prosecution of his experiments on the tearing up of
trees, made in Holt Forest. He died in his sixty-sixth
year, on the 9th of December 1814.
Mr Bramah was a sincere believer in the doctrines of
the Christian religion; and, notwithstanding his diversified
avocations, he left several manuscript essays on religious
subjects. In his moral character he was cheerful, bene¬
volent, and affectionate; in his habits he was neat and
methodical; and he knew well how to temper liberality
with economy. He often kept his workmen employed
more for their sake than his own, when the stagnation of
trade deprived him of the means of disposing of the pro¬
ducts of their labour. It is surely on the characters of
such individuals that the wealth and prosperity of the
British empire most essentially depend; an inventive
imagination controlled by a sound judgment, an incessant
activity of mind and body, a head that can direct, and a
heart that can feel, are the genuine sources of that prac¬
tical superiority which is well known to distinguish the
productions of our national industry. (Life of Mr Bra¬
mah, hy Dr Brown, in the New Monthly Magazine for
April 1815.) (L. L'j
BRAMBANAN, a village of Java, nearly in the centre
of the island, situated at the foot of a range of mountains
on the north that run east and west to a great extent. It *
is noted for the remains of Hindu images, temples, and
inscriptions, which are spread over an extent of ten miles.
The most remarkable of those ruins are known under the
name of the Thousand Temples, which constitute a square
group of buildings, each side measuring 250 paces. One
large temple stood in the centre of the square, which was
surrounded at equal distances by three square rows of
smaller ones, the rows being but a few feet distant from
each other. At each of the four cardinal points, where
there appear to have been gates, were two gigantic sta¬
tues, each of them with a mace in its hand, and a snake
twisted round its body. The inside walls of the large
temple were adorned with figures of the conch shell, of
water-vases, and of the sacred lotus, all denoting a Hindu
origin. In these temples are figures, and other figures in
relief are sculptured on the walls. They are all built of
hewn granite, admirably cut and polished, and fitted into
each other by means of a prominence in the upper stone,
which fits into a groove on the upper surface of the stone
underneath. Great skill is displayed in the architecture
of the roof, which, like the rest of the building, is of hewn
granite. The deepest mystery hangs over these ruins.
They confirm the tradition, that at some former era a na¬
tion must have flourished in these islands, more advanced
in the arts of civilization than the modern Javanese. But
there is not the slightest evidence to show at what period
those immense buildings were constructed. A Javanese
manuscript asserts that it was in the Javanese year 1188,
which corresponds to the year of the Christian era 1261.
BRAMBER, a small hamlet of twenty houses, in the
rape of the same name in the county of Sussex, whence
two members are returned to parliament. These bur¬
gage-houses belong to the Duke of Rutland and Lord Cal-
thorpe, and of course confer on them the patronage.
184
Bramhall
I!
Branden-
BRA
BRA
BRAMHALL, Dr John, archbishop of Armagh, was
born of an ancient family at Pontefract in Yorkshire about
the year 1593. He was invited to Ireland by the lord de¬
puty Wentforth, and soon afterwards obtained the archdea¬
conry of Meath, the best in that kingdom. In 1634 he was
made bishop of Londonderry, a see which he improved very
much ; but the greatest service he rendered to the church
of Ireland consisted in getting, with the deputy s assistance,
several acts passed for abolishing fee-farms and recovering
impropriations, by which, as well as by other means, he re¬
gained to the church in the space of four years L.30.UUU
or L.40,000 a year. In the convocation he prevailed upon
the church of Ireland to unite in the same faith with the
church of England, by adopting the thirty-nine articles
of the latter; and would willingly have introduced the
English canons, but could only prevail on their accepting
such as were deemed proper. Articles of treason were
exhibited against him in the Irish parliament; and at the
treaty of Uxbridge in 1644, the English parliament made
it a preliminary article, that Bishop Bramhall, with Arc i-
bishop Laud, and others, should be excepted from the
general pardon. Upon this he went abroad; but, on the
restoration, he was appointed archbishop of Armagh, pri¬
mate and metropolitan of all Ireland, and was chosen
speaker of the House of Lords. He died in 1663. He
was the author of several works, which are collected m
one volume folio. „ ^
BRAMPTON, a market-town of Eskdale \\ ard, in the
county of Cumberland, 311 miles from London. It is an
old town, of some note in former ages, and is still the
head of the barony of Gillsland. It stands on the river
Irthing, one mile from the Piets wall. It has a large mar¬
ket on Tuesday, and a smaller one on Saturday, and se¬
veral fairs to which the Scotch drovers repair with their
cattle. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1682, in
1811 to 2043, and in 1821 to 2448.
BRANAU, a small city in the Austrian province ot
Upper Ens, in the circle of Inviertel. It is situated on
the banks of the Inn, and has manufactories of cloth and
of paper. Long. 12. 52. 40. E. Lat. 48. 14. N.
BRANCHID/E, in Grecian Antiquity, priests ot the
temple of Apollo, at Didymus, in Ionia. They opened to
Xerxes the temple of Apollo, and suffered him to carrj
away the riches; after which, thinking it unsafe to stay
longer in Greece, they fled to Sogdiana, upon the fiontiers
of Persia, where they built a city called by their own name.
But they did not escape the punishment ot their crime;
for on the conquest of Darius, Alexander the Great, in¬
formed of their treachery, put them all to the sword, and
razed their city, thus summarily visiting the impiety ot
the fathers upon their posterity. .
BRAND Sunday, Dimanche des Brandons, in french
ecclesiastical writers, denotes the first Sunday in Lent,
which is thus called on account of an ancient practice in
the Lyonnois, where the peasants, in the night ot this day,
walked about their orchards, gardens, and other places,
with torches lighted, or fire-brands in their hands ; visit-
ino- every tree, addressing them one after another, and
threatening that if they did not bear fruit well the ensu¬
ing season they should be cut down to the ground and
burnt. This is evidently a relic of Paganism, and similar
to what was practised by the ancient idolaters in the month
of February, called Februarius, afebruando.
BRANDENBURG, one of the larger provinces into
which the kingdom of Prussia is divided, and the division
from which that powerful monarchy originally sprung.
It was at first denominated a marquisate; then the elec-
toral dignity was added to the reigning family ; and after¬
wards, by the acquisition of Prussia, Brandenburg became
a portion of the kingdom so called. It is bounded on the
north by Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and West Prussia; on Branfe,
the east by Posen and Silesia; on the south by the king- burg
dom of Saxony and the Saxon duchies ; and on the west
aom or oaxuuy aim uic kjaAun — ,  ' “ ,
by Anhalt-Dessau, the province of Saxony, and Hano- ^
d . • i . It' O C2 ^ .'i w» 11 /"vci r\y* yv/vam (^1
ver. The extent is about 15,360 square miles, or near
10,000,000 English acres. It is divided into two circles,
Potsdam and Frankfort, which are of nearly equal ex¬
tent. The civil inhabitants, by the census of 1817, were
1,266,765 ; but, like those of all the other parts of Prussia,
they have rapidly increased, and at the end of 1826 they
were 1,479,482. The far greater part of the people are
of the Lutheran church, but mixed with Catholics, Cal¬
vinists, and other sects, all of which are entitled to equal
rights. The whole of the Catholics and smaller sects, in¬
cluding the Jews, do not exceed 30,000 persons. The en¬
tire province is nearly a sandy plain, but interspersed with
a few fertile spots; and a considerable portion of it is cover¬
ed with woods. It is generally well watered by streams,
most of which empty themselves into the Elbe or the
Oder. The chief agricultural product is rye, with some
wheat, barley', oats, and buck-wheat. Fruit ot all kinds is
abundant, as well as culinary vegetables; and consider¬
able quantities of hemp, flax, and hops are raised, ine
climate is cold and raw in winter, and excessively hot
in summer. The manufactures are chiefly confined to
Berlin and the other cities ; but the rural inhabitants are
employed in spinning or weaving, and produce much linen
Brandenburg, a city of Prussia, chief of the circle of
the West Havell, in the province of its own name. It
is an old place, on the banks of the Havell, by which it is
divided into the new' and the old town. It contains an
ancient cathedral, six other churches, some charitable in¬
stitutions, 1320 houses, and (in 1817) 12,004 inhabitants,
occupied in making various goods of cotton, woollen, linen,
and leather, and in breweries and distilleries. Long. 12.
8. 10. E. Lat 54. 52. 45. N. . .. .
BRANDEUM, in ecclesiastical writers, a linen ciota
or veil put over the tombs of the apostles Peter and Paul,
and left there for some time, by which it is supposed to
acquire a degree of sanctity, entitling it to be worshipped
as a relic ; and as such it was frequently sent by the pope
as a present to some prince. In this sense Brandeum is
the same with what w'as otherwise called sanctmnum,
sudarium, orarium, and velum. The use of brandea was
introduced as a means of diffusing and propagating t e
virtues and influences of relics, without moving, or in any
way impairing, the substance of them ; the translation oi
relics in early days being strictly forbidden.
BRANDING, on the face or hand, denotes a pumsn-
ment inflicted by law for various offences, by burning with
a hot iron, after the offender has been admitted to benent
of* clercry. i *
BRANDON, a town in the hundred of Lachford, m
the county of Suffolk, 78 miles from London, on the river
Little Ouse, by which there is a communication with tne
sea at Lynn, and much corn is forwarded. The inha¬
bitants amounted in 1801 to 1148, in 1811 to 136 , a
in 1821 to 1770. . ,
BRANDRITH denotes a trevet or other iron stanu,
whereon to set a vessel over the fire. ..
Brandrith, among builders, denotes a fence or
about the mouth of a well. _ .
BRANDT, Gerard, a learned divine of the retoime
religion, was born at Amsterdam in 1626, and was su-
cessively minister in several places of the Netherla •
He wrote some works, particularly A History of
Reformation of the Netherlands, Amsterdam, 16/i ' ;
2 vols. 4to ; The Life of Admiral Ruyter ; An Account o
the Trial of Barneveld, Hoogerbeets, and Grotius, in id <
BRA
Braiy
Brl"
Rotterdam 1619,4to; and Oratio Funebris Cornelii Hoof-
tii, Satrapm Mudani, Amsterdam, 1648; all, except the
last, in the Flemish language. He died at Rotterdam in
1685.
IMffe
Kinds
Propr
ofaik
BRANDY, a spirituous and inflammable liquor, ex¬
tracted from wine and other liquors by distillation. The
wine-brandy of France is esteemed the best in Europe.
It is distilled wherever wine is made, and for this purpose
pricked rather than good wine is employed. The chief
brandies for foreign trade, and those accounted best, are
the brandies of Bourdeaux, Rochelle, Cognac, Charenton,
the Isle of Rhe, Orleans, the county of Blasois, Poictou,
Touraine, Anjou, Nantes, Burgundy, and Champaigne.
BRANK, an instrument formerly used in some parts of
Scotland, and in Staffordshire, for correcting scolding
women. It was a sort of head-piece, which opened and in¬
closed the head of the shrew, while an iron, sharp as a
chisel, entered the mouth, and subdued the unruly mem¬
ber within. Thus harnessed, the offender was led in
triumph through the streets. Dr Plott, in his History
of Staffordshire, has favoured the world with a minute
description and figure of the instrument, which is there
called a scolding-bridle ; and he assures us that he looks
upon it “ as much to be preferred to the ducking-stool,
which not only endangers the health of the party, but also
gives the tongue liberty betwixt every dip; to neither of
which (he adds) this is at all liable.”
# BRASIDA, an anniversary solemnity at Sparta, in me¬
mory of Brasidas, a Lacedemonian captain, ramous for his
achievements at Methone, Pylos, and Amphipolis. It was
celebrated with sacrifices and games, in which none were
permitted to attend but free-born Spartans. Whosoever
neglected to be present at the solemnity was fined.
BRASIDAS, a celebrated general of the Lacedemo¬
nians about 424 years before the birth of Christ. He de¬
feated the Athenians by land and sea, took many places,
and rendered his native country formidable to all the
neighbouring states. He repulsed the Athenians in their
attempted surprise of Amphipolis, but died of the wounds
he received in that battle. See Attica.
BRASS, in Chemistry and Manufactures, an alloy of
copper and zinc. This name, however, has not been ex¬
clusively applied to the alloy of these metals ; for the gun-
metal, which has been also called brass, is an alloy of cop¬
per with tin. The same alloy, with more tin, is used in
machinery, and is preferred to the alloy of copper and
zinc, on account of its greater hardness.
It appears from the analysis of the brass of the ancients
that it was an alloy of copper and tin. A small portion of
tin gives to copper great hardness, and renders it capable
of bearing much greater resistance. A larger portion of
tin gives increased hardness, but is less fitted to bear a
straining resistance, on account of its brittleness. Its elas¬
ticity is very great, which fits it for bells. In this state it
is called bell-metal; and with a still greater proportion of
tin it forms an alloy employed for the mirrors of reflecting
telescopes. The alloy of copper with tin is easily distin¬
guished from that with zinc, from the agreeable colour of
the latter, which varies with the proportions of the metals.
Pinchbeck has the least proportion of zinc. Common brass
has more zinc, and the gold-coloured alloy called prince’s
metal contains a still greater proportion of zinc. An alloy
of copper with a very large proportion of zinc is used for
the common white metal buttons,
ion The various alloys of copper with tin and zinc forming
the different kinds of brass, are to be considered as che¬
mical compounds, and, of course, governed by the same
laws of definite proportions which obtain in the more con¬
spicuous compounds. On these principles, which cannot
be doubted, we have an unerring rule for uniting these and
VOL. v.
BRA
185
other metals in the best proportions, the weights of their
atoms being previously known.
The weight of the atom of copper being 8, tin 7*35, and
zinc 4, the following tables exhibit the proportions of the
various alloys, expressed in atoms, and their proportions
by weight, the third column pointing out the colour and
character of the resulting compound. CZ and T are to
represent the atoms of the metals respectively.
Brass.
COMPOUNDS OF ZINC WITH COPPER.
Atoms.
Proportions
by Weight.
Character and Colour of the Com¬
pounds.
c+z
C + 2Z
C + 3Z
C + 4Z
C + 5Z
C + 6Z
2 C + Z
3C + Z
1 to 2
1 to 1
2 to 3
1 to 2
2 to 5
1 to 3
4 to 1
6 to 1
The best proportions for common
brass.
The alloy called prince’s metal, of
a beautiful gold colour.
Of a paler yellow, very little mal¬
leable.
Still of a lighter colour, and not
malleable.
Yellowish white, and brittle.
Very brittle, nearly white.
A very malleable brass used in
watch-work.
An alloy much harder than cop¬
per, and inclining to its colour.
COMPOUNDS OF TIN WITH COPPER.
Atoms.
Proportions
by Weight.
Character and Colour of the Com¬
pounds.
T + C
2T + C
3T + C
4T + C
T + 2C
T + 3C
T + 4C
T + 5C
T + 6C
T + 7C
T + 8C
T + 9C
11 to 12
11 to 6
11 to 4
11 to 3
11 to 24
11 to 36
11 to 48
11 to 60
11 to 72
11 to 84
11 to 96
11 to 108
A very brittle and rather white
alloy.
Still more brittle and more white.
Very white, used for speculums.
Coarse-grained, and too brittle for
any purpose.
A yellowish alloy, very hard and
sonorous.
Bell metal.
A very hard alloy, used for some
culinary vessels.
Softer, but not malleable.
Still increases in softness, and of
a yellower colour.
Used for some purposes in machi¬
nery.
An alloy used for cannon.
More common for cannon and
machinery, and used for bronze
statues.
Hitherto the proportions of these alloys have depended
upon the practice of workmen, guided by numerous trials;
but what confirms the law of definite proportions, is the
necessity of adhering to fixed proportions, ascertained by
trial. By attending to the proportions pointed out in the
above tables, the most striking and proper compounds will
be produced, without the trouble of trying. Any inter¬
mediate proportions will, doubtless, be marked by defec¬
tive colour, irregular crystallization, or imperfect malle¬
ability.
Although the most direct way of forming these differ¬
ent kinds of brass is by immediately combining the metals
together, one of them, which is most properly called brass,
was manufactured long before zinc, one of its component
parts, was known in its metallic form. The ore of the
2 A
4»
186
Brass.
Brass
making;.
BRA
latter metal was cemented with sheets of copper, charcoal
being present; and the zinc was united with the copper,
without becoming visible in a distinct form. The same
method is still practised for making brass.
The materials used in making brass are copper in small
round masses, produced by passing the melted metal through
an appropriate vessel into water, in which state it is called
shot copper; and calamine, an ore of zinc. Ibis lattei sub¬
stance is a carbonate of zinc, often containing some oxide
of iron, which gives it a reddish appearance. As it is chiefly
found in combination with lead, the lumps frequently con¬
tain more or less gallena, which requires to be. sepaiated
by the same means as those employed for purifying lead
The calamine is first reduced to powder, and the
lead is then separated by washing. V* hen the calamine
is separated, reduced to powder, and sifted, it is heated
upon the hearth of a reverberatory furnace. This expels
the volatile matter, which is principally water and carbo¬
nic acid. What remains is principally oxide of zinc,
abounding with some earthy matter, and piobalny nuch
carbonic acid, which is not all expelled by the heat. I he
calamine thus prepared, charcoal powder, and copper, are
the materials to be operated upon. The proportions in
which they are mixed together are equal weights of cop¬
per and prepared calamine, and -j^th their weight of pow’-
dered charcoal. _ i .
This mixture, intimately blended, is compressed into
a crucible of the form of fig. 3, Plate CXX\ II. One of
these crucibles holds about 100 lbs. of brass when the
process is finished ; but as this consists of the pure coppei
and zinc, the pot, when charged, will contain of copper
G6-3 lbs., of calamine 63 lbs., and of charcoal powder 13
lbs. When the crucible is filled, the contents should be
covered with a mixture of clay sand and horse-dung, in
order to defend the metals and charcoal from the action
of the air. When this covering is strictly attended to,
less charcoal powder may be employed, and a larger dose
of the other ingredients may be put in its place ; but it is
generally the most defective part of the process.
Fig. 1, Plate CXXVII., is a plan of the furnace. The
part AB is taken at the level EF, showing the opening
into the furnace on the ground floor at a and b ; while c
and d are horizontal flues leading to the chimney/ which
may be cut off from the same by the dampers seen in the
dark part of the flue. CD, in the same figure, is a plan on
the level GH, where the pots rest upon the cast-iron plate
on the bottom x, y
BRA
Fig. 2 is an elevation and section of the same furnace.
AB shows a front view of the pyramidal chimney, and the
archway opening into it. CD is a section of the same,
through the middle of the fire-place 11. R,P,Q, is a vault¬
ed passage going across the building, and open at both
ends for the admission of air, which passes through the
openings in the arch, into the fires, ine bottom of the
furnace is not a common grate, but a thick plate of cast-
metal, perforated with holes for the air to pass through;
one hole being between each pot, as they are seen arrang¬
ed in fig. 1, at I, I, and also in the section at x, y. When
the pots are put upon the plate, the fire is not placed im¬
mediately upon them, as it would not only injure them, but
displace the covering. To prevent this, the pots are first
covered by some dried heath or common brambles, which
defend them for a time, when the fuel is thrown in. By
the time the brambles are consumed the coal will have
coked upon the pots, and thus act as a defence for the lest
of the process. The fire is kept up from twelve to twenty
hours at the Cheudle brass-works in Staffordshire,, from
which these drawings were taken. They cast twice in the
twenty-four hours.
After the refuse is skimmed off, the melted brass is
cast into ingots if sold for melting over again, and into Brass,
plates if intended to be rolled into sheets or made into
wire. The plates are cast between large blocks of Corn¬
wall stone. The lower stone is fixed, and the face made
even and smooth, by filling up the recesses of the rough
stone with fine sand. The upper stone is similarly pre¬
pared, and is suspended.over the fixed one. The height
and breadth of the place to receive the metal is limited
by iron bars laid on the lower stone. The upper stone is
then let down upon the bars. The lower stone is a little
longer than the upper one, and projects to the front.
Being a little higher in that part, it forms a lip or mouth¬
piece for receiving the metal. The flat sides of the cast
plate are therefore bounded by the surface of the stones,
and the edges of these by the bars above mentioned. The
ingot moulds are recesses in blocks of cast-iron, open on
one side.
The most certain and correct method of forming brass
and the other compounds expressed in the table above
given, is by immediately uniting the metals in given
weights. It should, howrever, be observed, that it will he
found difficult to introduce zinc into melted copper. The
best way of uniting it with copper, in the first instance, is
to introduce the copper in thin slips into the melted zinc,
till the alloy requires a considerable heat to fuse it, and
then to unite this alloy with the melted copper.
Corinthian Brass, famous in antiquity, is a mixture of
gold, silver, and copper. Lucius Mummius having sacked
and burnt the city of Corinth, 146 years before Christ, it
is said this metal was formed from the immense quantities
of gold, silver, and copper, with which that city abounded,
having been melted and run together by the violence of
the conflagration.
Brass, in the glass trade. Thrice calcined brass is a
preparation employed by glassmen to give many very
beautiful colours to their wmrk. The manner of preparing
it is this: Having placed thin plates of brass on tiles on
the leet of the furnace, near the occhis, let it stand to be
calcined there for four days, and it will become a black
powder sticking together in lumps. Pulverize this, sift it
fine, and recalcine it during four or five days more; at the
end of which time it will not stick together, but remain a
loose powder of a russet colour. This is to be calcined a
third time in the same manner; but great care must be
taken in the third calcination that it be neither overdone
nor underdone. The way to be certain when it is right,
is, to try it several times in glass while melting. If it
causes the glass, when well purified, to swell, boil, and
rise, it is properly calcined ; if not, it requires longer time.
This, according to the different proportions in which it is
used, produces a sea-green, an emerald-green, or a tur¬
quoise colour.
Brass, by long calcination alone, and without any mix¬
ture, affords a fine blue or green colour for glass; but
there is a method of calcining it also with powdered bnm-
stone, so as to make it afford a red, a yellow, or a cha.ce-
dony colour, according to the quantity and other varia¬
tions in the using of it. Tl\is method of calcination is the
following: Cut thin plates of brass into small pieces with
shears, and lay them stratum super stratum, with alternate
beds of powdered sulphur, in a crucible; calcine this for
twenty-four hours in a strong fire, then powder and sift the
whole, and finally expose the powder upon tiles for twelve
days to a reverberating furnace, at the end of which time
powder it fine and keep it for use. The glass-makers have
also a method of procuring a red powder from brass by a
more simple calcination, which serves for many colouis
The method of preparing it is this : They put small am
thin plates of brass into the arches of the glass furnaces,
and leave them there till they are sufficiently calcined,
fob’-
I
tee
w
BRA
B R A
187
Bn
Co1 '
Brajii-i-
bei
which the heat in that place, not being sufficient to melt
them, does in great perfection. The calcined matter,
powdered, is of a dusky red, and requires no further pre¬
paration.
BnAss-Colour, one prepared by the braziers and colour-
men to imitate brass. There are two sorts of it, the red
brass or bronze, and the yellow or gilt brass. The latter
is made only of copper-filings, the smallest and brightest
that can be found; with the former it is usual to mix some
red ochre, finely pulverized; and both are used with var¬
nish. In order to make a fine brass that will not take any
rust or verdigris, it must be dried with a chafing-dish of
coals as soon as it is applied. The finest brass-colour is
made of powdered brass imported from Germany, diluted
into a varnish, which is prepared and used after the fol¬
lowing manner: The varnish is composed of one pound
four ounces of spirits of wine, two ounces of gum-lac, and
two ounces of sandarac; these two last drugs being pul¬
verized separately, and afterwards put to dissolve in spirit
of wine, and care being taken to fill the bottle but half
full. The varnish being made, mix a quantity of it with
the pulverized brass, and apply it with a small brush to
that which it is intended to brass over. But too much
must not be mixed at once, because the varnish being
very apt to dry, it would not be possible to employ it all
soon enough. It is therefore better to make the mixture
at several times. In this manner are brassed over figures
of plaster, which look almost as well as if they were of
cast brass.
Brass Leaf is made of copper, beaten into very thin
plates, and afterwards rendered yellow. The German ar¬
tists, particularly those of Nuremberg and Augsburg, are
said to possess the best method of giving to these thin
plates of copper a fine yellow colour like gold, by simply
exposing them to the fumes of zinc, without any real mix¬
ture of it with the metal. These plates are cut into little
pieces, and then beaten out fine like leaves of gold ; after
which they are put into books of coarse paper and sold at
a low price for the vulgar kinds of gilding. The parings
or shreds of these very thin yellow leaves, being well
ground on a marble plate, are reduced to a powder simi¬
lar to gold, which serves to cover, by means of gum-water
or some other glutinous fluid, the surface of various mould¬
ings or pieces of curious workmanship, giving them the
appearance of real bronze, and even of fine gold, at a very
trifling expense, because the gold colour of this metallic
powder may be easily raised and improved by stirring it
in a wide earthen bason over a slow fix-e.
BRASSICA Cabbage. See Horticulture,
brassicavit, or Brachicavit, in the manege,
means a horse whose fore legs are naturally bent archwise,
and who is so called by way of distinction from an ai’ched
horse, whose legs are bowed by hard labour.
BRAULS, Indian cloths with blue and xvhite stripes.
They are otherwise called turbans, because they serve to
cover those ornaments of the head, particularly on the coast
of Africa.
BRAUNFELS, a town in the Prussian province of Go¬
bi entz, in the circle of Wetzlar-Braunfels. It belongs to
the duke of that name, formerly a prince, but now me¬
diatised. Ihe castle, on the top of a sugar-loaf hill over¬
looking the city, is one of the most picturesque objects in
Germany. Ihe foot is washed by the Iserbach, and the
town is on the side of the hill, so that every part of it is
commanded by the castle or ducal residence. It contains
about 1500 inhabitants.
c a circle in the Prussian government
0t kouigsberg and province of East Prussia. It extends
ovex 392 squai’e miles, and contains three cities and seven¬
teen parishes, with 30,863 inhabitants. Though very woody,
it produces much good corn and flax. The city, whose Brauronia
name it bears, stands near the Frische Haff, which com- li
municates with the Baltic Sea at Pillau. It contains four , Bray.
Catholic churches and one Lutheran, with 645 houses and
6194 inhabitants. Long. 9. 44. 35. E. Lat. 54. 19. 25. N.
BRAURONIA, in Grecian Antiquity, a festival in ho¬
nour of Diana, surnamed Brauronia, from its having been
observed at Brauron, an Athenian borough. This festival
was celebrated once in five years, under the management
of ten men, called in Gi'eek izookoioi. The victim offered
in sacrifice was a goat, and it was customary for certain
men to sing portions of Homex*’s Iliad. The most remark¬
able persons at this solemnity were young virgins, habited
in yellow gowns, and consecrated to Diana. It was un¬
lawful for any of them to be above ten or under five years
of age.
BRAWN, the flesh of a boar soused or pickled. For
this end the boar should be old, because the older he is
the more horny will the brawn be. The method of pre¬
paring brawn is as follows: The boar being killed, it is the
flitches only, without the legs, that are made brawn; the
bones of these are to be taken out, and the flesh sprinkled
with salt and laid in a ti'ay, that the blood may drain off;
then it is to be salted a little, and rolled up as hard as
possible. The length of the collar of brawn should be as
much as one side of the boar will bear, so that when rolled
up it may be nine or ten inches in diameter. The collar
being thus rolled up, it is to be boiled in a copper or large
kettle till it become so tender that a straw may be run
through it, and then set by till it is thoroughly cold, and
put into a pickle prepax’ed in the following manner: For
every gallon of water add a handful or two of salt and as
much wheat-bran ; boil them together, then di'ain the bran
clear off from the liquor, and when it is quite cold put the
brawn into it.
BRAY, Sir Reginald, an architect and politician, was
the second son of Sir Richard Bray, one of the privy
council to King Henry VI. Sir Reginald was instrumen¬
tal in the advancement of King Henry VII. to the throne
of England, and was greatly in favour with that prince,
who bestowed honours and wealth upon him. His skill
in architecture appears from Hem-y VII.’s chapel at West-
minster, and the chapel of St George at Windsor; he had
a principal concern and direction in building the for-
mer, and in finishing and bringing to perfection the lat¬
ter, to which he was also a liberal benefactor. He died
in 1501, and was interred in the above chapel, probably
under the stone where Dr Waterland lies; for, on open¬
ing the vault to admit the body of that gentleman, who
died in 1740, a leaden coffin of ancient form was found,
which, by other appearances, was judged to be that of
Sir Reginald, and was, by order of the dean, immediately
arched over.
Bray, Dr Thomas, a learned and pious divine, was
born at Marton, in Shropshire, in the year 1656, and edu¬
cated at Oxford. He was at length presented to the vi¬
carage of Over-Whitacre, in Warwickshire; and in 1690
he obtained the rectory of Sheldon, where he composed
his Catechetical Lectures. These procured him such re¬
putation, that Dr Compton, bishop of London, pitched
upon him as a proper person to model the infant church
of Maryland, and establish it upon a solid foundation ; and
for that purpose he was invested with the office of com¬
missary. He now engaged in several important under¬
takings. He caused sums to be raised for purchasing
small libraries for the use of the poor ministers in the
several parts of our plantations ; and the better to promote
this design, he published two books. One of these is en¬
titled Bibliotheca Parochialis, or a scheme of such theolo¬
gical and other heads as seem requisite to be perused or
188 BRA
Bray occasionally consulted by the clergy, together with a ca¬
ll talogue of books which may be profitably read on each of
Brazil, those points; the other, Apostolical Charity, its nature
an(j excellency considered. He endeavoured to get a
fund established for the propagation of the gospel, espe¬
cially among the uncultivated Indians; and by his means
a patent was obtained for erecting the corporation called
The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. By his
industry he also procured relief for prisoners, and foimed
the plan of the society for the reformation of manners,
charity schools, and other like purposes. He wrote Mar-
tyrologv, or Papal Usurpation, in one volume, folio ; Direc-
torium ^Missionarium ; and other works. Dr Bray died
in 1730, aged seven ty-three.
Bray, a small sea-port town of Ireland, in the county oi
Wicklow, and province of Leinster, situated on the south
side of the river Bray. It is ten miles distant from Dublin.
BRAZEN Sea, in Jewish Antiquity, one of the sacred
utensils in the temple of Solomon. It was cast in the
BRA
plain of Jordan, and removed from thence into the inner Brazil jp)^
court of the temple, where it was placed upon twelve |
oxen, three of which looked towards each quarter of the Brazil
world. It was ten cubits from the one brim to the other,
five cubits in height, and thirty cubits^ in circumference,
and contained three thousand baths. The brim of it was
perfectly round, and so it continued in the two upper
cubits; but below the brim, in the three lower cubits, it
was square. It was a hand-breadth in thickness, and the
brim ^vas wrought like the brim of a cup, with flowers of
lilies. About the body of this huge vessel were two bor¬
ders of engravings, representing the heads of oxen in
demi-relief, and out of these some suppose the water to
have issued. This brazen or molten sea was designed for
the priests to wash themselves in before they performed
the service of the temple. Water was supplied through
a pipe out of the well Etam.
BRAZIER, an artificer who makes and deals in all
kinds of brass ware.
BRAZIL.
In presenting an account of this extensive and import¬
ant country, we shall,give a brief historical sketch of
the progressive discovery ot its coasts and interior,, of its
gradual settlement, and of the auspices under which its
social institutions have developed themselves; secondly,
a condensed view of its physical geography, meteorology,
and natural products ; and, thirdly, a similar \ iew of its in¬
habitants, their form of government, moral and intellectual
culture, and agricultural, manufacturing, and commercial
industry.
History. I. History.—Brazil was discovered in 1499, by \ mcent
Yanez Pinion, a companion of Columbus. He descried
the land near Cape St Augustine, and sailed along the
coast as far as the river Amazons, whence he proceeded
to the mouth of the Orinoco. He made no settlement,
but took possession of the country in the name ot the
Spanish government, and carried home, as specimens of
its natural productions, some drugs, gems, and Brazil
wood. Next year the Portuguese commander, Pedro
Alvarez Cabral, appointed by his monarch to follow the
course of Vasco de Gama in the east, was driven, by ad¬
verse winds, so far from his track, that he reached the
Brazilian coast, and anchored in Porto Seguro (lat. 16° S.)
on Good Friday. On Easter-day an altar was erected,
mass celebrated in presence ot the natives, the country
declared an apanage of Portugal, and a stone cross erected
in commemoration of the event. Cabral dispatched a. small
vessel to Lisbon, to announce his discovery, and, without
forming any settlement, proceeded to India.
On the arrival of the news in Portugal, Emanuel invit¬
ed Amerigo Vespucci to enter his service, and dispatched
him with three vessels to explore the country. Ihis na¬
vigator’s first voyage was unsuccessful; but in a second he
discovered a safe port, the site of which is not accurately
known, to which he gave the name of All-Saints. He re¬
mained there five months, and maintained a friendly in¬
tercourse with the natives. Some of the party travelled
forty leagues into the interior. Vespucci erected a small
fort, and leaving twelve men, with guns and provisions, to
garrison it, embarked tor Portugal; having loaded his two
ships with Brazil wood, monkeys, and parrots.
The poor and barbarous tribes of Brazil, and their coun¬
try, the mineral riches of which were not immediately dis¬
covered, offered but few attractions to a government into
the coffers of which the wealth of India and Africa was
flowing. Vespucci’s settlement was neglected. 4 or nearly
thirty years the kings of Portugal paid no further atten¬
tion to their newly-acquired territory, than what consist¬
ed in combating the attempts of the Spaniards to occupy
it, and dispersing the private adventurers from France,
who sought its shores for the purposes of commerce. The
colonization of Brazil was prosecuted, however, by sub¬
jects of the Portuguese monarchy, who traded thither
chiefly for Brazil wood. It was convenient for these
traders to have agents living among the natives ; and ad¬
venturers were found who were willing to take up their
abode with them. The government also sought to make
criminals of some use to the state, by placing them in
a situation where they could do little harm to society,
and might help to uphold the dominion of their nation.
The utter want of any legal check upon these earliest
European settlers, combined with the ferocious charac¬
ters of many of them, and the hardening influence of
their feuds with the native cannibals, were anything but
favourable to the morals of the infant empire.
The first attempt on the part of a Portuguese monarch
to introduce an organized government into his dominions,
was made by Joam III. He adopted a plan which had
been found to succeed well in Madeira and the Azores;
dividing the country into hereditary captaincies, and grant¬
ing them to such persons as were willing to undertake
their settlement, with unlimited powers of jurisdiction,
both civil and criminal. Each captaincy extended along
fifty leagues of coast. The boundaries towards the inte¬
rior were undefined.
The first settlement made under this new system was
that of S. Vincente. Martim Aftonso de Sousa, having
obtained a grant, fitted out a considerable armament, an
proceeded to explore the country in person. He began
to survey the coast about Rio Janeiro, to which he gave
that name because he discovered it on the first of Janu¬
ary 1531. He proceeded south as far as La Plata, nam¬
ing the places he surveyed on the way from the days on
which the respective discoveries were made. He fixe
upon an island, in latitude 24^° south, called by the natives
Guaibe, for his settlement. The Goagnazes, or prevai -
ing tribe of Indians in that neighbourhood, as soon as
they discovered the intentions of the new comers to x
themselves permanently there, collected for the purpose
of expelling them. Fortunately, however, a shipwrec e
Portuguese, who had lived many years under the protec¬
tion of the principal chief, was successful in concluding a
BRA
lstor treaty of perpetual alliance between his countrymen and
-y- the natives. The good understanding thus happily esta¬
blished was long preserved. Finding the spot chosen for
the new town inconvenient, the colonists removed to the
adjoining island of S. Vincente, from which the captaincy
derived its name. An unsuccessful expedition was made
into the interior in search of mines. Nevertheless the
colony prospered. Cattle and the sugar-cane were at an
early period introduced from Madeira, and here the other
captaincies supplied themselves with both. The founder
of the colony was soon removed from the active superin¬
tendence of its progress, by being appointed governor-ge¬
neral of India; but on his return to Portugal he watched
over its welfare, sending out supplies and settlers, and
leaving it at his death in a flourishing condition to his son.
Pero Lopes de Sousa received the grant of a captaincy,
and set sail from Portugal at the same time as his brother,
the founder of S. Vincente. He chose to have his fifty
leagues in two allotments. That to which he gave the
name of S. Amaro adjoined S. Vincente, the two towns
being only three leagues asunder. The other division lay
much nearer to the line between Paraiba and Pernam¬
buco. He experienced considerable difficulty in found¬
ing this second colony, from the strenuous opposition of a
neighbouring tribe, the Petiguares ; but at length he suc¬
ceeded in clearing his lands of them; and not long after¬
wards he perished by shipwreck. The extreme proximity
of his first settlement at S. Amaro to his brother’s at S. Vin¬
cente was at first advantageous to both ; but the former
coming after his death into the hands of strangers, their
interfering and contested boundaries gave rise to much
trouble and litigation.
Rio Janeiro was not settled till a later period; and for
a considerable time the nearest captaincy to S. Amaro,
sailing along the coast northwards, was that of Espirito
Santo. It was founded by Vasco Fernandes Coutinho, who
having acquired a large fortune in India, sunk it in this
1 scheme of colonization. He carried with him no less than
sixty fidalgos. They named their town by anticipation,
Our Lady of the Victors; but it cost them some hard
fighting with the Goagnazes to justify the title. Having
defeated these savages, the colonists carried on the build¬
ing with spirit, planted canes, and established four sugar-
works ; and Coutinho seeing every thing prosperous, re¬
turned to Lisbon to enlist more colonists, and to make
preparations for an expedition into the interior in search
of mines.
Pedro de Campo Tourinho, a nobleman and excellent
navigator, received a grant of the adjoining captaincy of
Porto Seguro. This, it will be remembered, is the spot
where Cabral first took possession of Brazil. Tourinho
and his associates fortified themselves on the place where
the capital of the presidency still stands. The Tupino-
quins at first offered some opposition; but having made
peace, they observed it faithfully, notwithstanding that the
oppression of the Portuguese obliged them to forsake the
country. In this guilt Tourinho is not implicated. That
he had influence enough with the natives to induce many
of them to collect and settle in villages, is a proof that he
dealt justly by them. Sugar-works were established, and
considerable quantities of the produce exported to the
mother-country. It was found impossible, by reason of an
endemic disorder, to rear kine in the province ; but horses,
asses, and goats, succeeded.
Jonge de Fignuredo, Escrivam da Fazenda, was the
first donatory of the captaincy of the isles. His office
preventing him from taking possession in person, he de¬
puted the task to Francisco Romeiro, a Castilian. The
lupinoquins, the most tractable of the Brazilian tribes,
made peace with the settlers, and the colony was founded
Z I L. 189
without a struggle. The son of the original proprietor History,
sold the captaincy to Lucas Geraldes, who expended con-
siderable wealth in improving it; and, in a short time, eight
or nine sugar-wmrks were established.
The coast from the Rio Francisco to the bay of Bahia
was granted to Francisco Pereira Coutinho; and the bay
itself, with all its creeks, wms afterwards added to the
grant. When Coutinho formed his establishment, where
Villa Velha now stands, he found a noble Portuguese liv¬
ing in the neighbourhood, who, having been shipwreck¬
ed, had, by means of his fire-arms, raised himself to the
rank of chief among the natives. He was surrounded by
a patriarchal establishment of wives and children ; and
to him most of the distinguished families of Bahia still
trace their lineage. The regard entertained by the na¬
tives for Caramaru (so he was called by them) induced
them to extend a hospitable welcome to his countrymen;
and for a time every thing went on well. Coutinho had,
however, learned in India to be an oppressor, and the
Tupinambas were the fiercest and most powerful of the
native tribes. The Portuguese were obliged to abandon
their settlement; but several of them returned at a later
period, along with Caramaru, and thus a European commu¬
nity was established in the district.
A factory had, some time before the period at which
these captaincies were established, been planted at Per¬
nambuco. A ship from Marseilles took it, and left seventy
men in it as a garrison ; but being captured on her return,
and carried into Lisbon, immediate measures were taken
for re-occupying the place. The captaincy of Pernambuco
was granted to Don Duarte Coelho Pereiro as the reward
of his services in India. It extended along the coast from
the Rio St Francisco, northward to the Rio de Juraza.
Duarte sailed with his w ife and children, and many of his
kinsmen, to take possession of his new colony, and land¬
ed in the port of Pernambuco. To the town which was
there founded he gave the name of Olinda. The Cabetes,
who possessed the soil, were fierce and pertinacious ; and,
assisted by the French, who traded to that coast, Coelho
had to gain by inches what was granted him by leagues.
The Portuguese managed, however, to beat off their ene¬
mies; and, having entered into an alliance with the To-
bayanes, followed up their success. After this triumph
the colony continued, with the exception of a brief inter¬
val, to enjoy peace, and to prosper during the life of its
founder.
Attempts were made about this time to establish two
other captaincies, but without success. Pedro de Goes
obtained a grant of the territory between the captaincies
of S. Vincente and Espirito Santo; but his means were
too feeble to enable him to make head against the abo¬
rigines, and the colony was broken up after a painful
struggle of seven years. Joam de Barros, the historian,
obtained the captaincy of Maranhao. For the sake of
increasing his capital, he divided his grant with Fernan
Alvares de Andrada and Aires da Cunha. They projected
a scheme of conquest and colonization upon a large scale.
Nine hundred men, of whom one hundred and thirteen
were horsemen, embarked in ten ships under the com¬
mand of Aires da Cunha. But the vessels were wrecked
upon some shoals about one hundred leagues to the south
of Maranhao; and the few survivors, after suffering im¬
mense hardships, escaped to the nearest settlements, and
the undertaking-was abandoned.
By these adventurers, the whole line of Brazilian coast,
from the mouth of La Plata to the mouth of the Amazons,
had become studded at intervals with Portuguese settle¬
ments, in all of which law and justice were administered,
however inadequately. Sufficient capital was in conse¬
quence attracted, between the year 1531, in which De
190
IT istorv.
BRAZIL.
Sousa founded the first captaincy, and the year 1548, to
these colonies, to render them an object of importance to
the mother countn^. Their organization, however, both in
regard to their means of defence against external aggres¬
sion and internal violence, was extremely defective. Portu¬
gal was distant, and the inhabited portions of each captaincy
were too far asunder to be able to alford reciprocal assist¬
ance. They were surrounded by, and intermingled with,
large tribes of savages. Behind them the Spaniards, who
had an establishment at Assumption, had penetrated al¬
most to the sources ot the waters of Paraguay, and had suc¬
ceeded in establishing a communication with Peru. Orel¬
lana, on the other hand, setting out from Peru, had cioss-
ed the mountains and sailed down the Amazons. Noi
had the French abandoned their hopes of elfecting an es¬
tablishment on the coast. But the internal mismanage¬
ment of the Portuguese settlements was even worse than
the inadequacy of their defensive force. The governor
of every captaincy exercised uncontrolled authority; the
property, honour, and lives of the colonists, w^ere at the
mercy of these feudal chieftains ; and the people groaned
under their oppression. If Portugal wished to preserve
and profit by her colonies, it was evident that measures
must be taken to ameliorate their institutions.
The obvious remedy for these evils was to concentrate
the executive power, to render the petty chiefs amenable
to one tribunal, and to confide the management of the de¬
fensive force to one hand. In order to this the powers of
the several captains were revoked, whilst their property
in their grants was reserved to them. A governor-gene¬
ral was appointed, with full powers, civil and criminal. The
judicial and financial functions in each province were vest¬
ed in the Ouvidor, whose authority in the college of finance
was second only to that of the governor. In levying the
dues of the crown, he was assisted by the Juiz de Fora.
Every colonist was enrolled either in the Milicias or Or-
denanzas. The former were obliged to serve beyond the
boundaries of the province, the latter only at home. The
Milicias were commanded by Coroneis, the Ordenanzas by
Capitaes Mores. Both were immediately under the governor.
The chief cities received municipal constitutions, as in Por¬
tugal. Thome de Sousa w^as the first person nominated to
the important post of governor-general. He was instructed
to build a strong city in Bahia, and to establish there the
seat of his government. In pursuance of his commission,
he arrived at Bahia in April 1549, with a fleet ot six ves¬
sels, on board of which were three hundred and twenty
persons in the king’s pay, four hundred convicts, and as
many free colonists as swelled the number of adventurers
to one thousand. Care had been taken for the spiritual
wants of the provinces, by associating six Jesuits to the
expedition.
Old Caramaru, who still survived, rendered the gover¬
nor essential service, by gaining for his countrymen the
good will of the natives. The new city was established
where Bahia still stands. Within four months one hundred
houses were built, and surrounded by a mud wall. Sugar
plantations were laid out in the vicinity. During the four
years of Sousa’s government, there were sent out at differ¬
ent times supplies of all kinds; female orphans of noble
families, who were given in marriage to the officers, and
portioned from the royal estates; and orphan boys to be
educated by the Jesuits. The capital rose rapidly in im¬
portance, and the captaincies learned to regard it as a
common head and centre of wealth. The governor visited
them, inspected their fortifications, and regulated the ad¬
ministration of justice. Meanwhile the Jesuits under¬
took the moral and religious culture ot the natives, and
of the scarcely less savage colonists. Strong opposition
was at first experienced from the gross ignorance ot the
Indians, and the depravity of the Portuguese, fostered by H*
the licentious encouragement of some abandoned priests
who had found their way to Brazil. Over these persons
the Jesuits had no authority; and it was not until the ar¬
rival of the first bishop of Brazil in 1552 that any thing
like an efficient check was imposed upon them. Next
year Sousa wras succeeded by Duarte da Costa, who
brought with him a reinforcement of Jesuits, at the head
of whom was Luis de Gran, appointed, with Nobrega the
chief of the first mission, joint provincial of Brazil.
Nobrega’s first act was one which has exercised the most
beneficial influence over the social system of Brazil, name¬
ly, the establishment of a college on the then unreclaimed
plains of Piratininga. The spot selected by him for the
site of this establishment is on the ridge of the Serra do
Mar, ten leagues from the sea, and thirteen from S. Vin¬
cente. It was named S. Paulo, and has been at once the
source whence knowledge and civilization have been dit-
fused through Brazil, and the nucleus of a colony of its
manliest and hardiest citizens, which has sent out succes-
sive swarms of hardy adventurers to people the interior.
The mode of education pursued by the Jesuits at S. Paulo
was the same as that observed in all their other mis¬
sions. Their good intentions were in part frustrated by
the opposition of Duarte the governor; and it was not un¬
til 1558, when Mem de Sa was sent out to supersede him,
that their enlightened projects were allowed free scope.
This great man, comprehending better than his predeces¬
sor the system of these missionaries, went hand in hand
with the ecclesiastics, during the whole ol his government.
It has been observed above that Rio Janeiro was not
colonized at the time when the rest of the coast was por¬
tioned out into captaincies. It was first occupied by
French settlers. Nicholas Durand de Villegagnon, a bold
and skilful seaman, having visited Brazil, saw at once the
advantages which might accrue to his country from a set¬
tlement there. In order to secure the interest of Coligny,
he gave out that his projected colony was intended to serve
as a place of refuge for the persecuted Pluguenots. Under
the patronage of that admiral, he arrived at Rio Janeiro
in 1558, with a train of numerous and respectable colonists.
As soon, however, as he thought his power secure, he
threw off the mask, and began to harass and oppress the
Huguenots by every means he could devise. Many of them
were forced by his tyranny to return to France; and ten
thousand Protestants, ready to embark for the new colo¬
ny, were deterred by their representations. Villegagnon,
finding his force much diminished in consequence of his
treachery, sailed for France in quest of recruits; and du¬
ring his absence the Portuguese governor, by order of his
court, attacked and dispersed the settlement. For some
years the French kept up a kind of bush warfare; but in
1567 the Portuguese succeeded in establishing a settle¬
ment at Rio.
Mem de Sa continued to hold the'reins of government
in Brazil upon terms of the best understanding with tne
clergy, and to the great advantage of the colonies, for four¬
teen years. On the expiration of his power, which was
nearly contemporary with that of his life, an attempt was
made to divide Brazil into two goveimments ; but, this hay¬
ing failed, the territory was re-united in 1578, the year m
which Diego Laurenco da Viega was appointed governoi.
At this time the colonies, although not yet independent o
supplies from the mother country, were in a flourishing
condition ; but the usurpation of the crown of Portugal by
Philip II. changed the aspect of affairs. Brazil, believed to
be inferior to the Spanish possessions in mines, was con¬
sidered of importance merely as an outpost to prevent the
intrusion of foreign nations. It was consequently aban¬
doned to comparative neglect for the period intervening
Pf
BRAZIL.
between 1578 and 1640, during which it continued an ap-
' panage of Spain. The population increased; and domes¬
tic enterprise and foreign invasion called forth the ener¬
gies of the people; but, as far as the legislature was con¬
cerned, nothing was done.
No sooner had Brazil passed under the Spanish crown,
than English adventurers directed their hostile enter¬
prises against its shores. In 1586 Witherington plun¬
dered Bahia; in 1591 Cavendish burned S. Vincente ; in
1595 Lancaster took Olinda. These exploits were the
transient operations of freebooters. In 1612 the French
attempted to found a permanent colony in the island
of Marajo, where they succeeded in maintaining them¬
selves till 1618. This attempt led to the erection of Ma-
ranhao and Para into a separate Estado. But it was
on the part of the Dutch that the most skilful and per¬
tinacious efforts were made for securing a footing in Bra¬
zil ; and they alone of all the rivals of the Portuguese have
left traces of their presence in the national spirit and in¬
stitutions of Brazil.
The very imperfect constitution of the United Provinces
was the cause why many of the executive functions were
delegated to companies of mercantile adventurers. Among
the offices properly appertaining to the government, the
maintenance and defence of the Spice Islands had been in¬
trusted to the East India Company. The success of that
body suggested the establishment of a West India Com¬
pany. Its charter secured to it a monopoly of the trade
to America and the opposite coast of Africa, between the
tropic of Cancer and the Cape of Good Hope. The com¬
pany was taken bound to render an account of its proceed¬
ings every sixth year.
This body dispatched, in 1624, a fleet against Bahia.
I he town yielded almost without a struggle. The Dutch
governor fortified his new acquisition ; and his proclama¬
tion offering toleration and protection to all, collected
around him a multitude of Indians, Negroes, and Jews. The
fleet soon after sailed ; a squadron being detached against
Angola, with the intention of taking possession of that
colony, in order to secure a supply of slaves. The Por¬
tuguese, in the meanwhile, who had fled at first in the
hope of eluding what they conceived to be merely an incur¬
sion of pirates, began to collect for the purpose of expelling
toe permanent intruders; and the weakening of the Dutch
force by the departure of the fleet inspired them with
nesh courage. The descendants of Caramaru formed a
hnk between the aborigines and the Portuguese which
existed in no other part of Brazil. The consequence was,
the hearty co-operation of all the natives against the in¬
vaders. I he Dutch were obliged to capitulate in May
wdo. Ifie honours bestowed upon the Indian chiefs for
tneir assistance in this war broke down in a great measure
the barrier between the two tribes; and there is at this
day a greater admixture of their blood among the better
c a®ses in Bahia than is to be found elsewhere in Brazil.
lor some years the Dutch confined themselves to de-
piedations upon the marine of Spain and Portugal. In
nr *^1they tempted again to effect a settlement; and
a yielded after a feeble resistance. They were un-
^ e’ however, to extend their power beyond the limits of
iftn0'™’ .Uni'h the arrival of Count Maurice of Nassau in
• His first step was to introduce a regular govern-
ment among his countrymen ; his second, to send to the
rucan coast one of his officers, who took possession of
oituguese settlement, and thus secured a supply of
AUcs‘ Nassau suffered repulses in several of his expedi-
lons, and particularly in that which he undertook against
jA-1, la' Nevertheless, in the course of four years, the li-
/•,1 e. P^iod of his government, he succeeded in con-
•ng the Dutch supremacy along the coast of Brazil,
191
from the mouth of the S. Francisco to Maranhao. He History,
expended the revenues of the country, the booty obtain-
ed from the Portuguese, and a great part of his private
fortune, in fortifying the mouths of rivers, building bridges
to facilitate mercantile intercourse, and beautifying and
repairing towns. He strictly observed the Dutch policy
of tolerating all religions. He promoted the amalgama¬
tion of the different races, and sought to conciliate the
Portuguese by the confidence he reposed in them. His
object was to found a great empire ; but this was a project
at variance with the wishes of his employers,—an associa¬
tion of merchants, who were dissatisfied because the wealth
which they expected to see flowing into their coffers was
expended in promoting the permanent interests of a dis¬
tant country. Count Maurice was recalled in 1644. His
successors possessed neither his political nor military ta¬
lents, and had to contend with more energetic enemies.
In 1640, the revolution which placed the house of Bra-
ganza on the throne of Portugal restored Brazil to mas¬
ters more inclined to promote its interests, and assert its
possession, than the Spaniards. It was indeed high time
that some exertion should be made. The northern provin¬
ces had fallen into the power of Holland; the southern,
peopled in a great measure by the hardy descendants of
the successive colonists, who had issued on all sides from
the central establishment of S. Paulo, had learned, from
their habits of unaided and successful enterprise, to court
independence. Adventurers had penetrated into those cen¬
tral mountains where the diamond is found. They had as¬
cended the waters of the Paraguay to their sources. They
had extended their limits southwards till they reached the
Spanish settlements on La Plata. They had reduced to
slavery numerous tribes of the natives. They were rich
in cattle, and had commenced the discovery of the mines.
While yet nominally subject to the crown of Spain, they
had not scrupled on more than one occasion to wage war
on their own account against the settlements of that coun¬
try. When, therefore, the inhabitants of S. Paulo saw
themselves about to be transferred, as a dependency of
Portugal, from one master to another, they conceived the
idea of erecting their country into an independent state.
But their attempt was frustrated by Amador Bueno de Ri-
biero, the person they had selected for their king. When
the people shouted “ Long live King Amador,” he cried
out “ Long live Joam IV.,” and took refuge in a convent.
The multitude, left without a leader, acquiesced, and this
important province was secured to the house of Braganza.
ilio and Santos, although both evinced a desire of inde¬
pendence, followed the example of the Paulistas. Bahia,
as capital of the Brazilian states, felt that its ascendancy
depended upon the union with Portugal. The government,
thus left in quiet possession of the rest of Brazil, had time
to concentrate its attention upon the Dutch conquests.
The crown of Portugal was, however, much too weak to
adopt energetic measures. The tyranny of the successors
of Nassau, by alienating the minds of the Portuguese and
natives, drove them to revolt, before any steps were taken
in the mother country for the re-conquest of its colonies.
Joam Ferdinand Vieyra, a native of Madeira, organized the
insurrection which broke out in 1645. This insurrection
gave birth to one of those wars in which a whole nation, des¬
titute of pecuniary resources, military organization, and skil¬
ful leaders, is opposed to a handful of soldiers advantageous¬
ly posted and well officered. But brute force is unable to
contend with scientific valour, whilst the want of numbers
prevents the intruders from reaching the enemy they al¬
ways repulse. The struggle degenerates into unceasing
skirmishes and massaci’es, conducting to no result. Vieyra,
who had the sense to see this, repaired to the court of Por¬
tugal, and discovering the weakness and poverty of the ex-
192
brazil.
History, ecutive, suggested the establishment of a company similar
to that which in Holland had proved so successful. His
plan, notwithstanding the opposition of the priests, was
approved of, and in 1649 the Brazil Company of Portugal
sent out its first fleet. The additional impetus communi¬
cated by this new engine to the exertions °f th® Portu¬
guese colonists and their Indian allies, turned the scale
against the Dutch; and, after a most sanguinary war,
Yieyra was enabled in 1654 to present the keys of Ohnda
to the royal commander, and to restore to his monaich the
undivided empire of Brazil.
From the date of the expulsion of the Dutch down to
that of the flight of the house of Braganza from French
oppression, Brazil suffered comparatively little from do¬
mestic broils or foreign invasion. The approach of foreign
traders was prohibited, while the tenths and regalities re¬
served by the crown drained the country of a great pro¬
portion of its wealth. The authority of the governors was
despotic in its abuse, but limited in its corrective power,
the administration of justice was slovenly in the extreme;
the pay of all functionaries, civil, ecclesiastic, and military,
was so parsimonious as to render peculation inevitable ;
and yet, in spite of all these disadvantages, the wealth and
happiness of the people continued silently and steadily to
increase. The reason was, that they were left in a great
measure to themselves, and had an ample field within then
own land for the exertion of their industry.
We have already adverted to the important part which
the inhabitants of the captaincy of S. Paulo have played
in the history of Brazil, The establishment of the Jesuit
college had attracted to its neighbourhood a number of
settlers from S. Vincente. rlhe Indians of the distiict were
of mild dispositions, and frequent intermarriages took
place between them and the Europeans. A race of men
sprung from this mixture, native to the soil, hardy and
enterprising, wearing but lightly the bonds which attach¬
ed them to the mother country. The first object of in¬
quiry with the colonists was, whether the land of which
they had taken possession were rich in metals. Gold was
found, but not in sufficient quantities to reward the labour
bestowed in search of it. The Portuguese next devoted
their energies to excursions against the more remote In¬
dian tribes, with a view to obtaining slaves. Traces of gold
having been observed in the mountain ranges north of S.
Paulo, successive bands of adventurers attempted to pene¬
trate the wilderness. The spirit of enterprise was thus
nourished and confirmed. From the year 1629 the Pau-
listas repeatedly attacked the settlements of the Jesuits
in Paraguay, although both provinces were nominally sub¬
ject to the crown of Spain, and carried away numbers of
the natives into captivity. Other bands penetrated into
Minas, and, still farther northward and westward, into
Goyaz and Cujaba, in search of gold.
At first the gold-searchers, like the slave-hunters, un¬
dertook temporary expeditions, with the view, doubtless,
of returning laden with booty, and settling in their native
homes. By degrees, however, as the distance of the newly-
discovered mines increased, and establishments for work¬
ing them became necessary, new colonies were founded.
Different associations of adventurers penetrated, in the
years 1693, 1694, and 1695, into the district of Minas
Geraes, which had been explored by the Paulistas at least
twenty years before. In the beginning of the eighteenth
century five of its principal settlements were elevated by
royal charter to the privileges of Villas. In 1720 the dis¬
trict was separated from S. Paulo, of which it had previ¬
ously been esteemed a dependency, and placed under the
control of a governor-general. In 16/0 the gold-searchers
penetrated into Goyaz ; but it was not till the commence¬
ment of the next century that, encouraged by the dis¬
covery of the mines of Cujaba, in the province of Matto Hist
Grosso, a permanent colony was settled there. 'wy,
The first attempt to regulate by legislative enactments
the industry of the miners of Brazil w*as made as early as
1618 by Philip III. According to his code of regulations,
the privileges of the discoverer were that he should have
one mine of eighty Portuguese varas by forty, and a se¬
cond allotment of sixty by thirty upon the same vein. A
hundred and twenty varas were to intervene between the
portions. Any adventurer might claim a mine, but he
could only have one of the same extent as the discoverer’s
first portion. No one except the discoverer might have
more than one original grant within the distance of a
league and a half; but the purchase of another person’s al-
lotment within that distance was allowed. Mines might be
sought for and worked upon private property because they
belonged to the king, but the owner of the land had a right
to indemnification. Mining adventurers were entitled to
turn their cattle into the lands of the conselho, and even
into private property, without the owner’s permission,
upon paying the value of the pasturage. No man en¬
gaged in mining could be arrested for debt, or have a
distress levied upon such capital as he had employed in
the work. Mines might only be granted to such persons
as possessed the means of peopling and working them. A
grant was forfeited if not taken possession of within sixty
days. The executive and judicial functions within the min¬
ing districts were vested in a provedor and his secretary,
those of the fiscal in a treasurer. None of these officials
could hold a share in a mine, or trade in its produce, under
penalty of loss of office and confiscation of property. The
provedor or his secretary measured out the allotments;
received and inspected the samples of metal from new
mines ; registered the grants, with the holder’s oath to pay
his fifths regularly and faithfully; and decided finally m
all disputes to the amount of fifty milrees, with the re¬
servation only of the right of appeal to the Provedor Mm
da Real Fazenda to any amount. The treasurer received
the royal fifths, and superintended the weighing, register¬
ing, refining, and stamping of all the gold. I he kings
share was deposited in a chest under three locks, the keys
of which were kept by the provedor, secretary, and trea¬
surer. A yearly account was returned of all the discove¬
ries and produce. , .
For many years these laws were little more than a dea..
letter. The Paulistas were wholly engrossed with their
expeditions in quest of slaves; the government and the co¬
lonists of the other captaincies, with the Dutch and other
wars. Some few gipsy-like establishments were scatteret
thinly throughout the gold country. By degrees the desire
of gain induced the more powerful and wealthy colonists
to solicit large grants. No attention was paid to the re¬
striction of the number that might be conferred on each
individual; and the consequence was, that men of influence
monopolized the mines, and were obliged either to suble
them to those they had forestalled, or to leave them un¬
opened. It was found necessary in 1702 to alter the ex
isting laws. . .
The whole ordinary civil and military authority w s
vested in the superintendent (Guarda M6r). The^ap-
pointment of the treasurer belonged to this officer, o
were allowed a limited number ot deputies. At first
salaries of all these officers were levied upon the 1™ner!!’
but subsequently the privilege of mining was concede
them in lieu of a salary. No second grant was mace
any person until he had worked the first. The allotmen
were regulated by the number of slaves which the mu1
employed. Besides its fifths, the crown reserved an a
ment, selected after the adventurer had taken his
^rant and before he had chosen his second. If an
BRAZIL.
193
HstC',
|
venturer did not begin to work his ground within forty
davs, a third part of it, upon information of the lapse, was
assigned to the informer, and the other two thirds revert¬
ed to the crown. Cattle were allowed to be imported into
the mining districts from Bahia, but no persons were al¬
lowed to enter except the drovers. They were required to
notify their arrival, the number of their cattle, and the
prices they obtained. Any person might carry gold-
dust from the mines to Bahia to purchase cattle, but not
till he had paid his fifths and provided himself with a cer¬
tificate. These regulations were inforced by strong penal¬
ties, in order to prevent frauds upon the revenue. Slaves,
and all other goods except cattle, were only allowed to
be introduced from Rio, and that either by the way of S.
Paulo or Taboate. No idle persons were allowed to re¬
main about the mines ; no goldsmith was tolerated there,
nor any settler possessed of a slave capable of exercising
this craft.
The same infatuated passion for mining speculations
which had characterized the Spanish settlers in South
America, now began to actuate the Portuguese. Adven¬
turers crowded to the scene of action from all the cap¬
taincies; not mere “ landless resolutes” alone, but men
of substance also. Labourers and capital were drained
off to the mining districts. The Engenhos were either
abandoned or left half-cultivated, from the inability of the
proprietors to offer for slaves the ruinous prices paid by
the adventurers of the mines. Brazil, which had hither¬
to in a great measure supplied Europe with sugar, sank
before the competition of the French and English, who
had no mines to distract their attention. Commerce of
every kind declined along with this staple commodity.
The court endeavoured for a time to counteract this course
of enterprise, but in vain.
Anew source of wealth for Brazil, had it been properly
managed, but, as matters have turned out, merely a new
source of injudicious restriction, was now about to be
opened up. Some adventurers who had prosecuted the
business of gold-washing northwards from Villa de Prin¬
cipe in the captaincy of Minas, made a discovery of dia¬
monds about the year 1710. The value of these minerals
was not known till several years after, when an Ouvidor
of the Comarca of Serro Frio, in which they were found,
who had seen unpolished diamonds at Goa, ascertained
what they were. In 1730 the discovery was announced
for the first time to that government, which immediately
declared the diamonds regalia. A further search showed
that the district was equally rich in other gems. In 1741
its limits were described with greater precision, and the
liberty to collect diamonds farmed upon a lease of four
years to two influential inhabitants, at the rate of 230,000
rees for every negro, with permission to employ six hun¬
dred. At every renewal of the lease a high rent was ex¬
acted, and the tenants indemnified themselves by con¬
ducting their operations in the most wasteful manner.
While the population of Brazil, and the cultivation of
its natural products, continued thus to increase, the moral
and intellectual culture of its inhabitants was left in a
great measure to chance. There was a hierarchical estab¬
lishment, but one altogether inadequate to the extent of the
territory. There were schools, but “ few and far between.”
The colonists, thinly spread over what appeared an illimi¬
table region, were most of them alike beyond the reach of
instruction and of the arm of the law. The restrictions
upon the free exercise of industry, introduced with a view
to benefit the royal treasury, were little calculated to re¬
concile men to legal restraints which they scarcely knew
in any other form. They grew up, therefore, with those
robust and healthy sentiments engendered by the absence
of false teachers; but at the same time they became ha-
VOL. v.
bituated to a repugnance to legal ordinances, accustom- History,
ed to give full scope to all their passions, and encouraged
by their sense of ascendancy over the Indians to habits
of violence and oppression.
From the first moment of their landing in Brazil, the
Jesuits had constituted themselves the protectors of the
oppressed natives. But they were strenuously opposed
by the interested colonists, and by hedge priests, who
lent their countenance to the infamous traffic in human
beings, as they would have pandered to any other vice,
in order to retain their ascendancy over the minds of the
settlers. The Jesuits were not however easily dismayed,
and, by dint of the most persevering exertions, they at
last elicited from government an explicit confirmation of
the freedom of the natives. The next step of these venera¬
ble fathers was to collect their red children, as in all their
other missions, into aldeas, over which officials of their
order exercised both spiritual and temporal authority.
Their intentions were pious and noble, but their plan was
erroneous. They attempted to teach the most recondite
dogmas of the Christian faith, before either the hearts or
heads of their pupils were sufficiently awakened to com¬
prehend them. They taught observance to the rules of
external decorum, without inculcating those more essen¬
tial principles which are independent of all form. By de¬
priving the Indians of the power of managing their own
affairs, they effectually stifled within them the germs of
human thought and action. It is only by free action, right
or wrong, and the consciousness of its consequences, that
man can be awakened into intellectual life. The Indian of
the aldeas was little better than a puppet, and, when sepa¬
rated from his tutors, he soon sunk back into hopeless and
irreclaimable barbarism.
The persecution of the Indians was yet more effica¬
ciously put a stop to by the sacrifice of an equally inno¬
cent and yet more injured race. The Portuguese esta¬
blishments on the coast of Africa have ever been more
extensive, and their slave dealings better organized, than
those of any other nation. By this means an immense
number of negroes were annually imported into Brazil,
and being found more active and serviceable as labourers
than the native tribes, the latter were in a great measure
left to enjoy their savage independence. The Jesuits, like
Las Casas, professed a limited philanthropy, and, satisfied
with securing their own clients, winked at the oppression
of the blacks.
The Portuguese government, under the administration
of Carvalho afterwards Marquis of Pombal, attempted to
extend to Brazil the effects of that bold spirit of innova¬
tion which directed all his actions. The motives which
instigate man’s conduct are of such a mingled nature,
and so inextricably intertwined, that the question in how
far this minister was actuated in his first step by regard to
the public good, and how far by private pique, is of no easy
solution. Luckily, it is of little importance, in a sketch of a
nation’s history, where individuals tell merely as counters.
Carvalho had experienced great resistance to his plans
of reform at home from the Jesuits; and his brother, when
appointed governor of Maranhao, experienced a resistance
no less strenuous on their part to some measures of his
government. This was enough to determine the proud
minister to lessen the power of the order. With his
sanction, the Jesuits and other regulars were deprived of
all temporal authority over their aldeas in the state of Ma¬
ranhao and Para. These, being twenty-eight in num¬
ber, were converted by the edict of the governor into nine
townlets, eighteen towns, and one city. The towns were
to be governed by juizes ordinaries, to fill which offices a
preference was given to Indians. The aldeas independent
of towns were to be governed by their respective chiefs.
2 B
T
BRAZIL.
194
History. The lands adjacent to the towns and hamlets were divided
among the Indians, and declared heritable property.
To these regulations of his brother, the minister super-
added some enactments intended to supply the loss of the
Jesuits as teachers. The task of religious instruction was
delegated to the bishop. Till such time as the Indians
should be sufficiently advanced in civilization to manage
their own affairs, a director was appointed to reside in each
settlement; a man of integrity and zeal, and conversant
with the native tongues. He possessed no coercive juris¬
diction, but, when he observed remissness on the part of
the native authorities in the administration of the laws,
might complain to the governor. He was expected to ex¬
plain to the Indians the advantages of industry and so¬
briety, to instruct them in the simpler arts and manufac¬
tures, and to recommend the adoption of the amenities of
civilized life. Above all, these functionaries were directed
to combat the prejudice, that there existed a natural infe¬
riority in the Indian character, and to promote, as far as
in them lay, intermarriages between the white and red
races. As a reward for the directors, they were to have a
sixth part of all that the Indians reared, excepting what
was specially appropriated for their own consumption.
These ordinances, originally promulgated for Maranhao
and Para, were ratified in Lisbon, and extended to the
whole of Brazil. But the good which they might have done
was neutralized in a great measure by some compulsory
services still left binding upon the Indians, and by list¬
lessness on the part of the white inhabitants in carrying
them into effect. No good understanding could subsist
between an ambitious order and the minister who had so
openly braved them. Carvalho felt his new arraiigements
insecure as long as a Jesuit remained in Brazil. First of all,
he sought to render the order suspected of being accessary
to some partial revolts among the Indian troops on the Rio
Negro. But it was the confession of one of the leaders
of the conspiracy against the life of the king of Portugal,
when put to the torture, that some Jesuits were implicated
in the undertaking, that finally delivered them into his
hands. In 1760 they were expelled from Brazil, under
circumstances of the most unmitigated cruelty.
Pombal’s next measure attracted more attention than his
plans for the improvement of the Indians. The Brazilian
Company, founded by Vieyra, which so materially contri¬
buted to preserve its South American possessions to Por¬
tugal, had been abolished, in 1721, by Joam V. Such in¬
struments, however, were calculated to w in the confidence
of a bold spirit like that of Pombal. In 1755 he established
a chartered company, with a capital of 1,200,000 cru-
sados, in 1200 shares, to trade exclusively with Maran¬
hao and Para. In 1759 a similar company was chartered
for Paraiba and Pernambuco. Remonstrances were made
on the part of the Board of Public Good, and the British
factory at Lisbon; but the members of the former body
were punished, and those of the latter were disregarded.
Encouraged by success, the minister established an exclu¬
sive company for the whale fishery, and bestowed upon it
the monopoly of furnishing Brazil with salt. 'I his company
had its head-quarters in the island of S. Catthaina. Some
time after these arrangements, an extension of the facility
of intercourse was granted, and Portuguese subjects, in¬
stead of being restricted to the annual fleets, were allowed
to trade in single ships to Bahia and the Rio.
The arrangements of Pombal extended also to the in¬
terior of the country. The claims of the original dona¬
tories in the respective captaincies were indefinite and
oppressive in the highest degree. Other ministers had
from time to time bought up some of these rights; Car¬
valho extinguished them at once, indemnifying the holders.
With all his power, however, he durst not interfere in be¬
half of such new Christians (converted Jews) as were ac- History, 3jj£
cused of adhering in private to their ancestral faith; but 's-^yv ^
he prohibited, under strict penalties, light and malicious
denunciations. He strengthened and enforced the regula¬
tions in the mining districts. Observing the profuse mode
in which the treasures of the diamond district were la-
vished, he moved the king to take the management of it
into his own hands. In 1772 an ordinance was issued, in
which Pombal, as prime minister, reserved to himself the
management of this district. The details of business were
discharged by three directors in Lisbon, and three adminis¬
trators in Brazil. At the head of the latter was placed an in-
tendant-general, who, as the representative of majesty, ex¬
ercised an unlimited power within his jurisdiction. He con¬
trolled the working of the diamond mines; he stood at the
head of the judicial and police establishments; and he was
authorized to punish every inhabitant convicted of having
jewels in his possession with banishment and confiscation
of goods, and even upon mere suspicion to order any in¬
dividual to quit the district.
The policy of many of Pombal’s measures is more than
questionable. His encouragement of monopolies, and his
preference of the interests of the crown to those of the
state, as evinced in the regulations of the mining and dia¬
mond districts, do not admit of defence. But the extir¬
pation of the Jesuits, and the admission of all races to
equal rights in the eye of the lawr—the abolition of feu¬
dal privileges, and of certain restrictions upon commerce,
with the livelier spirit which he knew how to infuse even
into his monopolies—powerfully co-operated towards the
development of the capabilities of Brazil. The spirit of
improvement must have been already awake in the bosoms
of the people, otherwise even his legislative energies must
have been expended in vain. Still the merit abides with
him of having firmly organized the powers of the land, and
marshalled their way. And yet when, upon the death of
his king and patron in 1777, court intrigue forced him
from his high station, his successor was lauded to the
skies for concluding a treaty of limits, in which Pombal s
chivalrous bravery had rendered Spain glad to acquiesce,
whilst he who had done so much for his country’s institu¬
tions was reviled on all hands. The first epoch of Brazi¬
lian constitutional history is the struggle of the isolated
captaincies to establish themselves on the coast. The
second is their union under one common head, and under
established laws, by the appointment of a governor-gene¬
ral. The third is the amended organization of the ex¬
tensive empire by Pombal. The fourth, to which we
are now about to turn, has just been accomplished, leav¬
ing Brazil to start free and energetic on a new and untried
career.
The thirty years which succeed Pombal’s retirement
from active life present scarcely any marked feature for
the historian to depict. The mining districts continued
to be enlarged, especially in the direction of Matto Gros¬
so. The companies of Maranhao and Pernambuco were
abolished, but the impulse which they had given to na¬
tional industry remained. Cotton, the growth of whic
they had promoted at Maranhao, was introduced into Per¬
nambuco, and cultivated so successfully as to become m
a short time the main article of export. Roads were
opened throughout the country, to facilitate internal inter¬
course. Removed from all communication with the rest of
the world, except through the mother country, Brazil re¬
mained unaffected by the first thirteen years of the great
revolutionary war, except in as far as regard some slight
disputes respecting the limits of French and Portuguese
Guiana. Indirectly, however, even this isolated
had participated in the impulsion which had passed, like
electricity along the links of a chain, from nation to nation.
BRAZIL.
With time and inaustry came wealth; with wealth came
y' the feeling of importance, followed by an investigating
spirit; and then succeeded, under every disadvantage, bold
inquiry and assertion of rights. Latterly too the exclu¬
sion of foreigners had not been so strictly enforced. The
ports of Brazil were still closed against foreign traders;
but the entrance of men of war, and such merchant ships
as could find no other harbours to refit in, gradually intro¬
duced a tolerated freedom of intercourse.
The prince regent of Portugal, afterwards Joam VI.,
driven from the mother country by the invasion of the
French, landed at Bahia on the 21st of January 1808. The
royal family was received with enthusiasm; but it was at
that time in search of a secure asylum from a power which
the monarchs of the continent of Europe began to believe
reached everywhere; and Bahia, easily assailed from the
sea, might at any time, by a very small land force, be cut
off from all supplies by land. The harbour of Rio, on the
other hand, is easily defended, and has at all times an easy
communication with the interior. Towards Rio, therefore,
the royal fugitives shaped their way, and arrived there on
the 7th of March.
The first care of the regent was to introduce into Brazil
the same state arrangements which had existed in Portugal.
In the course of the year 1808 he organized the dezem-
bargodo papo (council of state), conselho da justi^a (minis¬
terial council of justice), conselho da fazenda (ministerial
council of justice), meza da consciencia (consistorial tribu¬
nal). The rela^ao (court of appeal) of Rio Janeiro was
erected into a supplicapao (supreme court of appeal) for
the whole country; a royal treasury, mint, and register
were erected; a supreme board of police for the whole
of Brazil was instituted; the boundaries of the captaincies
were ascertained with greater precision ; the powers of
the provincial governors, and the jurisdiction of the pro¬
vincial courts, were defined with greater strictness ; and
the collection of the royal tenths was subjected to a re¬
vised system.
This increased energy and precision of the organization
of the executive would of itself have conferred an ines¬
timable benefit upon the country; but the arrival of the
royal family brought yet more important advantages in its
train. On the 18th of February 1808 a carta regia threw
open to foreigners a free commercial intercourse with all
the harbours of Brazil. On the 12th of October the same
year the regent sanctioned the statutes of a bank which
had, some years before, been established at Rio, and con¬
ferred upon it, with extensive privileges, the title of Banca
do Brasil. This institution, in addition to its private
mercantile functions, discharged those of farming many
of the regalia. It was also in the practice of advancing
large sums to the state, sometimes in consideration of
valuable deposits, sometimes upon the assignment of taxes
not yet due. Foreign merchants caused more than one
run to be made upon the bank, with a view to try its sta¬
bility; but its connection with the mint enabling it to meet
every emergency, it maintained a high degree of credit, at
least with the subjects of the state of Brazil. The in¬
creased activity which a multitude of new customers, and
an increased circulating medium, imparted to the trade of
Rio, added a new stimulus to the industry of the whole
nation. In a short time the government was enabled to
reduce many of its impositions one half. Immense num¬
bers of English artizans and ship-builders, Swedish iron-
founders, German engineers, and French artists and ma¬
nufacturers, sought fortunes in the new land of promise,
and diffused, both by example and precept, industry and
ingenuity throughout the kingdom.
In the beginning of 1809 French Guiana was taken pos¬
session of by the Brazilian troops, and the territories of
195
the state thus extended on the north to the limits they History,
still maintain.
Towards the end of the year 1811 a royal decree assigned
120,000 crusadoes per annum, to be taken from the cus¬
toms of Bahia, Pernambuco, and Maranhao, for forty years,
to the Portuguese who had suffered during the French
war. This most unjust appropriation of the state revenue
naturally excited discontent in these powerful provinces.
It happened also that the salaries of many officers, both civil
and military, remained at this time unpaid; a circumstance
which had been made in more than one district a pretext
for exactions. Some disputes had taken place between
the Brazilians and English respecting the slave-trade; and
the former, already disposed to suspect their own govern¬
ment, viewed with a jealous eye the British establishment
at Rio. In order to avert or allay the gathering storm,
an edict was issued on the 16th of December 1815, rais¬
ing Brazil to the dignity of an independent kingdom, and
placing it on an equal footing with Portugal and the Al-
garves. The national pride was flattered, and for some
time nothing else was heard of but addresses of thanks and
congratulations, w ith feasts and rejoicing in every district.
In 1817 the discontents of the northern provinces,
which had for a while been hushed, broke out into open
insurrection in Pernambuco. The people of Recife en¬
tertained some democratical notions, which might, per¬
haps, by a curious observer, be traced to the period of the
Dutch government. They remembered, with no small
degree of pride, that it was mainly their own endeavours
that had driven out these foreigners; they were jealous
of Rio’s monopoly of the advantages of a royal residence;
but, above all, they were averse to the payment of taxes
for the support of a luxurious court. A regular plan of in¬
surrection was formed; troops were raised and disciplined;
and fortifications were begun in one or twm places. By the
loyalty of the neighbouring provinces, and the prompti¬
tude of the royal troops, this premature revolt was easily
suppressed; but the cruel punishments of the leaders
served to diffuse the spirit of disaffection more widely
throughout the north. The wrar in which Brazil had been
involved towards the frontiers of Buenos Ayres, by oblig¬
ing the government to call out the milicias of S. Paulo,
had, by involving these hardy countrymen in a quarrel re¬
specting the merits of which they knew little and cared
less, excited among them no small degree of discontent.
In November 1820 the news of the revolution in Portugal
reached Brazil. A kindred spirit spread at once through¬
out all the provinces. Para took the lead. On the first
day of the year 1821, the infantry declared for the constitu¬
tion ; the cavalry and artillery joined them ; a provisional
government was appointed; and all this was done in the
name of the king, and without bloodshed. On the 10th
of February the troops rose in Bahia. A few lives were
lost; but ultimately, both troops and people, in the pre¬
sence of the governor, solemnly declared their adherence
to the constitution which should be formed by the Cortes.
A governing junta was appointed, which speedily receiv¬
ed addresses of adhesion from all the towns and villages
in the neighbourhood. The ferment was perhaps greater
in Rio than anywhere else, from the more determined op¬
position offered to all constitutional projects by the king
and the court party. On the 18th of February, how¬
ever, a conviction of the folly of resistance induced the
king to recognise a junta of his Brazilian subjects, ap¬
pointed to take into consideration such parts of the consti¬
tution as might be applicable to Brazil. A mutual dis¬
trust continued to exist, which might have led to the most
fatal consequences but for the promptitude of the prince
Dom Pedro. In the morning of the 26th, every thing
threatened immediate bloodshed, when he presented him-
196
BRAZIL.
History, self to the citizens with a list of a new ministry, and vo-
' ^ luntarily took the oath to the new constitution. His con¬
duct on"this occasion afterwards received the express sanc¬
tion of the king, who resolved, however, to return to Lis¬
bon ; a resolution which he carried into effect by sailing on
the 24th of March ensuing.
Before going on board, he appointed Dom Pedro regent
in his absence. He addressed the troops, recommending to
them fidelity to the crown and the constitution, and promis¬
ing an increase of pay to all. This was a cruel mockery of
the regent; for he had left nothing in the treasury where¬
with that prince could fulfil the promise. Nor was this the
full extent of the evil. Immense sums were carried out of
the country by the Portuguese who followed the king to
Lisbon. The well-grounded belief that the coffers of the
bank had been emptied by the king, gave a shock to its
credit which it has not yet recovered. A large amount of
specie had been taken up for government bills, on the trea¬
suries of Pernambuco, Bahia, and Maranhao, which had dis¬
claimed the superiority of the government at Rio. The
prince was thus left, writh an empty treasury, to rule over
a people which felt itself beggared by the dishonesty of
government, at a moment when, even without this convic¬
tion, sufficient seeds of civil commotion were everywhere
scattered abroad.
Dom Pedro acted in this trying emergency, in conjunc¬
tion with the junta of Rio, like a man of sense and spirit.
He remitted some of the most oppressive imposts upon
the trade of the interior, particularly the duties on salt.
Something was done towards improving the condition of
the schools, hospitals, and barracks. Books were allowed
to be imported duty free. The junta published an exhor¬
tation to tranquillity, obedience, and a patient waiting till
the result of the deliberations of the Cortes, now joined
by their own deputies, should be known. At the same
time they invited all persons to send in statistical notices
and plans for improvements.
The circumstance, however, which contributed perhaps
more than any other to strengthen Dom Pedro’s hands,
and uphold his power, was one which wore at first a threat¬
ening aspect. At S. Paulo, the regiment of ca9adores,
discontented at not receiving the promised augmentation
of pay, took up arms in a tumultuous manner on the 3d
of June, and threatened not to lay them down again until
they received it. They were with difficulty restrained from
proceeding to extremities, owing to the presence of mind
exhibited by their captain. A strong excitement, however,
continued to agitate, not only the troops, but the people.
The magistrates and principal inhabitants took advantage
of the occasion furnished by the assembly of the militia,
on account of a festival on the 21st. Ihey were kept
together, and assembled in the great square before the
town-house. The great bell of the Camara was tolled,
and when the people had assembled, the cry was raised of
“ Viva el Re, Viva el Constitu9ao, Viva o Principe Re-
gente,” and a provisional junta demanded. Ibis request
was re-echoed by the crowd, and complied with by the
magistrates. From that moment all remained quiet in the
city, and the most important province of Brazil declared
for the prince.
The remainder of the year was spent in organising pro¬
visional juntas in the different capitals. On the 19th of
September an edict was addressed to all these bodies, en¬
joining them to communicate directly with the Cortes at
Lisbon. It was fondly hoped that the Cortes would ad¬
mit Brazil to all the privileges of an integral part of the
nation, with independent courts, civil and criminal. Hie
Cortes were, however, too much afraid of losing a rich co¬
lonial dependency, to entertain such a thought. Ihey
passed decrees for the election of separate governments
in every province of the Brazils; and for the appoint- Historj,
ment of a military commander in each, who should be in- '^yv
dependent of the provincial government, and accountable
only to the Cortes for his conduct. The prince was or¬
dered to return to Lisbon as soon as these governments
were established. These decrees reached Rio Janeiro
before the end of December 1821, and excited universal
indignation.
The junta of S. Paulo were the first to move. On the
24th of December they applied to the regent, request¬
ing him to remain among them. The prince answered
that he had transmitted their address to the king. On
the 7th of January 1822, the Camara of Rio and the
wealthiest inhabitants addressed his royal highness on
the danger to be apprehended in the event of his obeying
the Cortes. With apparent hesitation he promised to de¬
lay his departure till the ultimatum of the Cortes should
arrive. A movement was threatened on the part of the
Portuguese troops in Rio; but prompt measures being
taken with them, they were obliged to embark for Eu¬
rope. Not long after, the junta and inhabitants of Per¬
nambuco obliged the Portuguese troops stationed in that
city to embark for Lisbon. Madeira de Mello continued
to hold Bahia with 1500 European troops and some mi¬
litia for Portugal ; and Monte Video was kept possession
of in the king’s name by General Lecor. All the rest of
Brazil was in the hands of the independents. Thus cir¬
cumstanced, Dom Pedro accepted the title of prince ^re¬
gent and perpetual defender of the Brazils, and convoxed
a general assembly of the states, consisting ot one hundred
deputies, nominated by parochial electors chosen by the
people. The avowed purpose of collecting such a body was,
that it might deliberate in public session upon the precise
terms on which Brazil was to remain united to Portugal,
examine whether the constitution of Lisbon weie adapted
to Brazil, and suggest necessary emendations. It wTas also
provided, that as soon as the constitution should be agieed
on, the council of representatives should assume legisla¬
tive functions, determine the seat of Brazilian sovereignty,
and communicate the resolutions of Brazil to the Goites
of Portugal. On the meeting of the council, the prince
informed them of the anxiety manifested in all quarters
for the convocation of a general constitutional legislative
assembly; and when they declared their acquiescence, a
decree was issued to that effect. I he independence of Bra¬
zil was proclaimed on the 1 st of August; and on the 12t
of October, his birth-day, Dom Pedro was installed con¬
stitutional emperor and perpetual defender of Brazil.
The Cortes having intimated sufficiently their resolu¬
tion to retain Brazil, twro decrees were issued by the em¬
peror on the 11th of December; the first laying an em¬
bargo on all vessels bound to the Portuguese territories
in Europe ; the other sequestrating all goods belonging to
Portuguese subjects, with one or two trifling exceptions.
On the 11th of January 1823, another decree was issued,
encouraging Brazilian subjects to take out letters o
marque against Portugal. Meanwhile Madeira, who ia
been reinforced from Portugal, began to infest the neig •
bourhood of Bahia with hostile attacks. But on the s
of March, Lord Cochrane hoisted his flag on board tne
Pedro Primeiro. On the 2d of July, Bahia surrendere ,
and the Portuguese fleet put to sea, but wras followed an
destroyed by the Brazilian admiral. In the course o i
year Monte Video surrendered, and the independence o
Brazil was established, although not recognized by t
mother country till near the close of 1825.
The interior of the new empire was far from presen mg
an equally satisfactory picture. The proclamation o
emperor had been received with hearty good wil ^ a ’
as the readiest step to independence. W ith regard, no
G
BRAZIL.
197
iysii
eogi
phy.
’’V'
unda-
ever, to the organization of the state, there prevailed a
marked difference of opinion. The republican party was
very strong, particularly in the northern and central pro¬
vinces. There was a yet more numerous body which
ardently desired a constitutional monarchy. But there
were also a few, formidable chiefly as including among
their number some of the most practised intriguers of the
court, and several military leaders, whose views favoured
a despotic government. A false step on the part of the
ministers, who were firm constitutionalists, at the first
opening of congress, and the inopportune illness of the em¬
peror, threw such a power into the hands of the democra¬
tic party, that a new ministry was chosen. The assembly
next proceeded to discuss the propriety of conceding to
the emperor an absolute veto. It was resolved by a con¬
siderable majority that such a veto was inexpedient. The
emperor, however, declared his resolution not to acquiesce
in this determination. The assembly prepared some ob¬
noxious decrees in order to put his resolution to the test,
and he began to caress the military. The strong language
of the journals on the one hand, and the violent proceed¬
ings of some European officers on the other, brought the
matter to a speedy termination. On the 12th of No¬
vember, while the assembly was sitting, news arrived that
two columns of military were approaching the city ; and
immediately afterwards a military officer brought an im¬
perial rescript dissolving the congress. This body quietly
dissolved, but several of the leading members of the con¬
stitutional and republican parties were immediately ar¬
rested.
Dom Pedro found himself in an awkward predicament.
The annual revenue only covered two thirds of the expen¬
diture. The local revenues of all the different provinces
were likewise inadequate to cover the local expenditure.
Attempts had been made to supply the deficiencies by
forced loans and donations, and even by sequestrations;
means which are soon exhausted, and always create hos¬
tility. Several of the ministers resigned in disgust at
the emperor’s proceedings. It was with difficulty that
others were found to supply their places, and even they
t soon followed the example of their predecessors. Dis¬
turbances broke out in several of the provinces, and were
suppressed with the greatest difficulty. Pedro soon gave
way to the storm, and promulgated on the 11th of De¬
cember the project of a constitution, which for a time paci¬
fied the country.
The history of Brazil from this period down to the
moment of Dom Pedro’s abdication is only interesting as
displaying the growing intelligence and business talents
of her statesmen, and the incapacity of her emperor. He
plunged into wars without forethought, and retreated from
them without having attained his object. He took no one
decided step towards arranging the finances or consoli¬
dating the institutions of the country. Without compre¬
hending or respecting the rights of his subjects, he aimed
at being popular; destitute of military talents, he covet¬
ed military glory; no politician, he aspired to despotic
power. His conduct was vacillating, his actions were in¬
consequential and ineffective. The safety of the empire
etnanded his removal on the ground of incompetence.
lat may be the future fate of Brazil it is impossible to
predict with certainty. The predilections of a strong party
in favour of republican institutions, an infant prince, and the
TrnCr>0^ a- PrivileSe(l aristocracy, are strong indications.
• Physical Geography, &c.—Brazil extends, in its
greatest length, from the sources of the Rio Branco, near
the fifth degree of north latitude, to. the sources of the
icm, near the thirty-first degree of south latitude. In
is utmost breadth it extends from Cape St Augustine, in
the thirty-fifth degree of west longitude, computing from
Greenwich, to the river Javary, about the seventy- Physical
third. From the embouchure of the Rio Grande in the Geogia-
south, to that of the Wiapoc, between the fourth and fifth fh-v-
degrees of north latitude, the Atlantic Ocean forms the
eastern boundary of Brazil. This portion of its outline is
of an irregular crescent form, extending in a curved line
from the fifty-third degree of west longitude, at the thirt}’-
third degree of south latitude, to the thirty-fifth, betwixt
the ninth and tenth ; and then retrograding more abrupt¬
ly to the fifty-second degree of west longitude, between
the fourth and fifth degrees of north latitude. The in¬
land frontier of Brazil may be thus traced :—First, turn¬
ing to the north, we start from that point in the Javary
which crosses obliquely the seventy-third degree of west
longitude; we descend the stream to its juiiction with
the Amazons; follow the downward course of that river
to the point where it receives the waters of the Yupura;
ascend the latter till we reach the degree of longitude in
which the Javary and Amazons mingle their waters; from
that point cross the country to the Fall of Corocobi on the
Rio Negro; and thence pursue the line of the summits
of the Cordillera, dividing the waters of the Essequibo
from the tributaries of the Amazons, till we arrive at the
sources of the Wiapoc, which we descend till we reach
the ocean. Returning to our starting place, we follow a
line extending due east from the Javary to a point exactly
mid-way between the spot at which the conjoined waters
of the Guapore and Mamore receive the name of Madeira,
and that stream’s confluence with the Amazons; ascend
the Madeira and Guapore to its source; cross the moun¬
tains by a line running north and south ; strike the waters
of the Paraguay at the mouth of the Juaru ; and descend
to the station of Nova Coimbra. From this point the boun¬
dary line pursues a zig-zag course, determined by the cur¬
rents of a number of minor streams, which it alternately
ascends and descends, keeping in the main the direction
of south-south-east until it reach the ocean at the neutral
ground of Minio Merin.
I he territory comprised within these boundaries may
be roughly estimated at little Jess than two millions of
square miles. A considerable portion has never yet been
explored; and respecting the whole our information is often
vague and unsatisfactory. Even the line of coast has not
been laid down with any degree of certainty; and the
Portuguese maps are in this respect utterly unworthy of
attention. They have been republished for centuries with¬
out revision or amendment; and we have no information
respecting the observations and calculations upon which
they were based. The English charts are better, being the
accumulated experience of practical seamen, who had a
deep stake in rendering them as accurate as possible. In
general, however, they are anonymous; and the well-known
difficulty of determining the latitude and longitude by ob¬
servations made on board of ship alone still more diminishes
our confidence in them. Some French charts lately pub ¬
lished, bearing to be the results of a special exploratory ex¬
pedition, have only tended to increase our uncertainty, by
their wide deviation from all former authorities. When
we turn to the interior of the land, matters are still worse.
Distances and localities are in general assumed upon the
authority of the conjectures of travellers provided with no
more accurate instrument than a compass, or of the rude
estimates of the inhabitants of European or Indian descent;
and there are numerous districts regarding which we are
entirely destitute of even these meagre and inaccurate
sources of information.
The natural conformation points out two great divisions Surface of
of the territory of Brazil ; the valley of the Amazons to the the land,
north, and the hill country to the south. The physical
structure of each of these districts is necessarily depen-
3’hysical
Geogra¬
ph v.
  ^
Hirers.
dent upon the other, and their respective characters can
only be properly comprehended by mutual reference. It
will better enable us, however, to comprehend both, if we
at first view them apart: and in attempting a sketch of
each, we shall commence with that of which less is yet
known than of the other, but which is in all probability
doomed one day to make a prominent figure in history;
we mean the valley of the Amazons.
The immense course of the river Amazons, from Taba-
tinga, where it enters the confines of Brazil, to the ocean,
deducting its windings, extends, when we pursue the
course of the main channel, to 401£ leagues, of twenty to
a degree, or, when we deflect to the estuary of Para, sepa¬
rated from the former by the island iNIarajo, or St John s,
to 5061. The breadth of the stream at Tabatinga is given
by Condamine as between 800 or 900 toises; at Obydos,
106 leagues from the sea, and where the tide ceases to
be perceived, Martius assigns to it the breadth of 869 fa¬
thoms. The greatest breadth of the river is about six
leagues. Tabatinga is elevated above the level of the
ocean 634 Parisian feet. The direction of the river is al¬
most parallel with the equator, from which its mean dis¬
tance may be between one and two degrees. Its princi¬
pal confluents during this portion of its course are, from
the south, the Tocantins flowing into the estuary of Para,
the Xingu, the Topajoz, and the Madeira; from the north,
the Rio Negro and the Yapura.
The Tocantins joins the estuary of Para at the distance
of thirty-three leagues from the ocean, and at an elevation
of 189 Parisian feet above its level. The Xingu falls into
the Amazons 45 leagues from its northern or main junc¬
tion with the ocean, and 347 feet above its level, at which
place it is about a league in breadth. Ihe Tapajoz joins
the Amazons ninety-two leagues above the main entrance
into the ocean, at an elevation oi 404 feet above the
level of the sea. No observation is recorded of the ex¬
act elevation of the point where the Madeira mingles its
waters with those of the Amazons, but Spix estimates
it at 509 feet. Its distance from the ocean in a direct
line is nearly 180 leagues. Its breadth varies, according
to the season, from 930 to 1000 fathoms; its depth in the
middle of the stream from twenty-three to twenty-seven
fathoms, and at the shore from five to ten.
The courses of these four rivers are nearly parallel,
flowing in the direction of south-south-east. During the
greater part of their course they have little perceptible, fall.
A kind of natural terrace, however, extending in the direc¬
tion of south-west and north-east, intersects the course of
all at an oblique angle. This sinking of the land forms
in each a system of cataracts, dividing their course into
an upper and lower valley; and the same phenomenon is
visible in all the parallel minor streams which flow be¬
tween them. On the Tocantins these cataracts occur a
little to the northward of the fourth degree of south lati¬
tude ; on the Xingu, to the southward of this line ; on the
Tapajoz they occur rather to the southward of the fifth
degree ; and on the Madeira also to the southward of the
eighth. The course of the Madeira from its source to the
cataracts is 172 leagues, thence to the plain 325. Ihe bed
of its waters above the cataracts is estimated at 150 feet
higher than that below. 4 he character of the giound le-
niains much the same, being low, and intersected by innu¬
merable canals and lakes; its principal eastern branch only,
which inclines towards a serra, retains any characteristics
of a clear mountain stream. The extent of the Tocantins,
from the lowest cataract to its embouchure, is about sixty
leagues in a direct line. 4 he high land even approaches
somewhat nearer to the Amazons along the eastern bank
of this tributary. The main branch of the Tocantins, that
to the east, descends from the high mountain lands of the
north. The more westerly feeders seem to drain off the _
accumulated waters of high-lying morasses, similar to those Geogn,
which swell the stream of the Madeira. Of the Xingu and
Tapajoz above the cataracts almost nothing is known ; but i'
every circumstance connected with them seems to indi¬
cate a terrain, similar to that which gives birth to the Ma¬
deira and the western tributaries of the Tocantins.
We now turn to the north side of the great basin of the
Amazons. The Rio Negro joins the main stieam at a
distance of 197 leagues from the ocean, and at an eleva¬
tion of 522 feet above its level. The principal mouth of the
Yapura is at the distance of 326 leagues from the ocean,
and the elevation of 571 feet. The course of these two rivers
is nearly parallel, both flowing from west-north-west to
east-south-east. The Yapura enters the Brazilian territory
immediately beneath the Falls of Cupati. The river flows
from these falls to the Amazons, an extent of 100 leagues
in a direct line, and its fall is estimated at 200 feet. The
Rio Negro extends from the frontier fort of S. Carlos,
near the junction of the Cassiquiari, which carries a por¬
tion of the waters of the Orinoco to the Amazons, to
Barra do Rio Negro, a distance of at least 200 leagues.
The elevation of the last-mentioned situation.above the
level of the sea is, as we have already mentioned, 522
feet; while that of S. Carlos is 762. The alternate widen¬
ing and narrowing of the river, as well as its very unequal
depth and varying rapidity, lead naturally to the conclu¬
sion that it has been formed in the course of ages by the
progressive widening of their connecting streams, giving
to a system of inland lakes the appearance of one con¬
tinuous river. The Rio Negro joins the Amazons at an
angle so obtuse as to admit of our viewing them in a ge¬
neral way as one continuous line, 397 leagues in length,
cutting the equator obliquely towards its western extre¬
mity. “Parallel to this, at a mean distance of four degrees
of longitude, extend the various serras composing the
mountain land of Upper Guiana. The flat land which
everywhere forms the banks of the lower Amazons and
its confluents extends to the base of these hills, which
rise at once with considerable abruptness. This territory
is intersected by a number of streams of minor conse¬
quence, falling partly into the Rio Negro and partly into
the Amazons. The most important of these, the Rio
Brancas, flows from north to south, and joins the former.
In describing the superficies of the valley of the Ama¬
zons, we have found it most expedient to stretch out the
streams as the veins upon which the reader was to fancy
the superficies of the leaf extended. In turning to the
southern and mountainous district of Brazil it will be ne¬
cessary to call the mountain ranges to our assistance.
If the reader, then, will cast his eye upon a good map Mom
of Brazil, he will find, in latitude 19° to 21° south, the
mountains of Itacolumi, 5710 English feet above the level
of the sea, and of Itambi, 6900. These, and their con¬
necting range, may be considered as the nucleus of the
mountain formation of Brazil. Towards the north, an
parallel to the coast, extends the Serra do Mar, under the
varying names of the Serra dos Esmeraldos, Serra o
Fries, &c. Towards the south-west a similar, or rather
the same chain (the Mantiqueira), stretches, throwing
out spurs on either side, till it gradually subsides into the
high plain on the eastern side of the Paranna, near its
mouth. By means of the Serra dos Vertentes the Itaco¬
lumi connects with the system known under the names ot
Montes Pyrenees, Serra do Sijada, and Serra do Anam-
buhy, extending in the direction of west-south-west to the
banks of the Paraguay, a little above where it receives
the waters of the Paranna. That part of the latter chain
termed Montes Pyrenees extends towards the north t
the sources of the Tocantins. An important arm o t is
BRAZIL.
aysical
! eogra-
i ?h?' ,
Gjlogy
mine.
!7-
4
latter, the Itiapamba, but of which little is yet known, runs
out to the north-east, and loses itself in the northern sea¬
board provinces of Brazil. To the west extends the Serra
Geral. To the south and the west, in the provinces of S.
Paulo and Matto Grosso, these mountains attain an eleva¬
tion considerably above the level of a high and extensive in¬
land plain. To the north-east, in Minas Geraes and Goyaz,
they rise from an infinitely lower level above the sea.
Nevertheless, while those mountains which have for their
base the high inland plains of Piratininga and Matto
Grosso seldom attain a higher elevation than 1900 Pari¬
sian feet above the sea, the average height of the Montes
Pyrenees is 3900. From the Serra dos Vertentes, in lati¬
tude twenty degrees south, flow the streams which com¬
bine to form the Rio Francisco; at first in the direction of
north, afterwards curving towards the east, till it reach
the ocean in latitude eleven degrees south. On the south¬
ern declivity of the same Serra arise the highest sources
of the Paranna. They flow at first in the direction of due
west, receiving numerous tributaries to the north from
the Montes Pyrenees, &c., to the south from the Serra
do Mantiqueira. Having reached the base of the Serra
do Sijada, in longitude fifty-three degrees wrest, and lati¬
tude twenty degrees south, the Paranna assumes a south¬
easterly direction, and, still receiving numerous tributaries
from the two mountain ridges which bound its valley,
joins the Paraguay in latitude twenty-seven south, and
longitude fifty-eight west. From the south-eastern declivi¬
ty of the Mantiqueira descends the Uruguay to the estuary
of La Plata. From the eastern side of the same ridge, and
its northern continuation the Serra do Mar, a number of
minor streams flow into the ocean. To the northward of
the Serra dos Vertentes, the western streams of the Serra
do Mar and the eastern of the Serra do Sijada flow into
the Rio Francisco. From the southern declivity of the
Serra Geral, and from the western side of the Serra do
Anambaty, flow the confluents of the Paraguay. Prom
the northern side of the Serra Geral, and from the central
and eastern branches of the Montes Pyrenees, descend
the four great tributaries of the Amazons, which join
that inland ocean from the south, and the streams that
intersect the coast of Brazil between Para and the mouth
of the Rio Francisco.
The great constituent of all the mountain ranges of
Brazil is granite; the maritime ridge seems exclusively
composed of it. The soil on the shore consists of clay,
covered in many places with a rich mould, resting on a
bed of granite, mixed with amphibole, felspar, quartz, and
rcnea. In the high inland plains of Piratininga we find
on the surface a red vegetable earth impregnated with
oxide of iron; beneath this a layer of fine argil, intersect¬
ed with veins of sand; and, thirdly, an alluvial stratum
containing a great quantity of iron, resting on mouldering
granite, quartz, and mica. A mass of solid granite sup¬
ports the whole. Between Rio Janeiro and Villa Rica
tie soil consists of a strong clay, and the rocks are com¬
posed of granite. The mountains in Minas Geraes are
composed of ferruginous quartz, granite, or argillaceous
sc istus. Beds of limestone have been found near Soro-
ea a, near Sahara in Minas Geraes, and in the gold
inines near S. Rita. The immense central plateau of Mat-
o Grosso has never been sufficiently explored; but from
ie nature of its mineral products there is every reason
Th granitic formation prevails there also.
e tiapamba, the great chain on the northern coast,
ranG'8 S c ue^y granite. The northern coast from Ma¬
nia .la° .*° bounded bjr a reef of coral, in many
*1. ^^rribling an artificial mole. It is employed by
e inhabitants in building their houses. The valley of
mazons has been so little explored, and its impene¬
trable woods and luxuriant vegetation throw so many dif¬
ficulties in the wray of the geologist, that a long time must
yet elapse ere we can hope for satisfactory intelligence.
As far as the observations of Spix and Martius extend, its
geognostical relations are sufficiently simple. All along
the banks of the main stream, and of its tributaries, as
long as they continue in the plain, only two mountain
rocks are discovered,—the variegated and the green sand¬
stone. Sometimes the sandstone appears in the form of
a composite breccia, containing iron; sometimes of a fine¬
grained crumbling red; sometimes of a hard white stone ;
but the former is the more prevalent. Beds of marl, clays
of different colours, and porcelain clay, occur frequently.
On the Tapajoz gypsum occurs in one place. To the south
this sandstone formation is bounded by the granitic ridges
of the Itiapamba, Montes Pyrenees, and Serra Geral. On
the northern ridge of the first-mentioned chain a transition
limestone is interposed between the granite and the sand¬
stone. To the north the sandstone is bounded by the
gneiss and granite of the Parime range; to the westward,
on the rivers Negro and Yapura, a quartz rock of slaty
structure is the basis on which it rests. The western and
south-western limits of the sandstone of the Amazons are
imperfectly known.
The metallic and mineral products which occur in the
geological formations above described are various. Iron
is found in vast quantities in the high plains of S. Paulo
and in Minas Geraes. Entire hills are composed of brown
ironstone and magnetic ironstone. In the latter province
a secondary ironstone fills whole valleys, and spreads like
a mantle over many of the hills. In Goyaz and Matto
Grosso whole districts are covered with formations rich
in iron ore. Gold is next, in the extent of country
through which it occurs, to iron. It is found in grains
intermingled with the latter metal almost wherever it
is worked. The chief scene of the exertions of gold-
miners has hitherto been in the district of Minas Geraes,
among the central mountains, and at the sources of the
Paraguay. It is certain, however, that the gold country
extends to S. Paulo on the south, and to the mountains
among which the Tocantins arises on the north. The soil
where the gold is found is ferruginous and deep in many
places, resting on rocks of gneiss and granite. The gold
rests on a stratum of cascalho or gravel, incumbent on the
solid rock. It occurs sometimes in grains, sometimes in
crystals, and occasionally in large masses. Lead and zinc
have been found on the banks of the Rio Abaite, a tribu¬
tary of the Rio Francisco; chrome and manganese in Pa-
raopeba; platina in other rivers; quicksilver, arsenic,
bismuth, and antimony, in the neighbourhood of Villa
Rica; and copper in Minas Novas. The diamond occurs
in greatest abundance in a district of the Serra do Frio,
sixteen leagues from north to south, and eight from
east to west, known by the designation of the diamond
district. The little that is known of the territory of
Matto Grosso, and the sources of the Tocantins, induces
a strong belief that this gem is likewise to be found there.
It is found in a stratum, of variable thickness, of rounded
quartz-ore pebbles, cemented by an earthy matter. They
are found along the banks of rivers, and in cavities and
water-courses on the loftiest mountains. They occur in
immense beds. Haiiy disregards the distinctions suppos¬
ed to exist, in the hardness and form of the crystal, be¬
tween the diamonds of Brazil and those of the East Indies.
Lapidaries and jewellers continue to believe that the ori¬
ental diamonds have a finer water. Topazes occur in
nearly the same localities as the diamond. They are
found among a conglomerate of friable earthy talc, quartz,
and crystals of specular iron ore; and they are of many
colours, yellow, white, blue, aqua-marine, &c. The chryso-
199
Physical
Geogra¬
phy.
200
Physical
Geogra¬
phy.
Meteoro
logy.
BRAZIL.
beryl ruby, amethyst, and green tourmaline, have been found it vary during the day as foilowsmorning 23° 35',
found in the Serranos Esmeraldos. Martius states that mid-day 24° to 2o , evening ~3 3<y. _ He does not men- Gy.
coal appears in the mountain district, but does not spe- tion in what month this was The driest months are July, ^
cifv any locality. He explicitly asserts that none occurs August, and September. The south wind prevails during
in ythe valley o^ the Amazons. Vast quantities of culi- these months. Hie climate is healthy. Throughout the
nary salt effloresce from the soil during the dry season course of the Amazons the mean temperature ,s of
in the upper districts of the Paraguay. Saltpetre is like- Reaumur; the lowest being 13 , and the hlshest 38.
wise said to be a product of the province, but upon ques- Thunder storms are frequent and violent in the highest
wise said to oe a P™u P district of the Rio degree. We have no observations with the hygrometer.
San VranciscQ0immense deposites of marl occur, strongly S. Paulo, situated in lat. 23. 33. S., is 1200 feet above the
imprecated with this latter salt; so strongly, indeed, level of the ocean; and having a westerly decimation of he
that the wells and rivulets contain a perceptible solution surface of the ground, is consequently shielded from the
of b In the neighbourhood of Arrayal are some caves sea breezes. The average temperature is — to .3 of the
which Held annually about 2250 cwts. of saltpetre. In centigrade thermometer. The rainy season commences in
Piauhv Quantities of alum have been found efflorescing from November, and lasts till April. I he greatest quantity of
the sandstone The only fossil remains of animated beings rain falls in January. Hoar frost is sometimes seenin
occurring in Brazil of winch we have any authentic account the cold months. The prevalent winds are affected by
are found in these caves. Martius and Bollinger main- the place of the sun : when he is in the northern s.gns,
CLdthattheycorrespond in every respect with the Me- south-south-west and south-east winds prevail; when
i r>P fiivipr They are scattered about in a fine he is in the southern they are more \ariable. Mila
greasy earth which covers the limestone to the depth of Rica is situated in lat. 20. 27. S. about 3 /60 English feet
eiSnches.’ Bones, supposed to have formed part of a above the level of the sea It is overshadowed by he
mammoth have been found in Minas Geraes; and similar huge mountain Itacolumi, the smimut of which 0/10
Ihe vame sCLs of hilU where subterranean noises are at sense, but the thunder-storms are frequent and vio ent
times teard may be supposed to indicate something of ^““dhectSfhap^ns
A Country so extensive as Brazil, and so diversified in The cold weather in the months of June and July has fe;
sr - ^
SAS’sfSS “I ItrSi
February. In September the hygrometer stands on an most J^'eJ forth si oots aai
average at d9“, in October at 76”, in November at 80". the neighbourho^ of Rio Janeiro ^nd to ^ of
Owing to the proximity of the mountains, and the cooler branches immediatel), and this whether the p
atmosphere at^ their submits, the mists generally settle the btl
around their brows with considerable density towards inverted. On the banks of the Amazons the lorues ^
evening. At Cachoeira, in the neighbourhood of Bahia, destroy each other by their proximity, and a e ce
about the thirteenth degree of south latitude, and only six gether by rich and multiform lianas. In t J ^
Parisian feet above the level of the sea, the thermometer of Maranhao, *e in t®'
of Reaumur gave, in February 1819, between six and seven mg from the shores of pools, weave themse
in tbe^iiorning, 17° to 19°, mid-day 25°, sunset 21° 23'. In into a kind of vegetable bridge nlong which die pa^
Bahia itself the temperature at sunset is said to vary in the senger treads, unaware that he has left t h
rainy season (September to March) from 17° to 18° Reau- until the jaws of a cayman Protr,ude.thro^hR a
mu/ in the dry^months from 16° to 17°. The cloudless before him. The vegetable productions ot I
mid-dav sun causes an extraordinary heat in the town; the strong analogy with those ot Guiana. 1he £ aroidet,
sea breezes render the mornings and evenings cool; but are the compositce, leg unieuphorbia, ^ 0f the
the nights are warmer. At Oeyras, the capital of Piauhy, and ferns of the most varied forms, i he veS ‘ • doeS
in about seven degrees of south latitude, and 779 feet above valleys differs from that of the campos, hy ^
the level of the sea, the thermometer of Reaumur varies in from that which occurs in the sertaos. -A o S pe.
Ihe wal monthsmid-day from 29° to 30°. Martius the mangles are the most numerous and prominent P
hys!
eog:
phy
BRAZIL.
201
cies. The most marked peculiarity of this class of plants
is, that the seeds begin to shoot before they drop from
the parent plant, and that the drooping branches strike
roots into the soil. They are never found inland except
where the surface is scarcely elevated above the level of
the sea. They flourish from Rio Grande do Sul to Maran-
hao, converting the land into a morass wherever they are
allowed to flourish unmolested. Immediately behind them
numerous families of palms raise their graceful heads.
The underwood in the neighbourhood of Rio Janeiro con¬
sists principally of crotons. Every large river of Brazil
has its own appropriate form of vegetable life, giving a pe¬
culiar character to its banks. The vegetation of the Ama¬
zons may be divided into three classes: 1. that which we
find on the islands; 2. the vegetation upon the banks over¬
flowed at regular intervals by the stream; 3. that which
stands high and dry. The difference between them con¬
sists in the character of the bark and the species of the
plants. Brushwood and herbage are nowhere to be seen :
every thing tends to the gigantic in size. The most various
forms group awkwardly together, crossed and intertwined
with leaves. The preponderance of trees with feathery
foliage, and with glossy, fleshy leaves, lends alternately a
tender and a luxuriant character to the scene, which is
in every other respect painful from its monotony. Re¬
presentatives of the most estranged natural families grow
side by side. It is only on the islands, where the willow
and some other plants are found in numbers, that we are
reminded of the monotony of our northern vegetation.
Cocoa trees and the vanilla, capsicum frutescens and dif¬
ferent kinds of pepper, the cinnamon tree and Brazilian
cassia, abound. The flora of all the tributaries of the
Amazons is similar to what we have described, until the
traveller ascends above the falls, and finds himself in an¬
other region. The sources of the Madeira alone offer a
partial exception, retaining a vegetation indicative of ex¬
tensive plains, lakes, and morasses. The vegetation of the
southern campos (corresponding to the North American
prairies) is widely different. On the plains of the southern
provinces we find scattered about strong tufts of greyish-
green and hairy grasses, springing from the red clay. Min¬
gled with these are numerous herbaceous flowers, of the
most varied colours and elegant forms. At intervals small
groves of trees, seldom exceeding twenty feet in height, so
distant that the individual form of each is easily recognised,
with spreading fantastic branches and pale green leaves,
break the monotony of the scene. Solitary myrtles, nume¬
rous varieties of pleasing fruits, and now and then a cac¬
tus, add to the variety. A similar vegetation, but with a
richer variety of plants, occurs in the diamond district.
On the western declivity of the Serra do Mar, and along
the upper banks of the Rio San Francisco, extends a
wooded country, but of a character entirely different from
that which is found in the valleys below. The name Ca-
tingas is applied to the forests in both of the above-
mentioned districts, although their characters are entirely
dissimilar. The term merely expresses that they cast
their leaves during the dry season, and push them forth
when the rains return. Malvce, euphorbiacece, mimosce,
and such like, are the prevailing types on the Rio Fran¬
cisco; cactuses, palms, and ferns, abound on the Serra
do Mar. In this latter district the Ipecacuan flourishes best.
It is, however, in the glowing steppes of Pernambuco that
we find the cactus predominant. In the valley of the Pa-
raguay the most striking feature is presented by the water
plants, which in one river are sufficiently strong to impede
the navigation of a stream both deep and broad.
The jaguar, the tapir, the pecari, the agouti, and many
other animals, are common to Brazil with the rest of the
Soutn American continent. The simice are numerous,
vol. v.
and the simia apella and the simia cedipus (the smallest Statistics,
known species of ape) are indigenous to the country. The
simia jacchus has never been seen elsewhere. There are
several varieties of bats, of which the vespertilia sorcinus
and the vampire bat are the most dangerous. Two spe¬
cies of sloth, the JBradypus tridactylus and didactylus, are
not uncommon. The Brazilian birds are celebrated for
the beauty of their plumage. “ Red, blue, and green par¬
rots,” says Malte-Brun, “ frequent the tops of trees. The
galinaceous jacus, the hoccos, and different kinds of pigeons,
haunt the wmods. The oriols resort to the orange groves;
and their sentinels, stationed at a distance, announce with
a screaming noise the approach of man. Chattering ma-
nakins mislead the hunter; and the metallic tones of the
uraponga resound through the forest like the strokes of a
hammer on an anvil. The toucan (Anser Americanas) is
prized for its feathers, which are of a lemon and bright
red colour, with transversal stripes reaching to the extre¬
mities of the wings. The different species of humming
birds are more numerous in Brazil than in any other coun¬
try of America. One sort is called by the people the
Gnanthe engera or winged flower.” The gayest butterflies
flutter through the air, the blue shining Menelaus, the Ado¬
nis, the Nestor, and the Laertes. More than ten species
of wild bees have been observed in the woods; and the
greater number produce honey. The cactus coccinellifer,
and the insect peculiar to it, are found in the province of
S. Paulo. Ants are numerous and destructive, particular¬
ly in the southern provinces. Snakes, of which the sacuru
is the most venomous, are frequent in moist places. Li¬
zards and caymans abound. The quantity of turtle in the
Amazons and its principal tributaries is almost incredible.
The waters swarm with fish, of which the only one enti¬
tled to notice in a sketch like this is the paranha, the
tyrant of the fresh waters, which divides with the cayman
the terror and hatred of the inhabitants.
III. Statistics.—In the first division of this sketch we Statistics,
have pointed out how Brazil was gradually discovered and
peopled. In the second we have attempted to describe
the character of the land, and its natural products. It only
remains to show the present number, condition, and cha¬
racter of its inhabitants, and how far they have availed
themselves of the natural wealth which has been placed
at their disposal. In the prosecution of this object we shall
endeavour to exhibit a view, 1. Of the amount and distri¬
bution of the population of Brazil, according to the latest
authorities; 2. Of its social constitution, political, judicial,
ecclesiastical, and military ; 3. Of the character of its citi¬
zens in regard to their capacities of taste and intellect,
and to their moral power; 4. Of the state of national in¬
dustry and wealth in agriculture, manufactures, and trade
foreign and domestic.
1. The latest authentic accounts of the population ofPopula-
any province of Brazil which have been received onlytion.
reach to the year 1823; and the notices of the population
at different periods are too scanty, and too indifferently
authenticated, to admit of our deducing from them a ratio
of increase by means of which we might estimate the pre¬
sent probable number of inhabitants. Besides, the circum¬
stances of the different provinces vary too much to war¬
rant an extension of the estimated ratio to those respect¬
ing which the data are defective or imperfect. For these
reasons we are under the necessity of stating, with more
particularity than we should otherwise have done, the data
which we are really possessed of.
From the province of S. Paulo we possess authenticat-S. Paulo,
ed lists of the population in the years 1808, 1813, 1814,
and 1815. For the last of these years we have the num¬
bers of white, black, and copper-coloured inhabitants; of
males and females ; of the births, deaths, and marriages
2 c
202
BRAZIL.
Statistics.
, ™ , U ^ in 1815 215,021. In 1815 this sum total was made up Statist:,
asaasOK&i.’S'rtsSs ^ r
Minas
Geraes.
This population of 215,021 souls was scattered over a
territory nearly of a square form, extending from twenty
to twenty-seven degrees of south latitude, andfiom o y
six to fifty-five of west longitude. This extent gives an
average of less than one inhabitant to each square mile.
But 59,139 souls, or nearly one third of the whole, inha¬
bit one city and three market-towns; a fact which af¬
fects the average density of the population. The num¬
ber of births in 1815 was 10,106, of marriages 3120, and
of deaths 4636. The deaths were to the whole popu¬
lation in a ratio of one to 46-38 ; the births were in a ratio
of one to 21-28; and the deaths were to the births in a
ratio of one to 2-18. According to this proportion the po¬
pulation ought to double itself in little more than twenty-
one years. But the real increase from 1808 to 1815 is, as
nearly as may be, seven per cent.; and, according to this
proportion, the population ought to double itself in less
than sixteen years. Making allowance for the influx ot
emigrants from Europe, and the increase of manufactures,
this" latter ratio is probably nearer the truth. We have
therefore for S. Paulo, at the close of 1831, a population
of 430,042; but owing to the establishment of manufac¬
tures, and the influx of settlers, it is probably even more
numerous. . .
The province of Minas Geraes is nearly 400 miles in
length from north to south, and 280 in medium breadth.
It lies due north of S. Paulo, more inland, equally elevated,
and with a more uneven surface. Its population in 1808
was as follows:—
souls, who were thus distributed over a surface of 84,000
square miles
Comarca da Bahia  ko non
Comarea da Jacobina  56,000
Comarca dos Ilheos ;  ^5,569
Capitania de Sergippe del Rey  98,836
592,908
The great superiority of numbers in the Comarca da
Bahia is mainly owing to the number of negroes employ¬
ed in the four hundred engenhos (sugar factories) within
the reconcavo, or valley surrounding the great inland sea,
upon which the city stands. By referring to the table
criven above of the population of S. Paulo, the reader will
see that there is a marked excess of male above female
negro slaves ; a proportion which also obtains in other
provinces of Brazil. This fact, and the hard labour to
which the class in question is condemned, forbid us to
assume an equally speedy increase of their numbers with
that of the other inhabitants. It is only in Sergippe d el Rey
that we have any data for guessing at the real increase.
In 1808 it contained 72,236
In 1823 98,836
Whites  
Half Blacks.
Negroes 
Total.
Males. Females.
54,157
(14,400
23,280
141,849
52,527
05,250
24,051
142,428
Males. Females.
7 857
80,849
94,700
7,880
40,180
100,084
145,393
180,972
54,000 433,049
An increase in fifteen years of 26,600; or a little more
than one third of the original population. Assuming the
same ratio of increase to have held throughout the pro¬
vince since 1823, it would give us, for 1831, 790,544 souls.
We possess a return for Pernambuco in the year 1823,Pemn
of 234,000 inhabitants. Subjoined to this return are lists of buco.
the population of the northern sea-board provinces, (^a-‘
goas, Paraiba, Rio Grando do Norte, and Seal a- These
districts are extremely similar in their physical character¬
istics. The total of their inhabitants in 1823 was 654,800;
while the number resident in Seara was 140,000. Ac¬
cording to the parish registers, the same province, in 1813,
contained 131,140; giving an increase of 8860, or some¬
thing more than one fifteenth, during ten years. Other
locc tmct-wnrtbv accounts make the population double
An estimate of the population of the same province in
1820 makes it amount to 456,675 freemen and 165,210
slaves; in all, 621,885. This statement is not however
sufficiently authenticated. It is worthy of remark, that
in 1808 Minas contained, with only the double of the po¬
pulation of S. Paulo, three and a half times as many black
slaves, and nine times as many free negroes. The dispro¬
portion betwixt the numbers of male and female slaves is
yet more glaring than in the last-mentioned province.
The population of Minas is also less stationary. The Co¬
marca of Villa Rica, which was held to contain only 72,209
inhabitants in 1813, is said to have had 78,618 as early as
1776. It may be remarked, however, that of late years
agricultural and manufacturing industry have borne more
healthy proportions to gold finding. Could we trust in the
accuracy of the return of 1820, the population of Minas
must have doubled since 1808, and must now amount to
about 860,000 souls.
Bahia. The population of Bahia amounted in 1823 to 592,908
in twenty-five years. . , , r_ n .
The two provinces of Para and Rio Negro include the Para a.
whole basin of the Amazons. In 1820, a priest, resident at 10
Para, who had bestowed great pains on the subject, stated
the result of his investigations to Drs Spix and Martius as
83,510 for both captaincies. Of these he attributed 68,190
to Para, and 15,320 to Rio Negro. A return, in like man¬
ner including both provinces, was presented to the same
gentlemen in 1823, representing their united population a?
173,125. It appears that the wild Indians are reckoned
here, and that they had been omitted in the return of
1820. In 1814 the population of Rio Negro was stated, m
a very distinct and articulate report, to amount to 15,230
souls, being only 85 short of the sum attributed to it m
1820. This is in some degree accounted for by the fact
that Martius, in the latter year, found the population m
more than one district much decreased below what it had
been six years before. Of the total population of Rio Negro
11,435 were Indians. Upon such data no calculations of
BRAZIL.
203
S .sties, the probable increase are admissible. The following ta-
V ble enumerates the latest returns of every province from
which any have been made, stating at the same time the
authority upon which they are here given.
* I
Province.
Rio Grande do Sul,
(Environs of Rio
Grande) 
Uruguay 
S. Paulo 
S. Catharina 
Rio Janeiro (town
alone) 
Espirito Santo 
Porto Seguro 
Bahia )
Sergippe d’el Rey/
Minas 
Goyaz 
Matto Grosso 
Pernambuco 
Alagoas  
Paraiba  
Rio Grande do Norte
Seara  
Piauhy 
Maranhao 
Gram Para 
Rio Negro 
Date of
Return.
1806
1801
1815
1813
1817
1823
1820
1821
1822
1819
1821
1820
Authority.
Mawe 
Henderson.
Martius 
Official returns
De Barbacena
Official returns
De Barbacena
Official returns
Adr. Balbi 
Martius 
Population.
100,000
14,010
215,021
33,049
110,000
592,908
621,885
37,250
234,000
91,800
120,000
64,000
140,000
71,370
182,000
68,190
15,320
The total of these sums amounts to 2,809,803. It must,
however, be taken into account that some of the returns
are of an old date ; that for three provinces there are none
at all; and that in the cases of Rio Janeiro and Rio Grande
do Sul only the inhabitants of the capital and suburbs are
enumerated. We are therefore entitled to assume that
in 1820, the medium year, the population of Brazil would
probably have been underrated if estimated at 3,000,000.
The time in which the population of Brazil doubles itself
appears to vary in different provinces from fifteen to thirty
years. The circumstances of the last ten years are such
as to entitle us to believe that the inhabitants of that em¬
pire are now little short of 5,000,000.
This population is composed of the descendants of the
aborigines, of negroes, and of persons of European descent.
Here, as everywhere else, the copper-coloured race gives
way before the other two. It is calculated that, on an ave¬
rage, 50,000 negroes are annually imported into Brazil.
Ihe great disproportion, however, between the numbers of
njales and females, noticed above, and the natural tendency
of human beings to multiply slowly in a state of slavery,
seemto prevent any thing like a corresponding increase of
numbers. By means of the numerous immigrations from
Europe, the white race has hitherto been able to keep its
ground. Of all the crosses between the different races, the
mulatto seems to take most kindly with the soil and cli¬
mate of Brazil. In S. Paulo in 1815 the total of white
persons was 115,103; of negroes, 44,591; of Indians,
t a1 ' °f Rio Janeiro in 1817 a native
ndian was a rarity ; of 110,000 inhabitants it was esti¬
mated that two thirds were negroes. In Minas in 1808
. nuinber of Europeans was 106,684; of persons of
mixed blood, 145,393 ; of negroes, 180,972. The united
?R9o ^ ^ram Para uud Rio Negro amounted in
o 83,o 10 souls. Of these, 50,000 were, according
0 a ruae estimate, Indians. In 1814 Rio Negro alone con¬
tained 15,235 inhabitants, of whom 11,435 were Indians, Statistics.
3,071 free whites and negroes, and 729 slaves without dis-
tinction of colour. The law of Brazil admits the distinc¬
tion between freeman and slave ; but once free, every indi¬
vidual without regard to colour, is equal in the eye of the
law.
2. As nothing has a greater share in impressing upon a Political
nation its peculiar character than the form of its govern- constitu-
ment, it will be necessary to make ourselves masters offmm
the social institutions of Brazil, before we can attempt to
judge of its citizens either in their moral or economical
relations. Brazil is a constitutional monarchy, without a
privileged aristocracy. In such a state the monarch can
only act in consonance with the laws. It will therefore
be advisable, in the first place, to give some idea of the
representative legislature, which is thus endowed with the
power of regulating his actions.
The legislative power is vested in the general assembly,
consisting of two chambers, that of deputies and that of
senators. The deputies and senators are nominated by in¬
direct election ; the body of qualified citizens choosing the
electors in parochial assemblies, and the latter nominating
the provincial representatives. The existing provinces,
enumerated above under the head of population, may be
subdivided, and each portion erected into a province when¬
ever the increased number of inhabitants justifies such a
step. The qualification for an elector is an annual income
of 200 milrees ; that of a deputy an income of 400. Minors,
military officers, priests, monks, servants, and paupers, are
incapable of voting; naturalized foreigners, and persons
not professing the religion of the state, are incapable of
being elected. The deputies are elected for four years,
in each of which there must be a session of four months,
opening on the 3d of May. The senators are elected for
life. Every province has a number of senators, equal to
half its number of deputies; but they are nominated in
triple lists, from which the emperor selects one third at
his pleasure. A senator must be forty years of age, and
possess a clear annual income of 800 milrees. The salary
of a senator is one half more than that of a deputy. Each
house nominates its own officers. When the two houses sit
in general assembly, the president of the senate presides,
and the senators and deputies sit promiscuously. They
assemble in this way to take the oath of the emperor; to
elect a regent; to nominate a tutor to the emperor when
minor; on the death of an emperor, to institute an inquiry
into the administration which has just concluded, and to
reform abuses ; and to select a new dynasty, in case the old
has become extinct. They sit apart, and proceed by way of
bill, when they make laws, interpret, or suspend them; they
determine the public charges, and assess the direct con¬
tributions ; fix the ordinary and extraordinary forces by
sea and land, on the report of the government; authorize
the contraction of loans by government; regulate the ad¬
ministration of national domains, and decree their aliena¬
tion ; create and suppress public employments; control
weights and measures, and the standard of exchange. The
chamber of deputies has the initiative in taxes, in recruit¬
ing, and in the choice of a new dynasty. The senate has the
exclusive privilege of taking cognizance of offences com¬
mitted by members of the royal family, counsellors of
state, senators, and deputies, during the time of session;
ot enforcing the responsibility of secretaries and counsel¬
lors of state; of convoking the assembly, in case the em¬
peror fail to do so within two months after the period fixed
by law ; and also of calling it together on the death of
the emperor. The assembly, in addition to its legislative
powers, is likewise entitled to act as the emperor’s great
council of state.
In accordance with the counsels given and the laws
204
Statistics.
brazil.
Financial
system.
enacted by this body, the emperor exercises the supreme
executive functions of the state. This he does throug
the instrumentality of his ministers, who are responsib e
for treason, corruption, abuse of power, acts contrary o
the liberty, security, or property of subjects, and waste ot
public property. From this responsibility they canno
escape upon the plea of orders from the emperor. I he
executive functions are, the convocation of the gene¬
ral assembly; the nomination of bishops, governors ot
towns and provinces, commanders by sea and land, anu
ambassadors; the formation of alliances and the initiative
of foreign negociations; the declaration of peace and war ;
the granting letters of naturalization, &c. ihe mini¬
sters are, secretaries of state, of transmarine affairs and
marine, and of foreign affairs ; a head of the treasury,
with a grand and second treasurer, a director ot the
bank, and a fiscal; a head of the board of trade ; a presi¬
dent of the consistorial board; a commander in chier,
and a head of police, with his lieutenant. To these is
adjoined a council of state, composed of ten members no¬
minated by the emperor, and having the imperial prince,
if of age, for president. With these counsellors and as¬
sistants the sovereign manages the national affairs. Mat¬
ters of local economy and municipal police are regulated
in the provinces by presidents nominated by the sove¬
reign, and removable at pleasure, checked by elective cham¬
bers of districts; in the cities and towns, by councils ot
management elected by the inhabitants.
The financial arrangements of Brazil fall under two
heads, the general and national, administered by the head
of the treasury and his subordinates, under the control
of the chambers ; and the local, exercised by the provincial
authorities, under the corresponding check of “ the coun¬
cils general of the provinces” and the municipal councils.
The general assembly controls the management of those
revenues which, formerly appertaining to the crown, are
now termed national; it determines the annual expendi¬
ture, and assesses those taxes which are necessary in addi¬
tion to the income from the domains and regalia. The cus¬
toms payable on goods passing from one province to another
have been remitted. All exports of Brazilian produce pay a
duty of two per cent. Imports from Portugal and England
pay a duty of fifteen per cent. Foreign wines pay thrice
the duty laid upon those of home growth; and foreign
brandies twice and a half. All other merchandise pays a
duty of twenty-four per cent. Slaves pay an additional
duty, the half of which is deposited in the bank to form a
fund to aid in settling colonies of Europeans. The direct
taxes are, dizimo, a tenth levied upon all products of agri¬
culture, pasturage, and the fisheries ; subsidio national, an
import upon fresh meat, hides, brandies, and cotton cloth
prepared within the land ; a capitation tax for the bank of
Brazil from every merchant and tradesman; a tax upon
official incomes, &c. These are collected into the trea¬
sury, partly by the agency of salaried officials, but more
frequently by means of the Bank. This institution farms
most of the regalia; and, in the matter of customs and im¬
posts, it is in the habit of making advances upon the pledge
of the yet unliquidated duties. The financial arrange¬
ments of the provinces are those of the state in miniature.
The repeal of all duties payed upon the transit of mer¬
chandise from one province to another; the immense sums
surreptitiously carried off by the greedy court of Joam VI.
when he fled from Rio; and, above all, the commotions of
the last ten years, co-operating with the inefficiency of the
late head of the government, threw the finances of Brazil
into a state of derangement from which they have not yet
recovered. In September 1823 the state debt amounted
to 30,500,000 cruzadoes. The estimated ordinary reve¬
nue for the half year, 1,767,000 milrees, was less than the
expenditure by the sum of 900,000. The local revenues Statist ^
were also equally deficient. The annual deficit of Minas ^
Geraes amounted to 60,000 milrees; that of Goyaz to
nearly 20,000 ; that of Matto Grosso to 10,544; that of
S Catharina to 34,870; and so of the rest. The charges
thrown upon the treasury by these deficiencies amounted
to 280,000 milrees yearly. Recourse has been had to
forced’loans and contributions, to donations, sequestra¬
tions, and, finally, to a foreign loan; but the difficulties
still remain unsubdued.
There are in Brazil justices of the peace, elected atjU(jic;.
the same time and in the same manner as the deputies.system
Without previously attempting a reconcihation with his
adversary before one of these, no person is entitled to
bring a cause into court. Trial by jury is the constitutional
form in all courts of the first instance, both in civil and m
criminal cases. There are courts of appeal in the princi¬
pal cities. In Rio there is in addition a supreme tribunal
of justice, in which judges, selected from the other courts,
preside according to their seniority. The duties of this
tribunal are to permit or refuse the revision of causes pro¬
posed to be submitted to the courts of appeal; to inquire
into abuses committed by its own officers or those of other
courts, of persons connected with the diplomatic body,
and of the presidents of the provinces; and to investigate
and decide on disputes respecting the jurisdiction of the
provincial courts. In the courts of the first instance, which
are twenty-four in number, one in each comaica of the
empire, a judge entitled Ouvidov presides. Appeals lie
from these to the courts of the second instance, at Para,
Maranhao, Pernambuco, Goyaz, and Bahia, whose deci¬
sions are reviewable by the Relagao of Bahia; Rio Ja¬
neiro, Minas Geraes, Matto Grosso, and S. Paulo, are ic-
viewable by that of Rio. All judges are responsible for
abuses of power, and for corruption, but can only be dis¬
placed in consequence of a sentence. In an imperfectly
settled country, and where some traces of the feudal cha¬
racter of its first organization may yet be found in the
language of the laws and the intermingling boundaries of
districts, disputes regarding jurisdiction are of too frequent
occurrence. The body of the law has been transplanted
from Portugal, occasionally modified by new relations or
later enactments, but, in the main, a scarcely coalescing
mixture of the Roman and canon law, with enactments
the native growth of the mother country. ■
The Catholic Apostolic Roman religion is the religion ofTbert
the empire. All other religions are tolerated, and allowed and p'
-o'-     c? 9 . . instru
a domestic celebration of their rites, but without any e#x^on
ternal form of temple. The church of Rome being in its
leading characteristics the same throughout the woikl, a
particular description may be here dispensed with. There
is one archbishopric in Brazil, that of Bahia. Its suffra¬
gans are the bishoprics of Rio Janeiro and Pernambuco.
Maranhao, on account of the difficult navigation between
that town and Bahia, had its bishopric subjected to the
archiepiscopal jurisdiction of Lisbon. It is now independ¬
ent. The diocese of Para was so from the first. Ihe dis¬
trict originally subjected to the bishop of Rio Janeiio
has subsequently been subdivided, in order to erect the
additional dioceses of S. Paulo and Mariana, and the pre¬
lacies of Goyaz and Matto Grosso. The whole of Brazil
is subdivided into parishes, to each of which one or moie
officiating priests are attached. Government has expend¬
ed little money on the clergy, but this omission has been
abundantly supplied by legacies and donations from in¬
dividuals. There are several cloisters ot Franciscans and
Dominicans, and an immense number of Hermits.
Among the ministers of the empire, we have mention-Liter
ed a head of the literary department. One of the most^^
important taxes imposed by government is the subsidio
BRAZIL.
205
literario, an impost for the maintenance of teachers, upon
every ox killed in the shambles ; upon rum, and in some
provinces upon the salted provisions brought from the in¬
terior. In every villa (market-town) there is a “ Latin
school,” an institution for teaching the elements of lan¬
guage and an acquaintance with the classics. In S. Paulo,
Bahia, and Maranhao, we find gymnasia, with somewhat
higher pretensions. In every episcopal seat there is a
theological seminary, in which candidates for orders are
obliged to pass a certain number of years in the study of
philosophy and divinity. In 1827 two schools of law were
instituted, one at S. Paulo and one at Pernambuco. The
course lasts five years. The first two are devoted to pre¬
lections on the law of nature and of nations, and an ana¬
lysis of the constitution ; during the third and fourth, the
laws of Brazil, maritime and mercantile law, are the sub¬
ject of study; during the fifth, political economy and fi¬
nance. For such as wish it, there is a course of canon law
during the second year. Rio de Janeiro possesses a lyceum
and an aula de cirurgia. In the former of these are taught
Latin, Greek, French and English, rhetoric, geography,
mathematics, philosophy, and theology. In the latter, the
students are bound to attend, during the first year, ana¬
tomy, chemistry, and pharmacy; during the second, the
same, with the addition of physiology; during the third, pa¬
thology, therapeutics, and the practice of medicine ; during
the fourth, surgery and midwifery; during the fifth, clinical
surgery. The students have admission to the military
hospital, and such as choose may attend the lectures on
botany and natural history, the botanical garden, and
the museum. There is also in the capital a military and
a commercial academy. In addition to the public insti¬
tutions for the promotion of education here enumerated,
schools of mutual instruction have of late years been
founded in most towns and cities by private individuals.
6. The constitution of Brazil recognises the necessity of a
permanent naval and military force, but wdthout determin¬
ing its amount. It can only be assembled by legitimate
command, and is under the executive power. Officers
of the army and navy cannot be deprived of their com¬
missions but by the sentence of a competent tribunal. In
1826 the regular army was estimated by General Miller
at from 15,000 and 16,000 men. Of these, 3500, con¬
sisting partly of foreigners, were stationed in the capital;
and the rest were dispersed throughout the provinces.
Thus, in S. Paulo there might be a regiment of dragoons and
one of infantry, in detachments on the coast, at the capital
of the province, and at the custom-houses on the frontier.
In Bahia the troops of the line generally amounted to up¬
wards of 3000 men, infantry, artillery, and cavalry. In
1823 the Brazilian navy consisted of one line of battle ship
carrying seventy-eight guns ; three frigates carrying forty-
four, thirty-eight, and thirty-two ; two corvettes carrying
thirty-two and twenty-two; two schooners carrying twen¬
ty and sixteen ; a fire-ship and a gun-boat. Besides the
regular troops, every Brazilian capable of bearing arms is
enrolled either in the milicias or the ordenanzas. The
former are commanded by chiefs of their own appointment
(coronets), having under them a major from the regular
army, appointed by government; they are subject to mili¬
tary law, and liable to serve, in case of need, beyond the
limits of the province ; they receive no pay. The orde¬
nanzas are commanded by capitdes m6res ; they are only
liable to serve in case of invasion ; and they discharge in a
great measure the duties of a local police. General Miller
speaks slightingly of the regular troops of Brazil; and here
we believe him to be in the right. Its milicias and orde-
nanzas he regards with the supercilious contempt natural
to a military man; and here we believe him to be in the
wrong.
3. It is obvious, from the insufficient establishments Statistics,
for general education, that the intellectual development
of individuals must be achieved in a great measure bycliaracter
unaided exertion. In the more thinly inhabited dis-0f.fhe Bra'
tricts devotion to such pursuits must not be expectedZllians"
in men exclusively occupied in procuring subsistence and
securing self-defence. Even where the population is
more dense, a lazy feeling of animal comfort represses
the exertions of the majority. It is among the more as¬
piring class, who aim at the learned professions or state
employment, and who are consequently obliged to cul¬
tivate their minds, that we must look for that attach¬
ment to intellectual pursuits which is rarely acquired
except from habit. In the theological seminaries esta¬
blished at the seat of each bishop, little more is inculcat¬
ed than a knowledge of the classics, an outworn scholas¬
tic system of logic, and a knowledge of the routine duties
of a priest. This is a system of tuition only calculated to
deaden the mental faculties. The school of medicine in
Rio Janeiro, from the attention bestowed upon practical
surgery and anatomy, has done more to awaken the mind ;
but this is only one bright spot in a realm of darkness. The
number of situations under government requiring a certain
knowledge of practical mathematics and natural history,
rendered necessary by the system of working the mines so
long pursued, has been more efficient in diffusing through¬
out the empire a knowledge of and a taste for these kin¬
dred pursuits. The number of foreign engineers and na¬
turalists encouraged to settle in Brazil has rendered the
natives in some measure acquainted with all that has been
of late achieved in Europe in the mathematical and ex¬
perimental sciences. Late events have forced upon the
inhabitants a number of political questions, which, coming
home to every man’s business and bosom, have excited
the whole community. As yet, however, the intellect of
Brazil seems to be rather in the process of awakening to
a consciousness of its existence, than capable of effect¬
ing any thing. Printing presses are everywhere sought
after. In 1823, Rio alone had thirteen political journals,
the other towns and provinces in proportion. Several at¬
tempts had been made to establish periodical publications
devoted to geographical and natural science. Newr libra¬
ries were founded, and the old ones extended and better
arranged. But nothing new has yet been produced in
Brazil beyond the contribution of additional facts in mi¬
neralogy, botany, and astronomy. The power of systema¬
tic and independent thinking has not 3ret shown itself.
In the matter of taste, the Brazilians have only added
one poet to the literature of the Portuguese language.
Gonzaga was at one time ouvidor in the Comarca of S.
Joao d’el Rey in Minas Geraes; but having taken part, in
an attempt to revolutionize the province about the com¬
mencement of the French Revolution, he was banished to
Angola, where he afterwards died. His poems are all lyrical.
A collection of them has been published under the title
“ Marilia de Dirceaand many more are preserved by
popular tradition. They are characterized by delicacy
of fancy and diction, and tenderness of feeling. Every¬
where in Brazil a strong native taste for music evinces it¬
self. The native tribes, in contradistinction to the ne¬
groes, who evince feeling only for melody, are deeply sen¬
sible of the charms of harmony. Among all classes, how¬
ever, the guitar and song form the principal evening’s
amusement. Spix and Martius found this to hold good
among the courtiers of Rio de Janeiro, among the sturdy
Paulistas, on the Sertaos of Minas, and in the mercantile
Bahia. The simplicity of the national instrument is unfa¬
vourable to the culture of a high order of music. In Rio,
however, much was done under the patronage of Dom Pedro
for the cultivation of the science, and not without effect.
206
brazil.
Statistics.
Agricul
ture.
An academy of the fine arts has likewise been established
in that capital for many years; but its ill success seems
to betray a want of feeling for the beauties of paint-
ing and sculpture. The drama, which calls into requisi-
tion all these arts, is at a very low ebb 1 he actors a e
chiefly vagabond mestizoes; and the decorations of t
stage^are on a par with the performers. In art and htera-
ture, as in science, those Brazilians who are enlightened
enough to find pleasure in such pursuits, rely entirely
upon the productions of other countries, principally those
of France and England. The sensibility to imaginative
pleasure exists, but the power of producing the objects
which excite it is wanting.
We have prefixed these brief sketches of the progress of
the Brazilians in knowledge and art to that of their mora
condition, because the state of the latter is mainly depend¬
ent upon them. Only where wealth and a complicated state
of society have developed the intellectual powers and re¬
fined the sentiments, can any thing approaching to ele¬
vated and consistent goodness be found. Within the limits
of Brazil, and even without having recourse to her savage
population, may be discovered specimens of every stage ot
moral development. In the populous cities on the coast,
and in the seats of local government in the interior, there
are men entitled to rank with the educated classes oi any
country in Europe. More enlightened minds, with greater
power of self-denial and endurance, have been displayed
nowhere than in the course of the Brazilian revolutions.
The mass of the people, however, is entirely destitute
of education, unrefined, and the creature of impulse.
The continuance of the slave-trade tends yet more sure¬
ly to harden their minds. The larger towns present the
same spectacles of brutal excess in animal enjoyment
among a certain class that we find in Europe.^ Muiders
are more frequent. The most elevated class ot the popu¬
lation, in respect to the general diffusion of the sense of
moral obligation, is to be found in S. Paulo and in Minas
Geraes. The source of the superiority of the former
has been adverted to in our historical sketch. In the
latter, it may fairly be attributed to the prevalence of
that sect which still persists in expecting the return of
king Sebastian. Whenever a sect adopts as one of its first
principles a high standard of self-control, we may be sure
that the effect will be to ennoble the majority of its dis¬
ciples. The scattered population towards the interior
frontier presents not unfrequently specimens of the most
daring defiance of every dictate of religion,'reason, or hu¬
man feeling. # .
The branch of national industry includes, agriculture,
manufactures, and fisheries, or production ; commerce, fo¬
reign and domestic, or distribution.
4. In Rio Grande, the most southerly province of the em¬
pire, the soil is principally in pasture, and the chief occu¬
pation of the inhabitants the feeding of cattle. 1 he ani¬
mals are of a large size, and the herds are numerous. I hey
are allowed to wander at large under the superintendence
of a few half wild Creoles and Negroes. There are no
dairy establishments. Butter and cheese are only made
on particular occasions, and even milk for coffee is not
always to be had. The quantity of wheat grown in the
province is considerable, but farming is carried on in a
slovenly manner. The grain is dirty, and apt to ferment.
The island of S. Catharina, immediately to the north,
has been cleared of its timber for the purpose of ship¬
building, and is almost entirely under cultivation. The
agricultural produce of the island in 1812 is stated in an
official paper to have been :—Mandiocca meal, 388,861 al-
queires; maize, 16,968 ditto; garlic, 16,506 ditto; onions,
10,472 ; wheat, 3365 ditto ; rice, 18,723 quintals ; coffee,
12,592 ditto; cotton, 2270 ditto; flax, 1798 ditto; mo¬
lasses, 7H8 pipas; sugar, 712 quintals; ox-hides, 35,900. Statisti
The wheat, it will be observed, bears but a very small pro- ^yy
portion to those products which are most successfully cul¬
tivated within the tropics. What is commonly called in
England colonial produce, begins here to be the staple,
and continues so along the whole coast of Brazil, until
we reach the equator. The province of S. Paulo is most
densely inhabited, and consequently best cultivated along
the coast. This is the reason why, with the finest and
most extensive pastoral country in Brazil, the value of its
cattle in 1814 did not amount to one fifth of the whole
agricultural produce of the province. Coffee either does
not succeed, or is not a favourite object of cultivation ; for
the quantity produced by this province is less than that
which is grown in S. Catharina. Sugar has begun to
improve, and continues to do so as ive move northward.
The produce of the sugar plantations ot S. Paulo in 1814
was 122,993 arrobas of sugar, and 233 pipas of rum, in¬
dependently of an immense quantity of sugar syrup pre¬
pared for home consumption. The quantity of mandiocca
raised in the same year was 111,460 alqueires; ot maize,
723,989 ditto; of rice, 120,860; while of wheaten flour
there was only 5050 arrobas. The colonial produce, in
addition to sugar, was, cotton, 54,222 arrobas; tobacco,
9596 ditto; coffee, 4867 ditto; castor-oil, 179 Canada.
The most important agricultural products in the province
of Rio Janeiro'are sugar, coffee, and cotton. The first
mentioned is cultivated most extensively between the
mountains, and in the warm and moist district. In the
neighbourhood of the capital itself we find the greatest
quantity of sugar plantations. In 1817, 60,000 arrobas
of sugar were exported from Rio, but whether it was all
produced within the province, does not appear. Ihe
coffee of Rio Janeiro is esteemed the best in Brazil.
This is owing to the instructions and example of Lesesne,
an intelligent gentleman of St Domingo, who, driven from
home by the revolution in that island, commenced a plan¬
tation in the neighbourhood of Rio, and, through the su¬
perior demand occasioned by the excellence of his benies,
stimulated his neighbours to follow his example. Hio
produced 299,000 arrobas of sugar in 1817, and 4/0,846
in 1820; an immense increase in quantity, independently
of the improvement in quality. We have no exact ac¬
counts of the quantity of cotton annually collected in this
province. It is said to yield a less lasting cloth than the
cotton raised in the more elevated and drier districts o
the country. Some attempts made to introduce the tea
plant in the neighbourhood of Rio have failed, apparent y
from want of perseverance. The trees look healthy and
luxuriant; and a slight tinge of earthiness, which is per¬
ceptible in the flavour of the decoction of the leaf, is attri¬
buted by naturalists solely to the want ot a sufficiently
long acclimatization. A quantity of tobacco is raise in
the islands of the bay of Rio; and, together with what
is brought from Espirito Santo, it may amount, one jear
with another, to 30,000 quintals. Of the agriculture ot
the province just named, and its neighbour Porto Seguro,
the preceding sentence contains all the information we
have been able to collect. The chiet agricultural product o
Bahia is sugar, and the most luxuriant growth ot its
canes is in the Reconcavo in the immediate neighbourhoo
of the city. The surface of the ground in its original state
is covered with marshy hollows, which, when drained o
their superfluous waters, are found filled with a light al¬
luvial earth, most favourable to the growth of the sugar
cane. This gift the skill of the Bahian planters has turne
to the best advantage. Tobacco was wont to come next
to sugar in the Reconcavo; at present it is most exten¬
sively cultivated in the neighbourhood of Cachoeira,
though even there a falling off has been observed. There
BRAZIL.
207
Sta ;ics. is proportionally little Coffee raised in Bahia, and that
little in the Comarca dos Ilheos, the rudest and most
wretched district of the province. The fruit is much
inferior to that of Rio, probably on account of the slo¬
venly manner in which it is gathered and dried. Rice
returns from two to three hundred times the seed. In
the year 1817 the sugar raised in Bahia vras estimated
at 1,200,000 arrobas, the tobacco at 660,000, the coffee
at 10,000, the rice at 18,000. Maize thrives here, but
its cultivation is much neglected. An enterprising Swiss in
1817 set the example of forming artificial meadows in the
neighbourhood of the city; and they are said by eye-wit¬
nesses to have equalled the best in England. The high
price of fodder secured him an ample reward. The chief
difficulty he encountered arose from the poisonous snakes
which swarm in all marshy places. All kinds of European
fruits and vegetables succeed in the Reconcavo, but are
more exposed to the depredations of ants, snails, and
birds, than native plants. The chief products of Pernam¬
buco are vanilla, cocoa, rice, sugar, and cotton. The qua¬
lity of the last-mentioned article grown in this province
was at one time esteemed as the best in the world. Of
late years it has much deteriorated, from neglect in the
gathering and cleaning. Notwithstanding, the quantity
exported in 1829 amounted to no less than 80,000 bags.
In the interior of this province grazing is carried on to
such an extent as has procured for it the title of the Swit¬
zerland of Brazil. The staple commodities of Seara are
cotton and sugar. The other provinces along the coast,
including Maranhao, exhibit nothing different in their agri¬
cultural products from those last described; on the shore
the sugar-cane, farther inland cotton, and in the interior
cattle. The produce of Gram Para presents nothing mate¬
rially differing; that of Rio Negro, consisting chiefly of
natural produce, scarcely comes under the head of agri¬
culture. The provinces respecting the agriculture of
which we have now to speak are the three great inland
districts, Minas Geraes, Goyaz, and Matto Grosso. Of
the last, too little is known to entitle us to say any thing.
The agriculture of Goyaz is trifling, and almost identical
in character with that of the interior of S. Paulo. The
southern portion of Minas consists chiefly of pasture lands.
Some attempts have been made to introduce oats, barley,
and wheat; but these cerealia were found to run uniformly
to straw, and their ears to ripen unequally. In the northern
comarcas cotton has been cultivated with great success. In
point of quality that of Minas Novas is esteemed second to
none but that of Pernambuco. There seems, however, to be
a great waste of surface in the mode of culture generally
adopted. The land is first cleared for the plantation by burn¬
ing, which is effected during the dry months. In January a
number of holes are made in the earth about two or three
feet apart, and five or six seeds are dropped into each and
covered lightly with earth. The harvest occurs in the Sep¬
tember of the second year. In the course of two years fresh
ground is chosen and the same process repeated. The
cotton-grower allows as long an interval as he can afford
to elapse before he returns to a spot which has already
been cultivated. This superficial view of the agriculture
of Brazil argues a country of the most exuberant fertility,
m which are not reared many products of the earth that
inight succeed; while the limited number produced, with
the exception of coffee in Rio, and sugar in Bahia, are cul¬
tivated in a rude and slovenly manner. Cacao, ginger,
K various kinds of pepper, tobacco, and indigo, all of which
experience has shown to be suited to the soil and climate,
are neglected. Oxen, horses, and mules, are rather the
Man > nature than the reward of assiduous attention,
turts * t kxcept a few rude manufactures for family use, this
branch of national industry is in Brazil confined to mining
operations, the smelting of metals, the polishing of preci- Statistics,
ous stones, the manufacture of salt, ship-building, tanning
and dressing hides, and the making of oil. In regard to
the first mentioned, it may be observed that one most
important mineral, coal, has hitherto only been discovered
at two places in Brazil, Bahia and Rio Grande. At both,
however, the smallness of the quantity and the situation
of the veins has rendered working it with advantage im¬
possible. On this account it has been necessary to em¬
ploy charcoal in obtaining the metals from the ores; and
hence everywhere in the neighbourhood of mines charring
is a business which employs a good many hands. The
wasteful manner in which the operation has hitherto been
carried on is already beginning to be felt even in the im¬
mense forests of Brazil. Of late, however, scientific forest¬
ers have been encouraged by government to emigrate from
Europe.
The diamond washings, with the exception of -a few, Diamond
of which but little is known, are confined to the diamond mines,
district in Minas Geraes, and are still conducted on the ill-
judged system of a government monopoly. The cascal-
hao, mentioned above, is dug up and removed to a con¬
venient place for washing. As much is raised during
the rainy months as is expected to give employment
to the slaves for the other six. It is deposited in heaps
of from five to fifteen tons. A shed is erected in the
form of a parallelogram twenty-five or thirty yards long
and about fifteen wide, composed of upright posts sup¬
porting a thatched roof. A stream of water is con¬
veyed down the middle of the area of this shed, co¬
vered with strong planks, on which the cascalhao is laid
two or three feet thick. On one side of the canal is a
flooring of planks from four to five yards long, imbedded
in clay, extending the whole length of the shed, and hav¬
ing a slope from the canal of three or four inches to a
yard. This flooring is divided into twenty compartments
or troughs, each of about three feet in width, by means of
planks set on edge. The upper end of each trough com¬
municates with the canal. Three overseers take their seats
at equal distances on high chairs placed on the heaps of
cascalhao, on the side of the canal opposite to the troughs.
As soon as they are seated a negro enters into each com¬
partment, provided with a short handled rake, with which
he draws to him fifty or eighty lbs. of cascalhao. He
then lets in water upon this, and keeps stirring it with his
rake until the earthy particles are washed off; upon which,
throwing out the largest stones, he carefully examines the
rest for diamonds. As soon as he finds one he rises and
holds it out between his finger and thumb; an overseer
receives it from him, and deposits it in a bowl half full of
water, suspended from the centre of the structure. At the
close of the day’s labour the diamonds obtained are taken
from this deposit and delivered to the principal overseer,
who weighs and registers them. On an average the mines
yield 20,000 carats annually. The establishment is bur¬
dened with a load of debt incurred to foreigners for ad¬
vances of money at the time that government first took it
in hand. It is calculated that the diamonds cost govern¬
ment 33s. 9d. per carat. The washings give employment
and support to a population of about 6000. The trade in
gems which have not been deemed of sufficient importance
to be claimed as regalia, centres in Minas Novas. The
dealers in precious stones have their residence for the most
part in Chapada. The greater part are sent in a state of na¬
ture to Bahia and Rio Janeiro ; some, however, are polish¬
ed, rudely enough, in the neighbourhood.
The gold country extends over Minas Geraes, Goyaz, Gold
Matto Grosso, and part of S. Paulo. In all these districts the mines,
winning of this metal is pursued in a manner exactly similar.
It is found either in the beds of rivers, or in veins, at times
208
brazil.
Statistics, twenty feet under the surface, at times close under the roots
M of the grass. Like diamonds, it is found intermingled with
cascalhao. This mass, with the auriferous particles, is re¬
moved from its site to a convenient place for washing.
Where water of a sufficiently high level can be obtained, t e
ground is cut into slips twenty or thirty feet wide, two o
three broad, and one deep. Near the bottom is a trench two
or three feet deep. On these steps the cascalhao is deposit¬
ed, and on each stand six or eight negroes, keeping it in
motion with shovels as the water flows gently upon it from
above, until the whole is reduced to liquid mud and wasl-
ed down. In the trench the particles of gold, fiom their
weight, quickly precipitate. Other negroes are busy clear¬
ing away the stones and removing the surface mud. Af¬
ter five days’ washing the precipitate is carried to some
convenient stream. Here each negro is provided with a
bowl of a funnel shape, about two feet wide at the mouth,
and five or six inches deep. Standing in the stream, he
takes about six lbs. of the sediment into his bowl, admits
regulated portions of water, and keeps moving the sedi¬
ment until the gold deposit itself at the sides and bottom
of the vessel. He then rinces the bowl in a larger vessel
of clean water, and begins again. This operation occupies
about five minutes. When the particles of gold in t ic
sediment are very minute, troughs similar to those em¬
ployed in diamond-washing, but longer and narrower, are
constructed. On their bottoms are stretched hides, tan-
ned with the hair on, or pieces of rough baize. Ihe wa¬
ter containing the sediment is conveyed down these, and
the gold precipitating in the course is entangled in the
rough surface. Every half hour the hides aie canied to
a neighbouring tank, stretched over it, dipped, and oeaten
repeatedly. The gold is found at the bottom of these
reservoirs mingled with esmeril, from which it is separated
by the aid of mercury. The whole business is carried on
in a most cumbrous, inartificial, and wasteful manner. The
gold thus procured is brought to the nearest mint, where
the crown’s fifths are deducted, and the rest refined and
melted. The deliverer may either have his gold in the
form of an ingot with the public stamp, or he may have a
receipt for it, which entitles him to receive the amount
from any mint in Brazil. This business gives employ¬
ment to the great bulk of the population in Minas Geraes,
in Matto Grosso, and in Goyaz. The amount of metal
obtained we have no means of ascertaining with any de¬
gree of exactness. Minas alone, it has been calculated,
yields, in the form of royal fifths, no less than 150 arrobas.
The annual produce of Matto Grosso has been estimated
at twenty arrobas. When the fifths were first imposed (in
1753) in Goyaz, they yielded annually a sum of L.67,155;
but since that period the quantity of gold obtained has
been gradually diminishing.
The iron of Brazil has hitherto been almost entirely ne¬
glected, although no country is richer in this invaluable
metal. In 1817-20 there were, as far as we have been
able to learn, only the following iron-works in the empire :
1, That of Ypanema, in the province of S. Paulo. The
immense deposit of magnetic iron ore in this neigh¬
bourhood was long worked in an unsatisfactory manner.
In 1810 a company of Swedish miners and founders
settled there, and erected two small refining furnaces.
In 1807 they produced yearly 4000 arrobas of iron, which
was manufactured on the spot into horses’ shoes, nails,
locks, and other articles. A larger establishment, with
two smelting and several refining furnaces, and bellows
moved by water, had been built at that time, but was
waiting for workmen from Germany. Nothing more
has been learned of its fate. 2. To the north-west of
Antonio Pereira, near the centre of Minas, Eschwege
erected a small iron foundery in 1816, and intrusted the
Iron foun-
deries.
management of it to a German overseer. The daily pro- Static
duce was in 1818 two arrobas. It was worked up on the ^
spot into hatchets, knives, bill-hooks, horse-shoes, and
nails. 3. At Caspar Soares, in the same province, a foun¬
dery on a large scale was erected in 1812 at the king s ex¬
pense. ‘ It consisted of one smelting and two refining fur¬
naces. The first mentioned had never been used, and the
other two were lying idle when visited by Spix and Mar-
tius. The ore is excellent, and a canal might be dug at
comparatively little expense, to the navigable portion of
the Rio Doce. There were several furnaces in the pro¬
vince belonging to private individuals, and a considerable
quantity of iron was brought from Rio, but still the supply
was deficient.
The most important salt country in Brazil commences Salt r;
at the Rio de Salitre, a tributary of the Rio de S. Fran¬
cisco, about six leagues from Joazeiro. At this place an
artificial hollow extends along the river for the space of
60,000 square feet, and a fine, soft, ochre-coloui ed eaith
forms the bottom of the trough. The annual floods melt
the saline particles contained in this mould ; and when the
river falls, a salt pool is left. The heat of the sun then eva¬
porates the water, and the surface is left covered with hollow
quadrangular pyramids of the salt. Ihe soil is of a similar
conformation along the bed of the S. Francisco for an extent
of nearly two degrees of longitude, and everywhere nearly
thirty leagues in breadth. Hollows, such as we have de¬
scribed, natural or artificial, are scattered over the whole
extent. These are the salt-mines of the country. The
greater number belong to the wealthy landholders on the
Rio de S. Francisco ; but many, especially on the western
side, are yet unappropriated, and may be worked by any
one. At certain seasons this district is visited by im¬
mense multitudes, some coming from very great distances.
The earth is dug up to the depth of an inch, and deposit-
ed in wooden troughs; then water is poured upon it, which
absorbs the salt. The earth is allowed to subside, upon which
the water impregnated with salt is drawn off into another
trough, and left to crystallize in the heat of the sun. The
salt is packed in four-cornered bags of cow-hide, each con¬
taining from thirty to forty lbs. A plate of salt is valued
at from twenty to forty rees; a sack at from 3G0 to 400.
The annual produce of the salines exceeds 35,000 sacks.
Salines nearly as productive are found at the sources of the
Paraguay, in Matto Grosso; and considerable quantities
of salt are manufactured on the shores of the northern
provinces. Between the salt district and the hills salt¬
petre occurs in great quantities. Fifteen leagues above
the Rio de Salitre, large caves are found in the limestone-
rock, filled with black earth, which sometimes contains
three fourths of its weight in saltpetre. 4 his is washed
out, and the water heated to a certain degree, in order that
it may deposit the culinary salt; the saltpetre is then left
to crystallize. A similar process is followed at Formigas,
near the source of the S. Francisco. , |
Ship-building is diligently pursued at more than one sta- op¬
tion along the coast. The port of S. Francisco is the mostun
southerly point at which the construction of vessels is car¬
ried on to any extent. Vessels of large size, and a number
of small craft for coasters, are built here. The demand for
ship-carpenters is always brisk. To the north of Bahia, on ac¬
count of the reef, the ships built are generally of a small ton-
nflcrp. T.nrnnipirns. Tfnnipnrn. and Villa do Conde, build VCS-
nage. Laranjeiras, Itapicuru, and Villa do Conde, build ves¬
sels capable of holding from 4000 to 8000 arrobas of lading.
Pernambuco fits out a great number of small craft, ihe
royal docks at Bahia are small, and few ships of war are
built there ; but such as are have the character of surpass¬
ing even the East Indian vessels in durability. Merchan
ships are for the most part built at Tapagipe, about a
league and a half to the north-east of the city. We have
BRAZIL.
200
s
V
W e
sties, no trust-worthy account of the probable amount of capital
invested in ship-building.
The whale-fishing is here in its appropriate place. The
fis y- stations of this fishery are S. Catharina, Itaparica, and
Bahia. It is only pursued in small boats near the shore.
The pans in which the blubber is boiled are small, and
heated by common stoves. The receivers are extreme¬
ly apt to collect dust and dirt of all kinds. Throughout
Brazil, not above 100 fish, great and small, are taken in
the course of a year. Each yields, on an average, from
fourteen to eighteen pipas (150 gallons English each)
of train oil; and the value of this oil, together with
the whalebone, may amount to L.150. On the islands
of the Solimoes (Upper Amazons) a considerable quan¬
tity of oil is yearly collected from the eggs of the turtle,
which are dug up, broken in the boats, and left till the light
oil separates and swims on the top. It is boiled and se¬
parated from the impurities, when it assumes the colour
and consistence of lard. This product is deposited in
earthen pots containing fifty or sixty pounds each. Of
these more than 8000 are yearly prepared on the Ama¬
zons. The Madeira yields 1000. The drying and salting
of fish is carried on to a considerable extent along the sea-
coast, on the Amazons, and upon a large lake near the
salines on the Rio de Francisco. A coarse kind of woollen
cloth for home consumption is manufactured at S. Paulo.
Hats are made at S. Joao d’el Rey. There is an establish¬
ment for the manufacture of arms in the towm of S. Paulo ;
a powder-mill in the neighbourhood of Rio, and one of less
importance in Minas. A coarse cotton cloth is woven in
Goyaz, Maranhao, and Sergippe d’el Rey, used to clothe
the slaves, or form bags for packing cotton. In S. Paulo,
Goyaz, and Para, tanning is carried on to a small extent.
Co oerce. Nothing serves better to convey a just notion of the
state of trade in a nation than a knowledge of the state
of its circulating medium, and the means of communi¬
cation between one place and another. The sums of
gold, annually paid into the Brazilian treasury under the
designation of fifths, might afford ample materials for a
metallic currency. The great quantities of bullion, how¬
ever, annually shipped for Europe, for the East Indian
and China trade, have counteracted the tendency of this
arrangement. The amount of metallic currency even
in Rio it has been found impossible to ascertain with
any degree of accuracy, the drains occurring at such irre¬
gular intervals. Interest has been known to rise at once
from twelve per cent., the average rate, to twenty or
even twenty-two per cent. In Minas, the proprietors of
the mines are in the habit of allowing their gold to re¬
main at the mint, and take a receipt in exchange, which
circulates freely through the whole of Brazil. The me¬
tallic currency in Minas Novas in 1818 did not amount to
80,000. At the salines on the Rio Francisco salt is used
as a medium of exchange. In the interior the primitive
mode of barter is still of frequent occurrence. Previous to
1808 a bank issuing notes was established in Rio by a com¬
pany of the wealthiest merchants and capitalists. As the
institution grew in wealth, it ventured to establish an insu¬
rance company, and to farm several of the regalia. Officers
of state in the different provinces now began to deposit a
part of their salaries in the bank, and rich landed proprie*-
tors their monied capital. In 1808 the bank was erected
y royal charter into the bank of Brazil. Since that time
it has taken the active share in financial arrangements,
to which we have already alluded. The sums of money
^ ®tracte(l by the king when he quitted the country in
1, and several underhand transactions, are believed to
ave materially shattered the funds of the bank ; its notes
nevertheless retain their credit, and circulate in every
province of Brazil.
vol. v.
The intercourse between place and place in Brazil is ef- Statistics,
fected in three different manners ; along the coast by small
coasting craft, drawing about ten feet of water; on the
rivers by boats manned on ^n average with twelve rowers
and a steersman, besides the supercargo; towards the em¬
bouchures of the rivers larger vessels are in use ; on the dry
land, along roads, or rather tracks, by means of troops of
mules, for, except in Rio and the immediate vicinity, there
are no wheel-carriages in Brazil. From Minas Novas to Rio
Janeiro there are twelve troops, each of forty mules, with
their negro attendants and guiding arriero, continually on
the road, engaged in carrying cotton, and bringing back
European produce in exchange. From S. Joao d’el Rey
there are four such troops annually; and from other places
the number is in proportion to the frequency of their in¬
tercourse. Merchants who do not choose to wait the ap¬
pointed period, and travellers of all kinds who carry bag¬
gage along with them, must form a troop more or less
numerous, according to their wants. The difficulty thus
thrown in the way of the transport of many articles of
commerce may easily be conceived. Even river carriage,
on account of the numerous falls on most of the streams,
is scarcely more convenient.
Brazil being as yet a young country, dependent for most
necessaries of manufacturing produce, and for all the
luxuries of civilized life, upon other countries, the tenden¬
cy of its internal trade is in a great measure determined
by its foreign commerce. The ports, which, from favour¬
able situation, convenience, and the quantity of capital
accumulated in their neighbourhood, monopolize in a great
measure the external trade of Brazil, are Rio Janeiro,
Bahia, Recife the capital of Pernambuco, Maranhao, and
Para.
Rio Janeiro, in addition to its own produce, draws its
articles of consumpt and export from the southern pro¬
vinces of Rio Grande, S. Catharina, and S. Paulo, from Mi¬
nas Geraes, and from Porto Seguro. The raw produce of
the former, wheat, hides (an annual average of 300,000),
unrefined tallow, horns, horse-hair, and charque or jerked
beef, are imported coastwise, giving employment to a hun¬
dred sail of coasters, which make the voyage thrice in the
year, and carry in return rum, sugar, tobacco, cotton, and
European goods of all descriptions, particularly English.
The produce of S. Catharina, exclusively agricultural,
has been enumerated above. Two thirds of the whole
are exported, chiefly to Rio Janeiro. This trade gave
employment in 1812 to 152 vessels, three-masters, brigs,
smacks, &c. In 1813 the value of the goods exported
from the province of S. Paulo was L.166,735. Of these,
to the value of upwards of L.134,000 found their way by
land-carriage to Rio Janeiro. The returns from that city
in wine, beer, iron and hardware, glass and stoneware,
tea, &c. were valued at L.161,670. The'cotton trade
from Minas Novas to Rio Janeiro gives constant employ¬
ment to twelve troops of mules, each mule carrying-eight
arrobas, valued at L.l. 15s. the arroba. Great numbers
of precious stones are exported from Minas Novas to Rio.
The greater part of the gold melted in Minas Geraes finds
its way to Rio: the exact sum cannot be ascertained, but
merchants trading to the East Indies have been known
to export bullion to the value of L.800,000 in one year.
S. Joao d’el Rey (still within Minas Geraes) supplies Rio
with mules, cattle, poultry, gold, lard, cheese, hats, and
some cotton cloth, and receives in return woollen and
cotton cloths from England and Portugal, hardware, wine,
porter, &c. From Porto Seguro, Rio draws tobacco and
fish, but to what amount we have no means of ascertain¬
ing. The following table shows the amount and value
of the most important articles exported from Rio Janeiro
in 1817.
2 D
210
brazil.
Statistics.
Articles.
Sugar....
Coffee....
Cotton...
Hides....
Tobacco.
Quantity.
680,000 arrob.
298,999 arrob.
520,000 arrob.
112,000
30,000 quint.
Value.
L.340,000
171,900
640,000
153,500
45,000
Besides these weightier articles, Rio de Janeiro exports
considerable quantities of horns, horse-hair, and hides,
train-oil, ipecacuanha, and dye-woods. 1 he value of these
minor articles may amount, one year with another, to
L.400,000. The returns from Portugal and her colonies
are made in wine, oil, vinegar, dried fish, hams, olives,
brandy, leather, drugs, cloths, books, musical instruments,
paper, gun-powder, earthenware, ropes, canvass, tar, pitcn,
steel, and shoes. Those from London Liverpool, and the
British colonies, consist of cotton and fine woollen cloths,
porcelain and earthenware, iron, lead, copper, tin, anchors,
cables, gun-powder, porter, cheese, salt-butter, and spi¬
rituous liquors. East India goods are imported direct or
from Gibraltar. France sends articles of elegance and
luxury, furniture, silks, books, liqueurs, paintings, mirrors,
hats, oil, &c. Holland sends beer, glass, linen, and hol-
lands; North America grain, soap, spermaceti candles,
biscuit, tar, leather, deals, potash, and coarse furniture.
The northern nations of Europe send their staple wares.
From Africa are imported gold dust, ivory, pepper, ebony,
and slaves, the latter at an yearly average of upwards ot
20,000. We have been unable to obtain exact lists ot these
returns; but their variety, and the value of the exports,
indicate sufficiently the state of the foreign trade ot Rio.
Bahia, as a depot of home productions for the foreign
trade, is perhaps of yet greater importance than Rio Ja¬
neiro. Three great roads lead to the interior; that over
Conquista and Rio Pardo to Minas Geraes, that across
the Rio de Contas to Matto Grosso and Goyaz, and that
through Joazeiro to the interior of Pernambuco and Piau“
hy. By the first come the cattle from Rio Grande do Sul;
raw produce and live stock from S. Paulo to the value of
L.6090; live stock, saltpetre, a small sum of gold, and cot¬
ton equal in quantity to that carried to Rio de Janeiro, from
Minas Geraes. By the second come gold and precious
stones from Goyaz and Matto Grosso, but to what amount
we are unable to say. The latter province sends in ad¬
dition deals, hides raw and tanned, brandy, mandiocca,
lard, and live stock, to the value ot L.9000 per annum.
From Pernambuco and Piauhy the imports consist of cot¬
ton and cattle. The animal food consumed in Bahia, or
exported, is collected from the interior of Brazil, in a cii-
cuit extending from Rio Grande do Sul to Piauhy. Cot¬
ton is imported from a narrower range, including Minas,
Pernambuco, and Piauhy. The returns are made in ne¬
groes, wine, and foreign merchandise. The products of
the coast are brought in boats to Bahia from a distance of
thirty leagues on either side. The foreign trade is in
some measure worthy the centre of such an immense dis¬
trict. In 1817, 2000 trading vessels visited Bahia, de¬
ducting coasters. The following table shows the princi¬
pal exports in 1817, and their value.
Articles.
Sugar 
Cotton 
Tobacco, first quality.,
second 
third 
Hides 
Coffee 
Quantity.
1,200,000 arr.
160,460 arr.
240,000 arr.
340,000 arr.
80,000 arr.
30,000
10,000 arr.
Value.
L.600,000
392,920
90,000
59,500
28.000
8,000
13,750
The returns are essentially the same as at Rio. The Statistic;
proportion of European, North American, and African
articles is greater; that of East Indian less. On an ave-
ra°-e, 12,000 negro slaves are annually imported into Bahia.
Vecife has been styled by some the most important
trading place in Brazif after Rio and Bahia; unfortunate¬
ly our mformation respecting its trade is too meagre to
enable us to judge. Of its home trade, we merely know
that it is furnished with salt from the salines of Rio de
Salitre, and that from its port is exported the cotton of
Paraiba, Rio Grande de Norte, and Seara, in addition to
that of Pernambuco. The average number of ships em¬
ployed in the trade to North America and Europe is 150.
The exports consist of cotton, sugar, molasses, rum, hides
of goats and oxen, tobacco, cocoa-nuts, ipecacuanha, dye-
woods, and Brazil-wood. The amount of cotton annually
exported is 80,000 bags. The sugar of Pernambuco is
nearly equal in quality to that of Bahia.
Respecting the intercourse between this city and the Mann.,
interior, or the less important towns on the coast, we have
no means of judging. It appears that a brisk intercourse
is kept up by means of small-craft (Sumacas e Lanchas
de Cabotagem) with the harbours Yianna, Guimaraes, Tury-
assu, and Tutaia, within the province. Cotton is the
staple of Maranhao; and Cachias, m the interior, is the
centre of the cotton cultivation. The medium annual value
of the exports from Maranhao between 1815 and 1820
amounted to L.77 0,151; of imports to L.710,29o. In 1821
the value of the total exports amounted only to L.321,1H-
The most important articles were cotton to the value of
L.239,654, and rice to the value of L.54,191. The
whole was exported to Lisbon, Porte, \ianna, Figuei-
ras, Liverpool, Havre de Grace, Rouen, and the Lnit-
ed States of North America. Liverpool’s share of the
cotton alone is valued at L.150,165. The imports for the
same year are valued at L.333,153. The principal article
is flour, 54,793 arrobas from North America, 17,048 from
Liverpool, and 9318 from different ports in Brazil. In
the course of the year 200 foreign vessels entered the
port, and 192 cleared out; 161 Brazilian vessels entered,
and 157 cleared out. These numbers are exclusive of the
small coasting vessels sailing from harbours within the
province.
Para boasts of a greater variety of articles of export
than any other city of Brazil, and with justice, for it
reckons no less than forty. These are, in addition to
what is called colonial produce, balsam of capaiva, sarsa¬
parilla, Indian rubber, a variety of spices, and timber of
different kinds. Of late horses have been added to the list,
which are exported to the English colonies. The above
articles, however, are the collective wealth of the Spanish
provinces on the Upper Amazons, of the Rio Negro, and
of the provinces of Goyaz and Matto Grosso. Para being
the only harbour possessed by the country which is watered
by the Amazons and its tributaries, it receives its super¬
fluities, and sends the conveniences of Europe in return.
In 1819 the value of the goods exported to Portugal "as
L.l 13,179, of those imported in return L.74,776. In the
same year goods were exported to England to the value of
L.73,871, and imported thence to the amount of L.76,660.
Brazilian Weights: 1 arroba — 32£ lbs. English; 1
quintal — 129L lbs.English.—Measures, Dry: 1 alqueire =
y bush. English; 1 maio — 17^- bush.English. Liquid:
1 Canada — 2 galls. English ; 1 pipa = 120 galls. Eng¬
lish. Longitudinal: 5 varas — 6 yds. English ; 27 co\a-
das zr 20 yds. English. .
Southey’s History of Brazil, 3 vols. 4to; Travels of Sptx
and Martins in Brazil, 3 vols. 4to; Mawe’s Travels in
Brazil, 1 vol. 8vo; Henderson’s History of Brazil, 1 vol.
4to ; Memoirs of General Miller, 2 vols. 8vo ; Malte-Brun,
B R E
B R E 211
Bi Hi?
tfiU-
f t.
BRAZING, the soldering or joining two pieces of iron
together by means of thin plates of brass, melted between
the pieces that are to be joined. If the woi;k be very fine,
as when two leaves of a broken saw are to be brazed to¬
gether, it is covered with pulverized borax, melted with
water, that it may incorporate with the brass powder,
which is added to it; then the piece is exposed to the fire
without touching the coals, and heated till the brass is
seen to run.
Brazing is also the joining of two pieces of iron toge¬
ther by beating them hot, the one upon the other.
BRAZLAW, a town, the capital of the circle of the
same name, in the Russian government of Podolia. It
stands on the river Bug, in a very fertile district, and con¬
tains about 1200 inhabitants. Long. 28. 51. E. Lat. 48.
52. N.
BREACH, in a general sense, denotes a break or rup¬
ture in some part of a fence or inclosure, whether owing
to time or violence. Inundations or overflowings of lands
are frequently owing to breaches in dikes or sea banks.
Dagenham breach is famous ; it was made in 1707, by a
failure of the Thames wall in a very high tide. The force
with which it burst in upon the neighbouring level tore
up a large channel or passage for water a hundred yards
wide, and in some places twenty feet deep, by which a
multitude of subterraneous trees that had been buried
many ages before were laid bare.
Breach, in Fortification, is a gap or opening made in
any part of the works of a fortress by the cannon or
mines of the besiegers, with a view to an assault upon the
place. To render the attack more difficult, the besieged
sow the breach with crow-feet, stop it up with chevaux de
frise, or retrench it by cutting traverses within. A prac¬
ticable breach is that where men may mount and effect a
I , lodgment, and it ought to be fifteen or twenty fathoms
wide. The besiegers sometimes make their way to it by
covering themselves with gabions, earth-bags, and the like;
but in our army the practice has always been for storm¬
ing parties to advance to the breach without any cover
or protection, and to trust for success to their own daring
and perseverance.
BREAD, a mass of dough kneaded and baked in an
oven. See Baking.
Bread, Assize of. See Baking.
Bread-Fruit. Among the more valuable products of
the warmer climates and the fertile islands of the South¬
ern Pacific Ocean, is to be ranked the bread-fruit, or Arto-
carpus incisa of botanists. Nature has favoured the tro¬
pical regions, and those countries in their vicinity, with
inexhaustible quantities of the choicest vegetables, while,
the inhabitants of the north are restricted to shrivelled
berries and meagre roots; and if they have obtained a
supply, always precarious, of some of the finer fruits, it is
the result of patience, skill, and industry.
. of Ever since Europeans frequented the eastern world in
v ^er c°" commercial enterprise, it is probable that they were ac-
[i quainted with the bread-fruit. How, indeed, could its
properties be unknown to Quiros, who visited Otaheite so
long ago as the year 1606 ? Yet the English navigator
Dampier seems to have been the first European whose no¬
tice was particularly directed towards it, during his circum-
; navigation in the year 1688 ; and he expresses himself in
these words: “ The bread-fruit, as we call it, grows on a
> large tree, as big and high as our largest apple trees. It
;■ hath a spreading head, full of branches and dark leaves.
The fruit grows on the boughs like apples ; it is as big as
a penny-loaf when the wheat is at five shillings the bushel.
It is of a round shape, and hath a thick tough rind.
When the fruit is ripe it is yellow and soft, and the taste
is sweet and pleasant. The natives of Guam use it for
bread. They gather it, when full grown, while it is green Breatl-
and hard ; then they bake it in an oven, which scorcheth iruit-
the rind, and makes it black ; but they scrape off the out-
side black crust, and there remains a tender thin crust;
and the inside is soft, tender, and white, like the crumbs
of a penny loaf. There is neither seed nor stone in the
inside, but all of a firm substance like bread. It must
be eaten new, for if it be kept above twenty-four hours it
becomes dry and eats harsh and choky; but it is very
pleasant before it is too stale. This fruit lasts in season
eight months in the year, during which time the natives
eat no other sort of food of bread kind. I did never see
of this fruit any where but here (Guam). The natives
told us that there is plenty of this fruit growing on the
rest of the Ladrone Islands, and I did never hear of it
anywhere else.” The bread-fruit, however, is found in
still greater profusion, and in equal perfection, on many
of the groups of islands scattered throughout the Southern
Pacific Ocean ; nor is it confined to them exclusively, but
their soil and climate seem to correspond more intimately
with the conditions of its vegetation.
There are two leading species of this plant, which are Different
characterized by the presence or absence of seeds; the species,
latter being the preferable kind, and that which is culti¬
vated more carefully for its produce. The natives of the
South Sea Islands maintain, however, that eight different
species, or rather varieties, may be distinguished, and for
which they have the respective names of Patteah, Eroroo,
Awanna, Mi-re, Oree, Powerro, Appeere, Rowdeah. The
leaf of the first, fourth, and eighth, differs from that of
the rest; the fourth being more sinuated, and the eighth
having a large broad leaf, not at all sinuated. In the
first, also, the fruit is rather larger, and of a more ob¬
long form, while in the last it is round, and not above half
the size of the others. European observers, however, do
not seem in general disposed to recognise these as essen¬
tial distinctions, although they admit other varieties.
As Dampier observes, the bread-fruit is a large tree,
growing to the height of forty feet or more. It is thick in
the stem, and has a luxuriant foliage. The trunk is up¬
right, the wood soft, smooth, and yellowish ; and wherever
the tree is wounded, a glutinous fluid exudes. The
branches form an ample head, almost globular ; the leaves
are eighteen inches long and eleven broad, resembling
those of the oak or the fig tree, from their deep sinuosi¬
ties. The younger leaves, like all the more tender plants
of the tree, are glutinous to the touch. The male flowers
are among the upper leaves, and the female flowers at the
ends of the twigs. But it is the fruit which constitutes
the value of the plant, and this is a very large berry, ac¬
cording to botanists, with a reticulated surface, resembling
a cocoa-nut or melon in size and form, nine inches in
length. It is filled with a white farinaceous fibrous pulp,
which becomes juicy and yellow when the fruit is ripe;
and the edible portion lies between the skin, which is
green, and a core in the centre, which is about an inch in
diameter.
During a considerable portion of the year the bread-Used as
fruit affords the chief sustenance of the Society Islanders. f°0d a
It is prepared after different fashions, and its taste de-S^at ex*
pends in a great measure on the mode of preparation. It
is insipid, slightly sweet, somewhat resembling wheaten
bread mixed with Jerusalem artichokes, and it has been
compared to a cake made of flour, egg, sugar, milk, and
butter. In general it is cut in several pieces, and roasted
or baked in a hole made in the ground, which is paved
round with large smooth stones ; and then it resembles a
boiled potato, not being so farinaceous as a good one,
but more so than one of ordinary quality. The stones
are previously heated by a fire kindled in the excavation,
212
BREA D-F R U I T.
Bread¬
fruit.
Its other
uses.
Its culti¬
vation.
and the bread-fruit, being wrapped in a banana leaf, iS laid
upon them, and covered with leaves and hot stones. In
Otaheite, and in the West Indian Islands, several dishes
are made of it, either by thus baking it in an oven entire,
when it is considered to equal or surpass any kind of brea ,
by adding water or the milk of the cocoa nut, by h°il-
ing it, or forming it into a paste. I his last is accomplish¬
ed by taking the fruit before it attains complete maturity,
and laying it in heaps, closely covered up with leaves,
when it undergoes fermentation, and becomes disagreeably
sweet. The core being then drawn out, the fruit or pulp is
thrown into a paved excavation, and the whole covered
up with leaves, whereon heavy stones are laid: it thus
undergoes a second fermentation, and becomes sour, after
which it will suffer no change for a long time. A leaven
may thus be formed of it, which is baked as occasion re¬
quires. In the island of Nukahiwa, an agreeable beve¬
rage can be obtained from it; and in the West Indies it
can be baked like biscuit, and will keep nearly as long.
The fruit is in the greatest perfection about a week before
beginning to ripen, which is easily recognised by the skin
changing to a brownish cast, and by small granulations
formed of the juice. In the West Indies it is soft and
yellow when ripe, and is in taste and smell like a very ripe
melon.. Hogs, dogs, and poultry then feed on it readily.
Besides this, the bread-fruit tree proper, there is one
that has been long known in India and the eastern islands,
of which the fruit contains from forty to a hundred fari¬
naceous seeds, in appearance resembling chestnuts. These
when roasted or boiled are more grateful to many per¬
sons than the bread-fruit, and the negroes are very fond
»of them. The external characters of the tree are scarce¬
ly to be distinguished from those of the other, and the
chief distinction lies in the fruit, which attains nearly the
size of that we have described, and is covered with prickles
like a hedgehog. It grows from the seed with rapid ve¬
getation, and attains larger dimensions than the proper
bread-fruit tree.
The natives of those islands producing this useful vege¬
table collect it with very little trouble ; they have only to
climb the tree and gather the fruit. Nor is nutriment the
sole purpose to which it is converted ; for they have a me¬
thod of fabricating cloth from the bark, the leaves are sub¬
stituted for towels, and the wood is employed in the con¬
struction of their boats and houses. A kind of cement
and birdlime is also prepared by boiling the juice exuding
from the bark in cocoa-nut oil.
It appears that there are other vegetables of this class,
producing fruit of inferior quality, but on that account re¬
ceiving less attention. The bread-fruit proper is of easy
cultivation in its native soil. In some of the islands it
seems an indigenous product, and springs from the root of
old trees without any care ; in others, it requires simply to
be put into the earth. The trees flourish with the great¬
est luxuriance on rising grounds; and it has been remark¬
ed, that where the hills of the Sandwich Islands rise al¬
most perpendicularly in a great variety of peaks, their
steep declivities, and the deep valleys intervening, are
covered with trees, among which the bread-fruit is parti-
ciflarly abundant. It has also been observed, that although
we are accustomed to consider Otaheite as of the great¬
est fertility in this plant, the trees of the Sandwich Islands
produce double the quantity of fruit. Though nearly of
the same height, the branches begin to shoot out much
lower from the trunk, and with greater luxuriance. In
Otaheite, they are propagated by suckers from the root,
which are best transplanted in wet weather, when the
earth forms balls around them; then they are not liable
to suffer from removal. This valuable plant is widely dif¬
fused in the southern and eastern isles, and it is generally
found throughout the Great Pacific Ocean. It grows on Bread..
Amboyna, the Banda Islands, Timor, and the Ladrones; but fruit,
it is more especially the object of care and cultivation in the
Marquesas, and the Friendly and Society Islands, where
it vegetates in uncommon luxuriance and profusion.
The great utility of the bread-fruit as an article of sub-Attemp .
sistence for mankind has, at different times, led to specu-t(j trans
lations on the possibility of naturalizing it in places where;
it is not of spontaneous growth. M. de Poive, the philo-
sophic governor of the Mauritius, succeeded in introdu¬
cing it there, and in the Isle of Bourbon, whither it was .
conveyed by M. de Sonnerat, from Lu9on, in the Philip,
pine Islands. Being found in the greatest luxuriance under
the same latitudes as the British West India Islands, and
in a climate not dissimilar, government deemed the trans¬
mission of it thither, both as practicable without much
difficulty, and as promising a future store of subsistence
for the inhabitants. An expedition was therefore fitted
out with particular care, under the command of Captain,
then Lieutenant Bligh, who sailed in the Bounty store-
ship for the South Seas in December 1787. This vessel
was prepared so as to receive a great many bread-fruit and
other plants, which would have proved a valuable acquisi¬
tion to the colonists of the West Indies, and some of which
were expected to succeed under the culture of the curious
in Great Britain. The Bounty arrived in safety at Ota¬
heite, the principal place of her destination, and took on
board 1015 bread-fruit plants, besides a great variety of
different species of other plants, and after remaining twenty-
three weeks, which were busily occupied, set sail on the
4th of April 1789. But it is unnecessary to say more of
the expedition, except that it was rendered totally abortive
by a mutiny which ensued three weeks subsequently to its
departure. The captain and eighteen adherents were bar¬
barously turned adrift in an open boat, wherein they suffered
incredible hardships, and, after a navigation of 3600 miles,
reached the island of Timor, having lost only one of their
number, who was murdered by the savages of an inter¬
mediate island. Notwithstanding the unfortunate result of
this voyage, the object was still kept in view, and a new
expedition planned with still greater precaution than the
former; and it has been said that his late majesty, King
George III. took a lively interest in conferring so import-!
ant a benefit on a distant portion of his people. Captain
Bligh having arrived in England, was appointed to the
command of the Providence and Assistance, two vessels
specially fitted out as before; and part of their comple¬
ment consisted of two gardeners, to take the management
of the plants collected. The vessels sailed in August
1791, reached Van Diemen’s Land in February 1792,
and anchored at Otaheite in February following. Here
they remained above three months, and obtained even
a greater store of plants than formerly; for there were
now 1281 pots and tubs, whereas the first number of the
bread-fruit trees, in 1789, did not exceed 887. Captain
Bligh, in returning, made a dangerous voyage through
Endeavour Straits, the exploring of which was part of
his former instructions, and anchored at Coupang in the
island of Timor, where he substituted many other plants
for those that had died. He then sailed for the West
Indies, and touching at St Helena, landed some bread¬
fruit plants, and took on board those of different species.
The object of his voyage wras at length completed by
reaching the island of St Vincent’s in January D93,
where he committed 544 plants, of which 333 were bread¬
fruit, to the care of Dr Anderson, superintendent of the
botanical garden, and substituted for them 467 of different
species, designed for his majesty’s garden at Kew’. In
the next place, Captain Bligh landed 623 plants, of which
347 were bread-fruit, at Port Royal in the island of Ja*
»1
BREA D-F R U I T.
213
Res;
Oft 50
atte| its.
maica, and replaced them with a further collection for the
king, with which he arrived in England on the 2d of Au¬
gust 1793. Five years and eight months had thus been
occupied in accomplishing the desirable purpose of these
two expeditions. But it belonged especially to Britain,
by whom a familiar intercourse with the southern island¬
ers was first opened up, to effect an object of so much
importance.
Nevertheless, some have been fouod inclined to chal¬
lenge the wisdom of so difficult and expensive an experi¬
ment ; both because the expectations of those who look¬
ed for an inexhaustible source of subsistence were not
speedily realized, and because the places best adapt¬
ed for its culture already possess another vegetable, the
plantain, which is much more grateful to the negroes, for
whom the bread-fruit was principally designed. It has
been argued that the bread-fruit tree requires consider¬
able care in cultivation, that its progress to maturity is slowq
though in Britain it would appear extremely rapid. Three
years are required to reap the fruit; the plantain demands
no care, while it produces its crop in fifteen months ; thus
giving it a decided preference in the opinion of the colo¬
nist, who is always impatient for a return. Further, it has
been said, that wherever any vegetable, already relished
by the inhabitants of a district, is completely established,
they will always reject what they think less agreeable.
These arguments have certainly had considerable weight;
probably, however, from not duly appreciating the diffi¬
culties attendant on such an experiment as the naturali¬
zation of plants. But were we to take a retrospect of all
the obstacles which have opposed the cultivation of many
species of grain and fruits, at present not uncommon in
Britain, it would be very evident that success has result¬
ed only from the most patient and laborious attention.
Positive conclusions on this subject are perhaps as yet
premature.
In the year 1777 a premium was offered by the Society
for the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures, to any
individuals who should bring the bread-fruit plant from
the South Sea Islands in a state of vegetation to the West
Indies, and the gold medal was awarded, in 1793, to Cap¬
tain Bligh accordingly. That society, with the laudable
design of promoting its culture, continued to offer further
premiums for the greatest number of plants raised in the
British settlements; and in consequence a silver medal
was awarded to Dr Anderson, superintendent of the bo¬
tanical garden at St Vincents in 1798; and, in 1802, the
gold medal to the Honourable Joseph Robley, governor of
the island of Tobago. From the course adopted by these
two cultivators, the history of the bread-fruit has receiv¬
ed much elucidation, and we shall comprise it in a few
observations.
Mr Robley received three plants from Dr Anderson in
June 1793, which he planted in very deep rich soil, and
paid them every attention in hopes of procuring shoots.
They flourished exceedingly, produced fruit in 1795, and
continued to do so until autumn 1801, after which we
have no notices respecting them. Being disappointed of
obtaining suckers, Mr Robley applied to Dr Anderson,
who advised him to lay bare some of the uppermost roots,
and to wound them very deeply; and having followed
these directions in October 1800, they almost immediate-
7 began to put forth shoots in abundance. In December,
20 fine plants were thus obtained, which Mr Robley
p aced in baskets containing about a gallon of good rich
oose soil, and deposited in the shade in the vicinity
o water. With this element also they were refreshed
w en the weather required it. Baskets were preferred to
pots for the plants, from being lighter and more easily re¬
moved; likewise, because when deposited in the place
where they were ultimately to remain, the baskets would Bread-
speedily rot, and not repress the growth of the plant, fruit,
which would then extend its roots. European cultivators
would do well to attend to the beneficial use of baskets;
for it too often happens that a tender plant is wounded in
removing it from a pot, or that the earth surrounding it is
so deranged and displaced, that no subsequent care can
preserve it from destruction. Encouraged by the success¬
ful issue of these previous experiments, Mr Robley pre¬
pared a point of land of loose sandy soil, bounded by a
salt lagoon and the sea, for receiving a large plantation.
When the tide filled, brackish water was to be found
everywhere at the depth of two feet and a half from the
surface; but it had been observed in some of the South
Sea Islands, that bread-fruit trees grew in full vigour
though brackish water bathed their roots, and the point
was otherwise defended from the encroachments of the
sea by an artificial bank. The land being ploughed and
harrowed twice, was divided into beds stretching across
from the sea to the lagoon; the beds were twenty-seven
feet in breadth, and the plants put into the earth in the
middle of each, and exactly at the distance of twenty-
seven feet asunder; thus leaving a large space for their
vegetation. Mr Robley’s expectations were not disap¬
pointed. In August 1801 he had 153 plants in a flourish¬
ing condition; and, prosecuting the object still further,
he had, in the course of the subsequent year, 371 on the
point of land, of which no less than 319 plants were in a
flourishing, and some of them in a productive state. He
transmitted specimens of the fruit to England preserved
in vinegar, as it will not keep above two days after being
taken from the tree ; as also of the dried leaves and bios- *
som. Other correspondents, nearly about the same time,
sent specimens of cakes made from the bread-fruit con¬
verted into flour, which were extremely well flavoured; and
it seemed that a dry nutritious food, resembling tapioca
in appearance and quality, might be prepared from it.
The vegetation of this plant is very rapid. Ten of those
committed to the care of Dr Anderson in 1793 were
about two feet in height and half an inch in diameter ; and
he observed, that, in the year 1798, most of the trees in the
botanical garden at St Vincents were above thirty feet in
height, and the stem two feet above the ground was from
three feet to three and a half in circumference. From
the remarks he was enabled to make in this interval on
the varieties of the tree in the botanical garden, it appear¬
ed that the fruit came out in succession during the great¬
er part of the year, but less of it between November and
March than at any other time. The number produced
by a single tree was very great, being often in clusters of
five and six, and bending the lower branches to the ground.
According to the different varieties, the fruit was of vari¬
ous shapes and sizes, weighing from four to ten pounds,
some smooth, others rough and tuberculated. When taken
from the tree before maturity, the juice appeared of the
consistence and colour of milk, and in taste somewhat simi¬
lar. It issued for above ten minutes in an uninterrupted
stream, and thickened into a glutinous and adhesive sub¬
stance. Three months were required to bring the fruit
to perfection, which, as above remarked, is about a wee*k
before it begins to ripen. Besides the Otaheitan bread¬
fruit, Captain Bligh left some of the East India bread-fruit
in the botanical garden. But this proved of infinitely in¬
ferior quality, and a very indifferent substitute for it. It
was ill-shaped, of a soft pulpy substance, and, like the
other, wanting seeds, and propagating itself by suckers
springing from the root.
A species of fruit bearing considerable analogy to those
above described, is found on the Nicobar Islands, but we
are unacquainted with the degree of attention it has re-
214
B R E
B R E
Islands.
Bread, ceived, either for the purpose of illustrating its natura
fruit, history, or for economical uses. It is not less beneticia ,
however, to the natives. The tree producing this truit
Bread; , veeetates promiscuously with others in the woods, but
fruit of the a humid soi]. Its trunk is straight, thirty or thirty-
five feet in height, and from ten inches to two feet in
circumference. The roots spring from it above the sur¬
face, and do not penetrate deep into the earth, ihe
leaves are disposed like the large calyx of a flower; they
are three feet long and four inches broad, of a dark green
hue and tenacious substance. A long time elapses before
the tree produces fruit, not less than about the period o
human life. It then forms at the bottom of the leaves,
from which it proceeds as it is enlarged, and, when near¬
ly ripe, its colour changes from green to yellowish.. Ibis
is the proper period for gathering it, when its weight is
between thirty and forty pounds. The exterior surface is
cut off, and the fruit is boiled in earthen pots covered
with leaves, during several hours, on a slow five; when,
becoming soft and friable, the preparation is sufficient, and
the fruit is then exposed to the air, and is next formed
into a mass not unlike maize either in taste or colour. It
may be preserved for a long time, but exposure, to the
atmosphere occasions acidity. The plant producing this
fruit, however, is not of the same genus as those above
described, although its fruit is converted to similar uses,
but is rather a kind of palm, which it might be useful to
naturalize in the eastern possessions of Britain, (n. n.) .
Bread, Sacramental, in the Protestant churches, is
common leavened bread, in conformity to the ancient prac¬
tice. In the Roman Catholic mass, azymous or unleavened
bread is used, particularly in the Gallican church, where
a sort is provided for this purpose, called pain d chanter.,
made of the purest wheaten flour pressed between two
iron plates graven like wafer-moulds, and rubbed with
white wax to prevent the paste from sticking. The
Greeks observe divers ceremonies in making the eucharist
bread. The Abyssinians have an apartment in their
churches allotted' for this service, being a kind of sacristy.
Sirmond, in his disquisition on azymous bread, shows,
from the council of Toledo, that anciently there were as
many ceremonies used in the Latin church in the prepa¬
ration of the unleavened bread as are still retained in the
eastern churches.
Ecclesiastical writers enumerate other species of bread
allotted for purposes of religion; as, first, Kalendarius,
that anciently offered to the priest at the kalends ; secondly,
Prebendarius, the same with capitularis, that distributed
daily to each prebendary or canon; thirdly, Benedictus,
that usually given to catechumens before baptism, instead
of the eucharist bread, which they were incapable of par¬
taking of. The panis benedictus was called also panagium
and eulogium, being a sort of bread blessed and consecrat¬
ed by the priest, by which the catechumens were prepared
for the reception of the body of Christ. Ihe same was
used afterwards, not only by catechumens, but by believ¬
ers themselves, as a token of their mutual communion and
friendship. Its origin is dated from the seventh century,
at the council at Nantes. In the Gallican church we still
find panis benedictus, pain benit, used for that offered for
benediction, and afterwards distributed to pious persons
who attend divine service in chapels. Fourthly, Consecrat¬
ed bread is a piece of wax, paste, or even earth, over
which several ceremonies have been performed with bene¬
dictions and other rites, to be sent in an Agnus Dei or
relic-box, and presented for veneration. Fifthly, with re¬
gard to unleavened bread, panis azymus, the Jews eat no
other during their passover ; and exact search was made in
every house to see that no leavened bread had been left.
The usage was introduced in memory of their hasty de¬
parture from Egypt, when they had not leisure to bake Bread
leavened bread. Lastly, shew-bread was that offered to bair
God every Sabbath-day, being placed on the golden table
in the holy of holies. .
BREADALBANE, or Braidalbin, a district of Scot-
land, in the western part of Perthshire, about thirty-three r
miles in length by thirty-one in breadth. It is mountain¬
ous, and for the most part unproductive. The hills, how¬
ever, afford pasture for large flocks of sheep, and some of
the valleys are cultivated, though not extensively, whilst
others are nothing but mosses of peat and heath. At one
extremity lies Loch Lyon, from which the river Lyon
issues, and, flowing in a sinuous course, discharges itself
into the Tay. In the centre of the district lies Loch Tay,
which is about sixteen miles in length, and is surrounded
by natural scenery of great beauty and splendour. The
country abounds in limestone ; and several metals, such as
lead and copper, are also found. There is not a town in
the district, and the only villages worthy of mention are
Kenmore, Killin, and Clifton. It is now traversed by se¬
veral good roads. In addition to the avocations of agri¬
culture and the breeding of cattle, a part of the inhabi¬
tants during summer occupy themselves in collecting a
species of lichen from among the rocks, which is used by
dyers. The Earl of Breadalbane is the chief proprietor,
whose seat is Taymouth, near Kenmore.
BREAK, in a general sense, signifies to divide a thing
into several parts with violence. In the art of wrar, to
break ground is to open the trenches before a place. Among
sportsmen, to break a horse in trotting, is to make him light
upon the hand in trotting, in order to make him fit for a
gallop. To break a horse for hunting, is to supple him, to
make him take the habit of running.
BREAKERS, a name given by sailors to those billows
that break violently over rocks lying under the surface of
the sea. They are distinguished both by their appear¬
ance and sound, as they cover that part ot the sea with a
perpetual foam, and produce a hoarse and terrible i oaring,
very different from the sound which the waves usually
produce in a deeper bottom. When a ship is unhappily
driven among breakers, it is hardly possible to save her.
BREAKWATER is any obstruction of wood, stone, or
other material, as a boom or raft of wood, sunken vessels,
&c., placed before the entrance of a port or harbour, or
any projection from the land into the sea, as a pier, mole,
or jetty, so placed as to break the force of the waves, and
prevent their action on ships and vessels lying at anchor
within them. Thus the piers of the ancient Piraeus and
of Rhodes; the moles of Naples, Genoa, and Castellamare;
the piers of Ramsgate, Margate, Folkstone, Howth, and
the wooden dike de Richelieu, thrown across the port ot
Rochelle, may all be denominated Breakwaters. In l rench
it is sometimes called Battre d Eau ; a name which ap¬
pears to have been applied to the mole at Tangier, a work
commenced in 1763 under the direction of Lord Tiviot,
Sir J. Lawson, and Sir Hugh Cholmley, and finished, or
rather discontinued, in 1776, after having cost this nation
the sum of L.243,897. 5s. 4|d. The term Breakwater,
however, has of late years been considered as more pecu¬
liarly appropriate to large insulated dikes of1 stone, whether
of regular masonry or sunk promiscuously in rough masses,
so placed as to form an artificial island across the mout
of an open roadstead, and thereby, from obstructing an
breaking the waves of the sea, to convert a dangerous an¬
chorage into a safe and commodious harbour for the recep¬
tion of ships of war or merchantmen. _ .
Of this description of dike for creating an artificial har¬
bour on a grand scale, fit for the reception of ships of nar
of the largest class, there are two remarkable examples m
the breakwater of Cherbourg and that of Plymouth.
BREAKWATER.
215
ik-
of
orv.
Breakwater of Cherbourg. In M. de Cessart’s
Description des Travaux Hydrauliques, will be found a
very minute and laborious detail of all the preparatory
operations, the progress, and the expense of constructing
the breakwater of Cherbourg, up to the period of the Re¬
volution. But the history of this great undertaking is
summarily stated in a report made to the National Assem¬
bly in 1791, by M. de Curt, in the name of its Committee
of Marine, concerning the marine establishment of Cher¬
bourg.
It had always been a source of considerable annoyance
to the French (and more particularly since the demolition
of the works and basin of Dunkirk, which cost them more
regret than the useless and expensive projects for that port
ever could be worth), that while the whole line of their
coast bordering on the English channel presented only
sandy shores with shallow water, or an iron-bound coast
bristled with rocks, nature had lavished on their “ eternal
rival” of the opposite coast, the incalculable advantages of
a succession of deep and commodious harbours, or of safe
and extensive roadsteads, inviting their possessors to com¬
merce and navigation, and placing in their grasp “ the
sceptre and the sovereignty of the seas.” M. Curt ob¬
serves, that “ the misfortunes of La Hogue, which all the
talents of Tourville could not prevent, taught Louis XIV.
that, in completing the defence of his frontiers by land,
he had too much neglected his frontiers on the sea; that
this great prince, however, profiting by experience, soon
discovered that England owed the superiority of her ma¬
rine to the military establishments which she possessed
in the Channel.” With a view of securing to France simi¬
lar advantages, the Marechal de Vauban was directed to
visit the coasts of Normandy, for the purpose of adopting
measures for placing in security against hostile attacks all
such bays, harbours, and inlets, as were favourable for the
disembarkation of troops; and to furnish plans of such
works as he might judge to be necessary, not only for mi¬
litary, but for naval purposes. Among other projects, he
reported that the roadstead of Cherbourg possessed the
means of attack, of defence, and of protection ; that it was
very capable of exerting an influence on maritime war,
and in their commercial relations with the northern pow¬
ers ; that it was the spot on which the head-quarters
should be established on the coast of the Channel; and, in
short, that it was a central advanced post with regard to
England. He moreover reported, that it might be made
a port for the safe retreat of a squadron crippled by
stormy weather, or beaten by an enemy, or even for the
reception of a victorious fleet with its prizes. By thus
converting the present exposed roadstead of Cherbourg
into a safe and protected anchorage for a fleet of men of
war, France, he said, would be able to watch the motions
of England, to oblige her at all times to keep a corre¬
sponding fleet in the Channel, and to menace her shores
with invasion, of which she at all times stood so much in
dread.
Opinions, however, being divided between the advan¬
tages of La Hogue and Cherbourg, Louis XVI., imme¬
diately after the conclusion of the American war, issued
his directions to M. de Castries, secretary of state for the
marine, to appoint a special commission to consider and
report which of these two roadsteads combined the most
advantages, and was in all respects preferable for con¬
structing a port and naval arsenal capable of receiving and
equipping from eighty to one hundred vessels of war of
different descriptions. The commissioners had little he¬
sitation in deciding upon Cherbourg, because, by means
° a breakwater, it would be capable not only of admitting
a fleet to ride securely at anchor when thus sheltered from
tie sea, but also of affording them protection against any
attempt of an enemy. It was added, that Cherbourg was Break-
an admirable place for watching Portsmouth; without ap- water,
pearing to have once recollected what an excellent anchor-
age Spithead was for watching Cherbourg.
Directions were accordingly given to M. de Caux, com¬
manding officer of engineers at Cherbourg, to commence,
as a preparatory measure, with the construction of a fort
on the island of Pelee, and another on Du Hornet, ac¬
cording to plans given in by Vauban in 1679. By these
works the roadstead would be flanked on the right and
left. The interval, however, being found too great to af¬
ford sufficient protection to all the ships that might require
to be anchored in the roadstead, M. de Caux presented a
plan to the minister at war for constructing an intermedi¬
ate fort in the sea, which should be casemated, and suffi¬
ciently large to contain all the buildings necessary for a
garrison. The surrounding walls were proposed to be
sunk in caissons of 6000 feet square at the base, and fifty-
two feet in height. The top of the platform was to be
eighty feet above the bottom of the sea, and the area of its
surface 1000 square toises. This plan, however, was not
considered as calculated to afford sufficient shelter to a
fleet from the winds and weaves, and new projects were
called for by the government.
In 1777 M. de la Bretonniere, capitaine de vaisseau, one
of the commissioners who had been named to report on
the comparative merits of the two roadsteads of Cherbourg
and La Hogue, had addressed a memorial to the minister
of marine, in which he expatiated at great length on the
numerous advantages held out by the former, and parti¬
cularly with regard to the security of the anchorage. He
proposed to construct, at the distance of a league in the
sea, a stone dike of 2000 toises in length, leaving three
open passages into the roadstead it wras intending to cover,
one in the middle, and one at each extremity. This dike,
like that which was sunk before Rochelle, was proposed
to have as its nucleus a number of ships filled with ma¬
sonry, floated off and sunk in proper situations, and after¬
wards to be cased with large sunken stones to the height
of fifty feet above the bottom of the sea. The reason as¬
signed for sinking the stone vessels was the supposition,
that an under current might cause so much motion at the
bottom of the sea as wTould derange the level, and work
away the loose stones; so little appears at that time to
have been known of the increasing tranquillity of the waves
of the sea in proportion to the increasing depth of water.
On this plan the commissioners observed, 1. That in or¬
der to construct a dike of 2000 toises in length, with slop¬
ing sides proportioned to its height, there would be re¬
quired so great a number of old ships as could hardly be
collected in all France in less than ten years; and if pur¬
chased from foreigners, the expense would be enormous.
2. That the assemblingand employing the necessary number
of seamen w'ould be next to impossible, but, if possible,
highly impolitic, when, just at the close of a maritime war,
commerce felt a pressing want of their services; whereas
it might be practicable, and would be advantageous, to
employ the military for some time before disbanding them.
3. That no comparison would hold good between the road¬
stead of Cherbourg, with an opening to the sea of 3600
toises, and a depth of forty to forty-two feet of water at the
lowest ebb, and the closing up of the entrance of the port
of Rochelle, which is only 740 toises in length, and the
depth of water only five or six toises. 4. That the upper
part of the projected dike, being exposed to the violent
action of the sea, the stability of that part could not be
depended on; and besides, a dike covered at high spring-
tides with eighteen feet water would not fulfil the two in¬
dispensable conditions,—smooth water, and protection
against an enemy. These arguments were deemed con-
216
Break¬
water.
breakwater.
_ . „ , „oe, -u-ri. fnp-ether bv beams of wood pointing to the common cen- Breal
elusive, and the plan of M. de la Bretonmere < c g ^ the section 0f tiie radius. The frame of
doned.
In 1781 M. de Cessart, inspector-general of bridges and
embankments, received directions to prepare a plan that
should cover a fleet of from 80 to 100 ships of war in the
roadstead of Cherbourg from the attack of an enemy, and
protect them against the elements. M. de Cessart was
fully aware, that to raise a barrier in front of this roadstead,
and in the middle of the sea, capable of resisting the inl¬
and in Uie IIllUUlC U1 LWC    □ .
petuosity of the waves, and repelling the enterprises of
the enemy, was no easy task. “ Nothing, says he, ; that
J * -I .i ^ t i 1 r\ nr in nn-
tre^each being the section of the radius. The frame of water
each cone was composed of eighty large upright beams,
twenty-four feet long and one foot square. On these
were erected eighty more, of fourteen feet in length,
making in the whole 320 of these large uprights; the
machine was then planked, hooped, and firmly fixed toge¬
ther with iron bolts.
The cone at Havre being completed, the next opera¬
tion was to tow it off to the particular spot where it was
to be sunk. Being open at the bottom, it was found ne¬
cessary to attach to the lower circumference 284) large
LUC enemy? v* cio —  j i? *
I had ever performed, or that I had ever read of m an- exterior and part to the interior cone;
b^ing^lacedin1 companson^witherfietgmndeureofthis pro- besides fifty casks, attached by linea of equal lengths, from
^ i ai_   r\nl'tr mnflP O
JlcleCU ill   O ’ j
iect.” " He suggested, as the preferable and only mode of
answering the purpose of producing smooth water in the
roadstead, that, instead of one continued dike or mole,
a number of large masses, separated from each other, ot a
circular form, with an elevation greatly inclined, should
be substituted; in short, a series of truncated cones,
which, touching each other at their bases, might present
to the sea at the surface alternate obstacles and openings,
and thus interrupt and break down the waves previous to
their entering the harbour. He also considered that, as
the bottom of the inner circle, to float towards the centre,
and thus assist in keeping it upright and steady. It was
easy enough, by these means, to float off a vessel of this
kind. M. de Cessart observes, that the force of 7200
pounds produced by a capstan, was found sufficient to
draw it on the water to a distance equal to the length
of its own diameter, or about twenty-five toises, in two
minutes.
“ The success of the experiment made at Havre,” says
M. Curt, “ had inspired such veneration for the conical
these openings at the'surface would not exeeed seventy- caissons, that those persons who had been most disposed
two fee?, a sufficient barrier would be formed against the to object to the plan were now obliged to be silent. The
passage of an enemy’s vessel; and that, if necessary, in
time of war it might be rendered still more secuie by
placing strong chains of iron across the intervals. It was
proposed to construct these conical caissons of wood, the
number of which, to cover a front of 2000 toises, would
amount to ninety, which, at 360,000 livres for each cone,
would cause a total expense of 32,400,000 for the whole.
The number, however, was afterwards reduced to sixty-
four, and the time estimated for completing the work
thirteen years. Each cone was to be 150 feet in diame¬
ter at the base, and sixty feet in diameter at the top, and
from sixty to seventy feet in height, the depth of water
at spring tides in the line in which they were intended to
be sunk varying from about fifty-six to seventy feet. They
were proposed to be sunk without any bottoms in them,
by which the upward resistance of the water, acting on a
base whose surface was equal to 17,678 square feet, would
be avoided. The caissons, floated off by casks attached
to their inner and outer circumference, being towed to the
spot where they were destined to be sunk, were then to
be filled with stones to the tops, and left for a while to
settle; after which the upper part, commencing with the
line of low water, was to be built with masonry laid in
pozzolana, and encased with stones of granite.
This plan of a stone dike or breakwater being laid in
detail before the minister of marine, it was deemed pro¬
per, on a subject so entirely novel, and of such great na¬
tional importance, to consult the ablest men in France be¬
fore any steps should be taken for carrying it into execu¬
tion. The details were accordingly submitted to the four
commissioners, M. de Borda, a naval officer and member
of the Academy of Sciences; M. de Fleurieu, capitaine
de vaisseau, and director of ports and naval arsenals, af¬
terwards minister of marine ; M. Peronnet, member of the
Academy of Sciences, chief engineer of bridges and em¬
bankments ; and M. de Chezy, inspector and director of
the school of engineers. They recommended that, in the
first instance, an experimental cone should be construct¬
ed and floated off. Instead, however, of sixty feet in
height, the cone made at Havre was only thirty-six feet;
the circumference of its base 472 feet, and having a slope
of sixty degrees; the upper circumference was 339 feet.
Within the exterior cone, at the distance of five feet ten
inches from it, was an interior and concentric cone, bound
result of the experiment at once decided the government
to commence operations at Cherbourg. M. de Cessart
was appointed director of the works, with four engineers
to assist him. A permanent council, consisting of com¬
manders in chief, directors, engineers, &c. was ordered
to reside for six summer months at Cherbourg, and the
other six in Paris ; and a considerable body of troops were
marched down to the neighbourhood, to furnish a compe¬
tent number of artificers and labourers, to be employed on
this great national undertaking.
In 1783 the buildings were commenced for lodging the
principal officers of the civil and military departments,
and their respective establishments; a naval yard was
marked out and inclosed; roads of communication were
opened with the forts ; and at Becquet, about a league to the
eastward of Cherbourg, a small harbour was dug out for the
reception of about eighty vessels, which were to be employ¬
ed in transporting the stones from thence by sea.
On the 6th June 1784 the first cone was floated off
and sunk, and the second on the 7th July following, in
presence of 10,000 spectators, assembled on the shores
and quays of Cherbourg; but before the cavity of the
latter could be filled with stones, a storm, in the month of
August, which continued five days, entirely demolished
the upper part of this cone. In the course of this summer
the quantity of stones sunk within the cavities of the two
cones, outside their bases, and in the intermediate space,
amounted to 4600 cubic toises, or about 65,000 tons.
In 1785 three more cones were completed and sunk at
irregular intervals; and, at the end of that year, the quan¬
tity sunk amounted to 17,767 cubic toises, or about
250,000 tons. In 1786 five additional cones were com¬
pleted and sunk, one of them in presence of the king;
and the quantity of stones thrown within them, and de¬
posited on the dike connecting the cones, amounted, at
the end of this year, to 42,862 cubic toises, or 600,000
tons. In 1787 five more cones were sunk and filled with
stones, making, in the whole, fifteen; and the distance
between the first and fifteenth cone was 1203 toises, and
the quantity of stones deposited within these cones and
the connecting dike, at the end of this year, amounted to
71,585 cubic toises, or more than 1,000,000 tons. The
violent gales of wind that are frequent in November and
December carried away all the upper parts of the five
BREAK
I :ik- cones which were sunk this year. In 1788 three more
v -jr. were sunk, but the upper parts of the first two were car-
vJt 'w’ rje(j aWay as the others had been ; the height of the third
was, therefore, reduced, so as to be, when sunk, on a level
with low water; but this cone was upset and soon went to
pieces.
The enormous expense, and the delay that had been
occasioned, in completing and sinking these eighteen cones,
exhausted the patience of the government, so that in the
following year, 1789, it caused the three cones, then on the
building slips, to be sold for whatever they would fetch.
The total quantity of stone that was sunk within the
cones, and on the intermediate dike, from the year 1784
to the end of December 1790, being seven years, amount¬
ed to 373,359 cubic toises, or about 5,300,000 tons.
These eighteen cones being sunk at irregular distances
from each other, some being 25 toises, and others 300
toises from centre to centre, occupied aline of 1950 toises
in length. The distance of the first cone from the island
Pelee, on the east, was 510, and of the eighteenth, to Fort
Querqueville, on the wrest, 1200 toises ; so that the whole
entrance or opening of the roadstead of Cherbourg was
originally 3660 toises, more than one-half of which was
now imperfectly covered by the breakwater.
The expense of this great undertaking was not, we
suspect, accurately known, and could not, probably, be
ascertained. M. de Cessart estimates the eighteen cones
alone at 6,231,407 livres, or about L.260,000; and the
total expense incurred between the 1st of April 1783 and
the 1st January 1791, he states as under :
Livres.
The value of the materials of the cones ..2,462,369 9 6
The value of the workmanship 1,560,560 9 9
The conveyance and sinking of stones ..14,880,074 2 5
Incidental expenses for buildings, ma¬
gazines, &c  2,359,489 5 0
Contingent expenses     395,926 13 4
Making the general total 21,658,420 0 0
or L.900,000 sterling. In this estimate the extra pay to
the troops and seamen employed would not appear to be
included; for M. de Curt, in his report to the national
assembly, states the total expense to have amounted to
32,000,000 livres, or L.1,300,000 sterling ; and that a far¬
ther sum would be required of 879,648 livres, to bring the
top of the dike to an uniform height, namely, a little above
the level of the surface at low water of ordinary tides.
The number of people employed was prodigious. To
enable M. de Cessart to complete and sink five cones
a year, he found it necessary to employ 250 carpenters,
30 blacksmiths, 200 stone-hewers, and 200 masons ; in
all 680 artificers. The number of quarrymen and others
employed in transporting 174,720 cubic toises of stone for
the 64 cones originally intended, or 13,650 yearly, was
estimated at 400 workmen, 100 horses, 30 drivers, 24
chasses-marees, each carrying seven cubic toises, or about
98 tons, with 100 seamen ; making an aggregate for this
service of 526 men, and for the whole operation from 1200
to 1500 artificers and labourers, to which were actually su-
peradded about 3000 soldiers.
A very considerable part of the expense might have
been saved by dispensing altogether with the cones, all of
which burst, as might have been expected, from the su¬
perincumbent weight of a deep column of wrater pressing
the stones within against their sides. The ninth cone,
which was sunk in 1786, went to pieces in 1800, after
standing fourteen years ; another reached the duration of
five years ; six remained on an average about four years ;
and all the rest went in pieces within a year from the
time of their being sunk,
f I vol. v.
WATER. 217
The failure of the cones, and the breaking out of the Break-
Revolution, put an entire stop, for some time, to all opera- water,
tions at Cherbourg. The attention, however, of the na-
tional assembly was speedily called to what they consi¬
dered to be an object of great national importance. In
1791 they directed their committee for the marine to
make out a detailed report of the operations that had al¬
ready been carried on. On this report being given in by
M. de Curt, in the name of the committee, it was read
and approved by the assembly, and funds to a certain ex¬
tent decreed, to complete the undertaking on a new plan,
proposed by M. de Cessart. The principal feature of this
plan was that of casing over the surface of the dike as it
then stood with large blocks of stone, and of carrying the
height of the breakwater along the whole of its extent, so
far above the high-water mark of spring tides as to ren¬
der it capable of receiving batteries on the summit, at the
middle, and at the two extremities.
The slope of the side next to the roadstead was found
on examination to sustain itself unaltered at an angle of
forty-five degrees, but the slope on the side next to the
sea, whose base was three for one of height, had given
way to the depth of fourteen feet below the low-water
mark; and the materials being composed of small stones,
were washed away, and had formed themselves into a pro¬
longed slope of one foot only in height for ten feet of base,
which was therefore concluded to be the natural slope
made by the sea when acting upon a shingly shore; a
conclusion, however, too vague to be correct, as the slope
occasioned by the action of the sea must depend on the
nature of the materials against which it acts, and the
force and direction of the acting power. A sandy beach,
for instance, has invariably the most gradual slope, gravel
the next, shingles the next, and large masses of rock or
stone the most precipitous. At the present time the
stones of the breakwater, by constant friction, have worn
away the sharp angles, and it has been found that the base
on the side next to the sea is on the average fully eleven
for one of perpendicular height.
It was proposed, therefore, to cover the side with a
coating of stone twelve feet thick, to consist of blocks of
twelve, fifteen, twenty, and thirty cubic feet, or from one
to two tons each, which casing was to be carried to the
height of twelve feet above the high-water mark of the
highest spring-tides; the size of the stones to increase to¬
wards the summit, so as to be capable of resisting the
percussion of the weaves, which is there the strongest. It
was calculated that this covering of twelve feet thick on
both sides would require for each toise in length seventy
cubic toises of stone, and that the whole length of the dike
would consequently require 136,500 cubic toises, which, by
deducting for the vacant spaces between the stones, would
be reduced to 113,750 cubic toises of stone, or about one
million and a half of tons. It was further calculated, that
the expense of quarrying, the transport to the quays, the
loading, conveyance, and discharging machinery, together
with the commissioners, clerks, &c. would cost for each
cubic toise deposited on the dike the sum of fifty-five livres,
which for 113,750 cubic toises would amount to 6,256,250
livres, and, adding for contingencies 600,000 livres, the
total estimate amounted to 6,856,250 livres.
The machinery employed for thus casing the break¬
water may be seen in Plate CXXVIIL, in which fig. 4
represents a section of a lighter on which it is erected.
AZX is an elevated deck or platform.
Y, three rollers of six inches diameter.
TK, two beams or sheers, moving on trunnions in
grooves at T.
S, hooks to hold the sheers at the proper angle of in¬
clination.
2 E
breakwater.
dent • but it had no dock-yard, nor means of giving to a Break,
ship a large refit or repair. He might have thought too, jater.
as we believe most of our naval officers do, that a fleet of
ships riding at anchor behind the breakwater are easily
attackable bv fire-ships, as the same wind which carries a
vessel in at one entrance will carry her out at the other,
and the course would lie directly through the centre of
the fleet at anchor. Besides, it might be possible, in eer-
L, the axle of the windlass or wheels B, round which
the rope of the pulleys passes. The wheels are 12 feet in
dl hSCa chasse-maree laden with blocks of stone.
E, the block and its hook laying hold of an non chain
r°F;dtheSstone hoisted to the platform AZ (fig. 4), when ^ ^      ^
the brace is unhooked at S; the hoisting continu ^ windS; under the lee of the centre part of the break-
“nit U1o0ffrteSwUrch,Ssub;p0o“t t^e windlass; J water, to botnbard a fleet at anchor in the roadstead with-
stone F is then lowered upon the ^ ^ m He determined, therefore, to establish a large dock-
whence it is pushed forward by men to the 1 , • d t Cherbourg, not merely for repairing, but also for
off which it is rolled into the water upon the side of the ^ ]arge/t class ^ ships of war; t0
flike- , , . 1 :nn. n rpriain number dffi a basin that should contain fifty or sixty sail of the
It was calculated that, by employing a ce p " . t0 construct dry-docks and slips for building and re¬
ef these machines, 34,090 toises -^t be deposite^ m ^to cmist ^ & ^ ^ ofthefirst rank. In
one year, reckoning only six woiking m , 1 completed at an expense, as Bona-
,„ises per month, or that 487 “‘^ole com- parte “ said to have asserted when on hoard the Nor-
dike might be covered in one season, and t thumberland, and which has since been confirmed, of
pleted in four years. Very littie progre^ i , ^ L.3 000,000 sterling. A wet-dock of the same magnitude
been made at the commencement of he. ^r, " f, communicating with it was then begun,
that period the centre of the dlke offiy a abbattf The oniy description that we have been able to find m
above the high-water mark, in which was p } J work, which took ten years in carrying
and a small garrison of soldiers, the whole of whmh were ig contaIned in a short letter from M.
swept away by a heavy sea, occasmned by t Pierre-Aime Lair, secretary to the Society of Agriculture
gale of wind in the year 1809, W^nfthr 1)reakwater and Commerce of Caen, who was present at the ceremony
which had been erected on this part of the breakwater, ana A,om ’ ; thereat basin, in presence
the men, women, and children which composed the gar- of °Pen'"f ^ Loug on8the 27th August 1813.
Hson, together with several workmen we^ out of a rock of gra-
at the same time two sloops of war n , .. . •>. fiCv1:st or eneiss, the density and hardness of which
driven on shore and dashed in pieces. ^ sin]. increased as the workmen descended from the surface,
such as might have been expected.. The c g compares it to an immense trough dug out of a single
large stones upon the small ones, already roun - . d abie 0f containing many millions of cubic
stant attrition, could not be otherwise; the ^ter acting know, Lwever, that M. Lair is
“ “which *e breakwatohad that it is not one mass of rock, but rock and
the extremity of the base, to wtnen t travel mixed; that the whole of the sides are cased with
naturally been brought by the action of t e . constructed wall of red granite; and that a noble
At present small spots only are ..s.ble above ttesur- "“Iterial, and extending between
such°spots exceed three^eet^n Sight'; the intermediate the two forts of Galet and Hornet, separates the basin and
spaces are from "l^dime^ions rf'he new basin he states to be about
, ‘ 100 vards where the height rises to eighteen or is live feet above the high watei maik of the equmoc la
l ‘CeSe^e^tl^ofIb^
rebuddthe fort. The largest of the stones in this mass to about thirty millions of cubic feet; and that ca cu-
S^^t0nS’ “,1<' they deSCe',d 10 the SiZe °f abl loo
Of the remainde'r of the dike very few parts are visible feet by 770 feet, and
at low water ; and at this moment the greater part is four about eighteen acres, which, at three per acie,
feet below the surface of low water. It is sufficiently high, tain fifty-four sail of the line, and Je adjoining we^-^^.
however, to break the force of the waves, and to make the
port of Cherbourg a safe anchorage in some winds for
about forty sail of the line.
On the renewal of the war after the rupture of the
when finished, an equal number. The dike or breakwater
seems to be abandoned, the works having longbeen stoppe ,
and the stone vessels going rapidly to decay. The hrenc
officers say indeed that it has occasioned the roadstead to
On the renewal ot tne wax auer uiu lupiutc ui tuc , . . r ^
treaty of Amiens, Bonaparte began to bestow a greater become shallower, by the deposition of sand that has
share of attention on the navy of France ; and though for place.
a time the unparalleled victory of Trafalgar checked his
efforts, it did not induce him to abandon them. His plans
were vast, and at the period of his fall were in rapid pi o-
gress towards their completion. He had determined on
a fleet of 200 sail of the line, and the noble port of Ant¬
werp gave him every iacility for ship-building, hor the
better security in forming a junction of his two great
fleets of Brest and Antwerp, Cherbourg now became more
valuable as a convenient port of retreat in case of acci-
The entrance canal leading from the outer harbour into
the basin is at right angles to the latter, and its dhection
east-north-east. Its dimensions are as under:—
Feet, in-
Width between the two moles in the direction of
their axis     196
Width at its opening into the basin 
Length from the axis of the moles or piers to the
line of wall forming the side of the basin ^74
1
BREAK
] ak- The basin, having no gates, is said to have been excavat-
1 ed to the depth of nine feet below the bottom of the canal;
v— ^ the former having, as before mentioned, fifty feet water,
and the latter only forty-one at high spring-tides, which,
as they ebb twenty feet, would leave only twenty-one feet
in the passage or canal at low water. This inequality, we
presume, is intended to keep the ships afloat in the basin
at low water, when the depth in the canal is not sufficient
for that purpose; but after so much expense incurred in
digging the basin, one would suppose a little more might
have been expended in digging the canal to the same
depth, so as to let ships pass into and out of the basin in
all states of the tide ; an advantage of the utmost import¬
ance for speedily securing the ships in the basin, when
in danger of an attack from the enemy in the roadstead,
or for speedily putting to sea and escaping the vigilance
of a blockading squadron. No reason is assigned for
leaving the basin without gates; but we suspect that M.
Lair is again mistaken, and that the passage has depth of
water sufficient for ships of the largest class to run into
the basin at all times of the tide. But even here they do
not lie in safety; for the w ide entrance facing the north¬
east is covered only in that direction by the isle of Pelee,
so that the water in the basin partakes of the swell in the
road, which is sometimes so great as to make it necessary
to apply ten or twelve cables to hold ships steady in the
basin.
Another serious inconvenience likely to arise from this
particular construction of the basin is, that whatever silt
or mud is carried in by the tides must be deposited there,
and cannot possibly escape. The quantity is probably
not very great in the water of the Channel opposite to
Cherbourg, but higher up towards Ostend it is very con¬
siderable. When w'e took possession of that port, it was
found that, in the course of the revolutionary war, the har¬
bour, by neglect, had been filled up with six or seven feet
of mud.
Several pieces of cannon are intended to be mounted
on the two piers, to protect the entrance into the basin.
On one of them is likewise placed a light-hoqse, and on
the other a Semaphoric telegraph. Four slips of granite,
for building large ships, were at this time constructed on
the southern side of the basin, and on each of them was
a ship of the line in progress ; LInflexible of 118 guns, Le
Centanre of eighty, Le Jupiter and Le Genereux of se¬
venty-four guns each. Two other ships of the line were
on the stocks without the dock-yard, nearly ready for
launching, Le Zelandais of eighty, the first line-of-battle
ship laid down at Cherbourg, and the Duguay-Trouin of
seventy-four guns : and in the roadstead were Le Polonais
and Le Courageux. In the centre of the same side of the
basin, with tw o slips on each side of it, a noble dry-dock
was cut out, or rather built, of solid granite, in which
ships of the largest class might be built or repaired. Its
dimensions were,
Feet. In.
Length   230 0
Width  74 0
Depth  26 6
fhus the ships built on the four slips may be launched
into the basin, and at once docked out of it.
few store-houses, or other buildings necessary for a
naval establishment, are as yet erected; but there is an
ample space laid out for every purpose that can be re¬
quired to make Cherbourg one of the first naval arsenals
in Europe ; and a narrow canal, between the walls of Fort
du Hornet and the wall of the wet-dock, leads to a most
convenient space for mast-ponds and mast-houses.
The fortifications for the protection of the anchorage in
tie roadstead, and the new naval arsenal, are, 1. Querque-
W A T E R. 210
ville ; 2. Fort du Hornet; 3. Fort du Galet; 4. Fort Royal, Break-
on the isle of Pelee. Fort Royal and Fort du Hornet have water,
circular faces towards the sea, with each two tiers of guns,
and turrets above them ; the former mounts about eighty
guns, the latter sixty-five, and Querqueville about thirty
guns.
The principal channel from the road to the sea is at the
western end of the breakwater, which, for large ships, is
not more than half a mile in width ; and this want of space
will always make it difficult for ships of the line to work
out: but, on the other hand, a fleet may push out to the
westward in southerly winds, which lock up the English
ports in the Channel.
The eastern channel is a very indifferent one, and, from
the position of the isle of Peled and the main, it is likely
to become worse, from the accumulation of sand, which
the French officers say is actually the case.
Such, then, were the mighty preparations of the ex¬
traordinary man who ruled France, for the destruction of
the naval power of Great Britain, and with it of our na¬
tional glory, pride, and prosperity, which, whether elated
with success or depressed by reverses, he never ceased
to devise schemes for humbling. And he had sufficient
cause for his hatred, well knowing that it was England,
and England’s navy, that opposed the only obstacle be¬
tween him and the subjugation of the world to his do¬
minion.
To give the greater eclat to this grand undertaking,
he sent the Empress Maria Louisa to be present at the
opening of the basin. When the time arrived for the wa¬
ter to be let in, and the dam broken down, her approach
was announced by flourishes of warlike music and nume¬
rous discharges of artillery. “ Cries of joy,” says M.
Lair, “ were mingled for a long time with the thunder of
the batteries. Her majesty took her place in the pavilion
which had been prepared for her, when the bishop of
Contances, surrounded by his clergy, advancing towards
her, pronounced an address suitable to the occasion. After
the ceremonies and customary prayers, he turned round
towards the basin, and blessed this work of man. It is
delightful to see a nation consecrating by religious rites
an event so memorable, and causing the divinity to inter¬
vene in all its grand undertakings.” He speaks with rap¬
ture on the gratification he derived from seeing men born
on the shores of the Tiber, and on the banks of the Gua-
dalquiver, working under the direction of French engi¬
neers, at the establishment of a port in the Channel, for¬
midable to the English navy; and he suffers no expression
of regret to escape him at the idea of these poor Italian
and Spanish prisoners of war being compelled to labour in
chains at a work for which they were not paid, and in
which they could not take the least possible interest.
The Breakwater in Plymouth Sound is a work of a Break-
similar nature to that of Cherbourg, but constructed on water in
sounder principles, with less machinery and fewer people, Ut*1
Compared in extent and dimensions with that of Cher- ‘ out)<'
bourg, it is only in the ratio of about one to four.
There is no port and harbour on the south-west coast
of England possessing so many advantages as Plymouth ;
none so well situated for assembling and equipping a fleet
to watch the movements of the enemy in the harbour of
Brest. Its dock-yard may be considered as the second
in the kingdom in point of size, convenience, and effective
strength ; while the margin of it stretches along the mag¬
nificent harbour of Hamoaze,—a noble expanse of water,
nearly land-locked, of a capacity sufficient for mooring
safely a hundred sail of the line in excellent anchorage,
and in water that carries its depth to the very quays
of the yard. On the opposite or eastern side of the
Sound, and at the distance of about three miles from
1
220
Break¬
water.
Its his¬
tory.
BREAK"
Hamoaze and the dock-yard, is another sheet of water
called Catwater, not quite so deep, nor so well sheltered,
as Hamoaze, but, since the progress made in the break¬
water, forming a safe and commodious harbour for mer'
chant vessels of every description. These two harbours
open into Plymouth “Sound and Cawsand Bay, m which
ships employed in the blockade of Brest, or those rehttec
in Hamoaze, have been accustomed to assemble and pre¬
pare for putting to sea. But the very exposed situation
of Plymouth Sound, and the heavy swell that almost con¬
stantly rolled in, especially when the wind blew fresh
from the south-west to the south-east, made it so incon¬
venient and so unsafe an anchorage for ships of the line,
that, during the late war, the fleet employed in blockading
Brest had been in the practice of bearing up, when driven
from its station, for the more distant anchorage of Torbay,
though little better with regard to security, and worse
in every other respect, than Plymouth Sound. It is, roi
instance, a more ineligible rendezvous for the western
squadron, from the chance of the fleet being caught there
by an easterly wind, and unable to get out, when it is the
most favourable wind for the enemy to put to sea; from
the danger to which the ships are liable when so caught
at an anchorage so open and exposed; and from the in¬
convenience, delay, and expense of obtaining the neces¬
sary supply of stores and provisions from the other ports,
there being none at Torbay.—In short, this open and ex¬
posed bay bore so bad a character among naval officers,
that Lord Howe used to say it would one day be the grave
of the British fleet.
It is, besides, an object of the first importance to the
efficiency of every naval arsenal, to have a safe and com¬
modious roadstead in its neighbourhood, like that of Spit-
head to the harbour and dock-yard of Portsmouth. Here
those ships which may have gone through a course of re¬
pair or refitment, or those new from the stocks, may
assemble and complete their final equipment for sea; and
here, also, ships returning from sea may safely lie at an¬
chor till the wind and tide may serve them to go into
harbour. But in Plymouth Sound, ships coming out of
Hamoaze, or ships going into that harbour, had no such
security. By the rolling sea that set in, they were exposed
to the double danger of parting their cables, or striking
against the hard and rocky bottom, either of which would
be almost certain destruction.
It was most important, therefore, to render Plymouth
Sound, if possible by any means, and almost at any ex¬
pense, a safe roadstead for ships of war. To ascertain
the practicability of this measure, Mr Rennie the civil
engineer, and Mr Whidby the master-attendant of Wool¬
wich dock-yard, were sent down by Lord Howick, now
Earl Grey, at the suggestion, we believe, of Lord St
Vincent, in the year 1806, with directions to examine
and report, whether by any, and by what means, a suf¬
ficient shelter might be given to insure a safe anchorage
for a fleet of ships of the line. The report was favour¬
able ; and several plans were offered for sheltering this
sound, so as to render it capable of containing in safe¬
ty above fifty sail of the line at their anchors. No¬
thing, however, was done or attempted, notwithstanding
the increased and mighty preparations of the enemy,
till Mr Yorke presided at the Board of Admiralty, when
one of his first measures was to carry into execution this
grand and important national object; the most important
that perhaps was ever undertaken for the glory and the
safety of the British navy. The delay that took place
can only be explained by the frequent changes of the
Board of Admiralty, which, we believe, have been fatal
to many important measures for the benefit and advan¬
tage of this great bulwark of the nation.
SV A T E R.
Of the plans proposed for sheltering the Sound, one Break
was to throw a pier from Staddon Point to the Panther water,
Rock, a distance of 2650 yards; another, to construct a
pier from Andurn Point to the Panther, a distance of 2900
yards; and a third, to carry a pier from the same Point to
the Shovel Rock, being only 900 yards.
The objection urged against throwing out piers from
either of these Points, and abutting against the shore,
was principally grounded on the certain effect they would
have of changing the current of the flux and reflux of
the tide to the opposite side of the Sound, and of in¬
creasing its strength and velocity on that side, while it
left all calm on the other; the inevitable consequence
of which would be a deposition of mud or silt in the calm
part or eddy, which, in process of time, would shallow the
water, already not too deep, to such a degree as to unfit
it for the reception of large ships of war.
Besides, of the three passages for large ships into Ply¬
mouth Sound from the sea, the two best are those on the
two sides, while the worst was that in the middle. Either
of the plans, therefore, which proposed piers to be thrown
from the mainland, must have destroyed one of the best
passages, and left the worst open, which was nearest to
the anchorage behind the proposed pier. The middle
passage might, in fact, be almost considered as shut up
against very large ships by the St Carlos and the Shovel
Rocks ; whereas, if this middle passage should be shut up
altogether, it would rather serve to deepen, by giving an
increased velocity to the tide, which would scour out the
bottom, than to shallow the two side passages.
On these considerations, Messrs Rennie and Whidby
proposed that an insulated pier or breakwater should be
thrown across the middle of the entrance into the Sound,
having its eastern extremity about sixty fathoms to the
eastward of St Carlos Rock, and its western end about 300
fathoms west of the Shovel, the whole length being about
1700 yards, or close upon a mile. They stated with confi¬
dence, that such a breakwmter might, writh every chance
of success in its favour, be constructed; and that it would
give shelter to ships in the Sound, without any danger of
lessening the depth of water.
The middle part of the breakwater was proposed to be
carried in a straight line for the length ot 1000 yards;
but they recommended that the length of 350 yards at
each end should incline towards the straight part at an
angle of 120°. See the figure, Plate CXX1X. These in¬
clined ends wrould not only give shelter to a greater ex¬
tent of the Sound, but would, in a greater degree, prevent
the rushing in of the tide from agitating the water at the
anchorage, than if the two extremities were left in the
same straight line, and at right angles with the direction
of the current into the Sound.
It was also proposed, in order to cover the Sound more
effectually, that a pier should be thrown from Andurn
Point towards the principal breakwater, of about 800
yards in length, with the same inclined point of 120° as
the head of the breakwater. This pier, however, does
not appear to have been thought necessary, and might
have been in some respects injurious to the Sound. It
might, however, have made Bouvisand Bay a good an¬
chorage for frigates and smaller vessels, and given them
the advantage of a fine stream of fresh water, which falls
into that bay.
It was recommended, as the most practicable and best
mode of constructing this great work, to heap together
promiscuously large blocks of stone, which were to be
sunk in the line of the intended breakwater, leaving them
to find their own base, and take their own position; and
it was conceived that stones of the weight of from one and
a half to two tons each would be sufficiently large to keep
II
BREAKWATER.
221
it-
their places, without being rolled about by the tremendous
swell which, in stormy weather, is thrown into Plymouth
Sound; and thus avoid the inconvenience as well as loss
of time and labour which the French had experienced at
Cherbourg by throwing down small rubble stones. It was
thought, that, in those places where the water was five
fathoms or thirty feet deep, the base of the breakwater
should not be less than seventy yards broad, and the
summit ten yards, at the height of ten feet above the low
water of an ordinary spring-tide; in other words, that the
dimensions of the breakwater in those places should be
forty feet high, thirty feet across the top, and 210 feet
wide at the foundation.
The surrounding shores of Plymouth Sound and Cat-
water were next examined, with a view to determine from
what quarter materials for this great undertaking could
most conveniently be obtained,as to quality, cheapness, and
celerity of conveyance. On the west or Cornish side of the
Sound, nothing appears but hard granite; at the head of the
Sound, and in Catwater, on the Devonshire side, all is mar-
ble and limestone. In Catwater alone, it was estimated, on
a rough calculation, that 20,000,000 of tons might be pro¬
cured in blocks fit for the work, which was about ten
times the quantity that would probably be wanted. The
time required for the completion of the work depended
on a variety of circumstances. It is obvious that, if the
two sides of the Sound had furnished proper materials
for the purpose, the time would have been considerably
abridged, as, in that case, when the wind was easterly
vessels might deposit stones on the eastern end of the
breakwater, and in westerly winds on the western extre¬
mity, and the work would thus be proceeding with an un¬
interrupted progress; whereas, if the stones were to be
brought from one point, and that point was on the shore
of Catwater, a strong southerly and south-westerly wind,
those most prevalent in this country in the winter months,
would generally impede and frequently render it impos¬
sible for vessels to go off with their cargoes.
Catwater, however, having many advantages, especially
for the convenience of loading the vessels, and the faci¬
lity of procuring blocks of any size from the quarries, was
considered, on the whole, as entitled to the preference
over any other place. Besides, the quarries here being in
the neighbourhood of villages, lodgings and conveniences
would be afforded for the workmen; and, on the whole,
it was calculated that the work might be completed from
hence at a cheaper rate, and perhaps in less time, than
from situations much nearer to it, but much more exposed
to the wind and waves.
An estimate of the expense could not be made with
any degree of accuracy, as no correct section of the bot¬
tom had been taken. Supposing, however, the great
breakwater to be 1700 yards in length, thirty feet in
width at the top when carried ten feet above low water
of spring-tides, with a slope on the southern or sea side of
three feet horizontal to one foot perpendicular, and on the
Sound or land side of one foot and a half horizontal to one
perpendicular, it was calculated that the whole mass of
stone required would be about 2,000,000 of tons. If then
a hundred sail of vessels of fifty tons burden each were
employed in carrying stone, and each vessel carried only
f00 tons a week, the quantity deposited in one week
would amount to 10,000 tons, or 500,000 tons a year,
and at this rate the breakwater would be completed in
our years; but making allowance for time lost in prepa¬
rations, contingent delays, unfavourable weather, and de-
uctions in the quantity of stone for the shallow parts
over winch the line of the breakwater was carried, the
completion of the work might safely be calculated within
the period of six years.
Nor would the building of the pier from Andurn Point, Break-
if so determined, increase the time of completion. If water,
carried from the shelving rocks within the Point, leaving
a passage between them, the pier would require about
360,000 tons of stone, which, by employing about thirty
vessels, might be deposited in three years.
It was recommended by the gentlemen above men¬
tioned, that the great breakwater should be begun on the
Shovel and extended on both sides of it, as, by so doing,
the effect produced on the Sound would be observed as
the work proceeded; and that buoys should be placed
along the line, so that the whole of the vessels employed
might, if necessary, deposit their cargoes at the same
time without interrupting each other.
The rough estimate for completing this great national
work, made on the grounds above stated, was as follows:
Estimate of the Probable Expense of a Breakwater and
Pier for the Sheltering of Plymouth Sound and Bow-
visand Bay.
2,000,000 tons of limestone, in blocks
from 1^ to 2 tons weight each, for
the great breakwater, at 7s. 6d. per
ton  L.750,000 0 0
360,000 tons in the pier proposed to
be built from Andurn Point, at 7s.... 126,000 0 0
Contingencies, say at 20 per cent, on
the whole  175,200 0 0
Total for the great breakwater L.l,051,200 0 0
Estimate of the Probable Expense of a Cut-Stone Pier and
Two Light-houses to be built on the top of the Great
Breakwater.
42,000 cubic yards of masonry, in the
out and inside walls of the pier, at
27s  L.44,700 0 0
62,000 cubic yards of rubble filling be¬
tween the out and inside walls, at 6s. 18,600 0 0
Paving the top of the pier with large
blocks of stone, 8500 square yards... 22,950 0 0
Twro light-houses, with reflectors and
and argand lamps  5,000 0 0
Contingencies 20 per cent  28,650 0 0
L.l 19,900 0 0
Breakwmter, 1,051,200 0 0
Total estimate of completing the
works L.l,171,100 0 0
It was not until the opinions of the best engineers, men
of science, and naval officers eminent in their profession,
had been collected, compared, and seriously considered,
that Mr Yorke determined to carry into execution this
great undertaking. The principal objection started against
it was, that it might cause the anchorage in the Sound to
be destroyed in the course of time by the deposition of
mud and silt along the whole eddy within it. But there
does not appear to be any solid ground for this objec¬
tion. The water brought by the tides from the sea is at
all times perfectly clear and transparent, and that which
proceeds from Hamoaze, and is supplied by the Tamar and
the Tavy, is almost wholly free from any alluvial matter,
these rivers holding their course through a fine granite
soil. The fact is sufficiently proved by the circumstance
of no deposition taking place in the recesses of Hamoaze
along the dock-yard wall leading into the docks, nor in
the numerous eddies that are caused by the projecting
jetties and salient angles of that wall. Another objection
started against the undertaking was, that by the diminish-
222
breakwater.
Break¬
water.
ed quantity of water thrown by the tide into Hamoaze and
Catwater, the Sound would gradually fill up, and t. >ese ar-
hours be destroyed. But no perceptible alteration has as
placed the height of the water in Hamoaze, or
in the strength or set of the tides. .. .pfl at
Commence- A rock of limestone, or rather gray marble, situated
meet of the o^ston, on the eastern shore of Catwater, consisting f
work. surface of twenty-five acres, was purchased fi om the Ui
of Bedford for the sum of L.10,000. Quays for shipping
the stone were erected in front of it; iron railways leading
from the quarries to the quays were laid down : ships were
hired by contract to carry off the stone, and others built
at the dock-yard. Mr Whidby was appointed to superin¬
tend the work. The quarries were opened on the Vth
August 1812 ; the first stone was deposited on the 12th o
fh/same month ; and. on the 31st March 1813 the break-
water made its first appearance above ^ surface of the
Sound at low water of the spring-tide. The system of
quarrying the stone was conducted with admirable sk ,
and stones of the proper size were obtained with less waste
of small rubble than might have been expected. In work¬
ing these quarries an extraordinary phenomenon was dis¬
covered in the very body of the great mass of this old
marble rock. At the depth ot sixty-five feet fiorn the
summit of the rock, and twenty-five from the margin ot
the sea, a cavity, or rather a nodule of clay, was discover¬
ed, of twenty-five feet long and twelve square, or there¬
abouts, in the midst of which were found several bones
of the rhinoceros, in a more perfect state, and containing
less animal matter in them, than any fossil bones that have
yet been dug out of rock or earth.
Machinery The vessels employed for carrying off the large blocks of
employed, stone were of a peculiar construction, adapted to comey
with ease masses of marble weighing from three to five
tons each. These great blocks of marble were placed on
trucks at the quarries, and run down from thence on iron
railways to the quays, against which the vessels lay with
their sterns. The two stern ports were made sufficiently
lar^e to receive the trucks with the stones upon them.
Each truck was passed separately through the port-hole on
an inclined plane, and run to the fore-part of the vesse in
the hold on an iron railway. The two sides of the hold ot
the vessel were calculated each to contain eight of these
loaded trucks, which, at five tons on each truck, gave
eighty tons of stone for one cargo. The stones thus placed
on the trucks remained till the vessel arrived at the point in
the line of the breakw ater where they were to be deposited.
By means of a crane on the deck of the vessel, the tw o
trucks nearest to the two stern ports were then drawn up
the inclined plane, and run upon a frame on movable
hinges, called the typing-frame; by the falling of this
frame in the manner of a trap-door the stone or stones
wreve discharged from the trucks on the slope of the break¬
water : but the typing-frame remained, by means of a catch,
in the position in which it was left at the moment ot dis¬
charging the stones, until the empty truck was pulled up by
the crane to the after-part of the deck, from whence it was
run forward to make room for the second pair of loaded
trucks in the hold. The catch being now disengaged, the
• typing-frame returned to its former position, ready to re¬
ceive the next pair of loaded trucks, and so on till the
whole sixteen were discharged; and the light trucks ran
upon the deck of the vessel, ready to be run out at the
quay, and from thence to the quarries, to take in fresh
loads of stone. In this manner a cargo of eighty tons was
discharged in the space of forty or fifty minutes. I he
vessels were placed in the proper places for depositing the
stones by means of buoys, and the exact line of the break¬
water was preserved by observing lights or staves placed
at a distance on the shore.
The following description, referring to Plate CXXVIIL, Brea]
will convey an accurate idea of these excellent vessels for waten
the purpose for which they were constructed.
Fig 1 shows the stern of the vessel in the act of depo-
siting the stones. The runner 11 being hooked to the fore-
part&of the truck, raises it up, and by that means tips the
stone overboard. When the stone is in the act of being
drawn up out of the hold on the inclined plane B (fig. 3)
the runner is hooked to the fore-part of the truck, and
lashed down to the after-end over the stone, which pre¬
vents the latter from sliding off the truck in its progress
up the inclined plane. The empty trucks are for the most
part lodged on the fore-part of the deck, and some placed
on an edge against the side of the vessel.
Fig. 2 shows the stern of the vessel when loaded, with
the ports up or closed. .
Fig. 3 is a longitudinal or sheer-section of the vessel when
loaded, with the trucks on one side of the hold and deck,-
showing the number which the vessel usually stows on
each side. The stones being frequently longer than the
trucks, the number carried in the hold must be propor¬
tioned accordingly. In bad weather it is unsafe to send
many trucks on deck; and, in general, not more than four
are sent into the Sound in that way at one time; the
amount of the cargoes, therefore, vary, according to cir¬
cumstances, from forty to sixty-five tons ; the largest stone
hitherto deposited being about eight tons.
The after-part of the deck under the tiller is divided
into two parts length ways, and made to move up and
down; the fore-parts are secured to a beam by hinges.
This movable deck, when raised as at X, allows the stones
to come out of the hold, and when down, as at Y, serves
to convey the empty truck from the port to the deck, in
order to make room for another stone.
D is a common windlass for heaving the trucks out o
the hold up the inclined plane B.
C, the hinges of the typing-frame.
Ten vessels of this construction, for carrying large masses
of stone, built in the King’s Yards, and forty-three hired
by contract, averaging about fifty tons each, were employ¬
ed in conveying stones from the quarries. The contrac¬
tors’ vessels were not of the same construction as those in
the immediate employ of government; they carried stones
of less weight, which were hoisted out of the bold by a
chain and windlass, and thrown overboard. A load of fifty
tons was discharged from one of these vessels in about
three hours. By all these vessels the quantity of stone
deposited in 1812 was 16,045 tons; in 1813, 71,198 tons;
in 1814, 239,480 tons ; in 1815, 264,207 tons ; and in 181b,
up to 12th August, 206,033 tons, at which time the tota
quantity of stone sunk amounted to 896,963 tons; and at
the conclusion of the year to upwards of 1,000,000 tons.
Of this quantity the proportions of the different sizes o
the blocks deposited were nearly as follow : Tons.
Of one ton each stone, and under 423,904
Of one to three tons each   en’lqq
Of three to five tons each 
Of five tons and upwards  1
The original contract price for quarrying the stone was
2s. 9d. per ton, and the original contract price for convey
ing it to the breakwater 2s. lOd. per ton ; but the foimer
was reduced to 2s.'5d., and the latter to Is. lOd. per ton.
The cost of each ton of stone sunk in the breakwater, in¬
cluding the building of quays, purchase of land, salaries,
and every other expense, according to the nearest ca.cy
lation that can be made, amounted to about 8s. l-|d., wine ,
upon the whole quantity deposited, gave a total sum ex¬
pended up to 12th August 1816 equal to L.364,000. Anc^
q m 1 rrl» f Si fl PVPfl FIS mOTG tll3.Il ll311 COHl
BREAKWATER,
223
pleted, it would have been finished considerably within
the original estimate, and, if parliament had thought fit to
grant the money, within the time.
The greatest quantity of stone sunk in any one week
was 15,379 tons; and the part of the breakwater, at the
date just mentioned, above the level of low-water spring-
tides, was in length 1100 yards. The length completely
finished to the height of three feet above the level of the
highest spring-tides, and thirty feet wide at top, was at
the same time 360 feet. The large stones of the upper
part of the breakwater were deposited to any nicety by
means of a vessel constructed for the purpose, having the
same sheer or slope at the bow with the side of the work,
so that by a projecting beam or mast the largest stones
could be taken out of the vessel, and placed on the oppo¬
site side, or middle, or any other part of the breakwater.
The small establishment, and the quick manner in
which this great work was carried on, form a curious
contrast with the multitudes employed on the breakwater
of Cherbourg, the time occupied by that undertaking, and
the parade and ostentation with which it was conducted.
The whole establishment for carrying on the Plymouth
breakwater was as follows :
Persons.
A superintendent, with proper officers and clerks, to
keep and control the accounts  10
Warrant officers and masters of the ten stone vessels
in the immediate employ of the public  21
Seamen and boys to navigate these vessels  90
Seamen employed in the superintendents’ vessels,
the light vessel, boats’ crews, &c  45
Masons, blacksmiths, carpenters, sail-makers, and la¬
bourers, employed at Oreston  39
In the immediate pay of government  205
Seamen employed in the contractors’ vessels  170
Quarrymen, labourers, &c. employed at Oreston by
the contractors    300
1 lend jal
i esult, if
, iiisg R
vork.
S
Total establishment  675
The result of this great work has completely answered
the expectation of its warmest advocates. The good ef¬
fects of it were, indeed, very sensibly felt at the end of
the second year, when about 800 yards of the central part,
where the water was shallowest, were visible at low-water
spring-tides. The swell was then so much broken down
and destroyed at the head of the Sound, that the fisher¬
men were no longer able as heretofore to judge of the
weather outside the Sound; and ships of all sizes, and
among others a French three-decker, ran in with confi¬
dence, and anchored behind the breakwater. Since that
time near two hundred sail of vessels of all descriptions,
driven in by tempestuous weather, have at one time found
safe shelter within this insulated mole, where a fleet of
twenty-five to thirty sail of the line may at all times find a
secure and convenient anchorage, with the additional ad¬
vantage of having a stream of excellent w'ater from a reser¬
voir constructed above Bouvisand Bay, capable of contain¬
ing from ten to twelve thousand tons, or a quantity sufficient
to water fifty sail of the line. This water is brought down
m iron pipes to Staddon Point, opposite to the anchorage,
where a jetty has been completed, from which the water
descends through the pipes into the ships’ boats. The
"hole expense of this most useful appendage to the break¬
water is calculated at about L. 16,000.
During the winter of 1816—17 the gales of wind were
more frequent and tremendous than had been known for
many years; and, on the night of the 19th January, such
a lurricane came on as had not been remembered by the
0 dest inhabitant. The tide rose six feet higher than the
usual height of spring-tides. The Jasper sloop of war, Break-
and the Telegraph schooner, being anchored without the water
cover of the breakwater, were driven to the head of the
Sound, and both lost; but a collier deeply laden, and i10tli,s
under its cover, rode out the gale. No damage was sus-
tained by any of the shipping in Catwater ; but it was the
general opinion, from former experience, that, if no break¬
water had existed, the whole of the ships therein must have
been wrecked, and the storehouses and magazines on the
victualling premises, and most of the buildings on the mar¬
gin of the sea, must have been entirely swept away. Till
this tremendous gale the breakwater had not sustained
the slightest damage from the heavy seas that, through the
winter, had broken against it with unusual violence, not
a single stone having moved from the place in which it
wras originally deposited; but after the hurricane above-
mentioned, and the high tide which accompanied it, it was
found that the upper stratum of the finished part, extend¬
ing about 200 yards, and thirty yards in width, had been
displaced, and the whole of the huge stones, from two to
five tons in weight each, had been carried over and depo¬
sited on the northern slope of the breakwater. In no
other part could it be discovered that a single stone had
been displaced. Since that time a considerable portion of
the sea-front has been cased with masonry of immense
masses of stone, but smoothly and beautifully laid ; and the
better to protect this, the foot of the slope is being extend¬
ed seaward, in order to protect the foot of the masonry,
by throwing in a great quantity of large and rubble stones,
which will complete the work within the original estimate,
and, it is calculated, some time in the year 1833.
The want of a harbour, or any place of safety to which Propriety
ships can resort in bad weather, or in distress, between0*’a break-
the ports of Plymouth and Portsmouth, led to the sugges-p3*6.1’*n
tion of Portland Roads being converted into a secure har- "
hour by means of a breakwater. It was estimated that
the construction of such a stone dike, extending from the
north-east part of Portland Island, about two miles and a
quarter in length, covering an anchorage of about four
square miles, and completely sheltering the pier, harbour,
and bathing place of Weymouth, would require about four
millions of tons of stone, five years to complete it, and an
expense of about six hundred thousand pounds Sterling.
The capstone alone, which covers the Portland stone,
and which, being unmarketable, is not only useless, but a
great incumbrance, would be sufficient to complete this
great undertaking. Such a secure anchorage in this situ¬
ation, in which the largest fleets, either naval or mercan¬
tile, might ride at anchor in all winds and the most stormy
weather in perfect security, is not unworthy the conside¬
ration of the public ; and, perhaps, in the present increas¬
ed state of our population, and the difficulty of finding em¬
ployment for the labouring poor, there can be no truer
policy than that of carrying on great national works of
public utility, were it only for the sake of encouraging in¬
dustry, instead of expending an equal, or probably a far
greater sum, for the support of idleness and the encou¬
ragement of vice in those parochial buildings too frequent¬
ly miscalled work-houses. (m.)
BREAM. See Ichthyology, Index.
BREAST, in Anatomy, denotes the fore-parts of the
thorax. Smiting the breast is one of the expressions of
penitence. In the Romish church the priest beats his
breast in rehearsing the general confession at the begin¬
ning of the mass.
Breast-Hooks, in Ship-Building, are thick pieces of
timber incurvated into the form of knees, and used to
strengthen the fore-part of the ship, where they are placed
at different heights directly across the stem, so as to unite
it with the bows on each side. The breast-hooks are
4. i.
224
Breast¬
plate
Brechin.
B R E
B R E
, , . U50 At the Reformation its revenues amounted in Bwi
strongly connected to the stem and hawse-pieces oy a„d kind t0 L.700 per annum; but after that event
nails, and by bolts driven from without t]>r«u|h ie Pl k , were miserably reduced by various grants, and main-
and hawse-pieces, and the 6 ^h'ckness of the bre^t^ they ^ of lands and tithes by Alexander
hooks, upon the inside of which these boUs are tore I 7 b u the first Protestant bishop, to his chieftain the
ed or clinched upon rings. They are ^tees of tile Eadof Argyll. In 1572 James VI. with consent of John
third thicker than, and twice as long as, the knees ^ ^ Mol;ton? Regent, founded an hospital in the burgh.
decks they support. . Qrmmir wom to « Mr George Buchanan, pensioner of Crossragwell,” is one
BBEAST-Plate, in Anbqmty,* piece of ar™ur . inal, of t]le witnesses to the grant, which was ratified by his
defend the breast, and believed to have been oug y in 1587> w-hen he attained majority. The magis-
formed of hides or hemp, twisted mto smal! co , t .and arg patrons of this charity, from which
latterly made of brass, iron, or other ^tals,wli c it ^ weekly allowance to the poor, no hos-
sometimes hardened so as to be proof against the gret yg  Will.nm iIp
force.
VCBREAST-Plate, in Jewish Antiquity, one part of the vest-
ments anciently worn by the high-priests It wa a foM-
ed piece of the same rich embroidered stuff of which tne
ephod was made; and it was set with twelve precious
stones, on each of which was engraven the name of one
of the tribes. They were set in four rows, three in every
row and were divided from one another by little golden
squares or partitions, in which they were set. The names
of these stones, and those of the tribes engraven on them,
as also of their disposition on the breast-plate, were as
follow:
Sardine
Reuben.
Emerald
Judah.
Ligare
Gad.
Beryl
Zebueon.
Topaz
Simeon.
Sapphire
Dan.
Agate
Asher.
Onyx
Joseph.
Carbuncle
Levi.
Diamond
Naphthaei.
Amethyst
ISSACHAR.
Jasper
Benjamin.
pital apparently having ever been erected. V iHiam de
Brechin founded a chapel in 1256, called Maison de Dieu.
Albinus, bishop of Brechin in the reign of Alexander II
was witness to the grant. Parts of the walls of the chapel
still remain in the Maison Dieu Vennel, a little west of the
High Street, and prove that the chapel had originally
been an elegant little building. The house itself, and
the property about it, with the superiority of some other
lands, are generally gifted by the crown to the rector of
the grammar-school during his incumbency, who hence
takes the title of preceptor of Maison-dieu. 1 he cathedral,
which is now used as the parish church, was originally a
handsome Gothic building; but its appearance has been
much injured by modern “ improvements. Ihe steeple
attached is a noble-looking square tower, with an octagon
spire, rising to the height of 128 feet. Close to the
church stands the round tower, one of those singular
structures which are generally supposed t° have bee.n
places of look-out belonging to the Piets, although their
real use has long baffled the research of antiquaries.
These towers are peculiar to North Britain and Ireland;
in the latter they are frequent, in the former only two at
i n ♦i-.r.ca this time exist, one at Brechin and another at Aberne-
This breast-plate was fastened at the four corn.ers’ tho^ * There is n0 stair in the Brechin tower, and the only
above to each shoulder by a go den hook or rin at the ^ 1 { b means of six ladders placed on
end of a wreathed chain; and those below to the g die /oors, which rest on circular pro¬
of the ephod, by two strings or ribbons, which had like- within the tower. The height from the ground
wise two rings and hooks.^ Jto the roof is eighty-five feet, the inner diameter withm
wise two rings and hooks, mis ornament ^ J tl roof is eighty-five feet, the inner diameter witnm
be severed from the priestly garment; and it was called e bottom is eight feet, and the thickness
the Memorial, to remind the high-priest how dear those a few ^ ot boUo g ^ . so that the
tribes ought to be to him, whose names he wore on his oUhe ^ sixteen feet; the circumference
breast. It is also called the Breast-plate of Judgment, ^ ^ ncar forty.eight feet; the inner diameter at top is
because it had the divine oracle of Urim and Thummim ^ ^y^ jncbeSj tbe thickness of the wall two feet ten
annexed to it. „ , , . . . -r- Jnrhps and the circumference thirty-eight feet eight inches.
BRECHIN, a town of Scotland, m the county of Fo - Thege’ .0 tions ive the building an inexpressible ele-
far and parish of Brechin, is situated on the face The top ;s Voofed with an octagonal spire eighteen
about the centre of the parish, on the left bank of the g • P makes the whole height of the building
River South Esk, which is crossed below the town by a g , . . . j dur}ngt strong winds this
stone bridge of two arches, Brechin consists of one main 103 feet. to vibrate. A stone bui t
street running north and south, with several smaller st e . • , n f tbe church-yard, evidently modernized,
On the south, the town is continued by two suburbs tiam- ^t0^st7Xb/vh"opied froran older stone, records, in
ed the Upper and Nether Tenements, which hold in feu . , P Lat7n that during 1647 six hundred persons
°f T'hitw'Llidto h^ve been B^TapRal of Pictavia die^etP^urg^^^^^^^
S* b^TfScrrbetgTng6 .rrt’aSKion. m Ibe
source. TtJ Culdees are reported to have had a convent rebellion raised in ‘'jf The ictorv fell to the
here; and their abbot Leod was witness to the grant made Earl of Douglas m otirlmg Castle. I . to
by Kin- David to his new abbey of Dunfermline. In royalists under Huntly, who has hence given h
after-times the Culdees gave way to the Mathurines or Red the ground. T nrd P-mmure, stands on
Friars, the ruins of whose house, according to Maitland, Brechin Castle, the sea b tbe South
are still to be seen in the College or Chandry Wynd. the brink of a perpendicular ™rk overhanging ^
Brechin was founded into a bishopric by David I. about Esk, a little to the south o e .
B R E
B R E
225
on. besieged by the English under Edward I. in 1303, and
was for twenty days gallantly defended by Sir Thomas
Maule, ancestor of the family of Panmure, who was slain
by a stone thrown from an engine placed on the opposite
rising ground, when the castle was instantly surrendered.
The south front of the castle above the river presents a
romantic mixed mass of buildings, covered with ivy, and
showing some remains of the original structure. The west
front forms a regular building, in the style of the seven¬
teenth century.
Brechin was burnt by the Danes in 1012, and by the
Marquis of Montrose in 1645. At present it has a neat
appearance, the excellent free-stone quarries in the vici¬
nity giving every opportunity for substantial erections.
The chief manufactures of this place consist of various
branches of the linen trade. There is also an extensive
distillery in the town, and a smaller one in the immediate
vicinity; and at the mills of Brechin a good deal of wheat
is ground for distant markets. Brechin has a market
every Tuesday, which is well frequented by dealers in
grain. About a mile from the town, on the Trinity Muir,
four annual fairs are held, the principal of which takes
place in June. The town is governed by a provost, two
bailies, a dean of guild, seven merchant and two trades’
counsellors. This burgh is the seat of a presbytery, and,
besides the Presbyterian church, it contains a neat Epis¬
copal chapel, two meeting-houses belonging to the United
Associate Synod, one belonging to the Original Seceders,
and a Relief chapel. There is an endowed grammar-
school under a rector, and a parochial school under two
teachers besides assistants, with several private schools,
in the town.
Maitland, the laborious historian of Edinburgh and Lon¬
don, and Dr John Gillies, the historian of Greece, wrere
natives of this place. James Tytler, an eccentric and un¬
fortunate personage, one of the contributors to the early
editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, was born in the
immediate neighbourhood. The population of the town
and Tenements in 1831 was 5060. Brechin is eight miles
from Montrose, thirteen from the county town of Forfar,
forty-two from Aberdeen, and the same distance from
Perth. Long. 2. 18. W. Lat. 56. 40. N.
BRECON, or Breknock, a market and borough town,
the capital of the county of the same name, in South Wales,
168 miles from London, is situated at the confluence of the
rivers Hondey and Uske. Its ancient castle, an object of
great curiosity to the antiquarian, is said to have been
built in the reign of William Rufus. There are several
traces of Roman encampments in the vicinity. Its pre¬
sent state is not flourishing, as the manufactures of cloth
and of stockings which once existed have been removed
to more favourable spots. It contains three churches, and
is governed by a corporation, which, with the freemen,
returns one member to parliament under the influence of
Sir Charles Morgan. There are markets on each Wednes¬
day and Saturday. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to
2576, in 1811 to 3196, in 1821 to 4193, and in 1831 to 5026.
BRECONSHIRE, or Brecknockshire, in South
Wales, is divided from Radnorshire by the river Wye; its
other boundaries are artificial. Its length is twenty-nine
niiles, the breadth of its southern basis thirty-four, and its
circumference rather more than a hundred. It contains
nearly 500,000 acres of land, not one half of which is
either in a state of cultivation or adapted to it. Its form
is irregularly triangular, narrowing towards the northern
extremity. It is divided into six hundreds ; and contains
me county town, Brecon, and three market-towns besides,
Cnckhowel, Biulth, and Hay. There are in it a hundred and
eleven parishes, and places paying parochial rates, accord¬
ing to the last returns to parliament respecting these rates,
VOL. v.
Breconshire is one of the most mountainous counties in
Wales; and the Van, or Brecknock Beacon, is one of the
loftiest mountains. Ridges of hills, which form the separa¬
tion of this from most of the adjacent counties, shelter it in
such a manner as to render it temperate. It appears, from
observations made in the year 1802, with a rain guage, that
26£ inches of rain fell at Brecon. There is a considerable
variation not only in the surface of the country, but also in
the nature of the strata. In the hundred of Biulth the soil
is remarkably argillaceous, and the water does not sink
sufficiently deep ; in the Vale of Uske, on the contrary, it is
too porous to retain the necessary moisture. In general,
the soil of the vales consists of a light loam, lying on a
deep bed of gravel; the soil of the hills is for the most part
argillaceous. The principal river, next to the boundary
one of the Wye, is the Uske, which, taking its rise from
the black mountain, in the western side of the county, on
the border of Caermarthenshire, flows across it through a
fine valley to the south eastern angle, passing the town of
Brecon. A little to the east of the town of Brecon is a
considerable lake, well stored with fish, out of which a
rivulet runs to the Wye. The Brecon Canal unites with
the Monmouth Canal eight miles and a half from New¬
port and one mile from Pontypool; it crosses the river
Avon, is carried through a tunnel 220 yards in length,
passes the town of Abergavenny towards the river Uske,
and proceeds parallel with that river to Brecon, being
thirty-three miles in length, with sixty-eight feet rise to
Brecon. By the fall of this canal from Brecon to the
Bristol channel, it appears that Brecon is 411 feet eight
inches above the level of the sea.
The agriculture of this county is superior to that of
most of the other counties of Wales, and appears to have
begun to improve about the middle of the last century,
as the Breconshire Agricultural Society was instituted in
1775, being one of the first associations of the kind in the
island. The mode of culture in the good soils is con¬
ducted in the best manner; but where the land is natural¬
ly poor, the tillage is very bad. In the Vale of Uske, the
Norfolk rotation is followed with skill and success; and
tolerably abundant crops of barley, clover, wheat, and tur¬
nips are obtained. The Highland farmers, in general, are
too poor to attempt any material improvements. In the
vales the farms seldom exceed 150 or 200 acres ; the rents
are high—in the neighbourhood of Glazbury and Hay
nearly forty shillings the cyfair, which is about one third
less than the statute acre ; the poorest grounds do not let
for more than four or five shillings the cyfair.
The principal exports of the county are wool, butter,
and cheese. Of the first, a considerable quantity is spun
and knit into stockings in the hundred of Biulth, and in
different parts of the Highlands ; the stockings are bought
by hosiers and carried to the English market. Some
sheep, a few horned cattle, and a considerable number of
swine, are frequently driven to Worcester, London, Bris¬
tol, &c. The cattle and horses are small, but the former
have been much improved by intermixing the Glamor¬
ganshire and Herefordshire breeds; and the latter by
the introduction of the Suffolk Punch sort. A consider¬
able number of otters frequent the rivers, the furs of which
form another branch of the exports of this county.
The manufactures which formerly existed in this coun¬
ty consisted of flannel, linsey-woolsey, and a coarse kind
of cloth worn by the labourers ; but of late these have
become nearly extinct. The mines of iron and coal have,
however, been very much extended; and many forges and
founderies have been constructed, which give employment
to a considerable part of the population in that part of
the county which is contiguous to Monmouthshire.
The county confers the title of Earl on the Marquis of
2 E
Brecon¬
shire.
226
B R E
B R E
Breda Camden. It returns to parliament one member tor the
II county and one for the town of Brecon. It is compre-
Breenberg. hended in the bishopric of Landaff, and, by a late law, in
'the Oxford new circuit. _ . . e
At the three decennial enumerations, the population o
the county, and the number of houses, appeared thus.
Year. Males. Females. Total. Houses.
1801 15,393 16,240 31,633 6,315
1811 18,507 19,228 37,735 7,555
1,821..... 21,853 21,760 43,613 8,425
1831 23,896 23,867 47,763
Of the families in the last of these years, 4049 were em-
nloved in agriculture, 3703 in manufactures, trade, or han¬
dicrafts, and 1280 were included in neither of these classes.
BREDA, a city, the chief of a circle of the same name,
in the province of South Brabant, in the Netherlands. It
is well built and strongly fortified, and the country around
can be flooded for defence in case of necessity, it is
connected with the sea by a navigable canal, which com¬
municates with the mouth of the Maas. It is celebrated
for the peace concluded here in 1667. It contains about
1000 houses and 10,500 inhabitants. Long 4. 40. 1J. E.
Lat. 51. 25. 29. N. . , , , J
Breda, John Van, an historical and landscape painter,
•was born at Antwerp in 1683. He was the son of Alex¬
ander Van Breda, an artist much esteemed for landscapes,
views of particular scenes in Italy, fairs, and markets, with
a variety of animals and figures. . ,
BREDSTEDT, a town, the capital of a bailiwick, con¬
taining one town and nine parishes, in the duchy of Sles-
wick and kingdom of Denmark. . It stands on the sea¬
shore, and contains 309 houses, with 1590 inhabitants.
Long. 8. 53. E. Lat. 54. 38. N. _
BREECHES, a garment worn by males, reaching from
the girdle to the knees, and serving to cover the hips,
thighs, and knees. The ancient Romans had nothing in
their dress answering to our breeches and stockings; in¬
stead of which, under their lower tunics and waistcoats, they
sometimes bound their thighs and legs round with silken
scarfs or fasciae, which were called tibialia and femoralia.
Breeches appear to be a habit peculiar to the barbarous
nations, especially those inhabiting the colder countries of
the north ; and hence Tacitus calls them barbarum tegmen.
We find mention made of them among the ancient Getae,
Sarmatae, Gauls, Germans, and Britons ; they also obtain¬
ed amongst the Medes and Persians, who were of Scy¬
thian origin ; and they afterwards got footing in Italy,
some say as early as the time of Augustus, but without
much foundation, since the breeches of that emperor, men¬
tioned by Suetonius, were apparently only swaths tied
round his thighs. But however this be, breeches were at
last received into Italy, and became so much in fashion,
that it was judged necessary, under Arcadius and Honorius,
to restrain them by law, and expel the bracarii or breeches-
makers out of the city, it being thought unworthy of a
nation which commanded the world to wear the apparel of
barbarians.
BREENBERG, Bartholomew, a painter, was born in
1620. He is best known by the name of Bartolomeo, an
appellation bestowed upon him, for the sake of distinction,
by the society of Flemish painters at Rome called Bent-
vogels. He was born at Utrecht, but in the early part of
his life went to Rome. His studies in the art of painting
were attended with success, and his pictures were held in
much estimation. He particularly excelled in landscapes,
which he enriched with historical subjects. The figures
and animals which he introduced were very spirited, and
drawn in a masterly manner; especially when they were
not larger than the size in which he usually painted them.
He died in 1660, at the age of forty. He also etched Lreeze
from his own designs a set of twenty-four Views and II
Landscapes, ornamented with Ruins. ™en.
BREEZE, a shifting wind that blows from sea or land
during certain hours in the day or night. It is common
in Africa and some parts of the East and West Indies.
Breezes differ from etesice or trade-winds, inasmuch as the
former are diurnal, or have their periods each day, whilst
the latter are annual, and blow at a distance from land.
The sea-breezes prevail by day and the land-breezes by
night, so that they remain as constant as the seasons of
the year, or the course of the sun, on which they seem
to depend, although they come on sooner or later, stronger
or weaker, in some places than in others, and vary accord¬
ing to latitude and other circumstances.
BREGENTZ, the capital of the circle of Voralberg, in
the Austrian province of Tyrol, stands on a hill at the
south-east end of the lake of Constance. It has three
churches, a Dominican monastery, and about 2200 inha¬
bitants, occupied in silk and cotton manufactures, and in
making various iron wares.
BREHAR, one of the Scilly Islands, lying almost di¬
rectly west of the Land’s End in Cornwall, about the dis¬
tance of thirty miles. It is situated between the isles of
Micarol, Guel, Trescaw, and Samson, and is the roughest
and most mountainous of them all. Not long ago there
were only two families on it, but now the number has con¬
siderably increased. There are a few miserable houses,
called the town of Brehar ; and also several barrows edged
with stone, in which considerable persons were burned in
ancient times; besides many monuments of the Druids.
Some are of opinion that this, with the rest, originally made
but one island; which is probably the reason why so many
antiquities are now found in most of them.
BREHONS, the provincial judges among the ancient
Irish, by whom justice was administered and controver¬
sies decided. These sages were a distinct tiibe oi family,
to wdmm competent lands were allowed in inheritance.
In criminal cases the brehon had the eleventh part of all
the fines; which could not but be considerable at a time
when murders, rapes, robberies, and the like oflences,
were only subject to pecuniary commutations. _
BRDiWN-Laws, or Leges Brehonicce, denote the genera
maxims or rules observed by the Brehons, and which had
the force of faws throughout all the provinces of Ireland.
BREISACH, a bailiwick in the circle of Treisam, of
the duchy of Baden, on the Rhine, containing two cities,
twelve villages, and six hamlets, with 13,215 inhabitants.
The chief city, of the same name, celebrated for its formei
strong castle, stands on the Rhine, and has a population
of 2711 persons. Long. 7. 28. 30. E. Lat. 48. 1. 48. i .
BREMEN State. See Germany.
Bremen, a province of the kingdom of Hanover, whic i,
together with Verden, was secularized at the treaty o
Westphalia in favour of Sweden. In a war between Den¬
mark and Sweden in 1712, it was conquered by the former
kingdom, who sold it to the house of Hanover, to whom
it was, after much negotiation, confirmed by imperial edic
in 1732. It is bounded on the north-east by the Elbe, on
the north by the German Ocean, on the east by Lune-
burg, on the south by the province of Hoya and a part o
Brunswick, on the south-west by the republic of Bremen,
and on the west by Oldenburg. It extends over abou
2696 square miles, or 1,665,440 acres. On the borders 0
the sea and of the Elbe there is a narrow stiip of g00
marsh and corn land, though the greater part of the interior
of the province is a most sterile sandy district; but Y
the attention which the Duke of Cambridge has devote
to the roads, the interior has been vastly improved wit un
the last twelve years, and the cultivation much extende
Bn iage
Bi 'ia-
B R E
The population has also rapidly increased in the same
period. In 1816 it amounted to 207,212, and at the end
of 1826 to 230,235 individuals. It contains four cities,
twenty-three market-towns, 125 parishes, and 924 ham¬
lets. The inhabitants are Lutherans, with the exception
of seven churches, which are served by pastors of the re¬
formed confession.
BRENNAGE, Brennagium, in the writers of the
middle ages, a kind of tribute paid in lieu of bran, or bran
itself, which the tenants were obliged to furnish for the
support of the lord’s hounds. The word is also written
bremrje, brenagiurn, and brenaige, brenagiwn, brenaticum,
and brennaticum.
BRENNUS, a celebrated captain among the Gauls,
who, about 388 years before the Christian era, entered
Italy with a powerful army, made great conquests there,
defeated the Romans, and sacked Rome. The Capitol
alone was defended; and Camillus coming to its relief,
drove the Gauls not only out of Rome, but also out of Italy.
BRENTFORD, a town, being a hamlet in part of the
parish of Hamwell and hundred of Ossulton, in the county
of Middlesex, seven miles from London, on the banks of
the Thames. It consists of a single long street, and com¬
prehends two parishes, with their respective churches.
It is remarkable as the place where elections for the coun¬
ty are held, and as the greatest thoroughfare for carriages
of any in England, though the street is narrow, and im¬
pediments often present themselves to obstruct the road.
Near it is the magnificent palace of the Duke of North¬
umberland, Sion-House; and on the opposite bank of the
Thames the royal palace of Kew, with its magnificent bo¬
tanical garden. There is a well-supplied market on the
Tuesdays.
BREREWOOD, Edward, an English mathematician
and antiquary, was the son of Robert Brerewood, a trades¬
man, who was thrice mayor of Chester, and born in that
city in the year 1565. He received the rudiments of his
education at the free school in Chester; and was after¬
wards admitted, in 1581, of Brazen-nose College in Ox¬
ford. In the year 1596 he became the first professor of
astronomy in Gresham College, London ; and there led the
same private and retired course of life as he had before
done in Oxford. He died of a fever upon the 4th of No¬
vember 1613. He was a great searcher into antiquity and
curious knowledge, but never published any thing during
his lifetime. After his death came out the following works :
—1. De Ponderibus etPretiis veterum. Nummorum eorumque
cum recentioribus Collatione, 1664, 4to ; 2. Inquiries touch¬
ing the Diversities of Languages and Religion through the
chief parts of the world, London, 1614, 4to; 3. Elementa
Logicce in gratiam studiosce juventutis in Academia Oxon.
London, 1614, 8vo, and Oxford, 1628, 8vo; 4. Tractatus
quidam Logici de pradicabilibus et prcedicamentis, 1628,
8vo; 5. Two Treatises on the Sabbath, 1630 and 1632;
6. Tractatus duo, quorum primus est de Meteoris, secundus
de Oculo, 1631; 7. Commentarii in Ethicam Aristotelis,
Oxford, 1640, 4to; and, 8. The Patriarchal Government
of the Ancient Church, Oxford, 1641, 4to.
BRESCIA, one of the delegations into which the Aus¬
trian kingdom of Venetian Lombardy is divided. It is
bounded on the north-west by Bergamo, on the north-east
by the Tyrol, on the east by the Lake of Guarda, on the
south-east by Mantua, on the south by Cremona, and on
the south-west by Lodi. Its extent is 1115 square miles,
or 713,600 acres. It is divided into twelve districts, and
these into 238 communes or parishes; and it comprehends
one city, thirty-two market-towns, and 202 villages, con¬
taining 50,840 houses. The inhabitants, in 1816, amount¬
ed to 311,596, of whom 157,572 were males, and 154,024,
females; but since that period they have rapidly increased.
B R E
227
Brest.
The northern part, or one third of the delegation, con- Breslau
sists of a chain of mountains, which belong to the Rhaetian
Alps; the remainder is part of the great plain of Lom¬
bardy. The latter division is highly productive in corn >
and in mulberry trees, as well as in flax, hemp, and oil.
The wine is considered as good, but not sufficient for the
domestic consumption. The mountainous parts afford
iron, lead, copper, marble, granite, and charcoal. The
manufactures consist principally of silk, but are consider¬
able in woollen, linen, and cotton goods, and in iron, steel,
glass, and paper wares. The capital, of the same name,
is situated on the river Garza, at the foot of a hill, on the
summit of which is a picturesque ancient castle. It con¬
tains, besides the cathedral, twelve parish and several con¬
ventual churches, six hospitals, six orphan-houses, and
some other public buildings. The inhabitants amounted
in 1817 to 34,168, but are stated to have increased to
upwards of 40,000 in 1824. It is the chief seat of those
fabrics the raw materials of which are so amply furnished
by the province. Long. 10. 8. 4. E. Lat. 45. 32. 30. N.
BRESLAU, one of the governments into which the
kingdom of Prussia is divided. It extends over the north¬
west part of the province of Silesia, or what was former¬
ly Lower Silesia. It is bounded on the north and north¬
east by Posen, on the east by Poland, on the south-east
by Oppeln, on the south-west by Reichenbach, and on
the west by Liegnitz. Its extent is 5269 square miles, or
3,373,160 acres. The population amounted in 1817 to
792,071, at the end of 1819 to 833,253, and at the end of
1826 to 914,607. It is divided into twenty-two circles,
which, in 1826, contained 121,080 houses, in thirty-five
cities, seven market-towns, and 1283 villages. About
two thirds of the inhabitants are of the Protestant profes¬
sion, about one third Catholics, and betwixt 7000 and
8000 Jews. The live stock of the whole district consisted
of 72,657 horses, 293,203 cows, and 894,460 sheep of all
ages and both sexes. It forms the most important part
of the province of Silesia, the greatest manufacturing coun¬
try of the east of Europe. The city of Breslau is the
capital as well of the government of that name as of the
whole province of Silesia, and is the third of the royal
residences. It is situated at the confluence of the Ohlau
and the Oder, about 500 feet above the level of the Baltic
Sea. It is the seat of the civil and military government
of Silesia. A university, re-established in 1811, has a
valuable library of 100,000 volumes, and in 1826 had 850
students, consisting of both Catholics and Protestants. It
is an ancient city, exhibiting many specimens of the oldest
German architecture. Many manufactures, particularly
of linen and cloth, have long flourished there, though said
to be now somewhat on the decline. At the great fair
extensive transactions are carried on in fine wool. It
contained, in 1826, 78,600 inhabitants, of whom 4600 were
Jews. Long. 16. 56. 47. E. Lat. 51. 6. 50. N.
BRESSUIRE, an arrondissement in the department of
the Two Sevres, in France, extending over 650 square
miles, and comprehending six cantons and ninty-one
communes, with 68,400 inhabitants. The chief place is
a market-town of the same name on the river Argenton.
It was totally destroyed during the wars in La Vendee, but
is beginning to recover from the losses of that period.
BREST, an arrondissement in the department of Finis-
terre, in France, extending over 127 square miles, com¬
prehending twelve cantons and eighty-five communes, with
136,149 inhabitants. It takes its denomination from the
city of Brest, the most perfect and strongest naval station
in the kingdom. The harbour consists of the road of
Brest, with two deep indentations forming bays, into one
of which the river Landeneau, and into the other the river
Aulne, pour their streams. There is but one narrow en-
B R E
trance, defended by strong forts on both sides, and the
interior is also protected by formidable batteries. I he
water is sufficiently deep for the largest ships, and there is
space enough for 500 sail to ride securely. I he docks,
store-houses, and other appendages to the arsenal, are well
adapted for the purpose intended. Brest was but a fish¬
ing village till 1631, since which it has risen to be an ex¬
tensive and populous city, and contains at present 2600
houses, with 25,865 inhabitants. It is furnished with a
medical school for the navy, an academy for the study of
navigation, an observatory, a botanical garden, and a good
library. Long. 4. 13. 20. W. Lat. 48. 22. 42. N.
BRET, a name which the people on the coast of Lin¬
colnshire give to the common turbot, a fish extremely
plentiful there, and taken in vast abundance. The way
of catching them is in a net trailed on the ground by two
horses, the one going up to the middle of his body m water,
the other on shore.
BRETHREN and Sisters of the Free Spirit, in
Ecclesiastical History, an appellation assumed by a sect
which sprung up towards the close of tne thiiteenth cen¬
tury, and gained many adherents in Italy, France, and
Germany. " They took their denomination from the words
of St Paul, in his epistle to the Romans, chap. viii. ver. 2,
14, and maintained that the true children of God were
invested with the privilege of a full and perfect freedom
from the jurisdiction of the law. Some of their professed
principles resembled those of the Pantheists, and tney held
that all things flowed by emanation from God ; that ra¬
tional souls were portions of the Deity; that the universe
was God ; that, by the power of contemplation, they were
united to the Deity, and thereby acquired a glorious and
sublime liberty, both from the sinful lusts and the common
instincts of nature ; and that the person who was thus
absorbed in the abyss of the Deity, became a part of the
Godhead, and was the son of God in the same sense and
manner as Christ was, being freed from the obligation
of all laws human and divine. Many edicts were publish¬
ed against this sect; but, notwithstanding the severities
which they suffered, they continued till about the middle
of the fifteenth century. They were called by several
other names, such as Schwestriones, Picards, Adamites,
and Turlupins.
Brethren and Clerks of the Common Life, a denomina¬
tion assumed by a religious fraternity towards the latter
end of the fifteenth century. They lived under the rule
of St Augustin, and were eminently useful in promoting
the cause of religion and learning. Their society was
formed in the preceding century, by Gerard de Groot, a
native of Deventer; but it did not flourish till about the
period above mentioned, when it obtained the approbation
of the council of Constance, and became very respect¬
able in Holland, Lower Germany, and the adjacent pro¬
vinces. It was divided into two classes; the lettered brethren
or clerks, and the illiterate. They lived in separate habi¬
tations, but maintained the closest fraternal union. The
former applied to the study of polite literature, and the
education of youth ; whilst the latter were employed in
manual labour and the mechanic arts. They were fre¬
quently called Beghards and Lollards, by way of reproach.
White Brethren, Fratres Albati, were the followers of
a leader about the beginning of the fifteenth century, who
arrayed himself in a white garment; and as they also
clothed themselves in white linen, they were distinguish¬
ed by this title. Their leader was a priest from the Alps,
who carried about a cross, like a standard, and whose ap¬
parent sanctity and devotion drew together a number of
followers. This deluded enthusiast practised many acts
of mortification and penance; endeavouring to persuade
the European nations to renew the holy war, and pretend-
B R E
ing that he was favoured with divine visions. Boniface Breton
IX. ordered him to be apprehended and committed to the
flames, upon which his followers dispersed.
BRETON, or Cape Breton, an island near the eastern
side of the continent of North America, situated between
forty-five and forty-seven degrees of north latitude. It is
separated from Nova Scotia by a narrow strait called Canso,
and is about a hundred miles in length by fifty in breadth.
It is surrounded with little sharp-pointed rocks, separated
from each other by the weaves, above which some of their
tops are visible. All its harbours are open to the south¬
east. On the other parts of the coast there are but few
anchoring places for small vessels. Except in the hilly
portions, the surface of the country has but little solidity,
being everywhere covered wfith a light moss, and wdth
water. The dampness of the soil is exhaled in fogs, with¬
out rendering the air unwholesome ; but the climate is
very cold, ovving either to the number of the lakes, which
cover more than half the island and remain frozen for a con¬
siderable period of the year, or to the extent of the forests,
and the fogs that totally intercept the rays of the sun.
Though some fishermen had long resorted to this island
every summer, not more than twenty or thirty ever settled
there. The French, who took possession of it in August
1713, were properly the first inhabitants. They changed
its name to that of Isle Royale, and fixed upon Fort Dau¬
phin as their principal settlement. This harbour was two
leagues in circumference, and might have been rendered
impregnable at a trifling expense; but the difficulty ot ap¬
proaching it occasioned it to be abandoned, after great
labour had been bestowed upon the undertaking. The
settlers then turned their views to Louisbourg, the access
to which was easier; and convenience was thus preferred
to security. The fortification of Louisbourg, however, was
not begun till the year 1720.
In the year 1714 some fishermen, who till then had lived
in Newfoundland, settled in this island. It was expected
that their number would soon have been increased; but
these hopes were disappointed. Some distressed adven¬
turers from Europe, however, came over from time to time
to Cape Breton, and the number of inhabitants gradually
increased to four thousand. They wex*e settled at Louis¬
bourg, Fort Dauphin, Port Toulouse, Nerucka, and on all
the coasts where a proper beach w as to be found for drying
cod. The inhabitants never applied themselves to agri¬
culture, the soil being wholly unfit for it. I hey frequently
sowed corn, but it seldom came to maturity; and when it
did thrive so as to be worth reaping, it degenerated so
much that it was unfit for seed next harvest. In a word,
the soil of Cape Breton seemed calculated to invite none
but fishermen and soldiers.
Though the island was entirely covered with forests
before it was inhabited, its woods scarcely ever became
an object of trade. The peltry trade was a very incon¬
siderable object. It consisted only of the skins of a few
lynxes, elks, musk-rats, wild cats, bears, otters, and foxes
of a red and silver-gray colour. Some of these were pro¬
cured from a colony of Mickmac Indians w ho had settled
on the island w ith the French, and never could raise more
than sixty men able to bear arms. The rest came from
St John’s, or the neighbouring continent. Greater advan¬
tages might possibly have been derived from the coal¬
mines, which abound in the island. The strata lie in a
horizontal direction ; and being only about eight feet be¬
low the surface, they may consequently be worked without
digging deep or draining oft’ the waters. But notwith¬
standing the prodigious demand for coal from New Eng¬
land between the year 1745 and 1749, these mines would
probably have been forsaken, had not the ships which
were sent out to the French islands wanted ballast.
Br »•
B R E
B R E
229
The people of Cape Breton did not send all their fish to
Europe. Part was exported to the French southern
islands, on board twenty or twenty-five ships of from se¬
venty to a hundred and forty tons burden. Besides the
cod, which formed at least half their cargoes, they export¬
ed to the other colonies timber, planks, thin oak-boards,
salted salmon, and mackerel, train-oil, and sea-coal, which
were paid for in sugar and coffee, but chiefly in rum and
molasses. The island, however, could not consume all
these commodities, and as Canada took but a small part
of the overplus, it was chiefly bought by the people of
New England, who gave in exchange fruits, vegetables,
wood, brick, and cattle.
This island, which may be considered as the key of
Canada, was attacked by the English in 1745. The plan
of the invasion was laid at Boston, and New England bore
the expense of it. A merchant named Pepperel, who had
excited, encouraged, and directed the enterprise, was in¬
trusted with the command of an army of 6000 men, which
had been levied for the expedition ; and these forces, con¬
voyed by a squadron from Jamaica, brought the first news
to Cape Breton of the danger that threatened it. But al¬
though the advantage of a surprise would have secured
the landing without opposition, and the invaders had to en¬
counter but 600 regular troops and 800 inhabitants hastily
armed, still the success of the undertaking was precarious.
Little could be expected from a militia suddenly assem¬
bled, who had never seen an enemy, and who were to act
under the direction of sea-officers only. But an incident,
fortunate for the invaders, neutralized even this insuffi¬
cient force.
The construction and repairs of the fortifications of
Louisbourg had always been left to the care of the gar¬
rison, and the soldiers were anxious to be employed in
these works. But when they found that those who should
have paid them appropriated to themselves the profit of
their labours, and when the justice they demanded was
denied them, they determined to assert their rights, and
their indignation rose to such a height that they de¬
spised all authority. They had in fact been in open re¬
bellion for six months, when the British appeared before the
place. This apparition, however, did not produce the union
which was so necessary for the common defence. The
soldiers indeed made advances ; but their commanders,
mistrusting a generosity of which they themselves were
incapable, kept their men in a manner prisoners, till an ill-
managed defence had reduced them to the necessity of
capitulating. The whole island shared the fate of Louis¬
bourg, its only bulwark.
This valuable possession, restored to France by the treaty
of Aix-la-Chapelle, was again attacked by the British in
1 /58, On the 2d of June, a fleet of twenty-three ships of
the line and eighteen frigates, having on board 16,000
troops, anchored in Gabarus Bay, within half a league of
Louisbourg. It had been attempted to render the landing
impracticable near the town; and in the prudent precau¬
tions which had been taken, the besiegers saw the dan¬
gers and difficulties they had to expect; but, far from be¬
ing deterred by these, they had recourse to stratagem, and,
extending their line so as to threaten the whole coast,
they landed by force of arms at Cormorant Creek. This
place was naturally weak. The French had fortified it
with a good parapet planted with cannon, behind which
t iey had posted 2000 soldiers and some Indians, while in
tout they had constructed with felled trees an impenetra¬
ble abbattis.
But these and other precautions that had been taken
^freTJen1dered nhortive by the impetuosity of the French.
le nghsh had scarce begun to move towards the shore,
w len their enemies exposed the snare they had laid for
them. By opening a brisk but hasty fire on the boats, and Brevet
still more by prematurely removing the boughs that mask- II.
ed the forces, the English, apprised of their danger, imme- Breviary,
diately turned back, and the benefit of these preparations ''-’■’V’*'''
was entirely lost. The situation of the English, however,
was still sufficiently critical, especially as they saw no other
place to effect a landing on except a rock, which had always
been deemed inaccessible. But General Wolfe, while occu¬
pied in reimbarking his troops, and sending off the boats,
ordered Major Scott to repair thither; and that officer im¬
mediately proceeded towards the spot with his men. The
Major’s own boat approached first, but sinking at the very
instant he stepped ashore, he climbed up the rock alone,
in hopes of meeting with a hundred of his men who had
been sent to attempt a landing at another point. Instead
of this number, he found only ten; but with these few he
gained the summit of the rock, where ten Indians and
sixty Frenchmen killed two of them and mortally wounded
three. But notwithstanding this loss he stood his ground
under cover of a thicket, till the troops, regardless alike
of the raging surf and the fire of the cannon, came up to
him and put him in full possession of that important post,
the only one that could secure the landing. The French,
as soon as they saw that the enemy had got a firm footing
on land, betook themselves to the only remaining refuge,
and shut themselves up in Louisbourg. But the fortifica¬
tions were in a bad condition; the revetements of the
several curtains had entirely crumbled away; there was
but one casemate and a small magazine that were bomb¬
proof; and the garrison consisted only of 2900 men. Not¬
withstanding these disadvantages, however, the besieged
made an obstinate resistance; and it was only on the eve
of an assault, which it was impossible to sustain, that they
talked of surrendering. An honourable capitulation was
granted them, and the possession was confirmed to Great
Britain by the peace in 1763, after which the fortifications
were blown up, and the town of Louisbourg dismantled.
BREVET, in the French customs, denotes the grant of
some favour or donation from the king.
Brevet more particularly denotes that species of mi¬
litary commission by which an officer is promoted to a
rank in the army above that which he holds in his regi¬
ment. Brevet rank, therefore, is a rank in the army
higher than that for which pay is received, and, when
corps are brigaded, it gives precedence according to the
date of the brevet commission. The term brevet is also
sometimes used to express general promotion, by which a
given number of officers are raised from the rank of cap¬
tain upwauls, without any additional pay.
BREUGHEL, John,' was born about the year 1575.
He first applied himself to painting flowers and fruit, in
which he excelled ; and he afterwards obtained much suc¬
cess in drawing landscapes and views of the sea. He lived
long at Cologne, where he acquired considerable reputa¬
tion, and then travelled into Italy, where his fame went
before him, and where his landscapes, adorned with small
figures, gave very great satisfaction. If a judgment may
be formed from the number of pictures he left behind
him, he must have been exceedingly industrious; nor was
he satisfied with embellishing his own works, but rendered
himself useful in this respect to his friends. Even Rubens
made use of Breughel’s hand in the landscape part of se¬
veral of his small pictures; such as his Vertumnus and Po¬
mona, the satyr viewing the 'sleeping nymph, and the ter¬
restrial paradise, which is looked upon as the masterpiece
of that great artist. Breughel died in 1642.
BREVIARY, a daily office or book of divine service in
the Roman church. It is composed of matins, lauds, ves¬
pers, and the compline or post communio.
The breviary of Rome is general, and may be used in
2m
B R E
Dreviary all places; but on the model of this various others have
|| been formed, appropriated to each diocese, and v
“ “'iSr/T-the Greehs is the same in almost all
churches and monasteries which follow theGreek ntes . and
thev divide the psalter into twenty parts. In general, tne
Greek breviary consists of two parts ; the one containing
the office for the evening; the other that of the morning,
divided into matins, lauds, first, third, sixth and "mth ves-
pers, and the compline, that is, of seven different hours, on
account of the saying of David, Septiesindielaudem dixi tibu
The institution of the breviary is not very ancient, and
there have been inserted in it the lives of the saints, full
of stories more remarkable for their strangeness than their
authenticity. This gave occasion to -ver^ reformations
by different councils, especially those of Trent ^
Wne; by several popes, particularly Pius \ . Clement
VIII and Urban VIII.; and also by several cardinals and
bishops, each lopping off some extravagance, and bringing
it nearer to the simplicity of the primitive offices. Origi¬
nally, all were obliged to recite the breviary every day;
but bv degrees the obligation was restricted to the clergy
only, who are enjoined, under penalty of mortal sin and
ecclesiastical censures, to recite it at home when they
cannot attend in public. In the fourteenth centurj a
particular reservation was granted in favour ot bishops,
who were allowed, on extraordinary occasions, to pass
three days without rehearsing the breviary.
This office was originally called cursus, and afterwards
breviarium, which imports that the old office was abridged,
or rather, that this collection is a kind of abridgment ot
all the prayers. The breviaries now in use are mnumer-
B R E
able • the difference between them consists principally in Brevki
the number and order of the psalms, hymns, paternosters, [!
ave-Marias, creeds, magnificates, cantemuses, benedic-
tuses, canticamuses, nunc dimittises, misereres, hallelu¬
jahs, gloria-patris, and so on. . , ,
Breviary, in Roman Antiquity, a book first introduced
by Augustus, containing an account of the application of
the public money.
BREVIATOK, an officer under the eastern empire,
whose business it was to write and translate briefs. At
Rome those are styled breviators, or abbreviators, who dic¬
tate and draw up the pope’s briefs.
BREWER, Anthony, a dramatic poet, who flourished
in the reign of King Charles I., and appears to have been
held in considerable estimation by the wits of that time,
as may be gathered from a compliment paid to him in a
poem called Steps to Parnassus, in which he is supposed
to have a magic power to call the muses to his assistance,
and is even set on an equality with Shakspeare himself.
There are, however, great disputes among the several
writers as to the number of his works. Those which have
been ascribed to him with any certainty are, 1. The Coun¬
try Girl, a comedy; 2. The Love-sick King, a comedy;
and, 3. Lingua. When this play was performed at Cam¬
bridge, it is said by Winstanley that Oliver Cromwell, then
a youth, acted a part in it. The substance of the piece is
a contention among the Senses for a crown, which Lingua
had laid for them to find. The part allotted to young
Cromwell was that of Tactus or Touch.
Brewer, a person who professes the art of brewing.
There are companies of brewrers in most capital cities;
that of London was incorporated in 1427 by Henry VI.
B R E V
We shall divide this article into five chapters. In the
first we shall take as short a view as possible of the histo¬
ry of the art; in the second, we shall give an account of
the different kinds of grain employed in brewing; in the
third, we shall treat of the process of malting; in the fourth,
of that of brewing; and in the fifth, we shall give an ac¬
count of the nature and properties of the different kinds
of ale and beer manufactured by the brewer. The Expla¬
nation of the Plates will contain a description of the ves¬
sels used in a London porter brewery.
CHAP. I.
HISTORY OF BREWING.
No notice is taken of beer or ale in the books of Moses,
from which it is probable that they were unknown till alter
the death of this legislator. All the ancient Greek writers
agree in assigning the honour of the discovery of beer to
the Egyptians, whose country, being annually inundated
by the Nile, was not adapted to the cultivation of vines.
Herodotus, who wrote about 450 years before the com¬
mencement of the Christian era, informs us that the
Egyptians made their wine from barley, because they had
no vines. O/vw 6’ ‘nvoiri^tvw 8/a^ionrai ov yctg dfiv
s/tf/ sv 7r\ yjn^r\a,p,!7ikoi. Herodoti, lib. ii. c. /8. Pliny sajs
that this liquid in ./Egypt was called zythum (Plinii Hist.
Nat. lib. xxii. c. 25). The same name was given to it by
the inhabitants of Galatia, who, according to Diodorus
Siculus, were unable to cultivate grapes on account ot the
coldness of their climate. Beer was distinguished among
the Greeks by a variety of names. It was called ooov
xy&mv (barley wine) from its vinous properties, and from
the material employed in its formation. In Sophocles,
ING.
and probably in other Greek writers, it is distinguished
by the name of (Swrov. Dioscorides describes two kinds
of beer, to one of which he gives the name of ^oi', and to
the other xoyg/tw; but he gives us no description of either
sufficient to enable us to distinguish them from each ot ler.
(Dioscorides, lib. ii. c. 79 and 80.) Both, he informs us,
were made from barley, and similar liquids w ere manu¬
factured in Spain and Britain from wheat.
Tacitus informs us, that, in his time, beer was the
common drink of the Germans; and from his imper ect
description of the process which they followed, it is not
unlikely, or rather there can be no doubt, that they were
acquainted with the method of converting barley into
malt. “ Potui humor ex hordeo aut frumento in quan-
dam similitudinem vini corruptus.” (Pe Monbiis Ger¬
man. c. 23.) Pliny gives us some details respecting beer,
though they are by no means satisfactory. He distin¬
guishes it by the name of cerevisia or cervisia, the appe -
lation by which it is always known in modern Latin boo s.
This liquid does not appear to have come into general
use in Greece or Italy; but in Germany and Britain, and
some other countries, it appears to have been the common
drink of the inhabitants, at least as early as the time o
Tacitus, and probably long before. It has continue w
these countries ever since, and great quantities of beer are
still manufactured in Germany, in the Lowt Countries, an
in Britain.
The first treatise published on the subject, as tar as
we know, was by Basil Valentine. This treatise, decor
ing to Boerhaave, for we ourselves have never had an
opportunity of seeing it, is both accurate and e egan •
In the year 1585, Thaddeus Hagecius ab Hayck, a o
hemian writer, published a treatise entitled Do Cervi
5
B R E W I N G.
231
i
i
i
i
i
ng. ejusque conjiciendi ratione, natura, viribus et facultatibus.
^ This little treatise, consisting only of fifty pages, is writ¬
ten with great simplicity and perspicuity, and gives as
accurate a description of the whole process of brewing as
any treatise on the subject which we have seen. In the
early part of the eighteenth century, Mr Combrune, who,
we believe, was a practical London brewer, published a
book entitled The Theory and Practice of Brewing. This
book has gone through many editions, and, we believe, is
still reckoned the standard book on the subject. But the
attempts made in it to give a rational theory of brewing
are far from being satisfactory. Nor can any stress be laid
upon the experiments which it contains on the colour of
malt, according to the temperature at which it is dried.
The fact is, that malt may be rendered brown, or even
black, by exposure to a very low heat; while it may be
exposed to a very considerable temperature without losing
its colour. The writer of this article has seen malt ex¬
posed on the kiln to a heat of 175° without losing its co¬
lour, or without being deprived of the power of vegetating
when put into the ground; and he has reason to"believe
that these properties would have remained unaltered had
the temperature been raised still higher. It is not the
degree of heat applied, but the rapidity with which it is
raised, that darkens the colour of malt. If the heat at
first does not exceed 100°, and if, after the mah is dried as
much as it can be at that temperature, the heat be raised
to 120°, kept some time at that temperature, and then
raised gradually higher, and if we continue to proceed in
this manner, the temperature of the kiln may be elevated
at least to 175° without in the least discolouring the malt.
In the year 1784 Mr Richardson of Hull published his
Theoretic Hints on Brewing Malt Liquors, and his Stati¬
cal Estimates of the Materials of Brewing, shoicing the Use
of the Saccharometer. These books are reprehensible, On
account of the air of mystery in which the subject is in¬
vested, and the avowal of the author, that he conceals cer¬
tain parts of the processes. If a brewer conceives he knows
more of his art than his neighbours, and chooses to keep
his knowledge to himself, there is nothing to be said; but
if he publish a book upon the subject, and yet persists in
his concealment, he deserves no quarter. His book, in
such a case, can be looked upon in no other light than as
a quack bill to advertise the goodness of his wares. Mr
Richardson, however, deserves considerable praise for the
saccharometer, which he appears to have been the first to
bring under the notice of the brewer. This instrument is
of material service, by making brewers acquainted with
the strength of their worts, and consequently with the
proportion of soluble matter which is furnished by the
materials that they employ. Mr Richardson’s saccharome¬
ter, indeed, was not accurate, because it was founded on
an erroneous principle. The method which he followed
was to determine the weight of a barrel of pure water.
The liquid being then converted into wort, a barrel of it
was weighed again, and the increase of weight was consi¬
dered as the matter w’hich the water held in solution. Mr
Richardson did not seem to be aware that, when water
dissolves the sweet portion of malt, its bulk is altered; and
that, for this reason, the specific gravity of it does not indi¬
cate the quantity of solid matter which it holds in solution.
set of experiments made on purpose, by dissolving deter¬
minate weights of the solid extract of malt in given quan-
ities of water, is necessary to determine the point. The
same objection applies to the saccharometer of Dring and
age, and to various others in common use. That of Di-
cas is nearly correct, having been constructed upon proper
p incip es. But perhaps the best is one constructed about
ye?rs aS° by Dr Thomson, and used by the
se officers in Scotland. It indicates the specific gra¬
vity of the wort; from which, by means of a sliding rule,
which accompanies the instrument, the weight of saccha¬
rine matter contained in it is at once determined.
One of the latest books on tbe subject which we have
seen is entitled Practical Treatise on Brewing and Dis¬
tilling. This book was published in quarto in the year
1805. The author, whose name is Shannon, appears to
have had some practical knowledge of brewing; but he
must have been extremely illiterate, as he was totally un¬
able to write either grammar or common sense. The book
is a tissue of absurdities from beginning to end; and the
impracticability of his proposed improvements is surpass¬
ed only by the absurdity of his theory, which consists of
scraps and sentences, taken out of chemical books, and
tacked together, so as to have no meaning whatever.
CHAP. II.
OF THE K1XD OF GRAIV USED BY BREWERS.
Every kind of grain, with perhaps hardly an exception,
may be employed for the purposes of the brewer. In
America it is not uncommon to make beer with the seeds
of Indian corn or zea mais. In order to convert it into
malt, it is found necessary to bury it for some time under
the ground; and when germination has made sufficient
progress, it is dug up and kiln-dried. (See Philosophical
Transactions, vol. xii. p. 1065.) Mr Mungo Park informs
us, that, in Africa, the negroes make beer from the seeds
of the Holcus spicatus, and the process employed, as he
describes it, seems to differ but little from the one fol¬
lowed in this country. (See Park’s Travels, p. 63, 8vo
edition. Dioscorides assures us, that in Spain and Bri¬
tain wheat was employed for the manufacture of beer;
and the writer of this article has been informed by a
gentleman in the service of the East India Company, that
he has made beer from wheat at Madras. We have our¬
selves seen oats employed for this purpose in Great Bri¬
tain ; and in Germany and the north of Europe we believe
that it is not uncommon to employ rye for the same pur¬
pose.- But the material which answers best, and which is
almost solely used in Great Britain, and we believe in every
part of Europe where beer is manufactured, is barley.
Barley is the seed of the Hordeum vulgare, a plant Species of
which has been cultivated from time immemorial, chiefly barley,
for the manufacture of beer. There are two species of hor¬
deum under cultivation in Britain. The first is, the Hor¬
deum vulgare, or barley in which the seeds are disposed in
two rows on the spike. This is the species usually culti¬
vated in England and in the southern parts of Scotland.
The second is the Hordeum hexastichon, called in the south
of Scotland bear, and in Aberdeenshire big. In this species,
the grains are disposed in two rows, as in the other; but
three seeds spring from the same point, so that the head of
big appears to have the seeds disposed in six rows. Big is
a much more hardy plant than barley, and ripens more
rapidly. Hence it thrives better than barley in cold and
high situations. On this account it is sown in preference
in the Highlands and northern parts of Scotland, where
the climate is colder than farther to the south. We have
been assured that there is a third species of hordeum cul¬
tivated in Scotland, in which the seeds in the spike are
arranged in four rows. To this the term bear is exclu¬
sively confined by some. We have not ourselves had an
opportunity of seeing this species, nor do we find it no¬
ticed by botanists. The trivial name tetrastichon might
be applied to it.
The grains of barley are much larger than those of big,
and the cuticle which covers them is thinner. Indeed
the thickness of the skin of barley itself varies according
Brewing.
Brewing.
to the heat of the climate in which it is estivated, being
,   always the thinner the warmer the climate. Inus it wi
be found that the cuticle of Norfolk barley is Amner a
that of Berwickshire or East Lothian barley ; and it Nor
folk barley be sown in Scotland for several successi e
years its cuticle will be found to become thicker.
Its specific The specific gravity of barley is r^er than
gravity, of biff. The specific gravity of barley, tried in more tnan
100 different specimens, was found by t0 ^
1-333 to 1-250, and that of big from T26o to 12 7
average weight of a Winchester bushel of bailey was
found^to be 50-7 lbs. avoirdupois, and the average weig
ofTbushel of big 46-383 lbs. The heaviest barley tried
weighed 52-265 lbs. per bushel, and the heaviest big v\ eig
ed 48-586 lbs. The big grew in Perthshire, and the season
was peculiarly favourable. It was not absolutely ft ee from
a mixture of barley, as was ascertained by sowing a quan-
tity of it, but the" proportion of barley was very small.
r™*7   o rrvciin nf harlev 1
brewing.
examine an ear of big when nearly ripe, we shall perceive Brewi*
that the corns towards the bottom of the ear are smaller ^
than those towards the summit and about the middle of
the ear. Several of these bottom grains are usually abor¬
tive, or consist only of skin ; but this is not always the case.
In an ear of barley, on the contrary, we shall find almost
all the grains nearly of a size, though in some cases the
grain constituting the upper termination of the spike is
rather smaller than the rest. ... , . •
These circumstances may strike the reader as too mi¬
nute and trifling to be stated in such detail; but we shall
find afterwards that they will furnish us with an explana¬
tion of some anomalous circumstances which occur when
these two species of hordeum are converted into malt. I tie
value of barley, or its produce in alcohol, is rather im¬
proved, while big, on the contrary, is deteriorated, by malt¬
ing it, at least twenty per cent.
The constituents of the kernel of barley and big, as far Const:
as we are able to ascertain at present, are the same. Bar-ents.
The average weight of a grain of barley is °-6688 gram, or as we a < bjected t0 an elaborate chemical analysis
ft", wl.o
U   _ _ *
obtained from 3840 parts of barley-corns
orain of barley, from many thousand measurements,
0-345 inch, while that of a grain of big is 0-324o inch. So
that the average of both would give us very nearly the
third of an inch, which it ought to do, according to the
origin of our measures, as commonly stated. I he a\ eiag
breadth of a grain of barley is 0-145 inch, while the ave¬
rage breadth of a grain of big is 0T36 inch. The average
thickness of a grain of barley is 0;1125 inch, while the
average thickness of a grain of big is OTOoo inch. Thus
wre perceive that the grain of big is smaller than the grain
of barley in all its dimensions.
Weight of To determine the relative weight of the skins of barley
the husk, and big, we made choice of three parcels of grain, all ex¬
cellent in their kinds, namely, Norfolk barley, Haddington
barley, and Lanark big. The weights of the whole grain,
and of the cuticles of each of these, were as follows:
Weight of a Weight of cuticle
the following constituents:
Volatile matter  4r3U
Plusk or cuticle  ^20
Meal  2690
3840
From the same quantity of barley-meal he obtained.
Volatile matter  ^
Albumen 
Saccharine matter 
Mucilage  v  ' q
Phosphate of lime with mucilage  ^
Gluten   * 
Plusk, with some gluten and starch, 
Starch, not quite free from gluten 
Loss.
2580
76
3840
corn in grains. in grains.
.....0-6809 0-110 or £
,....0-7120 0-123 or £
 0-5408 0-125 or
Bulk.
Norfolk barley 
Haddington barley....
Lanark big 
From this we see that there is little difference between
the weight of the skin of Norfolk and Haddington barley,
but a very considerable difference between Haddington
barley and Lanark big. Hence it w-ould seem that this dif¬
ference is not owing to the climate in which the barley
vegetates, but rather to the nature of the two species.
The bulks of these two species of grain with relation to
each other are as follows:
Barley 0-00217 cubic inch.
Big 0-001777 cubic inch.
These quantities represent the average bulk of a corn
of each kind. Thus it appears that a grain of barley is
rather more than £th part larger than a grain of big.
Finally, from a comparison of many thousand corns of
each species with each other, it appears that the inequa¬
lity between the size of different grains of big is greater
than that between different grains of barley. Indeed, if we
The writer of this article has likewise extracted from
barley, by means of alcohol, a small quantity of an oiy
matter, which has an asparagus green colour, and does not
burn with the same readiness as an oil. It has very much
the appearance of olive oil coagulated, but its consistence
is less, and its colour is darker. It has little smell, and
its taste resembles the flavour of spirits from raw grain
We have likewise found in big a quantity of nitrate
soda. Hence it is likely that this salt exists as a common
constituent of barley. We obtained it by steeping big in
water for two days, concentrating the liquid, and settin
it aside in a dry place. Many rhomboidal crystals of rn-
trate of soda gradually make their appearance as the liquid
CV We^shall terminate this chapter by a table, exhibiting
the most remarkable properties of a considerable number
of specimens of British barley and big, as determined bj
the writer of this article. The different specimens are
distinguished by the name of the county in which they
grew. By the bushel in the table is meant the Winches¬
ter bushel of 2150-42 cubic inches.
BREWING.
233
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TABLE OF PROPERTIES.
brewing.
CHAP. III.
1. The steep is a square cistern sunk at one end of the Brewin
malt barn, lined with stone, and of a sufficient size to hold
the whole barley that is to be malted at a time. The bar-Meepingj
lev is put into this cistern with the requisite quantity of
pure water to cover it. It is laid as evenly as possible
upon the floor of the cistern. Here it must remain at
least forty hours; but in Scotland, especially when the
weather is cold, it is customary to allow it to remain
much longer. We have seen barley steeped m Edinburgh
for 112 hours by one maltster, and by another usually
ninety-eight or ninety-two hours. It is the common prac¬
tice to introduce the water into the cistern before the bar¬
ley, and it is usually once drawn off and new water added
during the steeping. , , . • *1
Three changes take place on the barley while in the
steep. 1. It imbibes moisture and increases in bulk. 2.
Some carbonic acid gas is evolved, most of which remains
dissolved in the steep-water. 3. A portion of the husk
or skin of the barley is dissolved, in consequence of which
the steep-water acquires a yellow colour, and contracts a
peculiar smell, not unlike that of moist stiaw.
The quantity of moisture imbibed by the barley varies Moistim
according to the goodness of the barley and the length ofimtibed.
time during which it is allowed to remain in the steep.
But the general average may be stated at 0-47; or 100 lbs
OF MALTING.
It is always customary to convert barley into malt be¬
fore employing it in the manufacture of ale. Not that this
conversion^ absolutely necessary, but that it adds consi¬
derable facility to the different processes of the brewer.
The writer o/this article has several times tried the ex¬
periment of making ale from unmalted barley, and found
Ft perfectly practicable. Several precautions, however,
arePnecessary in order to succeed. The water let upon
the ground barley in the mash-tun must be consideiably
below the boiling temperature ; for barley-meal is much
more apt to set than malt, that is, to form a stiff paste,
from which no wort will separate. The addition of a por¬
tion of the chaff of oats serves very much to prevent this
setting of the goods, and facilitates considerably the separa¬
tion of the wort. Care must likewise be taken to prevent
the heat from escaping during the mashing, and the mas i-
ing must be continued longer than usual; for it is during
the mashing that the starch of the barley is converted into
a saccharine matter. This change seems to be owing
merely to the chemical combination of a portion of water
with the starch of the barley; just as happens when com-
™n starch is converted Thibetd7f Jtarfey^eTpediKs^GrnreVweigh, newly taken out
dilute sulphuric acid, oi any other acid, in ' an(i dried, 147 lbs. English barley acquires
brewing from raw grain answers adm.rably for small beer ‘“ew^ while Scotch barley ac-
beer was considered as greatly preferab e ^ d P in the steep obviously depends upon the quantity of
brewed in the usual manner. 1 e p , water absorbed - but it is not so great as that absorption,
surely it is highly impolitic to prevent ameliorations m the one Mf f ttaoMhe ongma ^ ^ ^
manufactures in order to guaid against any dehciei cy s, hundred measures of different kinds Increasi
thn nrndure of the taxes. A wise government would have gives the bulk ol one nunureu meaa
permitted the improvement, and would have levied the of barley, after steeping, as follows
malt-tax in a different manner. In our trials the raw bar- English barley ^ measures.
ley did not answer so well for making strong ale as or Scotch barley T21T
small beer. The ale was perfectly transparent, and we Scotch big 118
bufith[LSpIculLr&voulXU“ot^“n"lan|rel"^learro- The greatest swell observed was from 100 to 183 which
bablv a little practice might have enabled us to get rid of took place in barley from the county of Suffolk; the smal -
Fht flavour Fn which case raw grain would answer in est was from 100 to 109, which took place in Perth big.
everv rlsnect Fs^U for brewing 1 malt does. While the malt is in the steep cistern it is repea edly
A^dutv was first charged upon malt during the troubles gauged by the exciseman, and the duty on ie c
of Charles I’s reign. But it continued very moderate till vied by what is called the best gauge, or that w ^
the war with France recommenced in 1803. It was then the greatest bulk of grain It is in P^r ^se to
uie wtu . . . determine the quantity of malt in the subsequent pio
cesses, and, if any of them exceeds the best gauge in the
cistern, to levy the duty by it. But these subsequent
gauges are not susceptible of the same precision as t e
gauges in the cistern, when the grain is surrounded on a
sides by perpendicular walls. . „
That carbonic acid is evolved during the steeping otCaibon.
grain, is obvious from the most simple experiments. aci
the steep-water be mixed with lime-water, the whole be¬
comes milky, and carbonate of lime is deposited. t e
steep-water be agitated, it froths on the surface hke a e.
If it be heated, it gives out carbonic acid gas, which may
steeps
raised to the following sums per bushel
L. s. d.
English malt 0 4 4 or 100
Malt of Scotch barley 0 3 8^ or 84-856
Malt of Scotch big 0 3 0£ or 69-472
But two shillings of this tax were to continue only till the
end of the war, and for six months after its conclusion.^ In
consequence of this very heavy tax, several regulations
were imposed upon the maltster, with a view to facilitate
the levying of the duty, and to prevent him from defraud¬
ing the revenue. The most important of these are the two
following:—1. The barley must remain in the cistern in
which it is steeped with water for a period not less than
forty hours. 2. When the malt is spread upon the floor
the maltster is not at liberty to sprinkle any water upon
it, or to moisten the floor. We shall now describe^ the pro¬
cess of malting, as it is practised by the best-informed
malt-makers in Great Britain.
Malting consists of four processes, which follow each
other in regular order; namely, steeping, couching, flooring,
and kiln-drying.
be collected over mercury. But we never were able to
observe bubbles of gas extricate themselves from the grain
during the steep, except once or twice during warm wea¬
ther, when the steep-water was allowed to remain latner
too long without being changed. In these cases, some¬
thing like a commencement of fermentation, or perhaps o
putrefaction, appeared to take place. But in genera ,
there is reason to believe that nearly all the carbonic aci
evolved in the steep remains in solution in the watei, or
BREWING.
235
Bi
ing, at least is extricated From the water in an imperceptible
manner. From the observations of Saussure, it seems pro¬
bable that the formation of carbonic acid in the steep is
owing to the oxygen gas held in solution by the steep-
Ma
(lisi
by
ste«
ter.
Thi
k
its
water.
Lp The steep-water gradually acquires a yellow colour, and
Led the peculiar smell and taste of water in which straw has
^ been steeped. At the same time, the barley becomes
wa- whiter, showing clearly that the water has absorbed a
portion of colouring matter which existed in the husk or
skin of the grain. The average quantity of matter dis¬
solved by the water amounts to about 7\jth of the weight of
the barley. The steep-water becomes much more deeply
coloured when big is steeped in it than it does with barley,
because big is darker in the colour, and its husk is thicker
and contains more colouring matter. The matter of big
taken up by the steep-water amounts to about ^jth of the
weight of the whole grain. When this steep-water is
evaporated it leaves a matter of a yellow colour and dis¬
agreeably bitter taste, which deliquesces in a moist atmo¬
sphere. The only salt which it contains in any notable
quantity is nitrate of soda.
Thus the only notable alterations which the kernel of
barley undergoes in the steep are the absorption of water
and the resulting increase of bulk. The matter taken up
by the water seems to proceed only from the skin, and the
evolution of carbonic acid may perhaps be owing to some
commencement of alteration which this dissolved matter
experiences. It can scarcely be ascribed to any change
going on within the kernel itself,
jbuch. 2. When the barley is judged by the maltster to have
remained long enough in the steep, which is the case when
its two ends can be easily squeezed together between the
finger and the thumb, the water is let off and the grain
allowed to drain. It is then thrown out of the cistern
upon the malt floor, where it is formed into as regular a
rectangular heap as possible, which is called the couch.
While in this position it is gauged by the exciseman, and
if it measure more than it did in the steep, he is at liberty
to charge the duty upon the quantity to which the grain
now amounts. But as the barley in the couch cannot be
rendered perfectly regular, it requires a good deal of skill
and considerable attention to gauge it with tolerable ac¬
curacy. On that account the duty we believe is levied
from the couch gauge. The grain is allowed to remain
in the couch without any alteration for about twenty-six
hours.
; Swe ing.
)
t
2
1
,>
e
y
;o ‘i
n .
]• '
:r ;;:
Spirting
ofirfbl b
,1, ro°
id
if
3. If we plunge a thermometer into the grain, and ob¬
serve it from time to time, we shall find that the barley
continues for some hours without acquiring any percep¬
tible increase of heat. During this period the moisture on
the surface of the corns gradually exhales or is absorbed,
so that they do not perceptibly moisten the hand. But at
last the thermometer begins to rise, and continues to do
so gradually till the temperature of the grain is about ten
degrees higher than that of the surrounding atmosphere.
This happens usually in about ninety-six hours after it has
been thrown out of the steep. It now exhales an agree¬
able odour, which has some resemblance to that of apples.
If we thrust our hand into the heap we shall find that it
feels warm, while, at the same time, it has become so moist
as to wet the hand. The appearance of this moisture is
called sweating by the maltsters, and it constitutes a re¬
markable period in the process of malting. We have rea¬
son to believe that a little alcohol is at this period exhaled
by the grain.
If we examine the grains in the inside of the heap at
the time of sweating, we shall perceive the roots beginning
to make their appearance at the bottom of each seed. At
first they have the appearance of a white prominence,
which soon divides itself into three rootlets. In big the Brewing,
number of rootlets seldom exceeds three, but in barley
it frequently amounts to five or six. These rootlets in¬
crease in length with great rapidity, unless their growth
be checked by artificial means ; and the principal art of
the maltster is directed to keep them short till the grain
be sufficiently malted. The writer of this article has seen
them increase in length nearly to two inches in the course
of a single night; and when he purposely favoured the
growth, in order to ascertain the effect upon the malt, he
has seen them get to the length of three inches or more.
In such cases, the heat of the grain rose very rapidly, and
on one occasion was little inferior to eighty degrees. In¬
deed it is probable that, if not checked, the temperature
would rise sufficiently high to char the grain, if not to set
it on fire.
The too great grow th of the roots, and the too high
elevation of temperature, is prevented by spreading the
grain thinner upon the floor, and carefully turning it over
several times a day. At first the depth is about sixteen
inches ; but this depth is diminished a little at every turn¬
ing, till at last it is reduced to three or four inches. The
number of turnings is regulated by the temperature of the
malt, but they are seldom fewer than two each day. In
Scotland the temperature of the grain is kept as nearly as
possible at fifty-five degrees; but in England we have gene¬
rally found the temperature of the grain on the malt floor
about sixty-two degrees. It has been generally supposed
that the Hertfordshire method of making malt is the best;
but, after a very careful comparison of the two methods,
we were unable to perceive any superiority whatever in the
English mode.
About a day after the sprouting of the roots, the rudi-Acrospire.
ment of the future stem begins to make its appearance.
This substance is called by the maltsters the acrospire.
It rises from the same extremity of the seed with the root,
and, advancing within the husk or skin, would at last (if
the process were continued long enough) issue from the
other extremity in the form of a green leaf; but the pro¬
cess of malting is stopped before the acrospire has made
such progress.
While the grain is on the malt floor, it has been ascer¬
tained that it absorbs oxygen gas and emits carbonic acid
gas ; but to what amount these absorptions and emissions
take place, has not been ascertained. They are certain¬
ly small; for the average loss which the grain sustains
when on the malt floor is only three per cent., a consider¬
able portion of which must be ascribed to roots broken off,
and grains of barley bruised during the turning. As the
acrospire shoots along the grain, the appearance of the
kernel or mealy part of the corn undergoes a considerable
change. The glutinous and mucilaginous matter in a great
measure disappears, the colour becomes whiter, and the
texture so loose that it crumbles to powder between the
fingers. The object of malting is to produce this change.
When it is accomplished, which takes place when the
acrospire has come nearly to the end of the seed, the pro¬
cess is stopped altogether.
At this period, it wras formerly the custom in Scotland
to pile up the whole grain into a pretty thick heap, and
allow it to remain for some time. The consequence is
the evolution of a very considerable heat, while, at the
same time, the malt becomes exceedingly sweet. But
this plan is now laid aside, because it occasions a sensible
diminution in the malt, without being of any essential ser¬
vice ; for the very same change takes place afterwards,
while the malt is in the mash-tun, without any loss what¬
ever.
The time during whi'ch the grain continues on the malt-
floor varies according to circumstances. The higher the
B R E W I N G.
Kiln-dry-
temperature at which the grain is kept, the more speedily
is it converted into malt. In general, fourteen days may
be specified as the period which intervenes in England
from throwing the barley out of the steep till it is ready
for the kiln; while in Scotland it is seldom shorter than
eighteen days, and sometimes three weeks. I his, no
doubt, is an advantage in favour ot English malting,, as
every thing which shortens the progress, without injuring
the malt, must turn out to the advantage of the manufac-
tU14. The last part of the process is to dry the malt upon
the kiln, which stops the germination, and enables the
brewer to keep the malt for some time without injury.
The kiln is a chamber, the floor of which usually.consists
of iron plates full of holes, and in the roof there is a vent
to allow the escape of the heated air and vapour. Under
this room is a space in which fire of charcoal or coke is
lighted. The heated air which supplies this fire passes
up through the holes in the iron plates, and makes its
way through the malt, carrying off the moisture along with
it. At first the temperature ol the malt is not higher
than 90° ; but it is elevated very slowly to 140°, or even
higher. We believe that in many cases it rises at last
almost as high as 212°, though we have never witnessed
any such high temperature ourselves. But we have seen
pale malt dried at a temperature of 175°, without any in¬
jury whatever. The great secret in drying malt properly
consists in keeping the heat very low at first, and only
raising it very gradually as the moisture is dissipated. 1 or
a hi"h temperature applied at first would infallibly black¬
en, or even char the malt, and would certainly diminish
considerably the quantity of soluble matter which it con¬
tains. We shall here insert the table drawn up by Mr
Combrune, from his own experiments, of the colour of malt
dried in different temperatures. •
Heat.
119° White.
124 Cream-colour.
129  Light yellow.
134   Amber-colour.
138  High amber.
143  Pale brown.
148 Brown.
152  High brown.
157  Brown inclining to black.
162  High brown speckled with black.
167  Blackish brown with black specks.
171  Colour of burnt coffee.
176  Black.
We have given this table, not on account of any infor¬
mation which it contains, but to put our readers on their
guard against the false conclusions of this writer. We
have taken malt dried at the temperature of 175°, put it
into a garden pot filled with soil, and have seen it vegetate
apparently as well as raw grain placed in the same situa¬
tion. Now, this is only one degree lower than that in
which Mr Combrune says malt is converted into charcoal,
and it is four degrees higher than that in which his malt
assumed the colour of burnt coffee. Certainly malt re¬
duced to the colour of burnt coffee by heat would be de¬
prived of the power of vegetating. Mr Combrune’s ex¬
periments were made by putting malt into an earthen
pan, which he placed over a charcoal fire in a stove, while
he kept stirring the malt the whole time of the experi¬
ment. The bulb of the thermometer was placed half-way
between the upper surface of the malt and the bottom of
the vessel. Now the reader will perceive at once that
the earthen pan would be much hotter than that part of
the malt where the thermometer was placed. By the con¬
stant stirring of the malt, the whole of it was gradually Brewing;
exposed to the burning action of the surface of the pan.
Had the experiment been made without stirring the malt
at all, and had the thermometer been placed near the sur¬
face 'in that case the changes in the colour of the malt at
the surface would have indicated the temperature to which
it was exposed. But in the way that Mr Combrune con¬
ducted his experiments, the temperatures which he ob¬
tained were entirely fallacious. We have not the least
doubt that the temperature of the earthen pan, towards
the end of his experiment, was above 400°.
Mr Combrune’s law, however, that the heat of the water
in mashing ought to be regulated by the colour of the malt;
namely, that the paler the malt is, the lower ought the
temperature of the mashing water to be, is founded on ac¬
curate observations. The fact is, that boiling water would
answer better than any other for mashing, because it
would dissolve most speedily the soluble part of the malt.
The only reason for not using it is, that the tendency of
the malt to set increases with the temperature of the water.
Now the higher the colour of the malt, the less is its ten¬
dency to set; but we may nevertheless use water of a
higher temperature to mash with it. For the same reason,
when raw grain is used, the temperature of the mashing
water must be still lower than when malt is employed;
because raw grain has a very great tendency to set.
The old malt-kilns had a bottom of hair-cloth instead
of the iron plates full of holes, which constitute a more
recent improvement. We have seen the thermometer in
such a kiln, when the bulb touched the hair-cloth, rise as
high as 186°. In general, the temperature of the malt-
kiln is very carelessly regulated. We have seen malt for
the very same purpose dried at a temperature which never
rose higher than 136° ; while a portion of the very same
malt, put into another kiln, was heated as high as 186°.
But such a careless mode oi drying malt is reprehensible,
and must be more or less injurious to the biewer. In ge¬
neral, the more rapidly malt is dried the more does its
bulk increase. This method, accordingly, is practised by
those who malt for sale, as is the case with most of the
English maltsters; because malt is always sold by mea¬
sure, and not by weight. The brewers would find it more
for their interest to buy malt by weight than by measure.
In that case the malsters would dry their malt at as low
a temperature as possible. But this would signify very
little, or rather would be advantageous to the brewer;
because dried malt soon recovers the moisture lost on the
kiln when kept for some time in sacks. And when malt
is dried at a low temperature, we are sure that none of it
is injured by the fire. It will, therefore, go farther m the
production of beer. The time of kiln-drying varies con¬
siderably, according to the quantity of malt exposed to
the action of the heat; but when that quantity is not too
great, we may estimate the time of kiln-drying, in geneia ,
at two days. After the fire is withdrawn, the malt is al¬
lowed to remain on the kiln till it has become nearly con.
By the kiln-drying, the roots of the barley, or, as the
maltsters call them, the comings, are dried up and fall olr.
They are separated from the malt by passing it over t e
surface of a kind of wire screen, which allows the comings
to drop through, while the wires are too near each other
to permit the grains of malt to pass
pciiiiii/ me giciiiio ha mult/ ii u
If 100 lbs. of barley malted in this manner, with a HUeUaj
requisite care, be weighed just after being kiln-dried an P t
cleaned, they will be found, on an average, to weigh o
lbs. But if the raw grain be kiln-dried at the same tem¬
perature as the malt, it will lose 12 per cent, of its weight.
Hence 12 per cent, of the loss which barley sustains m
malting must be ascribed to moisture dissipated by t e
kiln-drying; so that the real loss of weight which barley
5 ^
B R E W I N G.
237
ig- sustains when malted amounts to eight per cent. This loss,
from a great many trials made in the large way, with all
the requisite care, wre conceive may be accounted for in
the following manner:
Carried off by the steep-water T5
Dissipated while on the floor..... 3*0
Roots separated by cleaning   3-0
Waste   0-5
8-0
These numbers were obtained from above thirty differ¬
ent makings, conducted in four different malting houses,
with as much attention to every circumstance as was com¬
patible with practical malting. The matter carried off
by the steep-water, which amounts to about ^th of the
weight of the whole grain, we conceive to be dissolved
from the skin or husks. It may, therefore, be left out of
view. The waste is owing to grains of malt crushed by
the workmen while turning the malt on the floor, and
afterwards dissipated or destroyed during the subsequent
processes. We were not able to collect these bruised
grains and weigh them; the number therefore given for
them in the preceding table is hypothetical; but, from a
great many circumstances, which it would be too tedious
to mention here, we believe that, in our trials, g^yth part
of the whole very nearly represents the amount of the
crushed grains. Thus the real loss of weight by malting
(supposing nothing lost by steeping, and no grains crushed)
is only six per cent., and of this loss four per cent, may be
safely ascribed to the roots ; so that not above two per cent,
at most can be assigned to the carbon dissipated by the
evolution of carbonic acid on the floor and on the kiln.
Indeed we have reason to conclude, from a good many
trials, that the greatest part of this loss of two per cent, is
sustained on the kiln. For, if malt dried carefully at a
low temperature be afterwards kiln-dried, or exposed, as
was our method, to the heat of a steam bath, it never
afterwards recovers its former weight by exposure to the
air. And every time this experiment is repeated, by arti¬
ficially moistening and drying the same malt, a new loss
of weight is sustained. The same observation was made
by Saussure, who conceived that the loss was to be as¬
cribed to the formation and dissipation of water in the
barleycorn. But we have no proof whatever that any
such formation takes place. It is more probable that the
loss is owing to the formation and escape of carbonic acid Brewing.
Big sustains a considerably greater loss of weight when
malted than barley. The average loss of weight in our
trials with barley was only eight per cent., while that of
big was fifteen per cent., or nearly double. This, we con¬
ceive, is owing to the destruction of a much greater num¬
ber of the corns during the process of malting big than
barley. But in all our experiments on big, that grain -was
manifestly oversteeped. To this, perhaps, a good deal of
the difference may be ascribed. Our maltsters had not
been in the habit of malting big, and therefore were not
likely to do it so much justice as they did to the barley.
Hence it would be improper to venture upon any general
conclusions from the experiments which we made upon
the malting of big.
The bulk of the malt is usually greater than that of the
barley from which it was obtained ; but this varies a good
deal according to the goodness of the grain and the mode
of drying the malt. In our trials, made all in the same
way, 100 bushels of the different kinds of grain gave, on
an average, the following results :
English barley 109
Scotch barley 103
Scotch big ..lOO'S
The greatest quantity in bushels obtained from 100
bushels of English barley was 111^, the least 106 bushels.
The greatest quantity obtained from 100 bushels of Scotch
barley was 109, and the least 98 bushels. The greatest
quantity obtained from 100 bushels of big was 103 bushels,
the least 97 bushels. Hence it appears that, on malt¬
ing English barley, there is a profit of nine per cent.,
while big yields scarcely any thing more than its. bulk be¬
fore malting. The English maltster makes more bushels
of malt than he pays duty for; but the maltster of big, on
the contrary, obtains fewer.
We shall subjoin here two tables, which exhibit in one Tables of
view the result of a considerable number of trials made malting,
by the author of this article, on malting different varieties
of grain. The barley is distinguished by the name of the
county where it grew. To understand the first table, the
reader must know that excisemen estimate the quantity
of malt by subtracting one fifth from the best or highest
gauge in the steep or couch, and charge the duty accord¬
ingly.
TABLE I.
BIG.
First Qualities.
Dumfries  
Dumfries 
Lanark  
Perth 
Perth 
Perth 
Aberdeen 
Aberdeen 
Aberdeen 
Aberdeen 
Average.
General
Original
bulk of
Grain.
average
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Bulk by
best
Gauge in
Steep or
Couch.
112-0
132-8
121-6
120-9
120-7
112-8
127-3
125-6
114-5
124-0
121-2
Produce
in
Malt.
97-6
97-9
103-3
102-9
99-1
97- 4
100-7
99-9
94-1
98- 7
99-1
Malt
charged
Duty.
89-6
106-2
96-3
95-7
95-5
89-2
101-8
100-5
91-6
99-2
97-0
Differ¬
ence
per cent.
2-1
BIG.
Second Qualities.
Kirkcudbright.
Ayr 
Angus  
Angus 
Mearns 
Average.
Third Qualities.
Kirkcudbright.
Aberdeen  
Average.
Original
bulk of
Grain.
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Bulk by
best
Gauge in
Steep or
Couch.
119-5
114-2
127-4
121-6
121-3
120-8
110-6
123-1
116-8
Produce
in
Malt.
101-2
101-1
96-8
94-5
96-5
98-1
94-5
105-0
99-7
Malt
charged
Duty.
95-6
91-3
101-9
97-2
97-0
96-6
88-4
98-4
93-4
Differ¬
ence
per cent.
1-5
6-3
3-3
brewing.
TABLE I.—continued.
BARLEY.
English.
j Bulk by
Original best
First Qualities.
Norfolk 
Norfolk 
Kent —  
Kent 
Suffolk 
Suffolk 
Average.
Second Qualities.
Norfolk 
Norfolk 
Suffolk 
Kent 
Kent 
bulk of
Grain.
Gauge in
Steep or
Couch.
100
100
100
100
100
100
Produce
in
Malt.
Malt
charged
Duty.
100
123-0
121-5
128-0
119-7
123-7
116-8
122-1
Average.
Third Qualities.
Norfolk 
Norfolk 
Essex 
Essex 
Essex  
Essex 
100
100
100
100
100
100
Average.
General average
100
100
100
100
100
100
129-6
122-0
137-9
133-2
125-6
109-5
104-5
111-2
106-3
101-6
100-8
105-6
129-6
128-2
127- 1
134-5
126-3
128- 0
120-5
109-2
103-9
107-6
109-2
105-3
98-4
97- 2
102-4
95-8
98- 6
93-4
Differ¬
ence
per cent.
97-6
103-7
97-6
109-5
106-5
100-4
107-0
100
127-4
106-4
104- 5
106-5
105- 8
102-1
97-6
104-4
BARLEY.
Scotch.
103-4
102-5
101-6
107-6
101-0
102-4
96-4
101-9
2-6
First Qualities.
Berwick and
Haddington.
Haddington....
Haddington....
Linlithgow 
Perth 
Fife 
Angus 
Edinburgh 
Edinburgh 
Bulk by
Original' best
bulk of Gauge in
Grain.
Steep or
Couch.
Produce
in
Malt.
Malt
charged
Duty.
Differ¬
ence
per cent.
Average.
1-9
Second Qualities.
Berwick and
Haddington,
Haddington...,
Perth 
Fife - 
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Average.
4-03
Third Qualities.
Berwick 
Haddington....
Linlithgow 
Linlithgow 
Fife 
Angus 
100
100
100
100
119-8
1210
121-0
118-7
127-3
125-3
123-8
123-8
116-7
119-6
100-6
109-4
103-1
106-2
102- 4
100-1
103- 6
98-6
102-7
95- 8
96- 8
96-8
94-9
101-8
100-2
100-6
99-0
93-3
102-9
100
Average.
100
100
100
100
100
100
119-4
125-8
114-2
119-6
119-7
100-9
103-2
96-9
94-0
97-6
5-3
95-5
100-6
91-3
95-6
98-7 95-7
100
General average .
115-2
120-0
113-6
121-0
117-5
120-8
98-2
101-6
92- 3
93- 4
91-5
'iOM
118-0
96-3
92-1
96-0
90-8
96-8
94-0
96-6
94-4
!•<>
3-4
TABLE II.
BARLEY.
First Quality.
English.
Norfolk 
Norfolk —
Kent 
Kent 
Suffolk 
Weight
per
Bushel,
in lbs.
Bushels
Measur¬
ed out.
Swim- i Swim- Weight of
mings Bushels mings in Grain
in really lbs.
Bush- .Steeped. Avoir-
els. | dupois.
50-375
50-375
49-750
49-914
50*508
150
150
90
Suffolk  50-859
Average
50-297
Scotch.
Berwick and
Haddington.
Haddington.
Haddington.
Linlithgow
Perth 
Fife 
Angus 
Edinburgh..
Edinburgh..
Average 51-549
90
150
72
53-093
52-190
52-190
51-062
50- 226
51- 539
49-312
52- 164
52-164
1-4
1-75
1-96
1- 75
2- 68
1-28
148-60
148-25
88-09
88-25
147-32
70-72
114-75
60
75
66
66
148
66
111
90
1-23
0-5
0-3
0-56
0-75
1-62
1-68
1-50
1-25
113-52
59-50
74-70
65-44
65-25
146-38
64-32
109-5
88-75
43-18
43-00
56-45
40-50
84-15
29-44
really
Steeped,
in lbs.
Swell
Hours in
Steep,
7509-82
7513-50
4421-05
4442-63
7494-00
3632-40
23-87
13-75
11-26
18-34
21-00
40- 00
44-37
41- 37
34-47
116
93-75
86
52
49
44
per
cent.
Steep.
6068-60
3117-50
3902-80
3352-81
3293-95
7578-78
3210-25
5748-82
4660-29
73-4
119
92
112
109
57
81
80
76
52-5
86-5
16
Swe11 Days
Per. I on
Floor.
cent, in
Couch.
25
15-7
18-9
23-08
21-5
28
19-7
23-3
16-8
22-06
21
21
24-5
19-8
25-8
23
14-8
21
18-7
27-3
25-3
23-8
23-8
16-7
21-7 I 19-6
12
17
13
13
Clean
Malt in
Bushels.
Weight j Appa- i bushels or malt
of Clean rent loss
Malt per
BusheL
lbs.
of From 100
Weight Bushels
per cent. Grain.
162-75
155-00
98
93-87
149-75
71-31
14.-6
18
20
19
9
36-58
38- 40
34- 88
35- 76
40-56
39- 11
20-0
21-2
23-0
25
21
23-2
109-5
104-5
111-2
106-3
101-6
100-8
37-55
14
8
14
16
114-18
64-50
77
69-5
66-86
146-54
66-6
108
91-12
13
39-60
38- 06
39- 18
39- 09
38-18
38-80
36-76
41-92
40- 24
22-2
39-09
25-4
21
23
19
22-49
25-07
24
21
22
22-6
105-6
From
100 lbs.
Grain.
2-17
2-06
2-22
2-11
2
1-96
100-6
199-4
103-1
206-2
102- 4
100-1
103- 6
98-6
102-7
2-09
1-88
2-07
1- 97
2- 07
2-03
1- 93
2- 07
1-88
1-95
pounds or)
From 1
Bushel
Grain.
40-063
40- 152
38-816
38- 926
41- 227
39- 435
I'A
39-736
102-9
1-98
39- 840
41-618
40- 386
41- 520
39-131
38-843
38-074
41-345
41-319
i a
B R E W I N G.
239
—
I ’.LEY.
T
D /.fries...
Difries...
Lurk 
Ft i 
Peh 
Pen 
Ali'deen..
Ahdeen..
Ah deen..
Atldeen..
Av agi
Ha
Ha
Pe,
*
Av i
—
TCH.
f ck and
iington.
Jington.
ig.
Kir udbrt..
Av
An
An
Me
Av
Phi
E>
Nci
No:
Esj
d!
ier
Ia<
an!
Lin!
5fe.
ge¬
ls  
ge  
1 ^ttaHty.
.ISIf.
Weight
per Hu-
shel in
lbs.
47- 000
47*726
48- 562
48-585
48-562
48-562
48-226
48-562
48- 312
49- 172
Bushels
M easur-
ed out.
iO
80
150
100
98
90
90
150
90
90
48-327
50- 57
51- 00
48- 845
50-062
49- 945
Swim¬
mings
in
Bush¬
els.
3-28
2-03
2- 67
2-00
3- 25
300
2-09
2-68
2-25
2-26
50-084
50-53
52-26
48-19
48-51
49-87
46- 87
47- 94
47-03
47-39
47-91
47-42
CH.
:k  
^gton
I gow..
govv..
51-937
51-625
47- 633
48- 414
48-000
46-410
150
150
80
80
150
126
150
66
100
2- 56
3- 50
3- 12
2-25
4- 43
1-50
1-25
1-90
1-45
150
150
108
150
126
Swim-
Bushels mings in
really : lbs.
Steeped. Avoir-
j dupois.
Weight of!
Grain 1
really
Steeped,
in lbs.
71-72
77-97
147-33
98
94-75
87-00
87-91
147-32
87-75
87-74
77-00
59- 96
79-65
61-84
97-45
81-06
55-81
88-19
57-50
60- 75
147-44
146-50
76- 87
77- 75
145-57
58-00
70-87
85-00
62-87
112-37
3448'
3758'
204'
4796'
4661-
4289-
4284-
7196-
4291-
4364-
7527-50
7579-20
3822-49
3942-13
7385-24
Hours in
Steep.
73
80
80
104
73
45
74
89
58
57
Swell
per
cent.
in
Steep.
25-8
11
17
18
9-4
23
Swell
per
cent.
in
Couch.
73
124-50 44-00 6323-00
148-75 32-81 7807-03
64-10 48-37 3132-51
98-55: 36-12 4834-25
115
88
87
84
89
92
97
118
64
471
17-3
24
37-9
27-8
29-9
22
12
32-8
21-6
20-9
20-7
12-8
27-3
25-6
14-5
24
21-2
29-6
22-0
37-9
33-2
25-6
29-6
81-6
4-56 145-44 112-16 6109-10
2- 84 147-16 77-00 7113-62
3- 12 104-87 85-87 4993-50
4- 34 145-66:119-72 6989-46
1-82 124-18 51-87 5985-27
150
150
90
100
100
100
49-004
48-854 150
48- 969 150
46-940 66
46-375 66
49- 744 66
46-965 66
1- 75
2- 47
3- 59
3-87
3-50
6-25
148-25 46-0
147-53 60-5
86-44 107-2
96-12 119-6
96-50
93-75
147-78
147-10
63- 22
64- 00
65- 25
63-50
84-0
159-0
7744-64
7663-70
4179-72
4721-77
4716-00
4482-37
89
66i
83
57
57
70-45
22
15
21
19-4
25-8
14-2
19-6
19-7
18
91
84
98
82
73
45
78
7263-63
7267-30
3021-14
3003-25
3262-22
3037-82
22
30
22-4
19-5
14-2
27-4
21-6
21-3
Days
on
Floor.
13
8
18
13
13
15
8
10
10
10-8
Clean
AJ alt in
Bushels.
70
76-31
152-25
100-94
93-86
84-75
88-50
146-25
82-60
86-58
Weight j Appa-
of Clean rent loss
A!alt per
Bushel,
lbs.
36- 81
37- 70
36- 44
34-44
37- 57
36-53
38- 37
36-03
39- 00
39-44
15
13
9
9
12
13
16
19
10
11
161-00
152- 13
82-77
84-87
153- 00
37-23
of
Weight
per cent.
23-5
23- 5
23
27-5
24- 5
28
21
26-8
25
21-7
BUSHELS OF aULT
From 100 From
Bushels 100 lbs.
Grain. Grain.
24-4
14
20-8
28-2
27- 1
34-5
26-3
28- 0
20-5
24-8
15
16
8
13
13
125-69
153-50
62-12
92-68
147- 25
148- 75
101-53
137-73
119-87
38- 437
37-562
36-5
39- 125
36-875
37-699
38- 501
37-298
39- 531
18
24-6
21
16
23-46
97-6
97-9
103-3
102-9
99-1
97- 4
100-7
99-3
94-1
98- 7
99-1
109-19
103-86
107-67
109-16
105-31
20-61
107-03
40-039 23-24
38-842
13
12
14
13
10
10
11
27-4 11
157-75
153-14
92-06
101-50
98-56
91-26
36- 400
37- 832
37- 547
38- 570
37-55
37-579
23-46
27
21-6
23-82
26-5
20-89
24-70
24-8
24-8
100-95
103-19
96-91
94-04
2-03
2-03
2-11
2-10
2-01
1- 97
2- 06
2-13
1-93
1-98
FOUNDS OF MALT.
From 1
Bushel
Grain.
2-03
35- 930
36- 899
37- 637
35-374
37- 237
35-586
38- 633
35- 770
36- 712
38-906
From
1 lb.
Grain.
36-868
0-765
0-765
0-770
0-724
0-757
0-722
0-793
0-732
0-751
0-783
0-756
2-113
2-007
2-165
2-165
2-072
2-104
98-77
101-24
101-08
96-81
94-55
96-52
24.33
36- 68
37- 61
35- 12
36- 86
35-66
38- 67
36-76
23
24- 8
23
21
25- 5
21
23
98-06
106-41
104- 50
106-55
105- 83
102-13
97-66
103-84
1-990
1-960
1-983
41- 972
39-013
39-229
42- 612
38-823
40-343
38-865
38-490
38-310
1-917 38-669
0-822
0-784
0-790
0-842
0-765
0-794
1-962 38-583
2-128
2-091
2-033
1- 971
2- 004
0-765
0-733
0-784
0-767
0-762
36-853
38-330
36-349
36-083
36-238
2-045 36-770
2-037
1- 998
2- 202
2-149
2-090
2-036
39-033
38-774
37- 423
38- 923
36- 417
37- 772
0-744
0-791
0-763
0-751
0-752
0-760
2-085 38-057
20
145-14
149-43
58- 34
59- 78
59-72
64-22
37-31
36-82
40-16
39- 09
40- 81
36*41
98-21
101-58
92- 28
93- 41
91-52
101-13
1- 998
2- 056
1-931
1-990
1- 831
2- 114
36- 656
37- 399
37-057
35- 980
37-353
36- 817
0-747
0-759
0-770
0-794
0-745
0-790
0-767
brewing.
Nature of
the pro¬
cess.
Soluble
part of
malt.
Thus it appears that the process of malting is nothing
else than causing the barleycorns to germinate, and stup¬
ing that process before the green leal makes its appear¬
ance. A quantity of roots are formed, which are after¬
wards rubbed off and separated, and the weight of which
amounts to about four per cent, of the gram malted, ihe
kernel of the grain undergoes a remarkable change by
this process. It consists almost entirely of starch; but it
was agglutinated in the grain, so as to form a solid and
very firm mass; whereas, in the malt, it is quite loose and
mealy. Hence it would appear that the glutinous and
mucilaginous matter of the barleycorn is chiefly employed
in forming the roots; and that this is the purpose for
which it was laid up in the grain. How far the starch is
altered does not appear. It is probable that it has un¬
dergone some change. Malt has a slightly sweet taste,
much more agreeable than the taste of the raw grain,
without any of that strong and cloying sweetness which
distinguishes wort. But the most distinguishing character
of the starch of malt is the ease with which it dissolves m
hot water; though cold water does not act upon it sensi-^
bly. Whether this property be peculiar to the starch of
barley, or be induced by the malting, we cannot say. We
conceive it probable that barley starch is more easily so¬
luble in water than wheat starch, from the ease with which
raw grain is constantly employed by distillers to foim theii
worts. In its other chemical characters, the starch of bar¬
ley malt agrees with that of wheat starch.
We should err very much, however, were we to suppose
that the whole kernel or starchy part of the malt is dis¬
solved by tile hot water used in brewing. At least one
half of the malt still remains after the brewing is over,
constituting the grains, which are known to constitute a
most nourishing article of food for cattle, and therefore
to contain much more than the husks or skin of the malt
corn. One hundred lbs. of malt from different kinds of
grain, after being exhausted as much as usual of the so¬
luble part of the kernel by hot water, were found to weigh
as follows :—
English barley 50*63 lbs..
Scotch bai’ley 50*78
Scotch big 52*69
100 lbs. of raw grain being converted into malt, and the
soluble part of the malt extracted by hot water, the resi¬
due weighed,—
English barley 51*558 lbs.
Scotch barley 50*831
Scotch big 53*500
In another set of experiments, 100 lbs. of malt left the
following residues :>—
English barley 54*9 lbs.
Scotch barley 56*9
Scotch big 56*6
100 lbs. of the raw grain being converted into malt, and
the soluble part of the malt extracted by hot water, the
residues weighed,—
English barley 54*8 lbs.
Scotch barley 56*9
Scotch big 56*6
Hence we see that in all these cases the bulk of the malt
was very nearly the same as the previous bulk of the bar¬
ley before it was malted.
In another set of experiments, 100 lbs. of malt left the
following residues *.—
English barley, 54*0 lbs.
Scotch barley, 56*1
Scotch big,   56*6
100 lbs. of the raw grain being converted into malt, and
the soluble part of the malt being extracted by hot water,
the residues weighed,—
English barley 54*63 lbs. Brewir; ,
Scotch barley 56*09 ,
Scotch big 56*59
Here also the bulk of the malt differed but little from that
of the raw grain. The first of these sets of experiments
was made with grain of the best quality, the second with
grain of the middling quality, and the third with grain of
the third quality.
It is probable that an additional portion of the kernel
would be dissolved if the malt were ground finer than it
is customary to do. The reason for grinding it only coarse¬
ly is to render it less apt to set. But this object might be
accomplished equally well by bruising the malt between
rollers, which would reduce the starchy part to powder,
without destroying the husk. This method, indeed, is
practised by many brewers, but it ought to be followed
by all.
CHAP. IV.
OF BREWING.
Brewing consists of five successive processes, which are
distinguished by the following names: 1. Mashing; 2.
Boiling ; 3. Cooling; 4. Fermenting; 5. Cleansing. We
shall afterwards give a description and view of the uten¬
sils employed in a large London porter brewery, where
they have been carried to the greatest perfection. But
we conceive it better to give a description of the processes
themselves, in the first place, without referring them to
any specific form of vessels ; observing only, that the size
of all the utensils must be proportional to the quantity of
beer which it is proposed to make at once.
1. The specific gravity of malt varies a good deal, ac-Specific
cording to the way in which it is dried upon the kiln;gyr
but its mean specific gravity may be stated at 1*201. Inma
general the specific gravity of big malt is rather inferior
to that of malt from barley. Let us suppose, for the sake
of stating the comparative quantities, that it is our object
to employ in a single brewing fifty bushels of malt. The
first thing to be done is to grind the malt in a mill, and the
best kind of mill for the purpose is that in which the malt
is made to pass between two iron rollers.
We must be provided with a copper boiler capable ofMashi#
containing at least the fifty bushels of malt; or its solid
contents must, at the smallest, amount to 382 ale gallons,
which are rather more than 107,521 cubic inches or 62j
cubic feet. This copper boiler must be placed over brick
work upon a furnace, and there must be conveniences for
filling it with water, and for letting the water off when
sufficiently heated, into the mash-tun.
The mash-tun is a wooden vessel composed of staves
properly fixed by means t»f iron hoops, and usually placed
in the middle of the brew-house. It has a false bottom
full of holes at some little height above the true bottom.
Its capacity varies according to the extent of the brewery
establishment; but a mash-tun capable of mashing finy
bushels of malt must be at least one third larger than the
bulk of the malt, or it must be capable at least of contain¬
ing 75 bushels. # f
A quantity of water, equal at least in bulk to that ot
the malt, is to be put into the boiler, and heated up to
190° or 180°, according to the fancy of the brewer and the
quality of the malt; but the best brewers, in general, em¬
ploy the lowest temperature. This water is then to be le
into the mash-tun, and the malt, previously ground, is to
be let down into if immediately after. It is then nnxe
with the water and all the clots carefully broken, either
by workmen, who use for the purpose very narrow wooden
shovels, or, when the capacity of the mash-tun is very
great, as in the London breweries, by a machine which is
B R E W I N G.
241
Br|ing. driven by a steam-engine. Great care must be taken to
wbreak all the clots, because the whole of the malt within
them would otherwise escape the action of the water, and
be lost to the brewer. When the water and malt are suf¬
ficiently mixed, the mash-tun is covered and left in this
state about three hours. But the time varies according
to circumstances.
Though the specific gravity of a malt corn be greater
than that of water, yet if it be thrown into that liquid it
always swims. The reason is, that between the skin and
the kernel there is lodged a quantity of air, which it is
not easy to drive away. Accordingly, brewers are in the
habit of judging of the goodness of malt by throwing a
certain quantity of it into water, and, reckoning the grains
which fall to the bottom, these indicate the proportion of
unmalted grain which the malt contains. Of course the
more of them that exist in any given quantity of malt, the
worse must the malt be considered. But though malt,
when we consider only single corns, is about a sixth hea¬
vier than water, yet a bushel of malt does not weigh so
much as one third of a bushel of water. For, on one oc¬
casion, the hot water in the mash-tun, before the addi¬
tion of the malt, stood at the height of twenty-two inches.
On adding the malt, it rose to the height of twenty-nine
inches. The bulk of the water was fifty-one bushels"; that
of the malt before grinding, forty-seven and a half bushels.
We see from this that the real space occupied in the
mash-tun by the forty seven and a half bushels of malt
was only seven inches, while the fifty-one bushels of wa¬
ter occupied the space of twenty-two inches; therefore
about two thirds of the bulk of the unground malt consist¬
ed of interstices filled with air.
The temperature of the water is considerably lowered
when it is mixed with the malt, but we have been unable
to determine how much, from the impossibility of thrust¬
ing a thermometer down to the centre of the mash-tun,
the only place that would give a correct result. But we
may state a few out of the many observations which we
have made on the subject; fifty-one bushels of water of
the temperature 192° were mixed with forty-seven and a
fourth bushels of malt; after mixture, the temperature at
the surface of the mash was 140°. Two hours and a half
after, when the wort began to run off, its temperature was
156°, and at that time the surface of the mash was at the
temperature of 136°. If we suppose in this case that the
whole mash lost four degrees as well as the surface, and
take the mean between the bottom and top, we shall have
the mean heat of the whole, after the mashing, 150° ; so
that the water has lost 32° of heat, while the malt (its
temperature before mixture was 48°) gained 102°.
The weight of the water, reckoning it at 51
bushels, was 3965*25 lbs.
That of the malt was 1788*80 lbs.
This would make the specific heat of the malt 0*69,
which is probably considerably above the truth; for, ac¬
cording to the experiments of Dr Crawford, the specific
heat of barley is only 0*421; so that our supposition, that
the mean temperature after mashing was only 150°, is not
quite accurate. Were we to suppose the specific heat of
inalt to be 0*42, which cannot be very far from the truth,
m that case the mean temperature, after mashing, would
be 169°, if the water was 192° and the malt 48°, and the
weight of each as above stated.
In another experiment, in which sixty bushels of malt
were mashed, the heat of the water was 180°, that of the
malt 56°, the temperature, on adding the malt to the wa-
water and mixing it well, was at the surface 141°. Four
hours after, when the wort began to be drawn off, its tem¬
perature was 150°, and that of the surface of the mixture
or malt and water in the mash-tun was 138°.
VOL. v.
The bulk of water w-as 66J- bushels, its weight 5157* lbs. Brewing
The weight of the malt was 2283*6 lbs.
Any person may easily, from these data, calculate
what the heat of the mixture after mashing ought to
be, supposing the specific heat of the malt to be
0*42. The common formula for the calculation is
S rr - *   in which S denotes the specific heat
B x ^ — o 1
of the malt, W the weight of water used, io its tempera¬
ture, B the weight of malt used, and b its temperature,
and m (which in the present case is the quantity sought)
the temperature after mixture. We do not think it worth
while to give any more examples of these changes of tem¬
perature, though we are in possession of abundance of
them ; because we do not conceive that they can lead to
any useful results.
After the mash has continued for about three hours (or Wort,
longer or shorter according to circumstances), a stop-cock,
placed below the false bottom in the mash-tun, is opened,
and the wort allowed to run out into a vessel prepared to
receive it, and known by the name of underback. At
the same time the cover is taken off the mash-tun, and
quantities of water of the temperature of 180° are occa¬
sionally sprinkled over it from the boiler, which had been
again filled with water to be heated as soon as the water
for mashing was drawn off. No specific directions can
be given respecting the quantity of hot water added in
this manner by sprinkling, because that mus*t depend
upon the views of the brewer. If he wishes to have ale
of very great strength, he will of course add less wa¬
ter ; if the ale is to be weak he will add more. The best
way is to determine the strength of the liquor as it flows
into the underback, by means of a saccharometer, or by
taking its specific gravity. When the specific gravity (at
60°) sinks to 1*04 or 1*05, or when it contains only 36^
or 461 lbs. per barrel of solid matter in solution, it would
be useless or injurious to draw any more off for making
strong ale. But an additional portion may still be drawn
off and converted into small beer. We have seen the
brewers in Edinburgh continue to draw off' small beer from
the mash-tun till the liquid indicated only 23^ lbs. per
barrel, or even till it indicated 17|-lbs. per barrel; that is,
till its specific gravity at 60° was reduced to 1*027 or 1*020.
Indeed the strength of small beer is often much weaker
than this when it is obtained from malt without drawing
off any strong ale wort; but when it is the residue of
strong ale, it is necessary to make it stronger, otherwise
its quality will be bad. About twenty-five years ago, it
was customary with some of the small-beer brewers in
Edinburgh to make the small beer of considerable strength;
and after the exciseman had determined its quantity, and
the duty to be paid on it, they diluted it largely with wa¬
ter, just when they were sending it out of the house. This
fraud was easily put in practice, because the small beer is
usually disposed of the moment it is mixed with the yeast,
and before it has undergone any fermentation whatever.
It ferments sufficiently in the small casks in which it is
sent to the consumers. In Edinburgh it is customary to
bottle this small beer, which makes it clear and very brisk,
and consequently very agreeable to the palate.
Neither can any general rule be laid down for the spe¬
cific gravity or strength of the wort when it begins to
flow from the mash. It will obviously depend upon the
goodness of the malt, and upon the quantity of mashing
water employed, when compared with the quantity of
malt. We have seen it begin to flow from the mash-tun
of the specific gravity 1*084,1.0805, 1*0815, 1*0835, 1*091,
1*094, or containing respectively 78^, 74£, 75|, 78, 85,
and 87| lbs. per barrel.
The wort, as it first flows from the mash-tun, is a trans-
2 H
242
brewing.
Constitu
ents of
wort.
Brewing, parent liquid of a fine amber colour, a peculiar smell, and a
r;ch, luscious, sweet taste. If it is cloudy, as sometimes
happens, it is a proof that the water used for mashing was
of too high a temperature. We have seen the wort run
cloudy from the mash-tun when the temperature of the
water had been as high as 200° or 191°, but never when
it was no higher than 180°. This affords an additional
reason with the brewers for keeping the temperature ot
the mashing-water low. But we have some doubts about
the accuracy of the reason. For, when the wort is after¬
wards boiled, it always deposits a copious flocky sedi¬
ment. The boiling would doubtless render even turbid
wort transparent, and would not probably increase the
sediment much. At the same time it must be acknow¬
ledged, that some obscurity hangs upon this part of the
process of brewing. For we have seen wort continue
opake during the whole process of boiling, cooling, and
fermenting, and requiring ultimately to be clarified, or
fined, as the brewers termed it, by means of isinglass.
The substance which rendered the ale in this case turbid
seemed to be a variety of starch, or some particular form
of that substance, for it was completely precipitated by
infusion of nutgalls, and the precipitate was redissolved by
the application of a moderate heat.
The flowing of the wort from the mash-tun takes up six
or eight hours. As it advances the colour diminishes, the
smell becomes less agreeable, and the taste less sweet.
At last the colour becomes nearly opal, and the smelFbe-
comes sour, and somewhat similar to the odoui emitted by
an infusion of meal and water left till it has become soui.
Yet it produces no change on vegetable blue colours.
If the wort which first comes over be evaporated to
dryness, it leaves behind it a yellow-coloured residuum,
which has a sweet taste, dissolves readily in water, absorbs
water from the atmosphere, and becomes clammy, and si¬
milar in appearance to treacle. Its specific gravity is
1-552. This does not differ much from the specific gra¬
vity of common refined sugar, if we take a mean of the
experiments of Fahrenheit and Hassenfratz. Fahrenheit
found the specific gravity of sugar 1-6065, while Hassen¬
fratz found it 1-4045, the mean of which is T5055. There
can be no doubt that this residue contains a good deal of
sugar, precisely the same in its properties with the sugar
into which starch is converted by boiling it in a very di¬
lute acid. But it is mixed likewise with a considerable
portion of starch, which has become soluble in water,
without being converted into sugar. For wort gives a
copious precipitate with the infusion of nutgalls, and this
precipitate is redissolved by a moderate increase of tem¬
perature, properties which characterize starch.
From the experiments of Saussure, it would appear that
starch sugar is nothing else than a combination of starch
and sugar. Hence it is probable that, during the mash¬
ing, a combination takes place between the starch of the
malt and the water, the result of which is the formation
of starch sugar. This sugar agrees in its properties with
the sugar of grapes. It crystallizes in needles grouped to¬
gether in the form of small sapericles like granulated ho¬
ney. In does not go so far in sweetening as common sugar,
and, like sugar of grapes, it ferments without the addition
of yeast. We have attempted in vain to separate the sac¬
charine part of the residue of wort from the starch. When
alcohol is poured over it, no solution takes place; but
such is the affinity of the residue of wort for water, that it
deprives the alcohol of a portion of its water, just as car¬
bonate of potash or muriate of lime does, and a very viscid
liquid, consisting of the residue ot malt dissolved in a very
small quantity of water, is formed at the bottom of the
vessel.
It is exceedingly difficult to evaporate wort without
partly decomposing the extractive residue. The best Brewii,,
way ‘is to put it upon a very flat dish, and to apply a heat
not greater than 120°. We have charred it completely in
a glass vessel, filled with alcohol, without applying heat
sufficient to make the alcohol boil. Indeed we never
succeeded in obtaining the residue of wort without its
colour being a good deal darker than that of the wort from
which it was obtained. #
The wort which runs off last contains very little saccha-
matter; but some starch and mucilaginous matter
may still be detected in it. The flavour and beauty of the
ale is increased if we take only the wort that runs first off,
and throw away the last drawn worts, or employ them
only in the manufacture of small beer.
2. The next process in brewing is the boiling of the Boilingt:
wort. The wort is pumped up from the underback into wort,
the copper boiler, where it is boiled for several hours, till
it has acquired the degree of strength which is wanted by
the brewer.
It may be proper to give some examples of quantities,
to enable the reader to form a better idea of the effect of
the boiling. _
From sixty bushels of malt there were obtained 23-46o
barrels of wort, of the strength of 64-37 lbs. per barrel, or
of the specific gravity 1-0683. It was boiled down to
19-736 barrels of the strength of 82-7 lbs. per barrel, or of
the specific gravity 1-089.
From sixty bushels of big malt there w ere obtained
23-8193 barrels of the specific gravity 1-0648, or of 58-75
lbs. per barrel of saccharine matter. It was^ boiled down
to 19-736 barrels of the specific gravity 1-078, or of 72£
lbs. per barrel of saccharine matter.
From seventy-two bushels of malt 15-1388 bands of the
specific gravity 1-071, or of 60-6 lbs. per barrel, it was
boiled down to 13^ barrels of the specific gravity l-10oo,
or of 98? lbs. per barrel of saccharine matter.
From fifty bushels of malt 13-444 barrels of wort were
obtained, of the specific gravity 1-068, or of 63-125 lbs. of
saccharine matter per barrel. It was boiled “^'''n t0
11-083 barrels of the specific gravity ITOlo, or of 94g lbs.
per barrel.
Various contdvances have been fallen upon to econo¬
mize the boiling process; but these will come under our
consideration with more propriety when we proceed to
give an account of the utensils in a London brewery.
The flocky precipitate which forms daring the boiling
of the wort, as far as we have been able to determine its
properties, approaches nearly to the nature of gluten or
vegetable albumen, for these two substances differ very
little from each other. . . .
While the wort is in the boiler, the requisite quantity Hops-
of hops are added to flavour the ale, and render it capable
of being kept for a considerable length of time without
souring. Hops, as is well known, are the seed-pods ot
the Humulus lupulus or hop-plcmt, which is cultivate m
considerable quantities in the south of England, especial¬
ly in Kent and Hampshire. The seed-pods ot this creep
ing plant are collected when ripe, and dried upon a a n.
They are then packed up in bags, and sold to the hi ewers.
Hops are well known to have a peculiar bitter taste, an
a weak aromatic odour, and to possess sedative qua dies
to a considerable extent. A pillow filled with hops ias
often been found to induce sleep when every thing e se
has failed. If they be digested for some days in alcohol,
that liquid acquires a slight greenish colour, a pecu iar
taste, and an odour in which that of the hop can be is
tinctly perceived. If the alcohol, previously treed iom
the undissolved matter, be distilled in a retort, there re
mains behind a solid green-coloured oil. It is to this oi
that hops owe their peculiar smell. Its taste is peculiar,
B R E W I N G.
243
I wing, sharp, and scarcely bitter, but putting one in mind of the
''•'Y'"'"*' peculiar flavour of good ale. This oil is the part of the
hops which gives ale its distinguishing flavour. It is apt
to be dissipated by long boiling. Hence, wdien hops are
too long boiled in wort, the aromatic odour and peculiar
flavour are nearly dissipated, and a bitter taste substitut¬
ed. It is the opinion of brewers, that the intoxicating
qualities of ale are to be partly ascribed to the oil of the
hop. Indeed it has been pretty common to ascribe in¬
toxicating qualities to bitter-tasted substances in general.
Thus, a woman of the name of Johnston, who kept a pub¬
lic-house a little to the south side of the Meadows, near
Edinburgh, about the beginning of the last century, was
famous for brewing a pleasant and very intoxicating ale ;
and the last quality was universally ascribed to the broom
tops which she employed as a bitter instead of hops.
This woman’s name is remembered, because her ale and
her house are celebrated in the poems of Allan Ram¬
say. But the opinion above stated, though very general,
does not appear to be founded upon any precise experi¬
ments or observations. We are not acquainted with any
volatile oil which produces intoxication ; though some of
them, as oil of turpentine, act with great energy upon the
stomach. No infusion of any bitter whatever, not even of
hops, is known to produce intoxication; nor is any effect
in the least similar to intoxication produced when consi¬
derable quantities (2 oz. per day for example) of Peruvi¬
an bark are swallowed in substance.
Besides the volatile oil, hops contain likewise a quantity
of bitter principle, which may be easily extracted from
them by water. As far as we were able to determine the
point, this bitter matter possesses the characters of the bit¬
ter principle in perfection. No re-agent that we tried is
i capable of throwing it down except acetate of lead, a some¬
what ambiguous precipitant, because it throws down the
greater number of vegetable substances, and because the
lead in this salt is partially thrown down by carbonic acid,
if it happens to be present in the solution. Nitrate of
silver is likewise a precipitant, throwing down the bitter
principle of hops in light yellow flocks. But this precipi¬
tant is also somewhat ambiguous, for the same reason that
renders acetate of lead so. The bitter principle of hops
is likewise very soluble, both in water and in alcohol.
Hops communicate both their flavour and their bitter
taste to wort. The quantity employed varies very much,
according to the taste of the persons who are to drink the
ale. The stronger the ale, the greater is the quantity of
hops which it can bear without injury. In general, Eng¬
lish brewers employ a much greater quantity of hops
than the Scotch brewers. To elucidate the subject, we
shall give a few examples of the quantity of hops used in
making Edinburgh ale; which is known to be mild, and,
in general, is much relished by most of those who are in
the habit of drinking ale.
Sixty bushels of malt yielded 1T75 barrels of strong ale
wort, measured at the end of the boiling, and 40 pounds
of hops had been mixed with it in the boiler.
Forty-seven and a quarter bushels of malt furnished
10*83 barrels of wort, measured after being boiled and cool¬
ed, and 36 lbs. of hops had been mixed with it in the boiler.
Sixty bushels of malt furnished fifteen barrels of wort,
measured after boiling and cooling, and 45 lbs. of hops had
been mixed with it in the boiler.
Sixty bushels of malt, from big, furnished 14*7 barrels
f-ort’ a^ter being boiled and cooled. It was mixed with
40 lbs. of hops in the boiler.
i • ^n another brewing in which 72 bushels of malt, from
ig, furnished 104 barrels of wort, 66 lbs. of hops had been
added in the boiler.
In general, when the ale has considerable strength, the
Edinburgh brewers are in the habit of adding one pound Brewing,
of hops for every bushel of malt employed. Sometimes,
indeed, when they wish their ale to be very superior in
flavour and quality, they employ a greater quantity of hops
than even this. Thus we have seen 100 lbs. of hops boil¬
ed in the strong ale wort extracted from 72 bushels of malt.
When the ale is but weak, and consequently cheap, the
usual allowance is one pound of hops to a bushel and a
half of the malt.
3. After the wort has been boiled down to the requi-Cooling
site strength, which, in Edinburgh, is commonly between the wort,
the specific gravities T09 and T10, it is let out into the
coolers. The coolers are floors of wood, surrounded with
a wooden ledge, and water-tight, placed in the most airy
and exposed situation in the brewery. They are of such
a size as to hold the whole of the wort at a depth not ex¬
ceeding three or four inches; so that, in large breweries,
they are of an enormous extent. The object is to cool
down the wort as rapidly as possible to the temperature
of the atmosphere; because, if it w*ere allowed to remain
long hot it would run the risk of becoming sour, which
would spoil the whole process. A great deal of the supe¬
riority of some breweries over others depends upon the
construction of the coolers, or rather, upon their being as
well adapted as possible for reducing the temperature of
the wort speedily to that of the atmosphere. A free cur¬
rent of air ought to pass over them, and great care should
be taken to keep them perfectly clean.
The wort is either pumped out of the boiler into the
coolers, or it is let into them by simply opening a stop¬
cock, according to tbe construction of the brew-house. It
soon spreads itself over all the surface of the coolers, and
a very great evaporation is the consequence. This eva¬
poration ought always to be taken into consideration by
the brewer; because it both materially adds to the strength
of the ale and diminishes its quantity. The amount of it
depends upon the temperature of the air compared with
that of the atmosphere, and upon the skill with which the
coolers have been constructed. We shall give a few ex¬
amples of the quantity of evaporation which took place
during the cooling of worts, in coolers by no means re¬
markable for the goodness of their construction.
Tempera¬
ture of the
iW’ort when
let into the
Coolers.
Tempera¬
ture of
ditto when
co!d-
Quantity of
Wort when
let into the
Coolers in
Ale Barrels.
Ditto when
cooled.
Quantity eva¬
porated in
Ale Barrels.
Time of
Cooling, in
hours.
1G0°
17G
5G°
51
16*1388
14-8G11
18-G6G6
17*2222
1*2777
1*4444
14
14
208
50
11*5555
8*75
2*8055
n
208
52
1G-G388
12 0832
4*5556
14
208
208
210
50
53
52
14*0555
10*2222
3*8333
14*7777
10*5
4*2777
13*0944
9*1388
4*5556
16
8
208
206
51
52
13*3333
9*3055
4*0278
12 6388
8*2777
4*3611
200
52
14*0555
9*4444
4*6111
64
6
200
13*6944
9*1388
4*5556
200
53
11*0833
8*5000
2*5833
204
Mean
56
14*0555
14*1067
10*6111
3 4444
3*5640
brewing.
In the first two examples in the above table, the quan¬
tity of wort was estimated just when it was letdown into
the coolers ; in all the others it was estimated in the boil¬
er before it was pumped out. It appears from the prece¬
ding table that rather more than one fourth of the whole
wort is dissipated by evaporation during the cooling; and,
if we had excepted from the general consideration the first
two examples, the proportion evaporated would have been
still greater. . .
When the wort is let out of the boiler into the cooler,
the hops still remain, and, as they are soaked with wort,
a considerable loss would be sustained if they were thrown
away. Thus we found, in one instance, that 4o lbs. ot
hops retained half a barrel of wort after they were drain¬
ed so completely that no more wort would drop out. In
another case, 35 lbs. of hops retained in the same way
0-3666 of a barrel, which is rather more than one third ot
a barrel. To recover this wort it is proper to subject the
hops to pressure. We do not know whether this is at¬
tended to by the great brewers, though it probably is.
By several of the Edinburgh brewers it is, we believe, too
much neglected. .
In cold weather, where the brewery is small, and the
apartment in which the fermenting vessels are placed,
cold, it is proper not to reduce the temperature of the
wort as low as that of the atmosphere. From want of at¬
tention to this circumstance, we have seen wort refuse to
ferment for some time, and the brewer under tne neces¬
sity of heating it artificially before fermentation could be
brought on. In such cases the wort is very apt to be lost
altogether by contracting acidity. The temperature, in
such cases, ought not to be reduced lower than 56°. But
when the apartment in which fermentation is carried on
is warm, 51° or 52° is a very good temperature. When
the brewer is obliged to make ale in warm summer weather,
it is material to reduce the temperature as low as pos¬
sible. In such cases great advantage would attend cool¬
ing the wort in coolers without any roof or covering what¬
ever, but quite open to the sky ; because, in clear nights,
the wort might be cooled in this way, eight or ten de¬
grees lower than the temperature of the atmosphere. I he
reason is obvious. It is owing to the rays of heat, which,
in such a case, radiate from the wort, and are not return¬
ed again by the clear sky. Wort, being a good radiator
of heat, would be particularly benefited by this method of
cooling. We have no doubt that it might be put in piac-
tice with advantage in hot climates ; and that, by means
of it, good ale or porter might be manufactured in the
East and W'est Indies. Such a manufacture, if success¬
ful, would be particularly relished in India, and would, wre
doubt not, prove a lucrative article of manufacture to an
enterprising man.
While a duty was levied on ale and beer according to
their quantity, excisemen were in the habit of gauging
the wort while in the boiler and when on the coolers. Not
that the duty was levied according to the quantities there
found, but to serve as a check upon the more accurate
gauges taken in the fermenting tuns. For a certain al¬
lowance being made for evaporation while the wort is in
the cooler, which the excisemen, from long observation,
are enabled to do with some accuracy, they have it in their
power, from these checks, to determine whether any of
the wort from the coolers has been secreted or carried off
with a view to evade the excise laws. In the year 1830
the duty on beer was taken off. The consequence of this
is, that the brewer is now entirely freed from the excise¬
man, and at liberty to improve his processes at pleasure.
We doubt not that in a short time this will be followed by
considerable improvements in brewing.
4. When the wort is sufficiently cooled down by expo¬
sure on the coolers, it is let down into the fermenting- Brew
tuns, or, as the brewers call them, the gyle-tuns, in order
to be fermented; by which process it is converted fromJennest,
the luscious sweet-tasted liquor called wort, to the brisk 1011, '
ij^Qxicating liquor which constitutes ale. The gyle-tuns
are cylindrical wooden vessels, varying in size according
to the extent of the brewery. In the London breweries,
and in the distilleries, they are of prodigious size; but in
private houses they often do not exceed the size of a wine
hogshead, or even of a beer barrel. The fermentation is
perhaps conducted with the greatest economy in laige
vessels ; but good ale may be made in comparatively small
quantities. How far this is the case with porter, it is
more difficult to say. Good porter has scarcely ever been
made, except by those who manufacture it upon a large
C The fermenting tuns are not to be filled by the wort,
because a considerable increase in bulk takes place during
the fermentation, in consequence of which the liquor would
run over, unless allowance were made for it.
The fermentation of ale or beer is never carried to any
great length. 4he object of the brewer is, to retain the
flavour and good qualities of the ale or beer, not to de-
velope the greatest quantity of spirits, which can hardly
be done without allowing the w-ort to run into acrdity.
The violence of the fermentation depends upon the quan¬
tity of yeast added. Brew-ers, accordingly, mix yeast with
their worts only in very sparing quantities, while the dis¬
tiller adds it in great doses, and repeatedly.
Yeast is a frothy substance, of a brownish-grey colour Nature
and bitter taste, which is formed on the surface of ale ory^st.
wine while fermenting. If it be put into sacks the mois¬
ture gradually drops out, and the yeast remains behind in
a solid form. It has very much of the flavour and taste ot
cheese when in this state; but its colour is still darker.
This dried yeast promotes or excites fermentation, but it
does not answer quite so wrell as fresh yeast. At one
period some of the Scotch distillers employed consider¬
able quantities of it; but all of them with whom we con¬
versed on the subject affirmed that it was much less pro¬
fitable than even the bad porter yeast which they weiein
the habit of bringing down from London, f rom ^ie r^‘
semblance which dried yeast has to cheese, one would be
disposed to infer that it is a species or variety of gluten.
But if we attempt to induce fermentation in worthy add¬
ing the gluten ot wheat, we will be unsuccessful.
When yeast is kept for some time in cylindrical glass
vessels, a white substance, not unlike curd, separates and
swims on the surface. If this substance be removed, the
yeast loses the property of exciting fermentation. I ms
white substance possesses many of the properties of glu¬
ten, though it differs from it in others. Its colour is much
whiter, it has not the same elasticity, and its particles do
not adhere with the same force. In short, it agrees muci
more nearly, in its properties, w ith the curd ot mil t ian
with the gluten of wheat. We are disposed to consider
this substance as the true fermenting principle in yeast,
though we were never able to procure a sufficient quanti y
of it "to put its fermenting powers to the test of experi¬
ment. We have sometimes seen a similar substance se¬
parate in the fermenting tuns in distilleries, when the er-
mentation was nearly at an end ; or, rather, when sue a
quantity of spirit had been generated as put an end to u
fermentirfg process altogether. But wre could never learn
that the distillers had formed any opinion respecting tins
curdy substance. It did not interfere with the success o
their operations, and, on that account, they bestowed fit e
attention on it. We attempted, once or twice, to co e
such a quantity of it as might enable us to try its powe
as a ferment, but we did not succeed.
trj
BREWING.
245
ling. The only chemist who has attempted to subject yeast
-O to a chemical analysis is Westrumb; but, though this
philosopher was distinguished for his accuracy, the task
was too difficult for the resources of the science of the
time (1796) when he published his Experiments. From
15,360 parts of fresh beer yeast he obtained the following
substances :—
Potash  13
Carbonic acid  15
Acetic acid  10
Malic acid  45
Lime  69
Alcohol  240
Extractive  120
Mucilage  240
Saccharine matter  315
Gluten  480
Water 13,595
15,142
Loss  218
Total 15,360
As yeast may be reduced to a dried state without de¬
priving it of the power of acting as a ferment, it is clear
that the carbonic acid, acetic acid, alcohol, and water,
are not essential to it. We cannot suppose that either
potash, lime, or malic acid, is essential. The saccharine
matter, we know, is capable of fermenting of itself; but if
it were the essential ingredient, it would be quite unne¬
cessary to add yeast to wort at all, as we know that the
wort contains abundance of saccharine matter in solution.
We know likewise, from experiment, that neither extrac¬
tive, mucilage, nor gluten, possesses the property of ex¬
citing fermentation. Thus none of the substances found
by Westrumb in yeast can be considered as the true fer¬
menting principle. Dobereiner found, that when yeast is
steeped in alcohol, it loses the property of acting as a fer¬
ment. This may be owing to the alcohol dissolving and
carrying off the true fermenting principle. But we are
rather disposed to ascribe it to the presence of a portion
of alcohol in the yeast. We know that a certain portion
of alcohol destroys fermentation. Thus we have found, by
a great many trials, conducted on rather a large scale, that
the stronger a wort is made, the greater is the quantity of
unaltered saccharine matter which remains in it after the
fermentation has been carried to the greatest possible
length. Hence the present mode of levying the duties on
spirits upon the wash is not only very injurious to the
goodness of the spirits manufactured, but is attended with
a positive and very heavy loss to the community. Dis¬
tiller’s wash may be fermented a second time, and would
in this way yield a considerable additional quantity of
spirits. We have frequently seen it made into good small
beer. The proper mode of levying the duty would be on
the quantity of saccharine matter in the wash. This might
easily be determined by a good saccharometer. A certain
part of the duty might likewise be levied upon the spirits
produced. This would act as a sort of check upon the
first estimate, and would considerably diminish the risk
of fraud. Indeed, the mode of determining the duty by
the quantity of saccharine matter would not be more
liable to evasion than the present mode. It could be evad¬
ed in no other way than by concealing a portion of the
wash, which would be equally efficacious according to the
present mode.
We conceive, therefore, that when yeast is mixed with
alcohol, it may retain so much of that liquor as to prevent
it from acting as a ferment. When we attempt to wash
away the alcohol, we may destroy the yeast by washing
away that portion of it which really acts as a ferment,
which is probably small in quantity.
It seems to us not unlikely, that the portion of yeast
which really acts as a ferment is a quantity of saccharine
matter which it contains, that has begun to undergo the
decomposition produced by fermentation, but has not yet
completed the change. For nothing more seems to be
necessary than to begin the fermentative process in wort;
the process then goes on of itself. It would be curious to
know whether a high temperature (96° or 100°) might be
substituted in distilleries for the great quantities of yeast
at present employed. We believe that the reason why
such great quantities of yeast are necessary in distilleries,
is the very great strength of the wash employed ; as they
are obliged by law to produce a quantity of proof spirits
amounting nearly to one fifth of the whole bulk of the
wash. Nothing can be more preposterous than such a
method, nor more contrary to the real interest of the com¬
munity, which obviously must be to produce the greatest
quantity of good spirits from a given quantity of grain.
The quantity of yeast mixed with the wort in the fer¬
menting tuns by brewers is very small, amounting, at an
average, to a gallon of yeast for every three barrels of
wort. The following table will give the reader an idea of
the quantities of yeast really mixed by the Edinburgh
brewers with their strong ale worts in different brewings.
It is obvious, however, that the quantity of yeast must be
regulated in some measure by its goodness.
Brewing.
The last four brewings, in which the quantity of yeast
added was smaller than in the first six, took place during
the month of May, when the heat is apt to make the fer¬
mentation run to excess. The variation in the quantity,
so conspicuous in the first six brewings, is partly to be
ascribed to differences in the goodness of the yeast, but
chiefly to the carelessness and want of method which dis¬
tinguished the brewer in question beyond any one we ever
met. But we have taken his quantities to show that dif¬
ferences in the quantity of yeast are not material; for all
the preceding brewings, except the first, furnished very
good ale. The wort in the first brewing had been cooled
too much; the consequence was, that it fermented very
badly, and finally ran into acidity.
Soon after the yeast has been mixed with the wort,
an intestine motion begins to appear in the liquid; air
246
bubbles separate from it, and a froth collects slowly upon
the surface. This froth is of a yellowish gray colour. At
1 first it has the appearance of cream; but in a few days
it collects in considerable quantities, especially if the wea¬
ther be warm. At the same time the temperature of the
wort increases, and a very considerable quantity of car¬
bonic acid gas is given out by it. The increase ol tempe¬
rature which takes place during the fermenting of ale may
be stated, at an average, to amount to 12° or 15'. Some¬
times it amounts to 20°, and sometimes does not exceed
5°. But in such cases there is generally some fault in
the skill of the brewer. But the following table, exhibit-
ino- the highest temperatures of different ales during their
fermentation, will satisfy the reader of these changes of
temperature better than any general explanation :
BREWING.
We shall likewise give the result of two brewings with Brew
raw grain made also during summer. V^Y'
O ^
M .
'Sl'l
.ts £ &
§ <2
10.5555
14*3055
tc cu
.5 S s
fi.S
June 26.
July 6.
48°
58
•S
62°
68
July 1.
July 8.
o
£ S
O U
^ a.
.
C ^
S ^
m .S
56*25
72*5
3 ,o
° &
; c rt
10*83
14914
in 1 tun.
14*8055
.12 <u 2
^ .5 . _
j-j
rt ai c
tc
0)
XT.
O
a rt
p
March 10.
March 17
SB
o «
BS
50°
55
March24.
14*6388
in 1 tun.
14*722
17*43
in 1 tun.
8*72
in 1 tun.
March29.
March31.
April 4.
46
57
56
51
‘“.S c
.Coo
£ evs
o **-3 c3
si to
s
Z, <d
rt tc c
I
£ JS
O ^ ^-i
H rt °
63°
61
68
April 6. 50
70
5 S
!- .3 .
o c b
* ^ S C3
~ ^ o — —.
tc— .5 3- -S —
<u 5 c »
h -C O ;£
y: ^ E
" "3
3 —
O' «
March 17. 88*75
March21. 85*62
21-
April 2
April 2
71
64
65
April 3.
April 10.
78*125 i3f
80*625: 2*83
73*
2*83
some exam
We shall now give
temperature by fermentation, when the brewings were
conducted in summer, and of course assisted by the heat
of the weather.
C ^
~ CD
c h
s £P
Cw ,(D
9*75
11*4782
.3 S
£ £
a.s
May 24.
May 28.
9*25
10*2777
10*5
10*2222
10*694
May 31.
3 5
51c
49
46
June 4.
June 7.
June 11.
June 18.
13*5
June 21.
46
44
71c
72
67
674
71
55
53
53
82
80
671
Trom the preceding tables we see that the length of
time which elapses before the fermentation reaches its
acme, supposing this to be measured by the temperature,
varies very considerably. The shortest interval in the
table is three days, and the longest nine days; the ave¬
rage of the whole is very nearly six days, which is exact-
ly the mean between the longest and the shortest times.
If the reader will glance his eye over the tables, he will
perceive that, in general, the higher the temperature of
the wort is when let down into the fermenting tuns, the
more rapidly does the fermentation come on. As the
worts were cooled by exposure to the greatest cold of the
night, and as the coolers were screened from the radia¬
tion of heat, the temperatures given to the third column
of the preceding tables may be considered as measuring
very nearly the greatest degree of cold which took place
in Edinburgh at the dates contained in the second column.
It follows, as might have been expected, that the warmer
the weather the more rapid is the fermentation. And
hence the advantage of letting down the worts rather
warm in cold weather, and cooling them down as much as
possible in warm weather. For this purpose we cannot
too much recommend coolers which can occasionally be
uncovered altogether, and exposed to the unclouded sky.
A roof, perhaps, might be contrived, composed of very
light materials, which might be easily slid off, or which
might turn upon a pivot. For a roof would be occasion-
     ally necessary to screen the worts from rain. In vv^rnl
pies of the change of weather, brewing should be confined to clear and unclouded
1 - - * days, when the cooling process could be carried farthest
of all. We have little doubt that wort might easily be
cooled down to the freezing point, if requisite, in our
warmest summer weather. t
Little can be said about the length of time during which
the fermentation of the ale lasts, because it \aries very
much according to the heat of the weather, and the degree
to which the wort has been cooled down. The following
table will give some idea of the length of time which elapsed
during the fermentations contained in the preceding tables:
First Table.
1st 
2d 
3d 
4th 
65*00
April 13.
93*75
2*83
May 30.
June 2. 91*56
95*93
June 6. 89*37
June 13. | 105*82
June 15. 102*187 1
1
June 15. 110*0
June 24. 96*4
June 25. 61*25
5th.
6th.
7th,
8 days.
.10
.10
. 8
. 9
. 9
.10
Second Table.
1st..
2d...
3d...
4th.
5 th.
6 th.
7th.
8th.
6 days.
. 8
. 9
.15
.10
. 7
. 7
. 7
BREWING.
247
Third Table.
[iving- -   
yO 1st  9 days.
2d  5
T rv of The theory of fermentation has occupied the attention
fe! enta- of chemists ever since the manufacture of ale began to be
tic attended to by men of science, but it is only of late that
much light has been thrown upon the subject. Lavoisier
was the first person who attempted to give any thing like a
theory of this intricate process. He attempted to determine
the composition of common sugar, a substance which may
be fermented just as well as the soluble part of malt, and
which yields similar products. He endeavoured, likewise,
to determine the constituents of alcohol, the substance
formed by fermentation. With these data, and with a
knowledge of the composition of water and carbonic acid,
he formed a plausible theory, which was valuable as a
first approximation, though there can be little doubt that
it was erroneous in every particular. Since that time,
several experiments on the subject have been made by
Thenard. Guy-Lussac and Thenard, and Berzelius, have
determined the constituents of sugar with much care;
and Theodore de Saussure has made very elaborate, and
we believe accurate, experiments on the composition of
alcohol. These facts will enable us to form a conception
of what takes place during fermentation. We shall first
state the general theory, as resulting from experiments on
common sugar, and then give some experiments which we
ourselves have made on the saccharine matter of malt.
If a weak solution of sugar in water be kept in a warm
place, it will ferment of itself, and be converted into a spi¬
rituous liquor. This we have tried more than once, and
always successfully, provided the weather wras warm. A
solution of sugar of grapes in water ferments still more
speedily. This is said likewise to be the case with sugar
of starch, and, of course, with the saccharine matter of
malt. In our general view of fermentation, then, we may
leave out of view the small quantity of yeast; because it
is not absolutely necessary, but seems merely to render
the effect more rapid, and consequently prevent the change
of the liquid into acidity, which almost always takes place
when the fermentation is slow.
When the fermentation is complete, the sugar disap¬
pears altogether, and two new substances are found in its
place, namely, carbonic acid and alcohol. All that hap¬
pens, then, is the resolution of sugar into the two new
substances, carbonic acid and alcohol. It is requisite to
know how much of each of these substances is formed
from a given weight of sugar.
According to Lavoisier’s experiments, 100 parts of sugar
yielded, when fermented,
Alcohol 57*70
Carbonic acid 35*34
He does not give us the specific gravity of his alcohol,
but it could scarcely be less than 0*825 ; for when his ex¬
periments were made, alcohol of greater strength was
scarcely known. Now, such alcohol contains at least 11
per cent, of water, for that quantity has been actually
extracted from it. From Saussure’s experiments, it is
probable that the real quantity of water contained in alco¬
hol of the specific gravity 0*825, is 18*387 per cent, or al¬
most a fifth. On this supposition sugar, according to La¬
voisier’s experiments, yields
Alcohol 47*1
Carbonic acid 35*34
82H4
or, per cent.
Alcohol 57*1
Carbonic acid 42*9
100*0
Thenard mixed 60 parts of yeast with 300 parts of sugar, Brewing,
and fermented the mixture at the temperature of 59°. He v-'—'
informs us that, in four or five days, all the saccharine
matter had disappeared. The quantity of carbonic acid
evolved amounted by weight to 94*6 parts. It was per¬
fectly pure, being completely absorbed by water. The
fermented liquid being distilled, yielded 171*5 parts of al¬
cohol of the specific gravity 0*822. When the residue of
the distillation was evaporated, 12 parts of a nauseous
acid substance remained, and 40 parts of the yeast still
continued unaltered in appearance, though Thenard as¬
sures us that it had lost the whole of its azote. Thus the
products of the fermentations were,
Alcohol of 0*822 171*5
Carbonic acid  94*6
Nauseous residue .*  12*0
Residual yeast  40*0
3lM
Loss  41*9
Total .360*0
But as the nauseous residue and residual yeast nearly
make up the quantity of yeast employed, let us consider
only the products of decomposed sugar, supposing the loss
to be proportionally divided between the carbonic acid
and alcohol. Now, alcohol of the specific gravity 0*822
contains one tenth of its weight of water, which can be
separated from it; and if we suppose, with Saussure, that
absolute alcohol contains 8*3 per cent of water, then the
products of sugar decomposed by fermentation, according
to Saussure’s experiments, are as follows :
Alcohol 47*70
Carbonic acid 35*34
or, in 100 parts,
Alcohol 57*44
Carbonic acid 42*56
100*00
This result approaches so nearly that of Lavoisier, that
there is reason to suspect that the coincidence is more
than accidental.
According to the experiments of Thenard and Guy-
Lussac, sugar is composed of
Carbon   42*47
Oxygen and hydrogen in the same proportion
as in water 57*53
100*00
According to one analysis of Berzelius it is composed of
Hydrogen  6*802
Carbon 44*115
Oxygen 49*083
100*000
and, according to another, of
Hydrogen  6*891
Carbon 42*704
Oxygen 50*405
100*000
Alcohol, according to the analysis of Saussure, is com¬
posed of
Hydrogen 13*70 or 3 atoms.
Carbon 51*98 or 2 atoms.
Oxygen   34*32 or 1 atom.
lotFoo
And carbonic acid is composed of
Carbon 27*3 or 1 atom.
Oxygen ^2*7 or 2 atoms.
Hence it is obvious that sugar can be resolved into al¬
cohol and carbonic acid only, on the supposition that it
contains three atoms of oxygen, three atoms of carbon, and
243
B R E
Brewing, three atoms of hydrogen ; proportions which do not accord
with any of the analyses stated above. Supposing its com¬
position to be so, the weight of each of the constituents
per cent, is as follows:
Hydrogen 
Carbon 4003
Oxygen  
10000
On this supposition an integrant particle of sugar con¬
tains nine atoms, namely, three of oxygen, three ot carbon,
and three of hydrogen ; which are capable of arranging
themselves differently, so as to form an integrant particle
of alcohol containing six atoms, and an integrant particle
of carbonic acid containing three atoms.
An integrant particle of sugar is composed of
Oxygen —
3 Atoms.
1
2
Carbon.
3 Atoms.
2
1
Hydrogen
3 Atoms.
3
0
A particle of alcohol of 
A particle of carbonic acid of..
The weight of a particle of alcohol is... 2S11
The weight of a particle of carbonic acid 2- 751
According to these numbers, 100 parts of sugar ought by
fermentation to be decomposed into
Alcohol 50*76
Carbonic acid ..49-24
100-00
WING.
these brewings, we obtained a quantity of undecomposed brew
saccharine matter, which amounted, at an average, to one
fifth of the quantity originally present. At first they con¬
tained, on an average, 45 lbs. per barrel of saccharine mat¬
ter. The spent wash, after distillation, contained still 9
lbs. per barrel. This liquor was capable of being ferment¬
ed a second time, and of yielding more spirits.
But as these worts were very weak, and as they were
fermented in very advantageous circumstances, and m
much greater quantities than either Lavoisier or Thenard
could have employed in their experiments, we do not con¬
ceive that more than four fifths of the sugar which they
employed in their experiments could have been decom¬
posed. Now, if to the carbonic acid actually developed
in their trials we add a fifth part, the number will ap¬
proach very nearly to the one which we have deduced
from the supposition that sugar is decomposed by fermen¬
tation into an integrant part of alcohol and ari integrant
part of carbonic acid. n u. • j
On comparing the quantity of alcohol of 0#8^d obtained
in our experiments from the quantity of sacchaiine mat¬
ter actually decomposed by fermentation, the result was,
that 100 parts of saccharine matter yielded almost exactly
50 parts of such alcohol. This would amount to about
40-9 parts of real alcohol. There can be no doubt that a
portion of the alcohol was lost during the distillation, which
was conducted in the rapid way followed some years ago by
the distillers in Scotland. If we suppose one fifth to have
or it ought to form very nearly equal weights of each of ^ which ig probabiy not much beyond the truth, the
these constituents. . . rea] produce of alcohol from the saccharine matter of malt
This explanation of fermentation, though in some points ^ exactl one balf 0f its weight, which it
hypothetical, must be admitted to approach pretty neai ouo.pt tQ ^ accorcbng to the preceding supposition, that
the experiments made upon the subject. Ihese expen
ments are attended with so much difficulty, that rigid ac¬
curacy cannot be expected. In all likelihood, we can
never arrive at the truth by any other method than that
which we have followed upon this occasion. Nor will this
method be any longer doubtful, as soon as it is ascertain¬
ed with precision that sugar can be resolved into alcohol
and carbonic acid, and as soon as we know the proportions
of the two substances evolved. We conceive that both La¬
voisier and Thenard have stated the quantity of carbonic
acid too low, from not being aware that the whole of the
sugar is never decomposed by fermentation. This we con¬
clude from some experiments of our own, made on a large
scale, of which we shall now proceed to give an account.
Nine different brewings of pure malt were made. Hie
worts were weak, and they were fermented as strongly as
possible by means of large quantities of yeast, added at
intervals, as is practised by the distillers. The following
table exhibits the specific gravity of these worts before
and after the fermentation was over :
Specific gravity Specific gravity of ditto
of the wort. after fermentation.
1-040  1-0014
1-056  1-0016
• 1-050  1-000
1-0492 1-0012
1-0465 1-0045
1-045  1-0047
1-0465   L0007
1-051  1-0007
1-0524 1-0004
it is decomposed into alcohol and carbonic acid.
When the fermentation is languid, it is customary to
beat in the yeast which has collected on the top ; that is
to say, the whole is stirred till the wort and yeast are
thoroughly mixed. . .
5. The last step of the process of brewing is called Clean:
cleansing. When the violence of the fermentation is over,
the head of yeast which covers the top of the ferment¬
ing tun diminishes in height by the gradual escape ot the
carbonic acid gas, which heaved it into bubbles. It the
wort were allowed to remain in the gyle-tun after this has
happened, the yeast would again mix with it; and the
consequence would be a disagreeable bitter List:6’ mown
among brewers by the name of yeast hitter. I he termen-
tation would likewise continue, though in a languit man
ner, and the ale would soon run into acidity. Ihese acci¬
dents are prevented by drawing off the ale into sma
casks. And this is called cleansing. The casks are filled
quite full, and left with their bungs open. Ihe drawing
off of the ale from the gyle-tun lowers its temperature,
and, of course, checks the fermentation. On this accou
the cleansing is sometimes practised in summer, w en
elevation of temperature in the wort is at its heig it.
We have repeatedly observed a curious circumstance
during the cleansing, not very easily accounted fin. w
take the temperature of the ale at the upper surface o
gyle-tun, and then observe the temperature of the a e w
it flows from the stop-cock at the bottom of the OH,
shall generally find it one or two degrees hottei in
latter place than at the former. We ought naturally ^
From this table we see that only one of the worts was expect the highest temperature at the top of the gy -
reduced by fermentation so low as the specific gravity of The ale still continues to ferment alter it is pu ^
pure water. As a good deal of alcohol was evolved in each small casks ; but as these casks are^ always kep ^^
by the fermentation, it is obvious that they must have all yeast, as it comes to the surface, flows out at the bung.
contained a certain portion of saccharine matter undecom- and thus separates altogether from the beer,
posed, notwithstanding the violence of the fermentation, separation that has induced brewers to distingu ^
which elevated the temperature of the worts more than 50 the name of cleansing. In the?" """ f1pn-
degrees. On evaporating a portion of the worts of each of divides itself into two portions.
The greatest part rises
;wing.
BREWING.
249
up with the carbonic acid evolved, and flows out at the
bung-hole ; while another portion subsides to the bottom,
and constitutes what is called the dregs of the beer. It
is essential to the cleansing that the casks should be
always full, otherwise the yeast will not run off, and the
beer will not become transparent. This object is accom¬
plished in small breweries by a man constantly going
round, and filling up the casks as they work down. But
in the London breweries there is an ingenious mechanical
contrivance which answers the purpose perfectly.
When the fermentation has subsided, the beer will in
general be found transparent. It is bunged up in the
casks and preserved for sale; or in London, where the
quantity is too great for this, the beer is removed into
large stone vats, capable of holding several thousand barrels, Brewing,
from which it is gradually distributed to the consumers,
In London, where the beer is usually sent to the public-
houses as soon as the fermentation is over, and before it has
had time to become fine, it is usual to send along with it a
quantity otfinings, as it is called; that is, a solution of isin¬
glass in weak sour beer, made from a fourth mash of the
same malt. The publican puts a certain quantity of this
into every cask. It forms a kind of web at the surface of
the liquid; and, gradually sinking to thebottom, carries with
it all the flocculent matter, and leaves the beer transparent.
We shall terminate this chapter with a table exhibiting Tables of
the results obtained by brewing with malt made from abrewing.
considerable number of different varieties of barley and big.
GRAIN.
First Quality.
English.
Norfolk 
Norfolk 
Norfolk 
Norfolk 
Norfolk.
Suffolk.
Kent...,
Kent...,
Kent....
Average.
Scotch.
Haddington.
Haddington.
Haddington &
Berwick...,
Haddington &'
Berwick...,
Edinburgh.
Edinburgh.
Edinburgh.
Fife 
Fife,
Average...
Weight
per
Bushel.
lbs.
Bushels
of Malt
used.
50-375
50-375
50-375
50-375
50-375
50-508
49-750
49-914
49-032
50-208
52-190
52- 190
53- 094
53-094
52-164
52-164
52-164
51-539
51-539
52-237
60
47-5
55
60
55
72
60
50
81-875
60
72
60
54
60
60
79-125
72
72
Weight
of Malt
per
Bushel.
lbs.
36-58
36-58
36-58
38-4
38-4
40-56
34- 88
35- 76
35-44
37-02
38- 06
39- 18
39
39-6
41- 92
42- 26
41
38-8
38-8
W ort in
Barrels.
10-611
7-305
11-131
9-176
9-166
14-77
7- 972
8- 566
3- 38
10-583
8-527
3.55
10- 733
7- 417
4- 465
8- 954
7-305
2-717
11- 488
16-222
2-673
38-8
15- 456
] 2-603
12- 944
14-5
8-0
8-16
11-995
10-722
2-926
10- 264
9-528
1- 807
11- 324
16- 222
2- 69
13- 033
7- 944
4-138
13-252
8- 5
6-235
Specific
Gravity
of
W orts.
1-106
1-039
1-104
1-103
1-029
1-084
1-106
1-030
1-014
1-1197
1-044
1-0124
1-104
1-033
1-018
1-106
1-032
1-019
1-117
1-049
1-008
1-105
1-104
1-040
1-092
1-113
1-027
1-106
1-033
1-011
1-111
1-044
1-013
1-121
1-042
1-009
1-1055
1-028
1-0075
1-101
1-029
1-0062
Lbs. per
Barrel of
Dry Ex¬
tract.
99-2
35-25
97-25
101
25- 5
78-125
99-06
26- 56
11-25
112-5
40-6
100
97-25
29-25
14- 75
99-2
28-25
15- 5
110
45-25
6-5
Total
Quantity
of Dry
Extract.
98-25
97-25
36-25
85-94
1364-89
1071-36
1153-23
1368
1220-7
1798-46
1325-84
1139-52
2037-86
Solid Ex,
tract from a
Bushel of
Malt in lbs.
Avoirdu¬
pois.
1510-78
1717-74
1475
1328
1525-93
1490-8
1945-58
1756-24
1784
22-748
22-588
20-976
22-8
22-19
24-98
22-095
22-79
24-889
Solid Ex
tract from a
Bushel of
Raw Grain
24-91
24- 70
22- 96
23- 84
23- 20
25- 39
24- 58
24-22
27-06
22-894
25-199
23- 857
24- 580
24- 6
25- 432
24-846
24-588
24-39
24-78
24-696
24-54
27-46
24-59
24-73
24- 75
25- 08
25-51
25-25
24-39
24-78
25-17 0-4876
Solid Ex¬
tract from
1 lb. of
Raw Grain,
0-4485
0-4843
0-4563
0-4733
0-4406
0-5027
0-4941
0-4863
0-5431
0-4803
0-5262
0-4712
0-4915
0-4919
0-4808
0-4890
0-4841
0-4732
0-4808
2 i
VOL. V.
250
Brewing.
BREWING.
Tirer:
GRAIN.
First Quality-
Big.
Lanark....
Lanark....
Perth.
Perth.
Perth.
Aberdeen.
Aberdeen 
Dumfries 
Average.
Second Quality.
English.
Norfolk 
Norfolk  
Norfolk 
Norfolk.,
Norfolk.
Kent.
Average.
Weight
per
Bushel.
lbs.
48-562
48-562
47- 854
48- 562
48-562
48-562
48-562
47-000
48-278
Scotch.
Haddington...
Haddington 
Haddington
Berwick J
Haddington &)
Berwick j
Bushels
of Malt
used.
50-57
50-57
51
51
51
49-945
50-680
Fife.
Average....
52-265
52-265
50-531
50-531
48-508
60
72
72
80
60
72
72
60
60
70
50
52
50
76
72
60
60
64
72
Weight
of Malt
per
Bushel.
lbs.
36-44
36- 44
34-44
37- 57
36-53
36-03
36-03
36-01
Wort in
Barrels.
15-3
10- 9
11- 667
8- 971
9- 055
3-47
12- 094
13- 686
12-672
9-809
10-361
2-455
18-00
9-223
6-236
14- 00
8-25
6-24
14-75
36-28
38-437
38-437
37-562
37-562
37-562
36-875
37-298
37- 298
38- 501
38-501
40-036
18-135
10-874
10-000
13-694
7-722
7- 83
4-73
8- 79
4-87
8-30
10-527
8-125
4-013
Specific
Gravity
of
Worts.
1-090
1-116
1-040
1-111
1-057
1-016
1-121
1-048
1-011
1-103
1-034
1-011
1-115
1-040
1-0075
1*112
1-0307
1-006
1-069
Lbs. per
Barrel of
Dry Ex¬
tract.
38-327
f 11-378
\ 13-000
15-206
J!5
| 4-75
(10-55
\ 8-22
( 0-722
(11-429
] 7-25
( 7-25
1-072
1-106
1-041
1-081
1-105
1-0325
1-0167
1-071
1-036
1-004
1-104
1-043
1-012
84
109
36*25
104
53
13
113-5
44-25
8-8
96-4
30-25
8-8
108-43
35-25
5-93
105
35-92
5-45
64-37
}
:
67
99-2
37-25
75-51
98-75
29
13-44
65-93
32-6
3-44
97-5
40
9-37
1-111
1-032
1-093
1-088
1-0125
1-107
1-030
1-017
1-111
1-054
1-0078
l
I
104
28-25
86-8
81-88
10
100-6
26-87
14-6
193-75
50-62
6-25
Total
Quantity
of Dry
Extract.
Solid Ex¬
tract from a! Solid Ex-
Bushel of
M alt in lbs.
Avoirdu¬
pois.
tract from a
Bushel of
Raw Grain.
1282-16
1625-63
1511-01
2011-38
1285-39
1678-61
1650-74
1299-84
21- 369
22- 578
20- 986
25-142
21- 423
23- 310
22- 95
21-66
1234-95
1489-92
1181-99
1144-13
1111-03
1624-10
22-424
20- 583
21- 284
23-64
22- 002
22-221
21-370
21-849
1560-06
1319-84
1435-15
1376-55
1770-96
21-667
21-997
23- 920
21-510
24- 600
22-739
Solid Ex¬
tract from
1 lb. of
Raw Grain
22-08
23- 33
21-60
24- 90
20- 87
23-14
22-76
21- 14
22-47
22- 475
23- 241
24- 552
22- 852
23- 078
22-504
23-117
22-359
22- 699
24-146
21-831
23- 137
22-834
0-4547
0-4804
0-4447
0-5128
0-4297
0-4765
0-4686
0-4498
0-4646
0-4444
0-4506
0-4814
0-4481
0-4525
0-4506
0-4561
0-4278
0-4343
0-4778
0-4320
0-4770
0-4498
rewing-
BREWING,
251
Brewing.
GRAIN.
Second Quality.
Big.
Kirkcudbright...
Kirkcudbright...
Ayr 
Ayr 
Angus 
Average 
Third Quality.
English.
Norfolk 
Norfolk 
Norfolk 
Norfolk 
Essex 
Essex 
Average 
Scotch.
Haddington 
Haddington 
Berwick 
Average 
Big.
Kirkcudbright...
Kirkcudbright...
Average 
Weight
per
Bushel.
lbs.
Bushels
of Malt
used.
Weight
of Malt
per
Bushel.
lbs.
Wort in
Barrels.
Specific
Gravity
of
W orts.
Lbs. per
Barrel of
Dry Ex¬
tract.
Total
Quantity
of Dry
Extract.
Solid Ex.
tract from a
Bushel of
Malt in lbs,
Avoirdu¬
pois.
Solid Ex¬
tract from a
Bushel of
Raw Grain.
Solid Ex¬
tract from
1 lb. of
Raw Grain
46-875
46- 875
47- 937
47-937
47-392
60
72
50
98
72
36-40
36- 40
37- 83
37- 83
38- 57
1-082
1-109
1-047
1-075
1-011
1-105
1-041
1-1028
1-006
76-4
102
43-25
70
9-37
98-44
37-5
95-9
1210-62
1441-37
1062-66
2111-22
1565-06
20-177
20- 019
21- 253
21-543
21-737
20- 428
20-268
21- 483
21-560
20-552
47-403
37-40
20-946
20-858
0-4358
0-4324
0-4481
0-4497
0-4337
0-4399
51-937
51-937
51-625
51-625
47- 633
48- 000
72
72
76
76
70
72
36-683
36- 683
37- 61
37-61
35-125
35-656
10-262
14-528
10- 484
11- 722
2-986
14-33
7-61
14-333
6- 25
7- 1
11- 717
12- 118
2-085
11-472
7-805
10-083
1-107
1-040
1-104
1-043
1-012
1-094
1-035
1-092
1-0477
1-0098
1-111
1-028
1-010
1-099
1-036
1-507
1587-24
1519-95
1676-85
1732-36
1536-88
1540-3.
22-045
21-11
22-064
22-794
21-955
21-393
23-457
22- 463
23- 056
23-820
23-236
21-848
50-459
36-561
21-893
22-980
48-969
48-969
48-854
72
72
72
36-816
36- 816
37- 312
1
10-123
8-028
3- 441
10-012
8-916
0-995
14-000
5-916
4- 75
1-103
1-047
1-021
1-112
1-071
1-011
1-086
1-039
1-0088
1390-45
1647-03
1490-51
19- 311
23-014
20- 602
19- 617
23-378
20- 233
48-930
36-98
20-976
21-076
44-722
44-722
67-75
68
35-031
35-031
13083
6-25
8-472
13-048
5-125
10-083
1-1067
1-037
1-0047
1-0865
1-004
99-68
33-43
3-75
80-625'
3-12
1481-78
1306-86
21-871
19-219
20-688
18-161
0-4516
0-4325
0-4570
0-4614
0-4799
0-4551
0-4562
0-4006
0*4774
0-4141
0-4307
0-4621
0-4061
44-722
35-031
20-545
19-414
0-4341
252
Brewing.
Difference
between
beer and
ale.
Porter.
CHAP. V.
OF ALE AND BEER.
BREWING.
son, of notorious memory, though they enriched himself Brew:n
produced the injurious effects upon the London breweries '■’’■y/
L , 1   1 Tbic man wbflSP rbft-
The English word ale is obviously the same w ith the
Swedish word 67, which is applied to the same kind of fer-
_ 1 •>7 . •  /-VHO W111
that have been ascribed to them. This man, whose cha¬
racter was notorious, kept an apothecary s shop on f ower-
Hill; and speculating on the means of amassing a speedy
Swedish word 67, which is applied to the same Kmc - ’ , " u;t pon tiie idea of brewing beer from various
raented liquor; while the word - ^ fynonymou s.n h and hop. But instead of com-
the German word Her. These two words in Great Bn-
tain are applied to two liquors obtained by fermentation
from the malt of barley; but they differ from each other
in several particulars. Ale is light-coloured, brisk, anc
sweetish, or at least free from bitter; while beer is dar -
coloured, bitter, and much less brisk. VVhat is called
porter in England is a species of beer, and the term por-
drugs Ynstead of malt and hops. But instead of com¬
mencing practical brewer himself, he struck out the more
profitable trade of teaching his process to the London
brewers. Mrs Piozzi informs us, that even from one great
brewer he contrived to realize an ample fortune. His me¬
thods must have been practised upon a considerable scale
for crvmp time • but w'e have no doubt that they have been
porter in England is a species of beer, and tne ter ^ ^ ^’]obnUt " eo< It was the French war, and the
ter at present signifies what was formerly called a that was the real cause of the
beer. The original difference between these two liquids enormous^ ‘tj. of London porter> Nor wiU
was owing to the malt from which they n ere p p. • recover its former good qualities, till the tax on
Ale malt was dried at a very low heat, and consequently it ever recover^ its ; qy ^ the price of
was of a pale colour; while beer or porter malt u as r , p-reatlv enhanced, which is not likely to happen,
at a higher temperature, and had of consequence acqun P sometimes thought that if quassia were reduced
a brown colour. This insipient charring had developed a \\ Coffee, it might probably be em-
peculiar and agreeable bitter taste, which vas commu - P ^ advantage, both as a colouring matter
cated to the beer along with the dark colour This b. ter to furnish the agreeable bitter, at
taste rendered beer more agreeable to the palate, and less ot porter, and as iixeiy ro xuui m s
injurious to the constitution, than ale. It was consequent- P^ent wnstdered Great Bri-
up^t at'hegreapcrease in theVi^ of the House^f C_ ^ ^ forMtlie
bushel, it follows that the quantity of malt made in Eng¬
land, and charged with duty, amounted to 2,416,384-81
quarters. If we admit that the quantity of malt actually
made exceeds by five per cent, what is charged with
duty, in that case the whole malt actually made in Eng¬
land during the year 1813 wras 2,537,204 quarters.
In Scotland the actual receipts during the year 1813
were L.134,106. 12s. OJd. This, at the rate of three shil-
wort of a given strength could be prepared from pale malt
than from brown malt. The consequence was, that pale
malt was substituted for brown malt in the brewing of por¬
ter and beer. We do not mean that the whole malt em¬
ployed was pale, but a considerable proportion of it. The
wrort of course was much paler than before, and it wanted
that agreeable bitter flavour which characterized porter,
and made it so much relished by most palates. The por¬
ter brewers endeavoured to remedy these defects lay se-
veral artificial addition, co! lings and -nd ^
louring matter, by heating a solution of coarse sugar in an is the rate ot ti e } . ’ Vinedom during the
iron boiler till it became black, and was reduced to the the q^rs of malt 7^™ tleiake
consistency of treacle. The smoke issuing from it was year 813 am0“n‘“ „fudkfrom
then set on fire, and the whole was allowed to burn for the allowance of fire per cent for the incre^e ot Du
about ten minutes, when the flame was extinguished by ma ting, because werd“ k",0'L'’haf‘0^ Scotch bar.
putting a lid on the vessel. This substance was mixed malt Scotknd is
with a certain quantity of water before it was cold. The ey. But as the duty « ^ ^ doubted
porter is coloured by adding about two pounds of this co- lower than in ‘ ’ . f th barley malted
louring matter for eYery ban-el of wort while in the gyle- that a very ‘pecans ^re shall
tun. Some brewers make their colouring matter with m Scotland is the growth of England, pernaps
infusion of malt instead of sugar; and in 1809 M. de not err very far if ^3^° ^0 000 quarters,
Roche took out a patent for preparing the colouring mat- tually made maU
ter from the husks of malt, by burning them like coffee, which is only one twe V P „ h f times
and then infusing them in water. We believe that all made ,n Great Britain, f^nd, in
these colouring matters are of the same nature; of as much beer ls>consu^^
course, the brewer ought to employ that one of them Pr°Pp^0'^i“sta^P°^“gat;“fa^„uiof Scotland; for there
" To’supplyathoS place of the agreeable bitter which was cannot be a doubt that beer is Z
communicated to porter by the use of brown malt, various water as a beverage, and that, if ™"ey ^ t0
substitutes were tried. Quassia, cocculus indicus, and we common people in England on bee P }
believe even opium, were employed in succession; but buy food, they would be much more healthy, stou ,
none of them were found to answer the purpose suffi- happy, than they are at present
ciently. Whether the use of these substances be still
persevered in wre do not know-, but we rather believe that
they are not, at least by the London porter brewers.
It w-as this change in the use of the malt which occa¬
sioned the great falling off in the London porter, which
has been so much complained of, and ascribed to so many
causes. We do not believe that the schemes of Mr Jack-
In the year 1814 the gross receipts of the malt tax
England amounted to L.4,772,332. 5s. 5^d. This, at t ie
rate of four shillings and fourpence per bushel, mdica e
2,753,268-6 quarters of malt; and, making an allowance
of five per cent, it follows that the whole malt made m
England in 1814 amounted to 2,890,932 quarters.
In Scotland, during the same year, the gross receip
BREWING.
253
on the malt duty amounted to L.125,787. 7s. 10^d. which,
at the rate of three shillings and eightpence one eighth
per bushel, indicates 85,521*18 quarters of malt. We
may increase this on account of the increase of malt not
reckoned in the tax, and on account of the tax in the
Highlands being lower than in the Lowlands, to 90,000
quarters of malt, which is a tenth less than the quantity
malted in 1813, while, in England, the quantity malted
had increased considerably. Thus it appears that the
whole quantity of malt made in Great Britain during the
year 1814 was 2,980,932 quarters.
Malt made in 1813, in quarters 2,637,204
Ditto in 1814 2,980,932
Mean 2,809,068
But this consumption of barley, enormous as it is, by no
means gives us the whole of that grain consumed annually in
Great Britain in the manufacture of spirituous liquors. For
the distillers employ at least two thirds of the barley which
they use in the state of raw grain. Now this quantity
does not pay any malt tax, and, of course, is not included
in the preceding estimate. It might be possible to form
an idea of this quantity from the duty levied upon spirits,
though such an inquiry would be foreign to the subject of
this article.
But perhaps the following table, exhibiting the quan¬
tity of porter brewed by the thirteen principal houses in
London, during nine years, will give the reader a more
accurate conception of the extent to which the trade is
carried in this country.1
Brewing.
Quantity Brewed in One
Year, ending
Barclay & Perkins 
Meux, Reid, & Co 
Trueman, Hanbury, &
Co 
F. Calvert & Co 
Whitbread & Co 
H. Meux & Co 
Combe 
Brown, Parry, & Co.2...
Goodwynne, Skinner, &
Co 
J. Calvert3 
Elliot & Co 
Taylor 
Clowes, Maddox, &
Newbury 
July 1807.
Barrels.
166,600
170,879
135,972
83,004
104,251
82.273
125,654
72,580
37,033
47,388
30.273
38,544
Totals  1,092,451
July 1808.
Barrels.
184,196
190,169
117,374
68,924
111,185
70,561
131,647
70,232
38,002
48,669
32,800
39,273
1,103,032
July 1809.
Barrels.
205,328
150,105
130,846
90,363
100,275
40,663
75,551
114,001
60,233
39,155
45,608
40,007
40,231
July 1810.
Barrels.
235',053
211,009
144,990
133,491
110,939
93,660
85,150
84,475
74,233
57,251
44,510
41,594
1,132,366 1,316,345 1,338,478
July 1811.
Barrels.
264,405
220,094
142,179
105,887
122,316
103,152
81,761
72,367
85,181
58,042
46,222
36,872
July 1812. July 1813.
Barrels.
270,259
188,078
160,164
108,212
122,446
102,493
100,824
51,274
81,022
28,038
58,035
51,220
34,016
1,356,085
Barrels.
257,265
165,153
140,114
100,093
135,892
82,012
97,035
45,500
71,467
49,269
41,850
29,844
1,215,494
July 1814.
Barrels.
262,467
165,628
145,141
100,391
141,104
100,776
95,398
30.162
62,019
30,252
45.162
42,126
1,220,616
July 1815.
Barrels.
337,621
182,104
172,162
119,333
161,018
123,100
105,081
38,107
72,080
32,256
56,922
51,294
1,451,688
To form a proper estimate of the quantity of porter con¬
tained in this table, it is necessary to know* that the Lon¬
don barrel contains thirty-six gallons.
The usual limits of the wort of strong ale in this coun¬
try may be stated at from 60 to 120 pounds per barrel,
or from the specific gravity 1*064 to 1*11275 at the tem¬
perature of 60°. The highest-priced ales also are not
always the strongest, because the price depends in a
great measure on the reputation of the brewer. The fer¬
mentation of ale is not carried far; and the consequence
is, that a considerable portion of the saccharine mat¬
ter still remains in the liquid, apparently unaltered. By
means of the infusion of nut-galls, too, traces of starch
may be still detected in strong ale, even after it has
been kept for some time in bottles. The annexed table
exhibits the original strength of the wort before the
fermentation began, and likewise the diminution of spe¬
cific gravity produced by the fermentatien, or the attenua¬
tion, as this diminution is termed by brewers and dis¬
tillers.
1 There are many other porter brewers in London besides those whose names are contained in this table. The following were
the seven next in order to those given in the table for 1812, with the quantity of porter manufactured by each:
Martineau & Co 24,143 barrels. Tickells 18,071 barrels.
Hodgson 24,143 Dickinson 16,292
Pryors 20,210 Green & Co 14,090
Starkey 18,136
If we were to give an opinion respecting the different modes followed in the different houses, we would place Martineau at the
head of the trade in point of accuracy and skill.
following table exhibits the quantity of strong ale brewed by the seven principal houses in London, in the year ending the
oui of July 1815 :
Stretton & Co 27,094 barrels- Hale & Co 10,134 barrels.
^yyatt 22,146 Ball & Co  7,985
Charrington & Co 20,444 Thorpe & Co  5,433
Coding & Co 14,491
| During the last four years in the table wre have substituted Cox & Campbell.
During the last four years we have substituted Hollingsworth & Company.
brewing.
As a certain quantity of alcohol is evolved in the ale by
the fermentation, it is obvious that the last column is not
quite accurate. The real quantity of saccharine matter
in each of these also must be greater than what is indi¬
cated in that column, because the effect of the saccharine
matter, in increasing the specific gravity of the ale, is
counteracted by the alcohol, which tends to diminish that
specific gravity. By casting the eye over the preceding
table, it will be seen that the attenuation does not follow
the ratio of the strength. It was greatest of all in the
third, and least in the first brewing. These brewings be¬
ing the same with those given in the fourth chapter, in
order to illustrate the quantity of yeast used in ferment¬
ing, the reader, by comparing the two tables together, will
be able to form some conclusions respecting the effect of
different quantities of yeast, and different temperatures Brewing
upon the attenuation of strong ale, 's-'Yv
Porter is much weaker than strong ale. The average strength
specific gravity of porter wort, according to Shannon, as of porter,
deduced by the saccharometer, is 1*0645, which indicates
60 pounds per barrel of saccharine extract. Hence the
reason why it is so much less glutinous and adhesive than
strong ale. The fermentation which porter undergoes is,
we believe, much less than that of ale ^ but we have no
very accurate information on the subject. According to
the experiments of Mr Brande, brown stout, which is
the strongest porter made in London, contains 6*8 per
cent, by measure, of alcohol of the specific gravity 0*825.
If he had given us the specific gravity of this porter be¬
fore distillation, it would have enabled us to determine
in some measure the error in the attenuation, as indicated
by the saccharometer. _ * ^ :
The porter brewers in London use three kinds of malt;
namely pale malt, amber malt, and brown malt. These
three are mashed separately, and the worts from each are
afterwards mixed together in the same fermenting*vessel.
In some breweries, as in that of Barclay and Perkins in
the Borough, there are three separate mash-tuns. In other
breweries, the custom is to mash one kind of malt the first
day, another kind the second day, and a third kind the
third day. The first day’s wort is put into the fermenting
vessel, and mixed with yeast; and the other two worts
are added to it successively as they are formed. Hence
it is very difficult to determine with accuracy the strength
of the worts in the London breweries. It could only be
done by knowing the quantity of wort from each malt,
and its specific gravity when let into the fermenting ves¬
sel. We have had an opportunity of determining the
strength of the porter wort in all the principal breweries
in London. The average specific gravity ot brown-stout
wort is 1*0624. The wort of the best common porter is of
the specific gravity 1*0535, that of the worts of the weak¬
est is as low as 1*0374. The average specific gravity de¬
duced from twenty brewings was 1*0500. Such wort
contains about 46*4 lbs. per barrel of saccharine matter.
Judging from the taste of some of the worts, quassia seems
to be employed in considerable quantity by some of the
brew'ers, and much more sparingly, if at all, by others.
The fermentation of porter is carried on with considerable
rapidity, so that it is over in two or three days. The spe¬
cific gravity of the porter is usually brought down to 1*013
or 1*017. "The specific gravity of the best brown-stout,
after standing some months in the bottle, is 1*0106. The
proportion of pale and brown malt used in the different
houses varies. One of the best brewers in London uses
nearly two parts pale malt to one part brown. (l-)
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
Figs. 1 and 2, Plate CXXX., explain the arrangement
of the utensils and machinery in a porter brewery on the
largest scale ; in which, however, it must be observed
that the elevation, fig. 1, is in a great degree imaginary
as to the plane upon which it is taken; but the different
vessels are arranged so as to explain their uses most
readily, and at the same time to preserve, as nearly as
possible, the relative positions which are usually assigned
to each in works of this nature.
The malt for the service of the brewery is stored in vast
granaries or malt-lofts, usually situated in the upper part
of the buildings. Of these, we have only been able to re¬
present one at A, fig. 1; the others, wffiich are supposed
to be on each side of it, cannot be seen in this view. Im¬
mediately beneath the granary A is the mill, in the upper
floor of wrhich are twro pair of rollers for bruising or crush¬
ing the grains of the malt. (An enlarged representation
of the rollers is given at figs. 3 and 4.) In the floor be¬
neath the rollers are the mill-stones b b, where the malt is
sometimes ground, instead of the simple bruising which it
receives by passing between the rollers.
The malt, when prepared, is conveyed by a trough into
a chest, d, from which it can be elevated by the action o
a spiral screw e (see also figs. 5 and 6) into the large
chest or binn B, for ground malt, situated immediate y
over the mashing-tun D. The malt is reserved in the binn
Erring, till wanted, and it is then let down into the mashing-tun,
where the extract is obtained by hot water supplied from
the copper G.
The water for the service of the brewery is obtained
from the well E, by a lifting pump worked by the steam-
engine; and the forcing-pipe f of this pump conveys the
water up to the large reservoir or water-back F, placed at
the top of the engine-house. From this cistern iron pipes
are laid to the copper G, and also every part of the esta¬
blishment where cold water can be wanted for cleaning
and washing the vessels. The copper G can be filled with
cold water by only turning a cock; and the water, when
boiled therein, is conveyed by the pipe g into the mash¬
ing-tun D. It is introduced beneath a false bottom, upon
which the malt lies, and, rising up through the holes in
the false bottom, it extracts the saccharine matter from
the malt; a greater or less time being allowed for the in¬
fusion, according to circumstances. The instant the wa¬
ter is drawn off from the copper, fresh water must be let
into it, in order to be boiled ready for the second mash¬
ing; because the copper must not be left empty for a mo¬
ment, otherwise the intense heat of the fire would melt
the bottom. For the convenience of thus letting down at
once as much liquor as will fill the bottom of the copper,
a pan or second boiler is placed over the top of the copper,
as seen in fig. 3, Plate CXXXI.; and the steam rising
from the copper communicates a considerable degree of
heat to the contents of the pan, without any expense of
fuel. This will be more minutely explained hereafter.
During the process of mashing, the malt is agitated in
the mash-tun, to expose every part to the action of the
water. This is done by a machine contained within the
mash-tun, and put in motion by the horizontal shaft H,
leading from the mill. The mashing-machine is shown in
fig. 1, Plate CXXXI. When the mashing is finished, the
wort or extract is drained down from the malt, into a ves¬
sel I, of similar dimensions to the mash-tun, and situated
immediately beneath, from which it is called the under-
back. Here the wort does not remain longer than is ne¬
cessary to drain off the whole of it from the tun above. It
is then pumped up by the three-barrelled pump k, into the
pan at the top of the copper, by a pipe which cannot be
seen in the plate.
The wort remains in the copper pan until the water for
the succeeding mashes is discharged from the copper.
But this waiting is no loss of time, because the heat of the
copper, and the steam arising from it, makes the wort,
which had become cooler, ready for boiling. The instant
the copper is empty, the wort is let dowrn from the pan
into the copper, and the second wort is pumped up from
the underback into the copper pan. The proper propor¬
tion of hops is thrown into the copper through the near
hole, and then the door is shut down, and screwed fast, to
keep in the steam, and cause it to rise up through pipes
into the pan ; and by bubbling up through the wort in the
pan, it communicates so much heat that it is soon ready
or boiling in its turn; for it is to be observed, that the
diiterent worts follow each other through all the different
vessels with the greatest regularity, so that there is no
oss of time, but every part of the apparatus is constantly
employed. When the boiling of the wort has continued
a sufficient time to coagulate the grosser part of the ex¬
tract and to evaporate part of the water, the contents of
the copper are run off through a large cock into the jack-
ack K, which is a vessel of sufficient dimensions to con-
ain it, and provided with a bottom of cast-iron plates, per-
oiated with small holes, through which the wort drains
■ YfT5 t^le ^0PS‘ The hot wort is drawn off from the
wh' V i ^roVSh the pipe h by the three-barrelled pump,
lc 1 “uows it up to the coolers L, this pump being made
with different pipes and cocks of communication, to serve Brewing,
all the purposes of the brewery except that of raising the
cold water from the well. The coolers L are very shallow
vessels, built over one another in several stages ; and that
part of the building in which they are contained is built
with open lattice-work on all sides, to admit the free cur¬
rent of air. When the wort is sufficiently cooled to be put
to the first fermentation, it is conducted in pipes from all the
different coolers to the large fermenting vessel or gyle-tun
M, which, with another similar vessel behind it, is of suffi¬
cient capacity to contain all the beer of one day’s brewings.
When the first fermentation is concluded, the beer is
drawn off from the great fermenting vessel M into the
small fermenting casks or cleansing vessels N, of which
there are a great number in the brewery. They are placed
four together, and to each four a common spout is provid¬
ed to carry off the yeast, and conduct it into the troughs
u placed beneath. In these cleansing vessels the beer re¬
mains till the fermentation is completed, and it is then
put into the store-vats, which are casks or tuns of an im¬
mense size, where it is kept till wanted, and is then drawn
off into barrels and sent away from the brewery. The
store-vats are not represented in the plate, but are of a
conical figure, and of different dimensions, from fifteen to
forty feet diameter, and usually twenty feet in depth. The
steam-engine which puts all the machinery in motion is
explained by the figure. On the axis of the large fly¬
wheel is a bevelled cog-wheel, which turns another simi¬
lar wffieel upon the end of a horizontal shaft, which ex¬
tends from the engine-house to the great horse-wheel,
which it turns by means of a cog-wheel. The horse-wheel
puts in motion all the pinions for the mill-stones bb, and
also the horizontal axis which works the three-barrelled
pump k. The rollers aa are turned by a bevelled wheel
upon the upper end of the axis of the horse-wheel, which
is continued for that purpose; and the horizontal shaft H,
for the mashing engine, is driven by a pair of bevelled
wheels. There is likewise a sack-tackle, which is not re¬
presented. It is a machine for drawing up the sacks of
malt from the court-yard to the highest part of the build¬
ing, whence the sacks are wheeled on a truck to the malt-
loft A, and the contents of the sacks are thrown in.
The horse-wheel is intended to put in horses occasion¬
ally if the steam-engine should fail; but these engines are
now brought to such perfection that it is very seldom any
accidents occur with them.
Fig. 2, Plate CXXX., is a representation of the ferment-
ing-house at the brewery of Messrs Whitbread and Com¬
pany, Chiswell Street, London, which is by far the most
complete in its arrangement of any work of the kind, and
was erected after the plan of Mr Richardson, who con¬
ducts the brewing at those works. The whole of fig. 2 is
to be considered as devoted to the same object as the large
vessel M and the casks N, fig. 1. In fig. 2, r is the pipe
which leads from the different coolers to convey the wort
to the great fermenting vessels or squares M, of which
there are two, one behind the other; ff represents a part
of the great pipe which conveys all the water from the
well E, fig. 1, up to the water cistern F. This pipe is
conducted purposely up the wall of the fermenting-house,
fig. 2, and has a cock in it, near r, to stop the passage.
Just beneath this passage a branch-pipe p proceeds and
enters a large pipe x x, which has the former pipe r within-
side of it. From the end of the pipe x, nearest to the
squares M, another branch n n proceeds, and returns to
the original pipe/i with a cock to regulate it. The object
of this arrangement is to make all, or any part of, the cold
water flow through the pipe x x, so as to surround the
wort-pipe r, which is only made of thin copper, and lower
the temperature of the wort passing through the pipe r,
256
brewing.
j0b , , . rn, to have the exact lever, which bears upon the teeth of one of these cog- Brewin,
Brewing, until, by the thermometer, it is fo h * ferment wheels, and is thereby lifted up every time a cog passes. ^ r
temperature which is desirable before it s p t This lever is fixed on the extremity of an axis, which
-- I nr  nn^l-Q at n and This lever is fixed on the extremity of an axis, which
in the great square M. By means of the coc vs nasses across the wood frame, and in the middle of it has
p, the quantity of cold water winch shal 3, bearTng up a trough b, which hangs under
with the surface of the pipe >• can be regulate p j •’ , onenine of the hopper A. By this means the trough
so as to have a command of the heat of the wort when .t the ope^mgrt “|g“PPand shatJdown the malt regullr-
enters into the square. ... tvt W frnm the honner A, and lets it fall between the rollers:
When the first fermentat.on m the squares M is finish- ’ late> which is always made to bear
ed, the beer is drawn off from them y PT 0f atrainst the surface of the roller by a weight, to remove
and conducted by its branches w o building, the grains which adhere to the roller,
fermenting-tuns marked ISN, which till a = 5 :s tbe screw by which the ground or bruised malt
Between e°very two rows are placed large trouts t0 con- F 5 - ‘h™ from rt of the bre t
tain the yeast which they throw off. Ihe plate shows is raise 1^ ^ ^ inc'jined bar or troughj in the centre of
that the small tuns are all placed 0', a| ""XtI,e l,c r will which the axis of the screw H is placed; and the spiral
“o0Ure0m,td! by standing to them ah, will fill them iron plate or worm, which is fixed projecttog from the
to the same level. ’ When they are filled, the communica
tion-cock is shut; but as the working off of the yeast di¬
minishes the quantity of beer in each vessel, it is neces¬
sary to fill them up again. For this purpose the two large
vats 00 are filled from the great vessels M before any
beer is drawn off into the small casks N, and this quantity
of beer is reserved at the higher level for filling up. ihe
two vessels 00 are in reality placed between the two
squares M, but we have been obliged to place them so
that they can be seen. Near each filling-up tun o is a
cistern t, with a pipe of communication from the tun U,
and this pipe is closed by a float-valve. The small cis¬
terns t have always a communication with the pipes which
axis, and which forms the screw, is made very nearly to
fill the inside of the box. By this means, when the screw
is turned round by the wheels EF, or by any other means,
it raises up the malt from the box d, and delivers it at the
* The screw is equally applicable for conveying the malt
horizontally in the trough k as inclined; and similar ma¬
chines are employed in various parts of breweries for con¬
veying the malt wherever the situation of the works re-
^ffig. 1, Plate CXXXI., is the mashing-machine. WW is
the tun, made of wood staves, hooped together. In the
centre of it rises a perpendicular shaft NN, which is turn-
terns < have always a communication with tne pipes wn cu — by means of the bevelled wheels KI at
lead to the small fermenting vessels N, and there ) 7 projecting from the axis, and
surface of the beer to all the 7,^ ” by u^tog .^“erttoafax'is S a? the extremities, so
beer in all the tuns, and also ^Uich is Z- L“on When ZaxTs is tul/ronnd, tlfese arms agi-
tight, at the same time that it is at liberty to slide down round upon the central a> s . d PP motion from
as the surface of the beer descends in the tun. The yeast same tube O s ^‘J^he horizontal
flows over the edge of this dish, and is conveyed down .This
the pipe to a trough beneath. _ . • , ® • • r± linor. it which ffives motion to
Beneath the fermenting house are large arched vaults same axis has a pm e^’d of a forizontai axle,
P, built with stone, and lined with stucco. Into these the t he w ice ’ . P d bas a bevelled pinion I work-
beer is let down when sufficiently fermented, and is kept which at the opposite end bas a Deveuea p
tm wanted. These vaults are used at Mr Whitbread's “f v^r
brewery instead of the great store-vats of which we have rotation of the central axis W wi ^ ^ 7
brewery instead of the great store-vats ot which we have rotation oi tne o br the ^uer will make
before ‘'spoken, and are in some respects preferable, be- with the motion of the ax s , tl 1 the
.v1    oiif.r t0rvmprntnrp. bpinp- seventeen or eighteen revolutions on us own
caus*e7iey'p1'esm‘ve a great equality of temperature, being 111^cTrried'nZound the
^Fl^^nf-Hat^X^prcseut the malt-rollers^ tun b/the motion of the ^ c At^eginn^of
or machine for bruising the grains of malt. A is the hopper the operation of ma »’ , • wette(l afl the malt
into which the malt is let down from the malt-loft above, with a slow motion ; but, afe"For this
and from this the malt is let out gradually through a by one revolution, it is made to revolve^^
sluice or sliding-shuttle a, and falls between the rollers purpose the ascending ^a/ ^eels BC fixed upon a tube
BD. These rollers are made of iron, truly cylindrical, machine, has two bevelled wheels ^up ^
and their pivots are received in pieces of brass let into iron X, which is fitted upon the shaft. I e haft
frames, which are bolted down to the wooden frame of the the wheels D and E upon the end of t ie^^ ^ ^ c .g
machine. A screw E is lapped through the end of each F; but the distance between b ^el® e ^th the
of these iron frames; and by these screws the brasses can such, that they cannot be engaged bott ^ fix.
be forced forwards, and the rollers made to work closer to wheels D and E ; but the tube X, to w > ^ suffi-
each other, so as to bruise the malt in a greater degree, ed, is capable of sliding «P and down 0 11 with its
G is the shaft by which one of the rollers is turned, and ciently to bring either wheel B or ^ int ^ al shaft;
the other receives its motion by means of a pair of equal corresponding wheel E or D upon the ^j^nt
cog-wheels H, which are fixed upon the ends of the pivots, and as the diameters of BE and CD are achine can
at the opposite ends of each of the rollers: d is a small proportions, the velocity of the motion of the n
BREWING. 257
B Vmg. be varied at pleasure by using one or other : b and c are
two levers, which are forked at the ends, and embrace
collars at the ends of the tube X; and the levers being
united by a rod, the handle b gives the means of moving
the tube X and its wheels BC up or down to obtain the
action of the different wheels.
Figs. 3 and 4 represent a large close copper. AA is
the copper, a»d B the pan placed over it. The copper
has a large tube E rising up from the dome of it, to con¬
vey the steam; and from the top of this four inclined
pipes R descend, the ends being immersed beneath the
surface of the water or wort contained in the pan. By
this means the steam which rises from the copper issues
from the ends of the pipes R, and rises in bubbles through
the liquor in the pan, so as to heat it. In the centre of
the copper is a perpendicular spindle a, which, at the
lower end, has arms dd fixed projecting from it, and is
turned round by a cog-wheel b at the upper end. From
the arms dd chains are hung in loops, which drag round
upon the bottom of the copper when the axis is turned;
and this motion stirs up the hops to keep them from burn¬
ing at the bottom : fff is a chain and roller to draw up the
spindle a when the rowser is not wanted; and ee are iron
braces proceeding from the outside of the copper, to re¬
tain the axis a firmly in the centre of the copper. D is
the •waste-pipe for carrying off the steam into the chim¬
ney when it is not required to heat the liquor in the pan.
The copper represented in the drawing is made in the
same manner as usual; but the fire is applied beneath it
in a manner very different from the common brewing-cop¬
pers. The method was devised with a view to the burn¬
ing or consuming of the smoke, and was employed in the
brewery of Messrs Meux and Company, London, about
the year 1803.
The fire-place is divided into two by a wall extended
beneath the bottom of the boiler, as shown by Z in the
plan, fig. 4, where the dotted circle A represents the bot¬
tom of the copper, and the circle X its largest part. The
section in fig. 3 shows only one of these fire-places, of
which C is the fire-grate. The raw coal is not thrown in
through the fire-door in the manner of common furnaces,
but is put into a narrow inclined box of cast-iron //, built
in the brick-work, and shaped like a hopper. The coals
contained in this hopper fill it up, and stop the entrance
of the air so as to answer the purpose of a door; and the
coals at the lowest part or mouth of the hopper are brought
into a state of ignition before they are forced forwards
into the furnace, which is done by introducing a rake or
poker at i, just beneath the lower end of the hopper b,
and forcing the coals forwards upon the grate bars C.
Immediately over the hopper h, a narrow passage is left
to admit a stream of fresh air along the top of the hopper
to pass over the surface of the fuel which is burning at
the lower end of the hopper h. By this means the smoke
rising from that portion of fuel is carried forwards over
the burning coals upon the grate C, and is thereby con¬
sumed. Beyond the grate bars c, a breast wall S is erect¬
ed, to direct the flame upwards against the bottom of the
boiler A, and thence descending under the bottom, the
flame is received into the flues, which make each a half
turn round the lower part of the copper, as shown in the
plan at tt, and then enter the chimney or perpendicular
flue W at the same point; the entrance being regulated
by a damper to make the draught more or less intense.
There is also a sliding door or damper E, which closes up
the lower part of the chimney; and by means of these two
dampers the fire under the copper can be regulated to
the greatest precision; for by opening the damper F it
admits the cold air to enter immediately into the chim-
ney W, and thus take off the rapidity of the draught;
and at the same time, by closing the dampers from the Brewing,
flues into the chimney, the intensity of the draught
through the fire is checked, which is very necessary to
be done when the contents of the copper are drawn off.
Immediately over the fire-grate c, an arch of fire-bricks
or stone s is placed beneath the bottom of the copper, to
defend it from the intense heat. The chimney is sup¬
ported on iron columns RR. Behind the fire-grate c is a
cavity r, for the reception of the masses of scoriae which
are always formed in so large a fire. They are pushed
back off the grate into this receptacle with an iron hook
as fast as they accumulate. The bottom of this recep¬
tacle is formed of sliding iron doors, which can be opened
by drawing them out, and in this way the clinkers are dis¬
charged ; or the whole of the fire may be driven back off
the grate into this cavity, and will then fall through into
the ash-pit and be removed into the copper, which is very
necessary to be done when the copper is to be cooled, so
that men may descend into it to clean out the sediment
which is left after boiling the wort. For a more particu¬
lar description of this method of setting boilers, see Phi¬
losophical Magazine, vol. xvii.
Fig. 6 represents one of the sluice-cocks which are used
to make the communications of the pipes with the pumps
or other parts of the brewery. BB represents the pipe in
which the cock is placed. The two parts of this pipe are
screwed to the sides of a box CC, in which a slider A
rises and falls, and intercepts at pleasure the passage of
the pipe. The slider is moved by the rod a, which passes
through a stuffing-box in the top, the box which contains
the slider, and has the rack b fastened to it. The rack is
moved by a pinion fixed upon the axis of a handle e, and
the rack and pinion is contained in a frame d, which is
supported by two pillars. The frame contains a small
roller behind the rack, which bears it up towards the pi¬
nion, and keeps its teeth up to the teeth of the pinion.
The slider A is made to fit accurately against the inter¬
nal surface of the box C, and it is made to bear against
this surface by the pressure of a spring, so as to make a
perfectly close fitting.
Fig. 5 is a small cock to be placed in the side of the
great store-vats, for the purpose of drawing off a small
quantity of beer, to taste and try its quality. A is a part
of the stave or thickness of the great store-vat; into this
the tube B of the cock is fitted, and is held tight in its
place by a nut aa screwed on withinside. At the other
end of the tube B a plug c is fitted, by grinding it into a
cone, and it is kept in by a screw. This plug has a hole
up the centre of it, and from this a hole proceeds side¬
ways and corresponds with a hole made through the side
of the tube when the cock is open; but when the plug c
is turned round, the hole will not coincide, and then the
cock will be shut. D is the handle or key of the cock,
by which its plug is turned to open or shut it; this handle
is put up the bore of the tube (the cover E being first un¬
screwed and removed), and the end of it is adapted to fit
the end of the plug of the cock. The handle has a tube
or passage bored up it to convey the beer away from the
cock when it is opened, and from this the passage f
through the handle, leads to draw the beer into a glass
or tumbler. The hole in the side of the plug is so ar¬
ranged, that when the handle is turned into a perpendi¬
cular direction with the passage f downwards, the cock
will be open. The intention of this contrivance is, that
there shall be no considerable projection beyond the sur¬
face of the tun; because it sometimes happens that a
great hoop of the tun breaks, and, falling down, its great
weight would strike out any cock which had a projection ;
and if this happened in the night much beer might be lost
before it was discovered. The cock above described being
258 B R I
Briancon almost wholly withinside, and having scarcely any pro-
11 jection beyond the outside surface of the tun, is secure
Bribery. frorn thjs accident.
Fig. 7 is a small contrivance of a vent peg, to be screwed
into the head of a common cask when the beer is to be
drawn off from it, and it is necessary to admit some aii to
allow the beer to flow. A A represents a portion of the
head of the cask into which the tube B is screwed. The
B R I
top of this tube is surrounded by a small cup, from which Bricia;
proiect, the two small handles CC, by which the peg is |
turned round to screw it into the cask. The cup round
the upper part ot the tube is filled with water, and into f'1
this a small cup D is inverted; in consequence, the air
can gain admission into the cask when the pressure with¬
in is so far diminished that the air will bubble up through
the water, and enter beneath the small cup D.
BRIANCON, an arrondissement of the department of
the Upper 'Alps, in France, 658 square miles in extent,
and containing five cantons, twenty-seven communes, and
82,370 inhabitants. The chief place, a city of the same
name, stands in an alpine situation on the liver Durance,
and is strongly fortified, having been considered as the
key of the gate between France and Italy. It contains
only 2976 civil inhabitants. Long. 6. 39. E. Lat. 44.
64. N. . „ „ ,
BRIANSK, a circle in the Russian government ot Orel,
with a population of 68,540 persons. I he chief place is
the city of the same name, on the river Desna. It trades
in iron, corn, hemp, flax, and oak-bark, and contains about
6000 inhabitants. Long. 34. 14. E. Lat. 53. 21. N.
BRIAREUS, in fabulous history, a giant, the son of
iEther, Titan, or Ccelus, and Terra. This was his name
in heaven ; but on the earth he was called /Egeon. He was
of singular service to Jupiter, when Juno, Pallas, Nep¬
tune, and. the rest of the gods, endeavoured to bind him
in chains and dethrone him; but he afterwards conspired
with the rest of his gigantic brethren to dethrone the fa¬
ther of the gods. In adverting to this legend, Virgil de¬
scribes him as having a hundred hands and fifty heads, and
breathing out fire. 4 he fable says that Jupiter, to punish
him, thrust him under ./Etna, and that, as often as he moves,
the mountain belches out fire.
BRIBE, a reward given to pervert the judgment. The
word is French, bribe, which originally denotes a bit, frag¬
ment, or relic of meat taken off the table; so that bribe
imports as much as panis mendicatus, and still keeps up
the idea of the matter of which bribes anciently consisted.
Hence also the Spaniards use bribar and brivar for beg¬
ging ; and brivia, brivoneria, and brivonismo, for beggary.
In the writers of the middle ages, a bribe given to a judge
is called quato litis, and the receiver cawpi particeps, or
cambi particeps; because the spoils of the field, or the
profits of the cause, w^ere thus shared with the giver.
BRIBERY, in Law, is a high offence, where a person
in a judicial station takes any fee, gift, reward, or brockage
for doing his office, except of the king. But, taken large¬
ly, it signifies the receiving or offering any undue rew ard
t”o or by any person concerned in the administration of
public justice, whether judge, officer, or other, to act con¬
trary to his duty ; and sometimes it signifies the taking or
giving of a reward for public office.
In the East it is the custom never to petition any supe¬
rior for justice, not excepting their kings, without a pre¬
sent. This is calculated for the genius of despotic coun¬
tries, where the true principles of government are not
understood, and it is imagined that there is no obligation
due from the superior to the inferior, no relative duty
owing from the governor to the governed. The Roman
law, though it contained many severe injunctions against
bribery, as well for selling a man’s vote in the senate or
other public assembly, as for the bartering of common
justice, yet, by a strange indulgence in one instance, it ta¬
citly encouraged this practice, by allowing the magistrate
to receive small presents, provided they did not on the
whole exceed a hundred crowns a year; not considering
the insinuating nature and gigantic progress of this vice,
when once admitted. Plato, therefore, in his ideal repub¬
lic, orders those who take presents for doing their duty to
be punished in the severest manner; and by the laws of
Athens, he who offered a bribe was prosecuted, as w-ell
as he w ho received it. In England this offence of taking
bribes is punished, in inferior officers, with fine and impri¬
sonment ; and in those who offer a bribe, though it be not
taken, the same. But in judges, especially the superior
ones, it has always been looked upon as so heinous an
offence, that Chief Justice Thorpe was hanged for it in the
reign of Edward III. By a statute 11 Henry IV. it was
enacted that all judges and officers of the king convicted
of bribery should forfeit triple the bribe, be punished at
the king’s will, and be discharged from his service for
ever. .
BRICIANI, those of the order of that name. This was
a military order, instituted by St Bridget, queen of Sweden,
who gave them the rules and constitutions of the orders
of Malta and St Augustin. This order was approved of by
Pope Urban V.
BRICK, a kind of artificial stone made of baked clay.
1. The art of making bricks is so simple that it must History
have been practised in the earliest ages of the world; pro¬
bably before mankind had discovered the method ot fa¬
shioning stones to suit the purposes ot building, I he book
of Genesis informs us, that burnt bricks were employed in
the construction of Babel. Now, as this structure appeals
to have been raised about four hundred years after the
period of the Flood, we may say, without much exaggera¬
tion, that the method of making bricks existed from the
very origin of society. Bricks seem to have been in com¬
mon use in Egypt while the Israelites were in subjection
to that nation ; for the task assigned them was the making
of brick; and we are informed in Exodus that the Israel¬
ites built two Egyptian cities. No particulars are given
in Scripture of the method of making bricks; but as straw
was one of the ingredients, and as it very seldom rains in
Egypt, it is probable that their bricks were not burnt, but
merely baked by the heat ot the sun. Ihe same mode o
making bricks seems still to be practised in the East; tor
the ruins of the tower near Bagdad are formed ot un¬
burnt bricks. We have seen specimens from that place;
they are large, but thin, and have a brown colour. It is
not at ail likely that structures of unburnt brick shouid
have been able to resist the weather since the time o
Nebuchadnezzar; and hence it is probable that the tower
in question was raised by the Arabs in comparatively mo¬
dern times. _ , ^
The art of brick-making was carried to considerab
perfection by the Greeks. Pliny informs us that they ma ®
use of bricks of three different sizes, distinguished by t e
following names; didoron, or six inches long; tetradoron, or
twelve inches long ; and pentadoron, or fifteen inches long
(lib. xxxv. c. 14). That the Romans excelled in the art o
making bricks we have the amplest evidence, since brie
structures raised at Rome 1700 years ago still remain as
entire as when first built. Brick-making has been carr*f^
to great perfection by the Dutch, who have long been in
BRIG K-M AKIN G.
259
•Ick. habit of forming their floors, and even in some cases of
paving their streets with bricks. And it is remarkable how
long their bricks will continue uninjured in such situations.
Though brick-making has long been carried on in England,
and especially in the neighbourhood of London, upon a
very great scale, and though the process upon the whole
is conducted in this country with very considerable skill,
yet it must be acknowledged that English bricks are by
no means so durable as Dutch bricks. We are disposed
to ascribe this inferiority not so much to the nature of the
materials employed in the manufacture of English bricks,
as to the mode most frequently employed in London in
building houses, hew of the London houses, compara¬
tively speaking, are freeholds. Most of them are built
upon ground let for a lease of a certain number of years,
which seldom exceeds ninety-nine years. After the ex¬
piration of this period, the house becomes the property of
the landlord who let the ground. Thus it becomes the
interest of the builder to construct the house so that it
shall last only as long as the lease. Hence the goodness
of the bricks becomes only a secondary object. Their
cheapness is the principal point. The object, therefore,
of the brickmakers is not to furnish durable bricks, but to
make them at as cheap a rate as possible. Accordingly,
the saving of manual labour, and of fuel, has been car¬
ried by the makers of London bricks to very great lengths.
We cannot but consider this mode of proceeding as very
objectionable, and as entailing a much heavier expense
upon London than would have been incurred had twice
the original price been laid out upon the bricks when they
were first used, and had the houses been constructed to
last a thousand instead of a hundred years. No doubt,
certain advantages attend these ephemeral structures.
The inhabitants are enabled, once every century, to suit
their houses to the prevailing taste of the day ; and thus,
there are no antiquated houses in London. But as the
increase of the price of all the materials of building has
more than kept pace with the increase of the wealth of
individuals, it is to be questioned whether the houses
are always improved when they are pulled down and re¬
built.
Nat eand 2. The best material for making brick is what in the
ctn ° English language is called loam, a term usually applied
to a natural mixture of sand and clay. Such a mixture
may be converted into brick without any addition what¬
ever. Marl likewise answers the purpose of common
bricks very well, indeed better than most other mixtures.
Marl is a natural mixture of limestone and clay in vari¬
able proportions. Now, the more lime it contains, the
better does it answer for a manure; and the less lime it
contains, the more suitable it is to the brick-maker.
It would be in vain to attempt a particular detail of the
constituents of clay, because they vary'too much from each
other to admit of any correct generalization. We believe,
however, that clays very frequently consist of decomposed
felspar, in which case we may conceive them as composed
of about three parts of silica in the state of a very fine
powder, and one part of alumina. This is the case with
porcelain clay. Indeed, the porcelain clay of Cornwall
appears incontrovertibly to be nothing else than decayed
elspar, or perhaps felspar which never had assumed any
o er form than that of clay. The rock from which it
is taken is an agglutinated mixture of quartz and this
c “e quartz is separated by washing. Such a rock
owg it probably be converted into most beautiful brick,
mere y by cutting it out in the proper shape, and sub-
jectmg it to the requisite heat; or rather, by kneading
e w iole into a paste with the requisite quantity of wa-
them3011 ^ and then drying and burning
Potter’s clay is a compound of
Silica  43-5
Alumina  33*2
Lime  3-5
Oxide of iron  LO
Water  18-0
Brick.
Loss.
Total 100-0
When the clay proceeds from the decomposition of
hornblende, as is likewise often the case, it contains about
three parts and a half of silica, one of alumina, one of
lime, and about one and a half of oxide of iron. Some¬
times the grains of sand which exist in clay consist of
fragments of felspar. In such cases the clay may be fused
by heat.
No mixture of alumina and silica, in any proportions
whatever, can be fused by the strongest heat which can
be raised in our furnaces. Hence such mixtures are best
adapted for making fire-bricks, crucibles, and glass-house
pots. Stourbridge clay is such a mixture, blackened by
coaly matter. It answers these purposes better than any
other clay in England. It is a slate clay belonging to the
coal formation, and contains interspersed coaly matter.
There is a similar bed of clay upon the banks of the Cal-
der, about ten miles east from Glasgow-. Mr Buttray uses
it to make the crucibles in which he fuses steel, a process
requiring the most intense heat that can be raised in fur¬
naces. Its quality seems fully equal to that of Stourbridge
clay. Neither can a mixture of lime and alumina be fused,
in whatever proportions the ingredients be mixed. But a
mixture of silica, lime, and alumina, is very fusible, and
the fusion is most readily effected when we employ two
parts of silica to one of lime. The presence of oxide of
iron also renders clay fusible, but not unless its proportion
be much greater than ever is likely to occur in any clay
used for the manufacture of bricks.
For making common bricks, the most durable mixture
ought to be common clay and limestone or chalk. Per¬
haps the best proportions would be three parts of clay,
and one part of limestone or chalk in powder. When
such a mixture is exposed to heat, it would experience an
incipient fusion, and would thereby be rendered much
harder and denser than common bricks. The conse¬
quence would be, that it would imbibe much less water,
and w ould therefore be much less liable to crack and fall
to pieces in winter, than common bricks. For when water
has insinuated itself into the pores of a common brick, and
is converted into ice, it undergoes an expansion which dis¬
locates the parts of the brick and reduces it to fragments.
This is often conspicuously the case with tyles, which,
from their exposed situation, are more liable to be soaked
w ith water than common bricks. Hence also covering the
surface of the brick with a coating of paint has a great
tendency to preserve them from cracking and breaking.
This practice is frequently followed in England.
It would be foreign to the object of this article to enter
into any long details respecting the chemical investiga¬
tions and the opinions entertained at diflerent periods re¬
specting the nature of clay. At first it was supposed to
be a peculiar species of earth, but Hellot demonstrated
that it consisted at least of two constituents; for sulphuric
acid had the property of destroying its plastic nature, and
of rendering it scarcely more adhesive than sand. The
portion that remained behind did not effervesce with acids.
It was not therefore of a calcareous nature. Mr Pott went
a step farther; he showed, in the continuation of his
Lithogeogjiosia, that sulphuric acid formed, with the por-
260
brick-making.
Brick.
tion of clay which it dissolved, a salt possessing the pro-
perties of alum. In the year 1769 Baume published his
Dissertation on Clays, which he had drawn up in conse¬
quence of a premium offered by the Academy of sciences
at Bourdeaux, for the best solution of the following ques¬
tion What are the principles and constituents ot clay,
and the natural changes which it experiences, and what
are the methods of rendering it fertile ? The academy
did not consider Baume’s solutions as satisfactory. t
published his Memoir, in consequence, as a kind ot deti-
ance. He had been employed along with Macquer in
making numerous experiments on clay, with a yievv to the
improvement of the porcelain manufacture in trance.
Guided by these experiments, he drew as a conclusion
that clay is a mixture of two different substances: 1. 01-
lica in a state of purity; 2. Silica combined with an under¬
dose of sulphuric acid. It was the second of these con¬
stituents that gave to clay its fattish and plastic nature.
Maro-raaf had long before (in 1756) demonstrated that the
ingredient of clay which Baume took for a salt, and which
he affirmed was soluble in water, was a peculiar species of
earth, different from every other, which constitutes the
basis of alum, which dissolves in sulphuric acid, but which
does not form alum un.ess a portion of potash be added to
the solution. Thus, by the labours of Hellot, Pott, Baume,
and Margraaf, the nature of clay was completely developed.
It was ascertained to be a mixture of alumina and silica,
in variable proportions. It was shown, also, that it some¬
times contained sulphuric acid, and not unfiequently
potash. Hence the reason why, in some cases, it could
be converted into alum by digestion in sulphuric acid,
without the necessity of adding any potash to the solu¬
tion. Modern chemists have added considerably to these
facts. They have shown that chalk, felspar, mica, horn¬
blende, oxide of iron, coal, bitumen, &c. are not unfre-
quently mixed with it; and that these additions alter its
qualities considerably, and render it fit or unfit for the
different purposes to which clay is usually applied.
Prepara- 3. Clay intended to be made into bricks ought to be
tion of the dug out of the earth and exposed to the air and weathei
clay, and for a considerable time before it is employed. I he longer
this exposure is continued, so much the better will it be
fitted for making bricks. This exposure answers a variety
of purposes. If the stones, by the decomposition of which
the clay has been formed, are not entirely decomposed,
this exposure serves to complete the process, by promot¬
ing the disintegrating action of the air and rain. I he ex¬
posure serves likewise to pulverize the clay, which is. es¬
sential to, the making of good bricks. VVe have little
doubt that the same amelioration in the clay would be pro¬
duced by simply drying it in the open air, and then grind¬
ing it to powder in a mill. By such a process the quality
of the bricks would be prodigiously improved, hmr do we
conceive that such an addition would greatly enhance the
expenses of the brickmaker, at least in those districts
where the mill could be driven by water.
When the clay has been reduced to powder, the next
step is to make it into a stiff paste with water. Too much
water should not be employed, because it is injurious to
the strength of the bricks; and the utmost care should be
cess of kneading the clay, as conducted either in the Brick,
neighbourhood of London or Edinburgh, we have always
found a great sparing of labour. Hence we believe the
reason why so many of the English bricks appear full of
cracks, even when sold to the builder. Such bricks ought
never to be purchased, as it is perfectly obvious that they
cannot make a durable building.
The kneading of the clay is performed in some places
by men’s feet, in others by the feet of horses, and in
others byr machinery. The last method is undoubtedly
the best; and we conceive likewise that it might be ren¬
dered the cheapest. It would be easy to devise machi¬
nery for kneading the clay, upon principles similar to those
employed in mashing by the London porter brew ers.. And,
if such a machine were driven by water, we conceive that
it would not be nearly so expensive as either men or
horses. , . . . ,, ,
When the clay is sufficiently kneaded, it is moulded
into the form of a brick, by being put into a very simple
wooden mould ; and the upper part of the brick is made
smooth and even by cutting off the superfluous part with
a wooden knife. The process is very simple, and is con¬
ducted by the workmen with great rapidity. A good
brickmaker would mould about 5000 bricks in a day. He
disengages the bricks from the mould by a gentle stroke
on the back of the mould ; and the wet bricks are at first
arranged in rows upon long boards. When sufficiently
dry to be handled, they are turned, and at last piled up in
loose walls, which are thatched with straw to keep oft the
In this position they are allowed to remain till they
formation
of the
brick.
ram.   - x ^ .
have become as dry as they can become in the open air..
In many cases the clay used for brick-making is desti-
tute of the requisite quantity of sand. If such clay were
made into bricks, it would shrink so much in their burn¬
ing, that the bricks would lose their shape, and would
probably crack in every direction. To prevent this, it is
necessary to add a certain quantity of sand. This sand
should not be very fine. It answers best when the P31^1"
cles are of such a size as to be readily distinguished by
the naked eye. Even when as large as coriander seeds,
it has been found to answer better than very fine sand.
The brickmakers in the neighbourhood of London ‘3r.1I|§
their sand from the bottom of the Thames near W oolwich,
where it is raised by boats employed for that purpose, and
brought up the river for the use of the brick-makers.
4, No general directions can be given respecting the W
quantity of sand to be mixed with the clay, because t a
depends upon the nature of the clay and upon the uses
for which the bricks are intended. The more sand is
added, the more accurately do the bricks retain their
shape, and the less apt are they to crack during the burn¬
ing,1 but at the same time their strength is diminished.
Chemical lutes are often composed of four parts of sand
and one part of clay. Such mixtures do not contract
much in burning, and, therefore, are not apt to ciac an
drop off, which is the reason why chemists employ them.
But they have not the adhesiveness of brick attei being
burned, and would not therefore answer the purposes ot
the brick-maker. In stone-ware the mixture consists ot
about four parts of clay and one of fine sand. It burns o
the strength of the bricks; and the utmost care snouici ne auuui iuui pan-s ui ~ -- • ,
taken to mix the whole of the clay as equally as possible a hard «pab e . « an.
with the water. If some parts of the paste be moister
than others, it will occasion an inequality in the texture
of the bricks formed of it, will render them apt to crack,
and will greatly injure both their strength and their beau¬
ty. Hence the great importance of working the clay for
a considerable length of time before moulding it into
bricks. It is in this part of the process that we believe
British brickmakers in general are most defective. As
far as we have had an opportunity of witnessing the pro¬
steel. Such a proportion, then, in many cases would an¬
swer the purposes of the brick-maker.
The London brick makers make another addition to
clay, which we believe is peculiar to them. They add to
every three parts of the clay about one part of the as ies
from the fire-places of the city of London. . These aslies
contain some earthy matter; but they consist in a giea
measure of small coal unburnt and little altered, which
fallen through the interstices of the grate. The conse-
BRIG K-M A R I N G.
261
BJtk. quence is, that such a mixture, when sufficiently heated,
takes fire and burns of itself, though very slowly; so that
the London bricks are burned in a great measure by
means of the fuel mixed with the clay of which they are
composed.
It is essential to dry the bricks thoroughly in the open
air before burning them; for when heat is applied to wet
clay, the water which it contains being prevented from
escaping by the adhesiveness of the mixture, is convert¬
ed into steam, and cracks, and breaks the mass of clay
to pieces. Indeed, after the bricks are rendered as dry
as they can become in the open air, they ought to be ex¬
posed at first to a gentle heat, which ought to be raised
to redness very slowly, and in proportion as the moisture
of the brick is dissipated. Water adheres with such ob¬
stinacy to clay, that it is never all driven off by the heat
at which bricks are burnt. But the portion which re¬
mains is so intimately combined with the clay, as to con¬
stitute one solid mass, which has no gveat tendency to
absorb an additional quantity of water.
Bricks are most commonly burnt in a kiln. This is a
very simple structure, usually about thirteen feet long,
ten and a half wide, and twelve feet high. The walls are
one foot two inches thick, and incline a little to each other
as they ascend. The bricks are placed on flat arches,
having holes left in them like lattice-work. After the
bricks are arranged on the kiln, to the number of about
20,000, they are covered with old bricks or tiles. Some
brush-wood is then kindled in the kiln, and a moderate
fire kept up till the bricks are rendered as dry as possible.
The time required for this is two or three days; and the
bricks are known to be dry when the smoke (which is at
first black) becomes transparent. The mouth of the kiln
I is then filled up with pieces of brick and clay, leaving only
room to introduce a faggot at a time. This structure at
the mouth of the kiln is called a shinlog. The kiln is then
supplied with faggots of furze, heath, fern, or whatever
vegetable substance can be procured at the cheapest rate,
till the arches look white, and the fire appears at the top.
The fire is then diminished, and at length allowed to go
out, and the kiln is permitted to cool. This burning pro¬
cess usually lasts about forty-eight hours.
The method of burning bricks in the neighbourhood of
London is very different from this; and we do not know
whether it be practised anywhere else. It obviously ori¬
ginated from the difficulty of procuring a sufficient quan¬
tity of vegetable matter to burn the enormous number of
bricks consumed every year in London. If we consider
the immense extension of houses which has taken place in
; London within the last fifty years, and if we consider that
this vast city, containing nearly 1,500,000 inhabitants, is
almost renewed every century, we may be able to form
some notion of the prodigious quantity of bricks which it
must consume. In the country round London there is a
particular kind of clay, well known by the name of Lon¬
don clay. This clay is almost everywhere covered with
a bed of gravel, which varies in thickness according to the
elevation of the surface. Hence the whole of the country
round London is fit for making bricks. Nothing more is
necessary than to dig through the surface of gravel, and
get to the clay.
We have already mentioned, that about a fourth part
of the London bricks consists of small coal kneaded up
along with the clay. When the bricks are sufficiently dry,
they are piled up on each other in parallelopipedons to
t ie intended height. Between each two rows of brick
t ieie is strewed a quantity of cinders, amounting to about
t iree inches in thickness. At the distance of about nine
. rom each other, perpendicular spaces are left, about
a buck wide, which serve the purpose of flues. These
are made by arching the bricks over so as to leave a space Brick,
between each about a brick in width. Over the whole is
strewed a pretty thick covering of cinders. The flues are
filled likewise with cinders, or, if they cannot be had, with
coal. The fire-place is usually at the west end, and is
generally three feet high. The fire, when once kindled
in the fire-place, propagates itself very slowly through the
whole clamp, as bricks piled in this manner are called.
So very slow is the progress, that bricks in the neighbour¬
hood of London take about three months in the burning.
The heat is very intense, and, as the fuel is mixed up with
the clay itself, every part of the brick is sure to be suffi¬
ciently burnt.
We conceive that the mixture of about one fourth of
chalk with the clay of which the London bricks are made,
would greatly improve their quality. The consequence
would be an incipient fusion, which would render their
surface much more compact and solid. The only difficul¬
ty would be to proportion the quantity of chalk so as to
prevent complete fusion, which would run the bricks into
each other, and destroy them entirely. Bricks made of
materials which have undergone complete fusion would
be greatly superior to common bricks. They .would per¬
fectly resist the action of the weather, and would, there¬
fore, last much longer than common bricks. In Sweden
it is customary at some of the iron founderies to cast the
scoriae into bricks, which they employ in constructing their
furnaces. Such furnaces the writer of this article has
seen; and he was assured by the gentleman who had the
charge of the works, that they answered fully better than
common bricks. It would be easy to make any quantity
of such bricks in some of the large iron founderies of
Great Britain. We are persuaded that such bricks might
be brought into use for a variety of purposes with great
advantage, and might even constitute a lucrative article
of manufacture. Bricks made from the scoriae of iron and
copper founderies would vie in beauty with marble and
porphyry, and would possess a lustre of surface to which
few marbles could reach.
Few parts of Great Britain are so well adapted for the
making of bricks, according to the London plan, as the
neighbourhood of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. There the enor¬
mous heaps of small coal, which are of no use whatever,
would furnish abundance of fuel at a much cheaper rate
than even the London ashes; while the magnesian lime¬
stone that occurs in such plenty in the neighbourhood of
Sunderland would enable the brickmaker to give the clay
the requisite degree of fusibility.
As bricks form an article of taxation, and furnish a con¬
siderable revenue to government, their size has been re¬
gulated by act of parliament. They must not be less than
eight and a half inches long, two and a half thick, and four
inches wide. But, for various purposes, they are never¬
theless made of very different and very considerable sizes.
Fire-bricks are made in the same way as common bricks, Fire-
but the materials are different. The best clay for their tricks,
composition is Stourbridge clay; and, instead of sand, it
is usual to mix the clay with a quantity of old fire-bricks,
or crucibles, or glass pots, reduced previously to powder.
This mixture answers the same purposes as sand, while it
does not communicate the tendency to fusion when it
comes in contact with various fluxes that are communi¬
cated by siliceous sand.
There is a kind of bricks mentioned by Pliny as used Swimming
by the ancients, which were so light as to swim in water.bricks.
“ Pitanae in Asia, et in ulterioris Hispaniae civitatibus
Maxilua et Calento, fiunt lateres, qui ciccati non mer-
guntur in aqua.” (Plinii Natur. Histor. lib. xxxv. c. 14.)
Pliny does not mention the part of the world in which the
earth employed in the manufactures of these bricks wTas
262
Brick
II
Brick-
B R I
B R I
found, though in all probability it could not be far iiom
the cities where the bricks are said by Pliny to have been
made. He says that the material employed was a kind
of pumice stone. But it was quite unknown to the mo¬
derns, till, in the year 1791, Fabroni found a substance at
Castel del Piano, not far from Santa Fiora, situated be¬
tween Tuscany and the Papal dominions, which formed
bricks capable of swimming in water. This is a white
earthy matter, which constitutes a bed in that place, and
was known in Italy by the name of Latte di Luna. In
more recent mineralogical books it is distinguished by
the name of farina fossilis (bergmeht). Haiiy considers it
as a variety of talc, and Brochant as a vaiiety of nieeis-
chaum. According to the analysis of Fabbroni this sub¬
stance is composed of
Silica  ^
Magnesia  15
Alumina  1'-
Lime  3
Iron  1
Water  1^
100
But it has been recently analysed by Klaproth, who found
its constituents,
Silica 
Alumina  5
Oxide of iron  3
Water  12
Loss  1
100
We see from this analysis that this mineral is neither a
variety of talc nor of meerschaum. One would be dis¬
posed to consider it as a hydrate of silica; for both the
alumina and oxide of iron are present in so small propor¬
tions, that we can scarcely consider them as in chemical
combination.
Considering the composition of this earth, it is rather
singular that it is capable of being agglutinated by a red
heat. We rather suspect that the bricks of Fabbroni,
which swim in water, have but very little strength. This,
if it be the case, must greatly circumscribe their utility.
The colour of the London bricks is not red, as is the
case with common bricks and tiles, but a light brownish
yellow. This colour is more pleasing to the eye than
common brick red, and on that account the London bricks
are preferred for building houses. The brick-makers as¬
sign a curious enough reason for this colour. According
to them, their bricks are kept as much as possible from con¬
tact with the air during their burning. The consequence
of this is, that the iron contained in them is not oxidized
to so great a degree as in common bricks. But this mode
of reasoning is far from being exact. If air were excluded
entirely, the bricks would not be burnt at all, because the
fire would be extinguished. But if enough of air be ad¬
mitted to burn the coal mixed with the clay, which must
be the case, that air must also act upon the iron, and re¬
duce it to the state of peroxide. Indeed, there can be no
doubt that the iron in the London yellow bricks is in the
state of peroxide as well as in the red bricks, for the per¬
oxide of iron gives various colours to bodies, according to
circumstances. We find bodies tinged with it red, yellow,
and brown, according to the substances with which the
oxide is combined. We ascribe the yellow colour of the
London bricks to the ashes of the coals, which, by uniting
with the peroxides of iron, form a kind of yellow ochre, (l.)
BmcK-Layer, an artificer, whose business is to build
with bricks, or make brick-work. The London brick-layers
form a regular company, which was incorporated in 1568,
and consists of a master, two wardens, twenty assistants, Brick,
and seventy-eight on the livery. baying
Brick-Laying, the art of framing edifices of bricks. ^ P
Moxon has written a treatise expressly on the art of ^
brick-laying, in which he describes the materials, tools, Wy>.
and methods of working, used by brick-layers.
Great care is to be taken that bricks be laid joint on
joint in the middle of the walls as seldom as may be ; and
that good bond be made there as well as on the outsides.
Some brick-layers, in working a brick and half wall, lay
the header on one side of the wall perpendicular to the
header on the other side, and so all along the whole course;
whereas, if the header on one side of the wall were toothed
as much as the stretcher on the other side, it would be a
stronger toothing, and the joints of the headers of one
side would be in the middle of the headers of the course
they lie upon of the other side. If bricks be laid in win¬
ter, they ought to be kept as dry as possible ; if in sum¬
mer, it will save cost to employ boys to wet them, for they
will then unite better with the mortar than if dry, and
make the work stronger. In large buildings, or where it
is thought too much trouble to dip all the bricks separate¬
ly, water may be thrown on each course after they are
laid. If bricks be laid in summer they must be covered;
for if the mortar dries too hastily, it w ill not bind so firm¬
ly to the bricks as when left to dry more gradually. If
bricks be laid in winter they should also be well covered,
to protect them from rain, snow, and frost; which last is
a mortal enemy to mortar, especially where it has been
wetted just before the frost assaults it. See Building.
BRIDE, a newly-married woman. Among the Greeks
it was customary for the bride to be conducted from her
father’s house to her husband’s in a chariot, the evening
being chosen for that purpose to conceal her blushes. She
was placed in the middle, her husband sitting on one side,
and one of her most intimate friends on the other; torches
were carried before her, and she was entertained on the
passage w ith a song suitable to the occasion. When they
arrived at the end of the journey the axle-tree of the coach
they rode in was burnt, to signify that the bride was never
to return to her father’s house. Amongst the Romans the
semblance of ravishing by force the bride from her mother,
was kept up in memory, it is said, of the rape of the Sa¬
bines under Romulus. She was carried home in the night¬
time to the bridegroom’s house, accompanied by three
boys, one of whom carried a torch, and the other two led
the bride, while a spindle and distaff were carried with
her. She brought three pieces of money, called asses, in
her hand to the bridegroom, whose doors on this occasion
were adorned with flowers and branches of trees. Being
there interrogated wrho she was, she answered Caia, in
memory of Caia Cecilia, wife of Tarquin the elder, who
was an excellent lanijica or spinstress; and for a singular
reason, before her entrance, she lined the door-posts with
wool, and smeared them with grease. Fire and water
being set on the threshold, she touched both; but, start¬
ing back from the door, refused to enter, till at length she
passed the threshold, being careful to step over without
touching it. Here the keys were given her, a nuptial
supper was prepared, and minstrels attended ; she was
seated on the figure of a priapus, and in this situation the
attendant boys resigned her to the pronubce, who brought
her into the nuptial chamber and put her to bed. dhis
office was performed by matrons who had only been once
married, to denote that the marriage was to be in per¬
petuity.
BRIDEGROOM, a newly-married man, the spouse of
the bride. In nothing have the usages of different na¬
tions varied more than in regard to marriage, and the ce¬
remonies by which it is celebrated or solemnized. Amongst
B R I
U ewell the Romans the bridegroom was decked to receive his
bride; his hair was combed and cut in a particular form ;
1 he had a coronet or chaplet on his head, and was dressed
in a white garment.
BRIDEWELL, a work-house, or place of correction
for vagrants, and other disorderly persons.
Bridewell, near Fleet-street, is a foundation of a
mixed and singular nature, partaking of the characters of
hospital, prison, and work-house. It was founded in 1553
by Edward VL, who gave the place where King John had
B R I 263
formerly kept his court, and wdiich had been repaired by Bridewell
Henry VIII., to the city of London, with seven hundred II
merks of land, bedding, and other furniture. Several Bridge,
youths are sent to the hospital as apprentices to manu-
facturers, who reside there, and they are clothed in blue
doublets and breeches, with white hats. Having faith¬
fully served their time of seven years, they become en¬
titled to their freedom, along with a donation of ten
pounds each to enable them to carry on their respective
trades.
BRIDGE.
The mathematical theory of the structure of bridges
has been a favourite subject with mechanical philosophers.
It gives scope to some of the most refined and elegant ap¬
plications of science to practical utility; and, at the same
time that its progressive improvement exhibits an example
or the very slow steps by which speculation has sometimes
followed execution, it enables us to look forward with
perfect confidence to that more desirable state of human
knowledge in which the calculations of the mathematician
shall direct the operations of the artificer with security, in¬
stead of follow ing with servility the progress of his labours.
Ot the origin of the art of building bridges something
will be found in other parts of the work (see the article
Arch). The subject has been much discussed during
the last half century, by some of the most learned anti¬
quaries and most elegant scholars; but additions still more
important have been made to the scientific and practi¬
cal principles on which that art depends; and the princi¬
pal information that may here be expected will be com¬
prehended under the two heads of physico-mathematical
principles, subservient to the theory of this department
of architecture, and an historical account of the wmrks
which appear to be the most deserving of notice. The
first head will contain three sections, relating respectively
(1) t° the resistance of the materials employed, (2) to the
equilibrium of arches, and (3) to the effects of friction;
the second will comprehend (4) some details of earlier
history and literature, (5) an account of the discussions
which have taken place respecting the improvement of
the port of London, and (6) a description of some of the
most remarkable bridges which have been erected in mo¬
dern times.
Sect. I.— Of the Resistance of Materials.
A. In all homogeneous solid bodies, the resistances to ex¬
tension and compression must be initially equal, and pro¬
portional to the change of dimensions.
Ihe equilibrium of the particles of anv body remaining
at rest oepends on the equality of opposite forces, varying
according to certain laws; and that these laws are conti¬
nued without any abrupt change, when any minute alter¬
ation takes place in the distance, is demonstrated by their
continuing little altered by any variation of dimensions,
in consequence of an increase or diminution of tempe¬
rature, and might indeed be at once inferred as highly
probable, from the general principle of continuity observed
in the laws of nature. We may therefore always assume
a change of dimensions so small, that, as in all other dif-
erential calculations, the elements of the curves, of which
e ordinates express the forces, as functions of, or as de¬
pending on, the distances as abscisses, maybe considered
a?i no*- ®ens>bly differing from right lines crossing each
o er, if the curves be drawn on the same side of the ab¬
sciss, in a point corresponding to the point of rest, or to
e Glance affording an equilibrium; so that the ele¬
mentary finite differences of the respective pairs of ordi¬
nates, which must form, with the portions of the two
curves, rectilinear triangles, always similar to each other,
will always vary as the lengths of the elements of the
curves, or as the elements of the absciss, beginning at the
point of rest; and it is obvious that these differences will
represent the actual magnitude of the resistances ex¬
hibited by the substance to extension or compression.
(Plate CXXXII. fig. 1.) (See Explanation of Plates at
the conclusion of the article.)
It was on the same principle that Bernoulli long ago
observed, that the minute oscillations of any system of
bodies, whatever the laws of the forces governing them
might be, must ultimately be isochronous, notwithstand-
ing any imaginable variation of their comparative extent,
the forces tending to bring them back to the quiescent
position being always proportional to the displacements;
and so far as the doctrine has been investigated by expe¬
riments, its general truth has been amply confirmed; the
slight deviations from the exact proportion which have
been discovered in some substances being far too unim¬
portant to constitute an exception, and merely tending to
show that these substances cannot have been perfectly
homogeneous, in the sense here attributed to the word.
When the compression or extension is considerable, there
may indeed be a sensible deviation, especially in fibrous or
stratified substances; but this irregularity by no means
affects the admissibility of any of the conclusions which
will be derived from this proposition.
B. The strength of a block or beam must be reduced to
one half before its cohesive and repulsive forces can both be
called into action.
We must suppose the transverse sections of the body
to remain plane and perpendicular to the axis, wdiatever
the point may be to which the force is applied; a suppo¬
sition which will be correctly true if the pressure be made
by the intervention of a firm plate attached to each end,
and which is perfectly admissible in every other case.
Now, if the terminal plates remain parallel, it is obvious
that the compression or extension must be uniformly distri¬
buted throughout the substance, which must happen when
the original force is applied in the middle of the block;
the centre of pressure or resistance collected by the
plate acting like a lever, being then coincident with the
axis. But when the plates are inclined, the resistance
depending on the compression or extension will be vari¬
ous in different parts, and will always be proportional to
the distance from the neutral point wdiere the compression
ends and the extension begins, if the depth of the sub¬
stance is sufficient to extend to this point; consequently
the forces may always be represented, like the pressure
of a fluid, at different depths, by the ordinates of a tri¬
angle ; and their result may be considered as concentrated
in the centre of gravity of the triangle, or of such of its
portions as are contained within the depth of the sub-
BRIDGE.
we ]iave for the distance of the force from the axis;
__ 0 (aa a , 2 \
sistance; or 2 : (| « + z) — 3 a • \^2Z 3 s/ ;
and adding to this the distance of the centre ofaction from
the axis, which must be % a— a + z) — } z,
aa
I2z
  aa
whence, calling this distance ?/, 2 —
E. T//e 'power of a given force to crush a block is in¬
creased by its removal from the axis, supposing its direction
unaltered, in the same proportion as the depth of the block is
increased by the addition of six times the distance of the point
of application of the force, measured in the transverse section.
Since the compression or extension of the axis is inva¬
riable, whatever the distance of the force may be, that of
• * i . that nnrt nr me suDsianct: wniLn the nearest surface must be as much greater, by the pio-
cient to crus or ‘ \ 1 ‘ th whoie substance perties of similar triangles, as the half depth, increased
.mmedmtely exposed to and s ^ .t ^ (he distance of the neutral point, is greater than that
filnwlthat the strength « only half as great in the for- distance itself, that is, in the ratio of a + 6y to a, since z
follows that the strength's only^ of ity of is t0 a as „ ,0 Vly (Prop. D.), and to J a as a to 6y;
mel Ca„hna lo beino at the distance of one third of its and the strength is reduced in the same proportion as the
heigiit^fronf theXase, Ihe* external force must be applied, partial compression or extensmu b * operation of a
!„efrder to produce ^ch a com^ressmn. extension, at given any
when'its distance is greater than this, both the repulsive point, produced by a given force, is proportional to t u-
Jnd cohesive forces of the substance must be called into tance of the line of direction of the force from the given point
stance ; and when both extension and compression aie
concerned, the smaller force may be considered as a ne¬
gative pressure, to be subtracted from the greater, as is
usual when any other compound forces are supposed to
act on a lever of any kind. Now when the neutral point
is situated in one of the surfaces of the block, the sum o
all the forces is represented by the area ot the tnang e,
as it is by that of the parallelogram when the plates re¬
main parallel; and these areas being m either case equi¬
valent to the same external force, it is obvious that t
perpendicular of the triangle must be equal to twice tie
height of the parallelogram, indicating that the com¬
pression or extension of the surface in the one case is
twice as great as the equable compression or extension in
the other; and since there is always a certain degree ot
compression or extension, which must be precisely suth-
cient to crush or tear that part of the substance which is
. . El%
ana contrive ^      . . ,
action, and the strength must be still further impaired
(Plate CXXXIL fig. 2.) _ . , . . ,
C. The compression or extension of the axis oj a block 01
beam is always proportional to the force, reduced to the di¬
rection of the axis, at whatever distance it may be applied.
We may suppose one of the inflexible plates attached
to the extremities of the block to be continued to the
given distance, and to act as a lever held in equilibrium by
three forces, that is, by the cohesive and repulsive resist¬
ances of the block, and the external force; and it is ob¬
vious that, as in all other levers, the external force will
always be equal to the difference of the other two forces
depending on the compression and extension, or to the
mean compression or extension of the whole, which must
also be the immediate compression or extension of the
middle, since the figure representing the forces is recti¬
linear. And the effect will be the same, whatever may
be the intermediate substances by which the force is im¬
pressed on the block, whether continued in a stiaight line
or otherwise. W^hen the force is oblique, the portion per¬
pendicular to the axis will be resisted by the lateral ad¬
hesion of the different strata of the block, the compression
or extension being only determined by the poi tion pai allel
to the axis; and when it is transverse, the length of the
axis will remain unaltered. But the line of direction of
the original force must always be continued till it meets
the transverse section at any point of the length, in order
to determine the nature of the strain at that point.
D. The distance of the neutral point from the axis of a
block or beam is to the depth, as the depth to twelve times the
distance of the force, measured in the transverse section.
Calling the depth a, and the distance of the neutral
point from the axis 2, the resistances may be expressed
by the squares of ^ + 2 and ^ a — 2, which are the
sides of the similar triangles denoting the compression
and extension (Prop. B.) ; consequently, the difference of
these squares, 2 az, will represent the external foice
(Prop. C.) But the distance of the centres ^of gravity of
of the axis, whatever that direction may be.
Since the distance 2 of the neutral point from the axis
is inversely as y, the distance of the force, and the radius
of curvature, or the distance of the intersection of the
planes of the terminal plates from the neutral point, must
be to the distance 2 as the whole length ot the axis is to
the alteration of that length produced by the compression
or extension, it follows that the radius of curvature must
be inversely as the distance y, and inversely also as the
compression, and the curvature itself must be conjointly
as the force and as the distance of its application, it the
direction of the force be changed, and the perpendicu ar
falling from the given point of the axis on the line ot the
force be now called y, the distance of the force from the
axis measured in the transverse section will be increased
by the obliquity exactly in the same ratio as its efficacy
is diminished, and the curvature of the neutral hne wil
remain unaltered; although the place of that line wil be
a little varied, until at last it coincides with the axis, when
the force becomes completely transverse: and the radius
of curvature of the axis will always be to that of the neu¬
tral line as the acquired to the original length of the axis.
(Plate CXXXII. fig. 4.) , 7. . , ..
G. The radius of curvature of the neutral line is to W
distance of the neutral point as the original length of the axis
to the alteration of that length, or as a certain given quan¬
tity to the external force ; and this quantity has been erm
the modulus of elasticity.
Or r : 2 = M :/, and ^ = y = as is obvioUS fr°m
the preceding demonstration ; y being the distance of da-
line of the force from the given point, whatever its direc¬
tion may be. . , f
H. The flexibility, referred to the direction of the force,
is expressed by unity, increased by twelve times the squa
of the distance, divided by that of the depth.
Making the alteration of the axis unity, the con-espona-
ing change at the distance y will be to 1 as 2 + y t0 ’
the two triangles must always be 7 # ; and, by the pro- ,
perty of the "lever, making the centre of action of the 0r as 1 + - to 1, and will consequently be equa
perty of the lever, making the centre of action of. the
greater resistance the fulcrum, as the external force is to
the smaller resistance, so is this distance to the distance
of the force from the centre of action ot the greater re-
1 + (Prop. D.)
BRIDGE,
265
Elige. When the direction of the force becomes oblique, the
actual compression of the axis is diminished, but its effect
referred to that direction remains unaltered.
I. The total compression of a narrow block, pressed in the
direction of one of its diagonals, is twice as great as if the
same force ivere applied in the direction of the axis.
This proposition affords a simple illustration of the ap¬
plication of the preceding one. Calling the length of any
portion of the axis x, beginning from the middle, and ne¬
glecting the obliquity, the distance of the force may be
called y — nx; and the compression in the line of the
1 •
force being everywhere as 1 + - its fluxion will be
, . , \2nnxx , , „ , 4»2«3 ...
d« + d# , and the fluent x i —which, when
aa aa
y — \ a, becomes x x, which is twice as great as if y
were always = 0. But if the breadth of the block were
considerable, so that it approached to a cube, the com¬
pression would vary according to a different law, each
section parallel to the diagonal affording an equal resist¬
ance, and the exact solution of the problem would require
an infinite series for expressing the value offn*&x.
K. If a solid bar have its axis curved a little into a circular
form, and an external force be then applied in the direction
of the chord, while the extremities retain their angular posi¬
tion, the greatest compi'ession or extension of the substance
will ultimately be to the mean compression or extension
\h
which takes place in the direction of the chord, as 1 + — to
2.6AA
1 + p—;; a being the depth of the bar, and h the actual
versed sine, or the height of the arch.
We must here separate the actions of the forces re¬
taining the ends of the bar into two parts, the one simply
urging the bar in the direction of the chord, and the
other, which is of a more complicated nature, keeping
the angular direction unaltered; and we must first calcu¬
late the variation of the angular situation of the ends, in
consequence of the bending of the bar by the first por¬
tion, and then the strain required to obviate that change,
by means of a force acting in the direction of the middle
of the bar, while the ends are supposed to be fixed. If
each half of the bar were rectilinear, these two strains
would obviously be equal, and would neutralize each other
in the middle of the halves, which might be considered
as the meeting of the ends of two shorter pieces, acting
transversely or obliquely on each other, without any
strain; the curvature produced by the whole strain being
elsewhere as the distance from the line joining these
points. But since the bar is supposed to be curved, it
becomes necessary to determine the place of these neutral
points, by calculating the change of its angular position
throughout its extent.
Considering, first, the middle of the bar as fixed, and
calling the angular extent of the variable arc x, beginning
from the middle, and the radius r, the ordinate y, or the
distance of the arc from the chord, will be r cos. x — b,b
being the cosine of the whole arc ; and the fluxion of the
change of the angular situation, being as the strain and
the fluxion of the arc conjointly, will be expressed by
pr cos. x&x—pbdx, of which the fluent is pr sin. x — pbx.
In the second place, the curvature derived from the force
acting between the two halves, when the ends are con¬
sidered as fixed points, will be as r — r cos. x, and the
uent of the change of angular situation may be called
qrx qr sin. x ; and at the end, when x becomes equal to
vol. v.
c, the whole extent of the arc, these two deviations must Bridge,
destroy each other, since the positions of the middle and
of the ends remain unaltered ; consequently sin. c—pbc
T) TC ■ - - v sin. c
— qrc — qr sin. c, w hence - = —^and the exact
q rsin. c—be
proportion of p to <7 may be found by means of a table of
sines. But when the arc is small, sin. c being equal to
c — ^ c3 + -j-^j (? ...,rc — r sin. e is ^ re?, and r sin. c — be
— (r — b) c — re? ; now r — b, the versed sine of the arc,
becomes ultimately ^ re?, and (r — i) c=^ re? ; therefore
p : q—jr : j = ^ : 1 ; that is, the strain at the middle, ex¬
pressed by p, must be half as great as the strain at the
ends, expressed by q : consequently, when the force is
considered as single, the distance of the line of its direc¬
tion from the summit must ultimately be one third of the
versed sine or height.
Now if we call any portion of the chord x, we have for
the corresponding value of y, the distance from the line
of direction of this force, -y/ (r2 — x?) — d ; and for the
fluxion of the compression or extension in the direction of
the chord, da ^l -j—which will be true for both por¬
tions of the bar, whether y be positive or negative; but
y2 =. r2 — x2 + d2 — 2d (r2 — 0?'), and the fluent be-
12 / x
comes x  fr2#—i x?-\-d2x—2d [12 arc sine 
aa \ * r
x (r2—a;2)]^. When the arc is small, calling the whole
XCC li
versed sine h, we may have y=^ h— — and^2=-^ h2— —
+ 7-r, and the fluent is a? + — h2x — ^
aa \y 9r 20?-2/
cc
but when x becomes equal to the semichord c, h being p,
*5
the expression becomes c + —
aa \c
Sbr2 ISr2
+
SOr2
= c +
4 e?
16 h2c , . , , ,
= c + tv ja 5 which shows the compres-
15 a2i2 15 a2
sion or extension in the line of the chord, w’hile c ex¬
presses that which the bar would have undergone if it had
been straight, and the force had been immediately applied
to the axis; the actual change being greater in the pro-
„ , \bhh
portion or 1 + r—— to 1.
1 15 aa
The greatest strain will obviously be at the ends, where
the distance from the line of direction of the force is the
greatest, the compression or extension of the surface be¬
ing here to that of the axis as a + 6y to a (Prop. E.), or
44
as 1 + — to 1 ; consequently the compression or exten¬
sion in the line of the chord is to the greatest actual
, i , t » 1644 . . 44
change or the substance as 1 + tv— to 1 H .
0 15aa a
Thus if the depth a were 10 feet, and the height or
versed sine 4 = 20, the radius being very large, the whole
compression of the chord would be to the whole compres¬
sion of a similar substance, placed in the direction of the
chord, as 5-267 to 1 ; and the compression at the surface
of the ends would be to the compression of the axis there
as 9 to 1; and, disregarding the insensible obliquity, this
compression may be considered as equal throughout the
bar, so that the compression at the ends will be to the
compression of the chord as 9 to 5*267, or as 17 to 10.
2 L
266
Bridge.
bridge.
Supposing, for example, such a bar of iron to undergo a
change of temperature of 32° of Fahrenheit, which would
naturally cause it to expand or contract about 5
naturally nauoc it     •.
its dimensions; then the length of the chord, being uni
ed by the abutments, must now be supposed to be altered
i by an external force; and, at the extremities ot the
abutments, the compression and extension of the meta
will amount to about Woo? a change which ^ equivalent
to the pressure of a column of the metal about 3300 teet
in height, since M, the height of the modu^±e^l^\
is found, for iron and steel, to be about 10,000,000 feet,
and such would be the addition to the pressure at one ex¬
tremity of the abutment, and its diminution at the other,
amounting to about five tons for every square inch of the
section, which would certainly require some particular
precaution, to prevent the destruction of the stones form¬
ing the abutment by a force so much greater than they
are capable of withstanding without assistance, bhould
such a case indeed actually occur, it is probable that the
extremities would give way a little, and that the prmcipa
pressure would necessarily be supported nearer the midd e,
so that there would be a waste of materials in a situation
where they could co-operate but imperfectly in resisting
the thrust; an inconvenience which would not occur it the
bar were made wider and less deep, especially towards the
abutments.
Sect. II.— Of the Equilibrium of Arches.
We may now proceed to inquire into the mode of de¬
termining the situation and properties of the curve of
equilibrium, which represents, for every part of a sys¬
tem of bodies supporting each other, the general direc¬
tion of their mutual pressure; remembering always that
this curve is as much an imaginary line as the centie of
gravity is an imaginary point, the forces being no more
actually collected into such a line than the whole weight
or inertia of a body is collected in its centre of giavity.
Indeed the situation of the curve is even less definite
than that of the centre of gravity, since in many cases it
may differ a little according to the nature of the co-opeia-
tion of the forces which it is supposed to represent. In
reality, every gravitating atom entering the structure
must be supported by some forces continued in some line,
whether regular or irregular, to the fixed points or abut¬
ments, and every resisting atom partakes, in a mathema¬
tical sense, either positively or negatively in transmitting
a lateral pressure where it is required for supporting any
part of the weight; and when we attempt to represent
the result of all these collateral pressures by a simple
curve, its situation is liable to a slight variation, according
to the direction in which we suppose the co-operating
forces to be collected. If, for instance, we wished to de¬
termine the stability of a joint formed in a given direc¬
tion, it would be necessary to consider the magnitude of
the forces acting throughout the extent of the joint in a
direction perpendicular to its plane, and to collect them
into a single result; and it is obvious that the forces re¬
presented by the various elementary curves may vary very
sensibly in their proportion, when we consider their joint
operation on a vertical or on an oblique plane; although,
if the depth of the substance be inconsiderable, this differ¬
ence will be wholly imperceptible, and in practice it may
generally be neglected without inconvenience; calculat¬
ing the curve upon the supposition of a series of joints in
a vertical direction. If, however, we wish to be very mi¬
nutely accurate, we must attend to the actual direction of
the joints in the determination of the curve, and must
consider, in the case of a bridge, the whole weight of the
structure terminated by a given arch-stone, with the ma¬
terials which it supports, as determining the direction of Bridge
the curve of equilibrium where it meets the given joint,
instead of the weight of the materials terminated by a ver¬
tical plane passing through the point of the curve in ques¬
tion, which may sometimes be very sensibly less ; this con¬
sideration being as necessary for determining the circum¬
stances under which the joints will open, as foi the moie
imaginary possibility of the arch-stones sliding upwards or
downwards. But we may commonly make a sufficiently
accurate compensation for this difterence, by supposing
the specific gravity of the materials producing the pres¬
sure, and the curvature of the line which terminates them,
to be a little increased, while the absciss remains equal
to that of the curve of equilibrium intersecting the joints.
L. If two equal parallelopipeds be supported each at one
end, and lean against each other at the other, so as to remain
horizontal, the curve of equilibrium, representing the general
effect of the pressure transmitted through them, will be of a
parabolic form.
The pressure of the blocks where they meet will obvi¬
ously be horizontal, but at the other ends it will be oblique,
being the result of this horizontal pressure and of the
whole weight of each block. And if we imagine the
blocks to be divided into any number of parts, by sections
parallel to the ends, which is the only way in which we
can easily obtain a regular result, it is evident that the
force exerted at any ot these sections by the exteinal por¬
tions must be sufficient to support the lateral thrust and
the weight of the internal portions; and its inclination,
must be such that the horizontal base of the triangle ot
forces must be to the vertical perpendicular as the lateral
thrust to the weight of the internal portion; or, in other
words, the lateral thrust -remaining constant, the weight
supported will be as the tangent of the inclination. But
calling the horizontal absciss x, and the vertical oidinntey,
d?/
the tangent of the inclination will be —- which, in the case
of a parallelepiped, must be proportional to the distance
m&y .
x from the contiguous ends; and x — -ff- ; consequent-
d.c
ly xdx = mdy, and x- = mg, which is the equation of a
parabola. It is usual in such cases to consider the thrusts
as rectilinear throughout, and as meeting in the vertical
line passing through the centre of gravity of each block;
but this mode of representation is evidently only a conve¬
nient compendium.
If the blocks were united together in the middle, so as
to form a single bar or lever, the forces would be some¬
what differently arranged ; the upper half of the bar would
contain a series of elementary arches, abutting on a series
of similar elementary chains in the lower half, so as to take
off all lateral thrust from the supports at the ends.
With respect to the transverse strains of levers in ge¬
neral, it may he observed, that the most convenient way
of representing them is to consider the axis of the lever
as composed of a series of elementary bars, bisected, an
crossed at right angles, by as many others extending
across the lever, or rather as far as two thirds of the 3.
depth on each side, where the centre of resistance is situ¬
ated. The transverse force must then be transmitted un¬
altered throughout the whole system, acting in contrary
directions at the opposite ends of each of the elementary
bars constituting the axis; and it must be held in 1
brium, with respect to each of the centres, considere a
a fulcrum, by the general result or all the corpuscu a
forces acting on the longer cross arms; that is, by 1
difference of the compression or extension on the di e
ent sides of the arms. This difference must there ore
BRIDGE.
267
] (ke. constant; and in all such cases the strain or curvature
must increase uniformly, and its fluxion must be constant;
but if the transverse force be variable, as when the lever
supports its own weight, or any further external pressure,
the fluxion of the curvature must be proportional to it.
Now the transverse force, thus estimated, being the sum
of the weights or other forces acting on either side of the
given point, the additional weight at the point will be re¬
presented by the fluxion of the weight, or by the second
fluxion of the strain or curvature, which is ultimately as
the fourth fluxion of the ordinate. Also the fluxion of
the strain being as the whole weight on each side, it fol¬
lows, that when the strain is a maximum, and its fluxion
vanishes, the whole weight, or the sum of the positive and
negative forces on either side, must also vanish; as Mr
Dupin has lately demonstrated in a different manner.
M. In every structure supported by abutments, the tangent
of the inclination of the curve of equilibrium to the horizon
is proportional to the weight of the parts interposed between
the given point and the middle of the structure.
The truth of this proposition depends on the equality
of the horizontal thrust throughout the structure, from
which it may be immediately inferred, as in the last pro¬
position. The materials employed for making bridges are
not uncommonly such as to create a certain degree of
lateral pressure on the outside of the arch; but as there
must be a similar and equal pressure in a contrary direc¬
tion against the abutment, its effects will be comprehended
in the determination of the point at which the curve
springs from the abutment, as well as in the direction of
the curve itself; so that the circumstance does not afford
any exception to the general truth of the law. It is, how¬
ever, seldom necessary to include the operation of such
materials in our calculations, since their lateral pressure
has little or no effect at the upper part of the arch, which
has the greatest influence on the direction of the curve ;
and it is also desirable to avoid the unnecessary employ¬
ment of these soft materials, because they tend to increase
the horizontal thrust, and to raise it to a greater height
above the foundation of the abutment.
We have therefore generally J'w&x — mt = m be¬
ing the height of uniform matter, pressing on the arch at
the horizontal distance x from the vertex, t the tangent of
the inclination of the curve of equilibrium, y its vertical
ordinate, and m a quantity proportional to the lateral pres¬
sure or horizontal thrust.
N. The radius of curvature of the curve of equilibrium is
inversely as the load on each part, and directly as the cube
of the secant of the angle of inclination to the horizon.
The general expression for the radius of curvature is r
_ (dz)3 . p
~ ; and here, since m&y — Hlxj iv&x, dx being con¬
stant, md2y — w (da.’)2; but dz being = da: yYl + £2),
. day
(Prop. L.) The uniformity of the load implies that the Brid-re.
superior and inferior terminations of the arch, commonly
called the extrados and intrados, should be parallel; but
it is not necessary that either of them should be parabolic,
unless we wish to keep the curve exactly in the middle of
the whole structure. When the height of the load is very
great in proportion to that of the arch, the curve must al¬
ways be nfearly parabolic, because the form of the extra¬
dos has but little comparative effect on the load at each
point.
A parabola will therefore express the general form of
the curve of equilibrium in the flat bands of brick or stone,
commonly placed over window’s and doors, which, not¬
withstanding their external form, may very properly be
denominated flat arches. But if we consider the direction
of the joints as perpendicular to the curve, it may easily
be shown, from the properties of the wedge, that they
must tend to a common axis, in order that the thrust may
be equal throughout; and the curve must be perpendicu¬
lar to them, and consequently circular; but the difference
from the parabola will be wholly inconsiderable.
Q. For a horizontal extrados, and an intrados termi¬
nated by the curve itself, which, however, is a supposition
merely theoretical, the equation of the curve is
/— ?/+ \/(yy — ad)
x — \m hyp. log.     
. a
Since in this case w — y (Prop. M.), we haveJ'tjdx
d?/
= m , and mddy — y (dxj2 ; wnence, multiplying both
sides by dy, we have mdyd2y = ydy(dx)2 ; and, taking the
fluent, rn {dyf = j y2 (da:)2, and mt- = 7J2, which must
be corrected by making y — a when t vanishes, so that we
shall have mt2—y2—a2, and y — yYa2 + mt2). But since
da:
* r (VV — aa\ . , , m
— t —  ), da: — dy y'7 -, and x z=
\ m J * (yp — oaf
-v/m hl (y -}- ^ly2 — a2]) — >fm hl a; whence all the
points of the curve may be determined by means of a ta¬
ble of logarithms. But such a calculation is by no means
so immediately applicable to practice as has generally
been supposed; for the curve of equilibrium will always
be so distant from the intrados at the abutments, as to de¬
range the whole distribution of the forces concerned.
R. For an arch of equable absolute thickness throughout
its length, the equation is z = \/(y2 — »i2) and
y + \/( yy — mm)
x — m hl     
m
The weight of any portion of the half arch being repre¬
sented by its length z, we have z = m ^; but dz = dy
= (1 + (=), and »• = “ (1 + C)1; and m being con- ^ + G|)!> = ^ V/(I + 'fi)' and d» =
dz
stant, r is inversely as the load w, and directly as the cube
of the secant */(i + t2). The same result may also be
obtained from a geometrical consideration of the magni-
tude of the versed sine of the elementary arc, and the
effect of the obliquity of the pressure ; the one varying as
the square of the secant, the other as the secant simply.
O. Consequently, if the curve be circular, the load must
e everywhere as the cube of the secant.
P. If the curve of equilibrium be parabolic, the load must
e uniform throughout the span.
4 + 3
zdz
= ; r, of which the fluent is */ (z2 -}- m2), re-
v' (zz + mm) ^ v '
quiring no further correction than to suppose y initially
equal to m ; and we have z = \/{y2 — m2). Again, since
dz = d# \/(l + we find in the same manner da: =
\ mm/
mdz
, , ; :, and a: = m hl (z + y'[wim + zzl)—miihm
\/{nim + zz)
268
bridge.
Bridge. _ ^ hl g + This curve will therefore in some cases
m
be identical with that of the preceding proposition. It is
commonly called the catenaria, since it represents the
form in which a perfectly flexible chain of equable thick¬
ness will hang by its gravity.
S. If the load on each point of an arch he expressed by
the equation io — a^- bx2, the equation for the curve of equi¬
librium will he my — \ ax- + jg hx^.
Since the whole load Jic&x is here ax + \ we have
= ax+ % bx? (Prop. M.), and my = \ax? + ^ bx?.
lY* •
This expression will, in general, be found sufficiently
accurate for calculating the form of the curve of equili¬
brium in practical cases; and it may easily be made to
comprehend the increase of the load from the obliquity ot
the arch-stones. The ordinate y at the abutment being
given, the value of m may be deduced from it; and since
at the vertex my is simply \ ax?, the radius of curvature
xx _ m
r will here be — — —•
2y a
T. If we divide the span of an arch into four equal parts,
and add to the weight of one of the middle parts one sixth of
its difference from the weight of one of the extreme parts, ice
shall have a reduced weight, which will be to the lateral
thrust as the height of the arch to half the span, without sen-
sible cttot.
The weight of the half arch being expressed by ax + ^
bx? when x is equal to the whole span, if we substitute x
for ^ x, it will become ^ ax -jj bx? for one of the middle
7
parts, leaving ^ ax bx? for the extreme part, which
gives iL bo? for the difference of the parts, and one sixth of
bx?:
this added to the former quantity makes it £ a# + -p
1 y
but since my = \ ax? + bx?, dividing by mx, we have -
^ax + j^bx?
m
It is also obvious, that if w-e subtract, instead of adding,
one sixth of the difference, we have ^ ax ; and dividing
in
by l x, we obtain a, and thence r -, m being previous¬
ly found by the proposition.
U. When the load is terminated by a circular or ellipti¬
cal arc, w — a nb — n \Z(b‘2 — x‘2) and my =. ^
(a + nb) x'2 — nb<2 a; arc sine ^ \ nb2 */(b2 — a:2)4-
in^ — x2)? + ^nb*.
The whole load Jivdx is here ax + nbx — ^ nb‘2 arc
sine | — %nx jf(b2 — xC2) ; and hence my — i ax2 +
1 nbx2
■ £ nb2X ARC SINE £• + i nb5
\nb2 ^(b2 — x*)
+ iw(&2 —tf2) "2 — i nbz (Prop. M.) And the radius
7TI
of curvature at the vertex will again be —. When the
curve is circular, the axes of the ellipse being equal, Bridg,
n=l. . u ^
If the extrados and intrados are concentric, the calcu¬
lation requires us to take the difference between the re¬
sults determining the weight for each curve; but it will
commonly be equally accurate, in such a case, to consider
the depth of the load as uniform, at least when the joints
are in the direction of the radii.
X. The abutment must be higher without than within, by
a distance which is to its breadth as the horizontal distance
of the centre of gravity of the half arch from the middle of the
abutment is to the height of the middle of the hey-stone above
the same point.
This proposition follows immediately from the propor¬
tion of the horizontal thrust to the weight, determined by
the property of the lever; the one acting at the distance
of the height of the arch from the fulcrum, and the other
at the distance of the centre of gravity from the abutment,
so as to balance each other; and the oblique direction of
the face of the abutment being perpendicular to the thrust
compounded of these two forces. The same rule also
serves for determining the proper position of the abutment
of a beam or rafter of any kind, in order that it may stand
securely, without the assistance of friction. But for a
bridge, if we calculate the situation of the curve of equi¬
librium, we obtain the direction of the thrust at its extre¬
mity more conveniently, without immediately determining
the place of the centre of gravity.
Y. In order that an arch may stand without friction or
cohesion, a curve of equilibrium, perpendicular to all the
surfaces of the joints, must be capable of being drawn within
the substance of the blocks.
If the pressure on each joint be not exactly perpendi¬
cular to the surfaces, it cannot be resisted without fric¬
tion, and the parts must slide on each other; this, how¬
ever, is an event that can never be likely to occur in prac¬
tice. But if the curve, representing the general pressure
on any joint, be directed to a point in its plane beyond
the limits of the substance, the joint will open at its re¬
moter end, unless it be secured by the cohesion ot the
cements, and the structure will either wholly fall, or con¬
tinue to stand in a new form. (Plate CXXXII. fig- 5*)
From this condition, together with the determination of
the direction of the joints already mentioned (Prop. P*)j
we may easily find the best arrangement of the joints in
a flat arch: the object, in such cases, being to dimipish
the lateral thrust as much as possible, it is obvious that
the common centre of the joints must be brought as neai
to the arch as is compatible with the condition of the
circle remaining within its limits; and it may even happen
that the superincumbent materials would prevent the
opening of the joints even if the centre were still nearer
than this; but if, on the other hand, the arch depended
only on its own resistance, and the materials were in an)
danger of being crushed, it wrould be necessary to keep
the circle at some little distance from its surfaces, even
at the expense of somewhat increasing the lateral pressuie.
When the curve of equilibrium touches the inti ados o
an arch of any kind, the compression at the surface must
be at least four times as great as if it remained in the
middle of the arch-stones (Prop. E.), and still greater
than this if the cohesion of the cements is called into ac¬
tion. In this estimate we suppose the transverse sections
of the blocks inflexible, so as to co-operate throughout t e
depth in resisting the pressure on any point; but in reality
this co-operation will be confined within much narrower
limits, and the diminution of strength will probably be
considerably greater than is here supposed, whenever t e
curve approaches to the intrados of the arch.
The passage of the curve of equilibrium through the
BRIDGE.
B ige. middle of each block is all that is necessary to insure the
stability of a bridge of modern dimensions and of sound
materials. Its strength is by no means increased, like
that of a frame of carpentry, or of a beam resisting a
transverse force, by an increase of its depth in preference
to any other of its dimensions : a greater depth does, in¬
deed, give it a power of effectually resisting a greater
force of external pressure derived from the presence of
any occasional load on any part of the structure; but the
magnitude of such a load is seldom very considerable, in
proportion to the weight of the bridge.
It is of some importance, in these investigations, to en¬
deavour to trace the successive steps by which the fabric
of a bridge may commonly be expected to fail. Suppos¬
ing the materials to be too soft, or the abutments insecure,
or any part of the work to be defective, and to afford too
little resistance, the length of the curve of the arch being
diminished, or its chord extended, it will become flatter,
and consequently sink; the alteration being by far the
greatest, if other things are equal, where the depth is the
least, that is, near the crown or key-stone ; so that if the
curvature was at first nearly equal throughout, the crown
will sink so much as to cause a rapid increase of curvature
on each side in its immediate neighbourhood, which will
bring the intrados up to the curve of equilibrium, or even
above it, the form of this curve being little altered by the
change of that of the arch. The middle remains firm, be¬
cause the pressure is pretty equally divided throughout
the blocks; but the parts new ly bent give way to the un¬
equal force, and chip a little at their internal surface ; but
being reduced in their dimensions by the pressure, they
suffer the middle to descend still lowrer, and are conse¬
quently carried dowm with it, so as to be relieved from
the inequality of pressure depending on their curvature,
and to transfer the effect to the parts immediately beyond
them, till these in their turn crumble, and by degrees the
whole structure falls. (Plate CXXXII. fig. 6.)
Sect. III.— Of the Effect of Friction.
The friction or adhesion of the substances employed in
architecture is of the most material consequence for in¬
suring the stability of the works constructed with them,
and it is right that we should know the extent of its ope¬
ration. It is not, however, often practically necessary to
calculate its exact magnitude, because it would seldom be
prudent to rely materially on it, the accidental circum¬
stances of agitation or moisture tending very much to di¬
minish its effect. Nor is the cohesion of the cements em¬
ployed of much farther consequence than as enabling
them to form a firm connection, by means of which the
blocks may rest more completely on each other than they
could do without it; for we must always remember that
we must lose at least half of the strength, before the cohe¬
sion of the solid blocks themselves, in the direction of the
arch, can be called into action, and at least three fourths
before the joints wall have any tendency to open through¬
out their extent.
Z. The joints of an arch, composed of materials subject to
friction, may be situated in any direction lying within the
limits of the angle of repose, on either side of the perpendi¬
cular to the curve of equilibrium ; the angle of repose being
equal to the inclination to the horizon at which the materials
begin to slide on each other ; and the direct friction being to
t te pressure as the tangent of this angle is to the radius.
^ It is obvious, that any other force as well as that of
gravity will be resisted by the friction or adhesion of the
surfaces when its direction is within the limits of the angle
at which the substances begin to slide ; and it may be in-
erred from the experiments of Mr Coulomb and Profes-
269
sor Vince, that this angle is constant, whatever the mag- Bridge,
nitude of the force may be, since the friction is ver}' near-
ly proportional to the mutual pressure of the substances.
The tendency of a body to descend along any plane being
as much less than its weight as the height of the plane is
less than its length, and the pressure on the plane being
as much less than the weight as the length is greater than
the horizontal extent, it follows, that, when the weight
begins to overcome the friction, the friction must be to
the pressure as the height of the plane to its horizontal
extent, or as the tangent of the inclination to the radius.
This property of the angle of repose affords a very easy
method of ascertaining, by a simple experiment, the fric¬
tion of the materials employed. Taking, for example, a
common brick, and placing it, with the shorter side of its
end downwards, on another which is gradually raised, we
shall find that it will fall over without beginning to slide;
and when this happens, the height must be half of the
horizontal extent, a brick being twice as long as it is
broad. In this case, therefore, the friction must be at least
half of the pressure, and the angle of repose at least 30° ;
and an equilateral wedge of brick could not be forced up
by any steady pressure of bricks acting against its sides,
in a direction parallel to its base. But the effects of agi¬
tation would -make such a wedge totally insecure in any
practical case; and the determination only serves to as¬
sure us, that a very considerable latitude may be allowed
to the joints of our materials, when there is any reason for
deviating from the proper direction, provided that we be
assured of a steady pressure; and much more in brick or
stone than in wmod, and more in wood than in iron, unless
the joints of the iron be secured by some cohesive connec¬
tion. It may also be inferred from these considerations,
that the direction of the joints can never determine the
direction of the curve of equilibrium crossing them, since
the friction will always enable them to transmit the thrust
in a direction varying very considerably from the perpen¬
dicular ; although, with respect to any particular joint, of
which we wish to ascertain the stability independent of
the friction, it would be desirable to collect the result of
the elements of which that curve is the representative,
with a proper regard to its direction.
Sect. IV.—Earlier Historical Details.
The original invention of arches, and the date of their
general adoption in architecture, have been discussed
with great animation by Mr King, Mr Dutens, and se¬
veral other learned antiquaries. Mr King insisted that
the use of the arch wras not more ancient than the Chris¬
tian era, and considered its introduction as one of the
most remarkable events accompanying that memorable
period. Mr Dutens appealed to the structure of the
cloacae, built by the Tarquins, and to the authority of Se¬
neca, who observes that the arch was generally consider¬
ed as the invention of Democritus, a philosopher wrho lived
some centuries before the birth of Christ, but that, in his
opinion, the simplicity of the principle could not have es¬
caped the rudest architect; and that, long before Demo¬
critus, there must have been both bridges and doors, in
both of which structures the arch was commonly employ¬
ed. There do indeed appear to be solitary instances of
arches more ancient than the epoch assigned by Mr King
to their invention. We find arches concealed in the walls
of some of the oldest temples extant at Athens. The
cloacae are said to be arched, not at the opening into
the Tiber only, but to a greater distance within it than is
likely to have been rebuilt at a later period for ornament;
and the fragments of a bridge, still remaining at Rome,
bear an inscription which refers its erection to the latter
bridge.
years of the Commonwealth. But it seems highly pro¬
bable that almost all the covered ways constructed m the
earlier times of Greece and Rome, were either formed ry
lintels, like doorways, or by stones overhanging each other
in horizontal strata, and leaving a triangular aperture, or
little addition at the ends to adapt it to the larger arches. Bridge.
He records the case of Old Walton Bridge, in which the
wooden superstructure had sunk two feet, so as to become
part of a circle 700 feet in diameter, and the thrust, thus
increased, had forced the piers considerably out of their
in horizontal strata, and leaving a tnangu ai aj ’ nr:„:na\ situation • a striking proof that the principles of
where the lintel has a triangular aperture over it, by winch panicularly” deTcHbes the inconveniences
arising from the old method of laying the foundations of
piers, which was introduced soon after the Concjuest, and
which was particularly exemplified in the old London Bridge.
The masonry commenced above low-water mark, being sup¬
ported on piles, which would have been exposed to the de¬
structive alternation of moisture*and dryness, with the ac¬
cess of air, if they had not been defended by other piles, form¬
ing projections partly filled with stone, and denominated
sterlings, which, in their turn, occasionally required the sup¬
port and defence of new piles surrounding them, since they
were not easily removed when they decayed; so that by
degrees a great interruption was occasioned by the breadth
of the piers, thus augmented, requiring, for the transmis¬
sion of the water, an increase of velocity, which was not
only inconvenient to the navigation, but also carried away
the bed of the river under the arches, and immediately be¬
low the bridge, making deep pools or excavations, which re¬
quired from time to time to be filled up with rubble stones;
while the materials which had been carried away by the
stream were deposited a little lower down in shoals, and
very much interfered with the navigation of the river.
From these circumstances, as well as from the effects of
time and decay, it happened that the repairs of the old Lon¬
don Bridge often amounted, for many years together, to
L.4000 a year, while those of Westminster and Blackfriars
Bridges did not cost so many hundreds. It is true, that
the fall produced a trifling advantage in enabling the Lon¬
don water-works to employ more of the force of the tide m
raising water for the use of the city; and this right, being
established as a legal privilege, long delayed the improve¬
ments which might otherwise have been attempted for
the benefit of the navigation of the river. The interest of
the proprietors of the water-works had been valued at
L.125,000, and it had been estimated that L.50,000wou d
be required for the erection of steam-engines to supply
their place ; while, on the other hand, from thirty to forty
persons, on an average, perished annually from the dangers
of the fall under the bridge. (Plate CXXXIII. fig-6-)
But Mr Smeaton, as well as his predecessor Mr La-
belve, appears sometimes to have gone into a contrary ex¬
treme, and to have been somewhat too sparing in the use
of piles. It is well known that the opening of West¬
minster Bridge was delayed for two years on account of
the failure of a pier, the foundation of which had been
it is relieved from the pressure of the wall above; and
this instance serves to show how different the distribution
of the pressure on any part of a structure may be, from
the simple proportions of the height of the matenals abo\ e
it. Some other old buildings, which have been supposed
to be arched, have been found, on further examination,
rather to resemble domes, which may be built without
centres, and may be left open at the summit, the hori¬
zontal curvature producing a transverse pressure, which
supports the structure without an ordinary key-stone.
And this has been suspected to be the form of the roofs
and ceilings of ancient Babylon, were Strabo tells us that
the buildings were arched over, or “ camerated,” for the
purpose of saving timber ; and the bridge of Babylon,
which must have been of considerable antiquity, is express¬
ly said, by Herodotus, to have consisted of piers of stone,
with a road formed of beams of wood only. It may how¬
ever be rejoined, that though a dome is not simply an
arch, yet it exceeds it in contrivance and mechanical
complication; it generally exerts a thrust, and lequiies
either an abutment or a circular tie; and it is scarcely
possible that the inventor of a dome should not have been
previously acquainted with the construction of a common
arch. Besides the term camara, the Greeks had also
psarts, apsis, and tholus, the last of which was parti¬
cularly appropriate to circular domes; but the variety of
appellations seems to prove that the thing must have been
perfectly familiar; and the term psalis is supposed to
have been applied from the appearance of the wedged
arch-stones, viewed in their elevation, which could not
have been observable in a dome of any kind.
From these outlines of the origin of the art of building
bridges, we may pass on rapidly to the latest improve¬
ments which have been made in Great Britain and on
the Continent in the practice of this department of ar¬
chitecture. A very ample detail of the most important
operations that are generally required to be performed in
it, may be found in the numerous Reports of the ingenious
Mr Smeaton, published since his death by the Society of
Civil Engineers in London. They contain a body of in¬
formation comprehending almost every case that can occur
to a workman in the execution of such structures; and
even where they have to record an accidental failure, the
instruction they afford is not less valuable than where the
success has been more complete
ccess has been more complete. uie ianure ui a pw.,  * f !
Respecting the general arrangement of a bridge, and partly undermined by the incautious ^moval o
the number of arches to be employed, in the case of a wide the bed of Jiverin its g occurred f
river, Mr Smeaton has expressed his approbation of a few
wide and flat arches, supported by good abutments, in
preference to more numerous piers, which unnecessarily
interrupt the water-way. In a case where a long series of
small arches was required, he has made them so flat, and
irom uie ueu ui uicuvci     0
a circumstance which would scarcely have occuire
piles had been more freely employed in securing the ioun-
dation. The omission, however, did not arise Irom wan
of a just estimate of the importance of piles in a loose
bottom, but from a confidence, founded on examination a
small arches was required, he has made them so nat, anu douoiii, out uum a   „i,.pndv
the piers so slight, that a single pier would be incapable of the wmrk advanced, that the bed of the river wa „
withstanding the thrust of its arch ; but in order to avoid sufficiently firm. Mr Smeaton directed the ?un ,
the destruction of the whole fabric in case of an accident, Hexham Bridge to be laid, as those of Westmins er
he has intermixed a number of stronger piers, at certain had been, by means of caissons, or boxes, ma e ‘ in
intervals, among the weaker ones. Where several arches tight, and containing the bottom of the pier, c®111?
of different heights were required, he commonly recom- masonry well connected together, and ready to f
mended different portions of the same circle for all of sited in its proper place by lowering the caissons, an
them ; a mode which rendered the lateral thrust nearly detaching the sides, which are raised for further _
equal throughout the fabric, and had the advantage of the bottoms, which remain fixed as a part oi tne
allowing the same centre to be employed for all, with some tions immediately resting on the bed of the river, pre
BRIDGE.
271
I Jge. ly made smooth for their reception, and sometimes also
rendered more firm by piles and a grating of timber. By
a careful examination of the bottom of the river at Hex¬
ham, Mr Smeaton thought he had ascertained that the
stratum of gravel, of which it consisted, was extremely
thin, and supported by a quicksand, much too loose to give
a firm hold to piles, while he supposed the gravel strong
enough to bear the weight of the pier if built in a caisson.
The bridge was a handsome edifice, with elliptical arches,
and stood well for a few years ; but an extraordinary flood
occurred, which caused the water to rise five feet higher
above than below the bridge, and to flow through it with
so great a velocity as to undermine the piers, and cause
the bridge to divide longitudinally, and fall in against the
stream; a circumstance so much the more mortifying to
the eminent engineer who had constructed it, as it was
the only one of his works that, “ in a period of thirty
years,” had been known to fail. It was observed that some
of the piers which had been built in coffer-dams, with the
assistance of some piles, withstood the violence of the
flood; and it is remarkable that the whole bridge has
been rebuilt by a provincial architect with perfect success,
having stood without any accident for many years.
It seems, therefore, scarcely prudent to trust any very
heavy bridge to a foundation not secured by piles, unless
the ground on which it stands is an absolute rock ; and in
this case, as well as when piles are to be driven and saw¬
ed off, it is generally necessary to have recourse to a
coffer-dam. In the instance of the bridge at Harraton,
for example, where the rock is nine feet below the bed of
the river, Mr. Smeaton directs that the piles forming the
coffer-dam be rebated into each other, driven down to the
rock, and secured by internal stretchers, before the water
i contained within them is pumped out. In some cases a
double row of piles, with clay between them, has been em¬
ployed for forming a coffer-dam ; but in others it has been
found more convenient to drive and cut off the piles under
water, by means of proper machinery, without the assist¬
ance of a coffer-dam.
_ Piles are employed of various lengths, from seven to
sixteen feet or more, and from eight to ten inches in thick¬
ness ; and they are commonly shod with iron. Smeaton
directs them to be driven till it requires from twenty to
forty strokes of the pile driver to sink them an inch, ac¬
cording to the magnitude of the weight, and the firmness
required in the work. He was in the habit of frequently
recommending the piles surrounding the piers to be se¬
cured by throwing in rubble stone, so as to form an in¬
clined surface, sloping gradually from the bridge upwards
and downwards. In the case of Coldstream Bridge, it was
also found necessary to have a partial dam, or artificial
shoal, thrown across the river a little below the bridge, in
order to lessen the velocity of the water, which was cut¬
ting up the gravel from the base of the piles. But all these
expedients are attended with considerable inconvenience,
and it is better to avoid them in the first instance, by leav¬
ing the water-way as wide and as deep as possible, and by
making the foundations as firm and extensive as the cir¬
cumstances may require.
I he angles of the piers, both above and under water,
are commonly rounded off, in order to facilitate the pas¬
sage of the stream, and to be less liable to accidental in-
jy- Mr Smeaton recommends a cylindrical surface of
as a proper termination ; and two such surfaces, meet¬
ing each other in an angle, will approach to the outline of
e. lea(^ a ship, which is calculated to afford the least
les'®tance to the water gliding by it.
e find that, in the year 1769, the earth employed for
in 'pm-11? ^le sflace between the walls of the North Bridge
inburgh had forced them out, so as to require the
assistance of transverse bars and buttresses for their sup¬
port. In the more modern bridges, these accidents are
prevented by the employment of longitudinal walls for fill¬
ing up the haunches, with flat stones covering the inter¬
vals between them, instead of the earth, or the more solid
materials which were formerly used, and which produced
a greater pressure both on the arch and on the abutments,
as well as a transverse thrust against the side walls. For
the inclination of the road passing over this bridge, Mr
Smeaton thought a slope of one in twelve not too great ;
observing that horses cannot trot even when the ascent is
much more gradual than this, and that if they walk, they
can draw a carriage up such a road as this without diffi¬
culty ; and, indeed, the bridge at Newcastle appears, for
a short distance, to have been much steeper. But it has
been more lately argued, on another occasion, that it is a
great inconvenience in a crowded city to have to lock the
wheel of a loaded waggon; that this is necessary at all times
on Holborn Hill, where the slope is only one in eighteen ;
while in frosty weather this street is absolutely impass¬
able for such carriages ; and the descent of Ludgate Hill,
which is only one in thirty-six, is considered as much more
desirable, when it is possible to construct a bridge w'ith
an acclivity so gentle.
Bridge.
Sect. V—Improvements of the Port of London.
From the study of Mr Smeaton’s diversified labours, we
proceed to take a cursory view of the parliamentary in¬
quiry respecting the improvement of the port of London,
which has brought forward a variety of important infor¬
mation, and suggested a multiplicity of ingenious designs.
The principal part of that which relates to our present
subject is contained in the Second and Third Reports from
the Select Committee of the House of Commons, on the
improvement of the Port of London ; ordered to be print¬
ed 11th July 1799, and 28th July 1800.
We find in these Reports some interesting details re¬
specting the history of the old London Bridge, which ap¬
pears to have been begun, not, as Hume tells us, by WT1-
liam Rufus, who w^as killed in 1100, but in 1176, under
Henry II., and to have been completed in eighty-three
years. The piles w’ere principally of elm, and remained for
six centuries without material decay; although a part of
the bridge fell, and w'as rebuilt about 100 years after it was
begun. Rochester, York, and Newcastle Bridges were also
built in the twelfth century, as well as the Bridge of St
Esprit at Avignon. About the middle of the last century
the centre pier of the old London Bridge was removed ; the
piles were drawn by a very powerful screw, commonly used
for lifting the wheels of the water-works ; and a single arch
was made to occupy the place of two. In consequence of
this, the fall was somewhat diminished, and it was neces¬
sary partially to obstruct the channel again, in order that
the stream should have force enough for the water-works;
but it was very difficult to secure the bottom from the ef¬
fects of the increased velocity under the arch. Several
strong beams were firmly fixed across the bed of the river,
but only two of them retained their situations for any length
of time; and the materials carried away had been depo¬
sited below the middle arch, so as to form a shoal, which
was only sixteen inches below the surface at low water.
The reports contain also much particular information re¬
specting Blackfriars Bridge, the piles for which were
driven under water, and cut off level with the bed of the
foundations, by a machine of Mr Mylne’s invention. The
expense of Blackfriars Bridge, including the purchase of
premises, was about L.260,000; that of the building only
was L.170,000. Westminster Bridge, built in the begin¬
ning of the century, cost about L.400,000.
272
Bridge.
bridge.
The committee received an immense variety of plans
and proposals for docks, wharfs, and bridges; and many
of these were published in the Reports, together with en¬
graved details on a very ample scale. They finally adopt¬
ed three resolutions respecting the rebuilding of London
Bridge. . . . .
“ 1. That it is the opinion of this committee that it is
essential to the improvement and accommodation of the
port of London, that London Bridge should be rebuilt
upon such a construction as to permit a free passage, at
all times of the tide, for ships of such a tonnage, at least,
as the depth of the river would admit of at present be¬
tween London Bridge and Blackfriars Biidge.
“ 2. That it is the opinion of this committee that an
iron bridge, having its centre arch not less than sixty-five
feet high in the clear, above high-water mark, will answer
the intended purpose, and at the least expense.
“ 3. That it is the opinion of this committee that the
most convenient situation for the new bridge will be im¬
mediately above St Saviour s Church, and upon a line fiom
thence to the Royal Exchange.”
In a subsequent Report, ordered to be printed 3d June
1801, we find a plan for a magnificent iron bridge of 600
feet span, which had been submitted to the committee by
Messrs Telford and Douglas. Mr Telford’s reputation in
his profession as an engineer deservedly attracted the at¬
tention of the committee ; but many practical difficulties
having been suggested to them, they circulated a number
of queries relating to the proposal, among such persons
of science, and professional architects, as were the most
likely to have afforded them satisfactory information. But
the results of these inquiries are not a little humiliating to
the admirers of abstract reasoning and of geometrical evi¬
dence ; and it would be difficult to find a greater discord¬
ance in the most heterodox professions of faith, or in the
most capricious variations of taste, than is exhibited in
the responses of our most celebrated professors, on almost
every point submitted to their consideration. It would
be useless to dwell on the numerous errors with which
many of the answers abound; but the questions will af¬
ford us a very convenient clue for directing our attention
to such subjects of deliberation as are really likely to oc¬
cur in a multiplicity of cases; and it will perhaps be pos¬
sible to find such answers for all of them as will tend to
remove the greater number of the difficulties which have
hitherto embarrassed the subject.
QUESTIONS RESPECTING THE CONSTRUCTION OE A CAST-
IRON BRIDGE, OF A SINGLE ARCH, 600 FEET IN THE
span, and 65 feet rise. (Plate CXXXII. fig. 7.)
Question I. What parts of the bridge should be con¬
sidered as wedges, which act on each other by gravity and
pressure, and what parts as weight, acting by gravity only,
similar to the roalls and other loading, usually erected upon
the arches of stone bridges ? Or does the whole act as one
frame of iron, which can only be destroyed by crushing its
parts ?
The distribution of the resistance of a bridge may be
considered as in some measure optional, since it may be
transferred from one part of the structure to another,
by wedging together most firmly those parts which we
wish to be most materially concerned in it. But there is
also a natural principle of adjustment, by which the re¬
sistance has a tendency to be thrown where it can best
be supported ; for the materials being always more or less
compressible, a very small change of form, supposed to
be equal throughout the structure, will relieve those parts
most which are the most strained, and the accommo¬
dation will be still more effectual when the parts most
strained undergo the greatest change of form. Thus, if Bridg
the flatter ribs, seen at the upper part of the proposed
structure, supported any material part of its weight, they
would undergo a considerable longitudinal compression,
and being shortened a little, would naturally descend very
rapidly upon the more curved, and consequently stronger
parts below, which would soon relieve them from the load
improperly allotted to them : the abutment would also
give way a little, and be forced out by the greater pres¬
sure at its upper part, while the lower part remained al¬
most entirely unchanged.
It is, however, highly important that the work should,
in the first instance, be so arranged as best to fulfil the
intended purposes, and especially that such parts should
have to support the weight as are able to do it with the
least expense of lateral thrust, which is the great evil to
be dreaded in a work of these gigantic dimensions, the
materials themselves being scarcely ever crushed when
the arch is of a proper form, and the failure of an iron
bridge, by the want of ultimate resistance of its parts to a
compressing force, being a thing altogether out of our
contemplation ; and it is obvious that the greater the cur¬
vature of the resting parts, the smaller will be the late¬
ral thrust on the abutments.
We may therefore sufficiently answer this question, by
saying that the whole frame of the proposed bridge, so far
as it lies in or near the longitudinal direction of the arch,
may occasionally co-operate in affording a partial resist¬
ance if required; but that the principal part of the force
ought to be concentrated in the lower ribs, not far remote
from the intrados.
But it is by no means allowable to calculate upon a
curve of equilibrium exactly coinciding with the intrados;
since, if this supposition were realized, we should lose
more than three fourths of the strength of our materials,
and all the stability of the joints independent of cohesion,
so that the slightest external force might throw the curve
beyond the limits of the joint, and cause it to open. Nor
can we always consider the curve of equilibrium as paial-
lel to the intrados: taking, for example, the case of a
bridge like Blackfriars, the curve of equilibrium, passing
near the middle of the arch-stones, is, and ought to be,
nine or ten feet above the intrados at the abutment, and
only two or three feet at the crown; so that the ordinates
of this curve are altogether different from the ordinates
which have hitherto been considered by theoretical wri¬
ters. It may be imagined that this difference is of no
great importance in practice; but its amount is much
oreater than the difference between the theoretical curves
of equilibrium, determined by calculation, and the com¬
monest circular or elliptical arches. < ..
With respect to the alternative of comparing the bridge
with masonry or with carpentry, we may say, that the
principles on which the equilibrium of bridges is calcu¬
lated are altogether elementary, and independent of any
figurative expressions of strains and mechanical purchase,
which are employed in considering many of the arrange¬
ments of carpentry, and which may indeed, when t ey
are accurately analysed, be resolved into forces oppose
and combined in the same manner as the thrusts ot a
bridge. It is, therefore, wholly unnecessary, when w
inquire into the strength of such a fabric, to distmguis
the thrusts of masonry from the strains of carpentry,
laws which govern them being not only similar, but i
cal, except that a strain is commonly understood as i -
plying an exertion of cohesive force; and we have s
that a cohesive force ought never to be called into ac 1
in a bridge, since it implies a great and unnecessary
crifice of the strength of the materials employed. R, ‘
deed, we wanted to cross a mere ditch, without dep
BRIDGE.
L-idge. ing on the firmness of the bank, we might easily find a
v. beam of wood or a bar of iron strong enough to afford a
passage over it, unsupported by any abutment, because,
in a substance of inconsiderable length, we are sure of
having more strength than we require. But to assert that
an iron bridge of 600 feet span “ is a lever exerting a
vertical pressure only on the abutments,” is to pronounce
a sentence from the lofty tribunal of refined science, which
the simplest workman must feel to be erroneous. But in
this instance the error is not so much in the comparison
with the lever, as in the inattention to the mode of fixing
it; for a lever or beam of the dimensions of the proposed
bridge, lying loosely on its abutments, would probably be
at least a hundred times weaker than if it were firmly
connected with the abutments, as a bridge is, so as to be
fixed in a determinate direction. And the true reason of
the utility of cast iron for building bridges consists not,
as has often been supposed, in its capability of being
united so as to act like a frame of carpentry, but in the
great resistance which it seems to afford to any force
tending to crush it.
Question II. Whether the strength of the arch is af¬
fected, and in what manner, by the proposed increase of its
width towards the two extremities or abutments, when consi¬
dered vertically and horizontally. And if so, what form
should the bridge gradually acquire ?
The only material advantage derived from widening the
bridge at the ends, consists in the firmness of the abut¬
ments ; and this advantage is greatly diminished by the
increase of horizontal thrust which is occasioned by the
increase of breadth, while the curve of equilibrium is caus¬
ed to deviate greatly from a circular or parabolic arc, in
consequence of the great inequality of the load on the
different parts; and there seems to be no great difficulty
in forming a firm connection between a narrow bridge
and a wider abutment, without this inconvenience. The
lateral strength of the fabric, in resisting any horizontal
force, would be amply sufficient, without the dilatation at
the ends. Perhaps the form was suggested to the in¬
ventor by the recollection of the partial failure of an ear¬
lier work of the same kind, which has been found to de¬
viate considerably from the vertical plane in which it was
originally situated; but in this instance there seems, if
we judge from the engravings which have been published,
to have been a total deficiency of oblique braces ; and
the abutments appear to have been somewhat less firm
than could have been desired, since one of them contains
an arch and some warehouses, instead of being composed
of more solid masonry. (Plate CXXXII. fig. 9.)
Question III. In ivhat proportions should the weight
be distributed from the centre to the abutments, to make the
arch uniformly strong ?
This question is so comprehensive, that a complete an¬
swer to it would involve the whole theory of bridges; and
it will be necessary to limit our investigations to an in¬
quiry whether the structure, represented in the plan, is
actually such as to afford a uniform strength, or whether
any alterations can be made in it compatible with the ge¬
neral outlines of the proposal, to remedy any imperfec¬
tions which may be discoverable in the arrangement of
the pressure.
There is an oversight in some of the official answers to
this question, from quarters of the very first respectability,
which requires our particular attention. The weight of
the different parts of the bridge has been supposed to
differ so materially from that which is required for pro¬
ducing an equilibrium in a circular arch of equable cur¬
vature, that it has been thought impossible to apply the
principles of the theory in any manner to an arch so con¬
stituted, at the same time that the structure is admitted
VOL. v.
to be tolerably well calculated to stand when considered
as a frame of carpentry. The truth is, that it is by no '
means absolutely necessary, nor often perfectly practi¬
cable, that the mean curve of equilibrium should agree
precisely in its form with the curves limiting the external
surfaces of the parts bearing the pressure, especially when
they are sufficiently extensive to admit of considerable
latitude within the limits of their substance. It may
happen in many cases that the curve of equilibrium is
much flatter in one part, and more convex in another,
than the circle which approaches nearest to it; and yet
the distance of the two curves may be inconsiderable, in
comparison with the thickness of the parts capable of co¬
operating in the resistance. The great problem, there¬
fore, in all such cases, is to determine the precise situa¬
tion of the curve of equilibrium in the actual state of the
bridge; and when this has been done, the directions of
the ribs in the case of an iron bridge, and of the joints of
the arch-stones in a stone bridge, may be so regulated as
to afford the greatest possible security; and if this secu¬
rity is not deemed sufficient, the wdiole arrangement must
be altered.
Considering the effect of the dilatation at the ends in
increasing the load, we may estimate the depth of the
materials causing the pressure at the abutments as about
three times as great as at the crown; the plan not being
sufficiently minute to afford us a more precise determina¬
tion ; and it will be quite accurate enough to take w =z a
+ bx* (Prop. S.) for the load, tv becoming = 3a when x
is 300 feet, whence 90,000 b — 2a, and b = a; we
273
Bridge.
45,000
aar4 for the value of the
have then my = 1^+5^
ordinate. Now the obliquity to the horizon being incon¬
siderable, this ordinate will not ultimately be much less
than the whole height of the arch, and its greatest value
may be called sixty-four feet; consequently, when x = 300,
we have 64 m = ± a X 90,000 + ^ a X 90,000, and the
radius of curvature at the vertex r — — — 937’5 feet,
a
while the radius of the intrados is 725 feet, and that of a
circle passing through both ends of the curve of equili¬
brium, as we have supposed them to be situated, 735 feet.
Hence y being = (l + i^oOOO^ )’ WG may Cal"
culate the ordinates at different points, and compare them
with those of the circular curves.
Distance x.
Versed sine of
the intrados.
 1-73 
 6-94 
Versed sine of
the circular arc.
 1-71 
 6-82 
Ordinate y.
....1-34
....5*38
50 
100 
150 15-66 15-43 13-00
200 28-13 27-70 24-50
250 44-42 43-81 41-01
300 65-00 64-00 64-00
Hence it appears that, at the distance of 200 feet from
the middle, the curve of equilibrium will rise more than
three feet above its proper place, requiring a great pro¬
portion of the pressure to be transferred to the upper
ribs, with a considerable loss of strength, for w-ant of a
communication approaching more nearly to the direction
of the curve. If we chose to form the lower part of the
structure of two series of frames, each about four feet
deep, with diagonal braces, we might provide amply for
such an irregularity in the distribution of the pressure;
but it would be necessary to cast the diagonals as strong
as the blocks, in order to avoid the inequality of tension
2 M
274
Bridge.
bridge.
from unequal cooling, which is often a cause of dangerous
accidents ; it would, however, be much better to have the
arch somewhat elliptical in its form, if the load were o
necessity such as has been supposed. ,
Question IV. What pressure will each part of the bridge
receive, supposing it divided into any given number of equal
sections, the weight of the middle section being given ? And
on ivhat parts, and with what force, will the whole act upon
the abutments ? . , ,
It appears, from the preceding calculations, that the
weight of the “ middle section” alone is not sufficient tor
determining the pressure in any part of the fabric; al¬
though, when the form of the curve of equilibrium has
been found, its radius of curvature at the summit must
give at once the length of a similar load equivalent to
the lateral thrust; and by combining this thrust with the
weight, or with the direction of the curve, the oblique
thrust at any part of the arch may be readily found.
Thus, since at the abutment w = a-\- bx* — 3a, and be
1 a
= 2a, we have y —
2 m
3?
^ and the tangent
12 m da;
a . 1 r._ax,^ax
of the inclination becomes — — x+ 3 mx ~ 3 m
5 x
s7
o 300 _ 8_ __ >5333. conseqUently the hori-
3 937-5 15
zontal thrust will be to the w-eight of the half arch as
fifteen to eight, and to that of the whole arch as fifteen
to sixteen. Now the arch is supposed to contain 6500
tons of cast iron, and together with the road will amount,
according to Professor Robison’s estimate, to 10,100 tons ;
so that the lateral thrust on each abutment is 9470 tons;
and since this is equal to the weight of 937*5 feet in
length, of the thickness of the crown, the load there must
be about ten tons for each foot of the length. Hence it
appears, that although the thrust thus calculated is greater
than the weight of a portion of equal length with the ap¬
parent radius at the crown, it is less than would be in¬
ferred from the angular direction of the intrados at the
abutment; the inclination of the termination of the arch
being 24° 27', while that of the true curve of equilibrium
is 28° 4'; that is, about one tenth greater.
As a further illustration of the utility of this mode of
computation, we may take the example of an arch of
Blackfriars Bridge. The radius of curvature, as far as
four fifths of the breadth, is here fifty-six feet; and we
may suppose, without sensible error, the whole load to be
that wffiich would be determined by the continuation of
the same curve throughout the breadth. Now, the middle
of the arch-stones at the distance of fifty feet from the
middle of the bridge, that is, immediately over the termi¬
nation of the abutment, is about twelve feet above that
termination, and at the crown about three feet above the
intrados, so that we have only thirty-one feet for the ex¬
treme value of y, while the whole height of the arch
is forty; and a being 6-58 feet, we find (Prop. U.) my
771
— 13,510 = 31m, whence m — 436, and ~--r — 66^; we
also obtain the values of the ordinates of the curve as in
the annexed table.
. Middle of the
Distance *. Ordmate y. Arch-Stones.
10 feet ‘76.
20 3-12.
25 5-13.
30 7-71.
40 15-81.
....-90
..3-72
..6-12
..8-75
.16-81
50 31-00 31-00
Hence it appears that the greatest deviation is about
thirty feet from the middle, where it amounts to a little Bridge
more than a foot. But if we suppose this deviation divid-
ed by a partial displacement of the curve at its extremi¬
ties, as it would probably be in reality, even if the resist¬
ance were confined to the arch-stones, it would be only
about half as great in all three places; and even this de¬
viation will reduce the strength of the stones to two thuds,
leaving them, however, still many times stiongei than can
ever be necessary. The participation of the whole fabric,
in supporting a share of the oblique thrust, might make
the pressure on the arch-stones somewhat less unequal,
and the diminution of their strength less considerable ; but
it would be better that the pressure should be confined
almost entirely to the arch-stones, as tending less to in¬
crease the horizontal thrust, which is here compressed by
m — 436, implying the weight of so many square feet of
the longitudinal section of the bridge : while, if we deter¬
mined it from the curvature of the intrados, it would ap¬
pear to be only 56a = 368. # _ .
In this calculation, the oblique direction of the joints,
as affecting the load, has not been considered; but its ef¬
fect may be estimated by merely supposing the specific
gravity of the materials to be somewhat increased. Thus,
since the back of each arch-stone is about one eighth
wider than its lower end, the weight of the materials press¬
ing on it will be about one sixteenth greater than would
press on it if it were of undorm thickness ] and this in¬
crease will be very nearly proportional to w, the whole
load at each part; so that it will only affect the total
macrnitude of the thrust, which, instead ot 436, must be
supposed to amount to about 463. It also great accuracy
were required, it would be necessary to appieciate the dil-
ferent specific gravities of the various materials constitut¬
ing the load, since they are not altogether homogeneous;
but so minute a calculation is not necessary in older to
show the general distribution of the forces concerned, and
the sufficiency of the arrangement for answering all the
purposes intended.
Question V. What additional weight will the bridge
sustain, and what will be the effect of a given weight placed
upon any of the before-mentioned sections?
When a weight is placed on any part of a bridge, the
curve of equilibrium must change its situation more or
less according to the magnitude of the weight; and the
tangent of its inclination must now be increased by a quan¬
tity proportional to the additional pressure to be support¬
ed, which, if the weight were placed in the middle ot the
arch, would always be equal to halt of it; but when the
weight is placed at any other part of the arch, it we find
the point where the whole thrust is horizontal, the vertica
pressure to be supported at each point of the curve must
obviously be equal to the weight of the materials inter¬
posed between it and this new summit of the curve. .Now,
in order to find where the thrust is horizontal, we must
divide the arch into two such portions, that their cjnter'
ence, acting at the end of a lever of the length of halt the
span, that is, of the distance from the abutment, may be
equivalent to the given weight, acting on a lever equal to
its distance from the other abutment, to which it is npa^'
est: consequently this difference must be to the weig
as the distance of the weight from the end to hair t e
span; and the distance of the new summit of the curve
from the middle must be such, that the weight or ma¬
terials intercepted between it and the middle shall be 0
the weight as the distance of the weight from the end 0
the whole span ; and the tangent of the inclination mus
everywhere be increased or diminished by the tangent 0
the angle at which the lateral thrust would support tne
weight of this portion of the materials, except immedia e
ly under the weight, where the two portions of the curve
BRIDGE.
Ige. will meet in a finite angle, at least if we suppose the weight
to be collected in a single point.
If, for example, a weight of 100 tons, equal to that of
about ten feet of the crown of the arch, be placed half¬
way between the abutment and the middle ; then the ver¬
tex of the curve, where the thrust is horizontal, will be
removed 21 feet towards the weight; but the radius being
937-5 feet, the tangent of the additional inclination will
2-5 1,
be = 375’ anc* eac^ orc^nate t^ie curve will be in¬
creased of the absciss, reckoning from the place of
the weight to the remoter abutment; but between the
weight and the nearest abutment the additional pressure
at each point will be 10 — 2-5 = 7-5 feet, consequently
the tangent will be y^r, and the additions to the ordi-
450 150
nates at the abutments will be — and —each equal
O/O
150 2
to foot, and at the summit zr which being de¬
ducted, the true addition to the height of the curve will
4
appear to be But the actual height will remain unal¬
tered, since the curve is still supposed to be terminated
by the abutments, and to pass through the middle of the
key-stone; and we have only to reduce all the ordinates
in the proportion of 64-8 to 64. Thus, at 200 feet from
the summit, the ordinate, instead of 24-50 + —7 = 25-03,
will be 24-72, so that the curve will be brought 2^ inches
nearer to the intrados, which, in the proposed fabric, would
by no means diminish its strength ; while, on the opposite
side, immediately under the weight, the ordinate 13 
150
^ = 12-6 will be reduced to 12-45, and the curve rais¬
ed between six and seven inches, which is a change by no
means to be neglected in considering the resistances re¬
quired from each part of the structure. We ought also,
if great accuracy were required, to determine the effect
of such a weight in increasing the lateral thrust, which
would affect in a slight degree the result of the calcula¬
tion ; but it would not amount, in the case proposed, to
more than one eightieth of the whole thrust.
It is obvious that the tendency of any additional weight,
placed near the middle of a bridge, is to straighten the
two branches of the curve of equilibrium, and that, if it
were supposed infinite, it would convert them into right
lines; provided, therefore, that such right lines could be
drawn without coming too near the intrados at the haunch¬
es, the bridge would be in no danger of giving way, unless
either the materials were crushed, or the abutments were
torced out. In fact, any bridge well constructed might
support a load at least equal to its own weight, with less
oss of strength than would arise from some such errors
as have not very uncommonly been committed, even in
works which have on the whole succeeded tolerably well.
Question VI. Supposing the bridge executed in the best
nanner, what horizontal force will it require, when applied
o any particular part, to overturn it, or press it out of the
vertical plane? J
If the bridge be well tied together, it maybe consider-
G m,ass’ standing on its abutments ; its mean
eadtn bemg about 80 feet, and its weight 10,100 tons;
r-C? maSS; would recluire a lateral pressure at the
o tie arch of about 7000 tons to overset it. Any
275
strength of attachment to the abutments would, of course, Bridge,
make it still firmer, and any want of connection between ^
the parts weaker; and since the actual resistance to such
a force must depend entirely on the strength of the oblique
connection between the ribs, it is not easy to define its
magnitude with accuracy: but, as Professor Robison has
justly remarked, the strength would be increased by caus¬
ing the. braces to extend across the whole breadth of the
half arch. The single ribs, if wholly unconnected, might
be overset by an inconsiderable force, since they stand in
a kind of tottering equilibrium ; and something like this
appears to have happened to the bridge at Wearmouth.
Dr Hutton, indeed, mentions some “ diagonal iron bars”
in this bridge ; but these were perhaps added after its first
erection, to obviate the “ twisting,” which had become ap¬
parent, since they are neither exhibited in the large plates
of the bridge, nor mentioned in the specification of the
patent.
Question VII. Supposing the span of the arch to remain
the same, and to spring ten feet lower, what additional
strength would it give the bridge ? Or, making the strength
the same, what saving may be made in the materials ? Or
if, instead of a circular arch, as in the plates and drawings,
the bridge should be made in the form of an elliptical arch,
what would be the difference in effect, as to strength, dura¬
tion, convenience, and expenses ?
_ The question seems to suppose the weight of the mate¬
rials to remain unaltered, and the parts of the structure
that would be expanded to be made proportionally light¬
er; which could not be exactly true, though there might
be a compensation in some other parts. Granting, how¬
ever, the weight to be the same under both circumstan¬
ces, if the ordinate y at the end be increased in the pro¬
portion of sixty-four to about seventy-three, the curvature
at the vertex will be increased, and the lateral thrust di¬
minished in the same ratio, the 9470 tons being reduced
to 8300. The additional thrust occasioned by any foreign
weight would also be lessened, but not the vertical dis¬
placement of the curve derived from its pressure; and
since the whole fabric might safely be made somewhat
lighter, the lightness would again diminish the strain.
The very least resistance that can be attributed to a
square inch of the section of a block of cast iron is about
fifty tons, or somewhat more than 100,000 pounds. It is
said, indeed, that Mr William Reynolds found, by accurate
experiments, that 400 tons were required to crusli a cube
of a quarter of an inch of the kind of cast iron called gun-
metal, which is equivalent to 6400 tons for a square inch
of the section. But this result so far exceeds any thing
that could be expected, either from experiment or from
analogy, that it would be imprudent to place much reli¬
ance on it in practice ; the strength attributed to the me¬
tal being equivalent to the pressure of a column 2,280,000
feet in height, which would compress it to about four
fifths of its length, since the height of the modulus of
elasticity (Prop.G.) is about 10,000,000 feet. The greatest
cohesive force that has ever been observed in iron or steel
does not exceed seventy tons for a square inch of the sec¬
tion, and the repulsive force of a homogeneous substance
has not been found in any other instance to be many times
greater or less than the cohesive. There cannot, how¬
ever, be any doubt that the oblique thrust, which amounts
to 10,730 tons, would be sufficiently resisted by a section
of 215 square inches, or, if we allowed a load amounting
to about one third only of the whole strength, by a sec¬
tion of 600 square inches; and since each foot of an iron
bar an inch square weighs three pounds, and the whole
length of the arch nearly a ton, the 600 square inches •
would require nearly as many tons to be employed in the
ribs affording the resistance, upon this very low estimate
B R I 1
of the strength of cast iron. The doubts here expressed
respecting Mr Reynolds’s results have been fully justified
by some hasty experiments, which have been obligingly
made by the son of a distinguished architect: he fount
that two parallelepipeds of cast iron, one eighth of an inch
square, and a quarter of an inch long, were crushed by a
force of little more than a ton. The experiments were
made in a vice, and required considerable reductions tor
the friction. The mode of calculation may deserve to be
explained, on account of its utility on other similar occa¬
sions. Supposing the friction to be to the pressure on the
screw as 1 to m, and the pressure on the screw to the
actual pressure on the substance as n to 1, calling this
pressure x, the pressure on the screw will be nx, and the
friction —; but this resistance will take from the gross
m
ultimate pressure a force, which is to the friction itself
as the velocity of the parts sliding on each other is to the
velocity of the part producing the ultimate pressure, a
proportion which we may call to 1; and the force remain-
. ~ pnx _ ,
ing will be the actual pressure; that is,/ — — ana
x — m f In these experiments, the gross force /,
m + pnJ
as supposed to be exerted on the iron, was four tons; the
friction —, was probably about the screw not having
been lately oiled; the distance of the screw from the
centre of motion was to the length of the whole vice as 3
to 4, whence ii was and p was 8‘44, the middle of the
screw describing 4’22 inches, while the check of the vice
m
moved through half an inch: consequently —was
4 — _J—, and the corrected pressure becomes
4 + 11-25 3-81’
—. In several experiments made with still greater
3 31. /■'ii
care, and with an improved apparatus of levers, the mean
force required to crush a cube of a quarter of an inch was
not quite 41 tons, instead of 400.
Calcareous freestone supports about a ton on a square
inch, which is equal to the weight of a column not quite
2000 feet in height: consequently an arch of such free¬
stone, of 2000 feet radius, would be crushed by its own
weight only, without any further load; and for an arch
like that of a bridge, which has other materials to support,
200 feet is the utmost radius that it has been thought
prudent to attempt; although a part of the bridge of
Neuilly stands, cracked as it is, with a curvature ol 250
feet radius; and there is no doubt that a firm structure,
well arranged in the beginning, might safely be made
much flatter than this, if there were any necessity for it.
An elliptical arch would certainly approach nearer to
the form of the curve of equilibrium, which would remain
little altered by the change of that of the arch; and the
pressure might be more equably and advantageously trans¬
mitted through the blocks of such an arch, than in the
proposed form of the structure. The duration would pro¬
bably be proportional to the increased firmness of the fa¬
bric, and the greater flatness at the crown might allow a
wider space for the passage of the masts of large ships
on each side of the middle. There might be some addi¬
tional trouble and expense in the formation of portions of
an elliptical curve; but even this might be in a great
measure avoided by employing portions of three circles of
different radii, which would scarcely be distinguishable
from the ellipsis itself.
Those who have imagined that a circular arch must in
[) G E.
o-eneral be “ stronger than an elliptical arch of the same Bridge,
height and span,” have not adverted to the distinction
between the apparent curvature of the arch, and the si¬
tuation of the true curve of equilibrium, which depends
on the distribution of the weight of the different parts of
the bridge, and by no means on the form of the arch¬
stones only ; this form being totally insufficient to deter¬
mine the true radius of curvature, which is immediately
connected with the lateral thrust, and with the stiengtn
of the fabric.
Question VIII. Is it necessary or advisable to nave a mo¬
del made of the proposed bridge, or any part of it, in cast
iron. If so, what are the objects to which the experiments
should be directed; to the equilibration only, or to the cohe¬
sion of the several parts, or to both united, as they will occur
in the intended bridge ?
Experiments on the equilibration of the arch would be
easy and conclusive ; on the cohesion or connection of the
parts, extremely uncertain. The form and proportion of
the joints could scarcely be imitated with sufficient accu¬
racy; and since the strength of some of.the parts con¬
cerned would vary as the thickness simply, and that of
others as the square or cube of the thickness, it would
be more difficult to argue from the strength of the model
upon that of the bridge, than to calculate the whole from
still more elementary experiments. Some such experi¬
ments ought, however, to be made on the force required
to crush a block of the substance employed ; and the form
calculated to afford the proper equilibrium might be very
precisely and elegantly determined, by means of the me¬
thod first suggested by Dr Hooke, that of substituting for
the blocks, resting on each other and on the abutments,
as many similar pieces forming a chain, and suspended at
the extremities. It would, however, be important to make
one alteration in the common mode of performing this
experiment, without which it would be of little or no va¬
lue ; the parts corresponding to the blocks of the arch
should be formed of their proper thickness and length,
and connected with each other and with the abutments
by a short joint or hinge in the middle of each, allowing
room for a slight degree of angular motion only; and
every other part of the structure should be represented
in its proper form and proportion and connection, that
form being previously determined as nearly as possible by
calculation ; and then, if the curve underwent no material
alteration by the suspension, we should be sure that the
calculation was sufficiently correct; or, if otherwise, the
arrangement of the materials might be altered, until the
required curve should be obtained; and the investigation
might be facilitated by allowing the joints or hinges con¬
necting the block to slide a little along their surfaces,
within such limits as would be allowable, without too
great a reduction of the powers of resistance of the blocks.
Question IX. Of what size ought the model to be made,
and what relative proportions will experiments made on the
model bear to the bridge when executed ?
The size is of little importance, and it would be unsafe
to calculate the strength of the bridge from any general
comparison with that of the model. There is an Essay
of Euler in the New Commentaries of the Royal Academy
of Petersburg (vol. xx. p. 271), relating expressly t0 t ie
mode of judging of the strength of a bridge from a mt0(" ’
but it contains only an elementary calculation, applicable
to ropes and simple levers, and by no means comprehend¬
ing all the circumstances that require to be considered m
the structure of an arch.
Question X. liy what means may ships be best di¬
rected in the middle stream, or prevented from driving to
the side, and stinking the arch ? and ivhat would be the con¬
sequence of such a stroke ?
BRIDGE.
E Ige. For the direction of ships, Professor Robison’s suggestion
seems the simplest and best, that they might be guided
by means of a small anchor, dragged along the bottom of
the river. The stroke of a ship might fracture the outer
ribs if they were too weak, but could scarcely affect the
whole fabric in any material degree, supposing it to be
firmly secured by oblique bars, crossing from one side of
the abutment to the other side of the middle; and if still
greater firmness were wanted, the braces might cross still
more obliquely, and be repeated from space to space.
A ship moving with a velocity of three miles in an hour,
or about four feet in a second, would be stopped by a force
equal to her weight when she had advanced three inches
with a retarded motion; and the bridge could not very
easily withstand, at any one point, a force much greater
than such a shock of a large ship, if it were direct, with¬
out being dangerously strained. But we must consider
that a large ship could never strike the bridge with its
full force, and that the mast would be much more easily
broken than the bridge. The inertia of the parts of the
bridge, and of the heavy materials laid on it, would enable
it to resist the'stroke of a small mass with great mecha¬
nical advantage. Thus the inertia of an anvil laid on a
man’s chest enables him to support a blow on the anvil,
which would be fatal without such an interposition, the
momentum communicated to the greater weight being
always less than twice the momentum of the smaller, and
this small increase of momentum being attended by a
much greater decrease of energy or impetus, which is ex¬
pressed by the product of the mass into the square of the
velocity, and which is sometimes called the ascending or
penetrating force, since the height of ascent or depth of
penetration is proportional to it when the resistance is
i given. And the same mode of reasoning is applicable to
any weight falling on the bridge, or to any other cause of
vibration, which is not likely to call forth in such a fabric
any violent exertion of the strength of the parts, or of
their connections. We must also remember, in appre¬
ciating the effect of a stroke of any kind on an arched
structure, that something of strength is always lost by
too great stiffness ; the property of resisting velocity, which
has sometimes been called resilience, being generally di¬
minished by any increase of stiffness, if the strength, with
respect to pressure, remains the same.
Question XI. The weight and lateral 'pressure of the
bridge being given, can abutments be made in the proposed
situation for London Bridge, to resist that pressure ?
Since this question relates entirely to the local circum¬
stances of the banks of the Thames, the persons to whom
it has been referred have generally appealed to the sta¬
bility of St Saviour’s Church, in a neighbouring situation,
as a proof of the affirmative ; and it does not appear that
there have been any instances of a failure of piles well
driven, in a moderately favourable soil. Professor Robi¬
son, indeed, asserts that the firmest piling will yield in
time to a pressure continued without interruption; but a
consideration of the general nature of friction and lateral
adhesion, as well as the experience of ages in a multitude
of structures actually erected, will not allow us to adopt
the assertion as universally true. When, indeed, the earth
is extremely soft, it would be advisable to unite it into
one mass for a large extent, perhaps as far as 100 yards
in every direction, for such a bridge as that under discus¬
sion, by beams radiating from the abutments, and resting
on short piles, with cross pieces interspersed; since we
might combine, in this manner, the effect of a weight of
100,000 tons, which could scarcely ever produce a lateral
adhesion of less than 20,000, even if the materials were
semifluid; for they would afford this resistance if they
were capable of standing in the form of a bank, rising only
277
one foot in five of horizontal extent, which anything short Bridge,
of an absolute quicksand or a bog would certainly do in
perfect security. The proper direction of the joints of
the masonry may be determined for the abutment exactly
as for the bridge, the tangent of the inclination being al¬
ways increased in proportion to the weights of the suc¬
cessive wedges added to the load; and the ultimate in¬
clination of the curve is that in which the piles ought to
be driven, being the direction of the result, composed of
the lateral thrust, together with the joint weight of the
half bridge and the abutment.
Question XII. The weight and lateral pressure of the
bridge being given, can a centre or scaffolding be erected
over the river, sufficient to carry the arch, without obstruct¬
ing the vessels which at present navigate that part.?
There seems to be no great difficulty in the construc¬
tion of such a centre. When the bridge at Wearmouth
was erected, the centre was supported by piles and stand¬
ards, which suffered ships to pass between them without
interruption ; and a similar arrangement might be made in
the present case with equal facility.
Question XIII. Whether would it be most advisable to
make the bridge of cast and wrought iron combined, or of
cast iron only ? And if of the latter, whether of the hard
white metal, or of the soft gray meted, or of gun metal ?
A bridge well built ought to require no cohesive strength
of ties, as Mr Southern has justly observed in his answer
to the eighth question; and for repulsive resistance, in
the capacity of a shore, cast iron is probably much stronger
than wrought iron ; and it has also the advantage of being
less liable to rust, and of expanding somewhat less by heat.
But wherever any transverse strain is unavoidable, wrought
iron possesses some advantages, and it is generally most
convenient for bolts and other fastenings. The kind of
iron called gun metal is decidedly preferred by the most
experienced judges, as combining in the greatest degree
the properties of hardness and toughness; the white being
considered as too brittle, and the gray as too soft. Dr
Hutton, however, and Mr Jessop, prefer the gray; and
if we allow the strength of the gun metal to be at all com¬
parable to that which Mr Reynolds attributes to it, we
must also acknowledge that a much weaker substance
would be amply sufficient for every practical purpose, and
might deserve to be preferred, if it were found to possess
a greater degree of tenacity.
Question XIV. Of ivhat dimensions ought the several
members of the iron work to be, to give the bridge sufficient
strength ?
See the answers to Questions VII. and XI.
Question XV. Can frames of cast iron be made suffi¬
ciently correct to compose an arch of the form and dimen¬
sions shown in the drawings, so as to take an equal bearing
as one frame, the several parts being connected by diagonal
braces, and joined by an iron cement, or other substance ?
Professor Robison considers it as indispensable that the
frames of cast iron should be ground to fit each other;
and a very accurate adjustment of the surface would cer¬
tainly be necessary for the perfect co-operation of every
part of so hard a substance. Probably, indeed, any very
small interstices that might be left would in some mea¬
sure be filled up by degrees, in consequence of the oxi¬
dation of the metal, but scarcely soon enough to assist in
bearing the general thrust upon the first completion of the
bridge. The plan of mortising the frames together is by
no means to be advised, as rendering it very difficult to
adapt the surfaces to each other throughout any consider¬
able part of their extent. They might be connected either,
as in the bridge at Wearmouth, by bars of wrought iron
let into the slides, which might be of extremely moderate
dimensions, or, as in some still more modern fabrics, by
278
Bridge.
BRIDGE.
being wedged into the grooves of cross plates adapted to
receive them, which very effectually secure the co-opera¬
tion of the whole force of the blocks, and which have the
advantage of employing cast iron only.
Question XVI. Instead of casting the ribs in frames oj
considerable length and breadth, would it be more advisable
to cast each member of the ribs in separate pieces of consider¬
able lengths, connecting them together by diagonal braces,
both horizontally and vertically ?
No joint can possibly be so strong as a single sound
piece of the same metal; and it is highly desirable that
the curve of pressure should pass through very substantial
frames or blocks, abutting fully on each other, without any
reliance on lateral joints; but for the upper Paits> of t ie
works, single ribs, much lighter than those which form the
true arch, would be sufficiently firm.
Question XVII. Can an iron cement be made which
shall become hard and durable, or can liquid iron be poured
into the joints ?
Mr Reynolds has observed that a cement composed of
iron borings and saline substances will become extreme¬
ly hard; and it is probable that this property depends on
the solidity which is produced by the gradual oxidation
of the iron. It would certainly be injurious to the strength
of the fabric to interpose this cement between perfectly
smooth and solid surfaces, but it might be of advantage to
fill up with it any small interstices unavoidably left be¬
tween the parts. To pour melted iron into the joints
would be utterly impracticable.
Question XVIII. Would lead be better to use in the
whole or any part of the joints ?
Lead is by far too soft to be of the least use, and a sa¬
line cement would be decidedly preferable.
Question XIX. Can any improvement be made in the
plan, so as to render it more substantial and durable, and less
expensive ? And if so, what are these improvements ?
The most necessary alterations appear to be the omis¬
sion of the upper and flatter ribs; the greater strength
and solidity of the lower, made either in the form of blocks
or of frames with diagonals; a curvature more nearly ap¬
proaching to that of the curve of equilibrium; and a greater
obliquity of the cross braces.
It would be necessary to wedge the whole structure
very firmly together before the removal of the centres; a
precaution which is still more necessary for stone bridges,
in which a certain portion of soft mortar must inevitably
be employed, in order to enable the stones to bear fully on
each other, and which has been very properly adopted in
the best modern works. In this manner we may avoid
the inconvenience pointed out by Professor Robison, who
has remarked, that the compressibility of the materials,
hard as they appear, would occasion a reduction of three
inches in the length of the bridge,, from the effect of the
lateral thrust, and a consequent fall at the crown of fif¬
teen ; a result which will not be found materially erroneous
if the calculation be repeated from more correct elements,
derived from later experiments and comparisons. For
obviating the disadvantageous effects of such a depression,
which he seems to have supposed unavoidable, as well as
those of a change of temperature, which must in reality
occur, though to a less considerable extent, Professor Ro¬
bison suggested the expedient of a joint to the middle of
the bridge, with an intermediate portion, calculated to
receive the rounded ends of the opposite ribs, somewhat
like an interarticular cartilage; but it is impossible to de¬
vise any kind of joint without limiting the pressure, dur¬
ing the change of form, to a very small portion of the sur¬
faces, which could not bear fully on each other throughout
their extent if any such liberty of motion were allowed,
unless all friction between them were prevented; and a
similar joint would be required at the abutment, where it Bridg
would be still more objectionable, as extending to a wider Wy,
surface.
The arrangement of the joints between the portions of
the ribs in one or more transverse lines would be a matter
of great indifference. Some have recommended to break
the joints, as is usual in masonry, in order to tie the parts
more firmly together; others to make all the joints conti¬
nuous, as a safer method, on account of the brittleness of
the materials; but if the fabric were well put together,
there would be neither any want of firm connection, nor
any danger of breaking from irregular strains, in whatever
way the joints may be disposed.
Question XX. Upon considering the whole circumstances
of the case, agreeably to the resolutions of the committee, as
stated at the conclusion of their third report, is it your opi¬
nion that an arch of 600 feet in the span, as expressed in
the drawings produced by Messrs Telford and Douglas, or
the same plan, with any improvement you may be so good as
to point out, is practicable and advisable, and capable of being
made a durable edifice ?
The answers that have been returned to this question
are almost universally in the affirmative, though deduced
from very discordant and inconsistent views of the sub¬
ject. The only reasonable doubt relates to the abutments;
and with the precautions which have been already men¬
tioned in the answer to the 11th question, there would be
no insuperable difficulty in making the abutments suffi¬
ciently firm.
Question XXI. Does the estimate communicated here¬
with, according to your judgment, greatly exceed, or fall
short of, the probable expense of executing the plan proposed?
specifying the general grounds of your opinion.
The estimate amounts to L.262,289, and it has general¬
ly been considered as below the probable expense. The
abutments are set down at L.20,000, but they would very
possibly require five times- as much to be properly exe¬
cuted ; while some other parts of the work, by a more ju¬
dicious distribution of the forces concerned, might safely
be made so much lighter, as considerably to lessen the
expense of the whole fabric, without any diminution either
of its beauty or of its stability.
Sect. VI.—Modern History of Bridges.
The whole series of the questions which we have been Iron
considering are still fully as interesting as they were at the brings
time when they were circulated by the committee of the
House of Commons. The practice of building iron bridges
has been progressively gaining ground ever since its first
introduction in 1779 by Mr Abiah Darby of Colebrook
Dale. Mr Wilson, indeed, who assisted Mr Burden in
the erection of the bridge at Wearmouth, mentions in his
answers an iron bridge which has stood secure for ninety
years; but it must have been on a very small scale, and
has not been at all generally known. Of most of the later
iron bridges we find a concise account in Dr Hutton’s ela¬
borate Essay on Bridges, which has been reprinted in the
first volume of his valuable collection of tracts; but there
are some still greater edifices of this kind which still re¬
main to be completed.
Mr Darby’s construction is not remarkably elegant
(Plate CXXXII. fig. 8), but it is by no means so objection¬
able as several late authors have seemed to think it. ^Ihe
span is 100 feet six inches, the weight 178,} tons. fhe
curvature of the exterior concentric arches which assist m
supporting the roadway, though it may be somewhat too
great for the most favourable exertion of their resistance,
leaves them still abundantly strong for the purpose intend¬
ed : nor is it correct to say that every shore supporting a
BRIDGE.
279
I ye. pressure should be straight; for if its own weight bears any
'i-w' considerable proportion to that which it has to support,
the curvature ought to be the same with that of a chain
of the same weight suspending a similar load in an in¬
verted position; and the parts of the bridge in question
seem to differ only about as much from such a form in ex¬
cess of curvature as a straight line would differ from it in
defect. The partial failure which accidentally occurred
rather bears testimony to the merits than to the demerits
of the bridge, as they would be estimated in any other si¬
tuation ; for the lateral thrust, which it is generally desir¬
able to reduce as much as possible, was here actually too
small; and the abutments were forced inwards by the
external pressure of the loose materials forming the high
banks against which the abutments rested.
Mr Paine’s iron bridge, exhibited in London, and in¬
tended to have been erected in America, was a professed
imitation of a catenarian curve ; it was a good specimen of
that ideal something which a popular reformer generally has
in view; a thing not ill imagined, and which might possibly
succeed very well under very different circumstances, but
which, when closely examined, proves to be wholly unfit
for the immediate purpose to which the inventor intends
to apply it.
The bridge at Wearmouth was completed in 1796, in a
great measure through the exertions of Mr Burden, both
as architect and as principal proprietor of the undertaking.
It is remarkable for springing seventy feet above low-wa¬
ter mark; and the arch rises thirty feet, leaving a height
of 100 feet in the whole for the passage of ships in the
middle of the stream; the span is 240. The abutments
are founded on a solid rock, but their own internal solidi¬
ty appears to be somewhat deficient. The weight of iron
is 250 tons, 210 of them being of cast iron, and 40 of
wrought iron. (Plate CXXXII. fig. 9.)
A bridge was finished in the same year at Buildwas,
near Colebrook Dale (Plate CXXXII. fig. 10), under the
direction of Mr Telford, 130 feet in span, weighing 174
tons, and rising only seventeen feet in the roadway, but
furnished on each side with a stronger arch, of about twice
the depth, which extends to the top of the railing, and as¬
sists in suspending the part of the road which is below it
by means of king-posts, and in supporting the part nearer
the abutments by braces and shores. The breadth is only
eighteen feet; and the construction would not be so easily
applicable to a wider bridge, unless the road were divided
in the middle by an additional elevated arch with its
king-posts, like the celebrated wooden bridge at Schaf-
hausen, which was burnt down by one of the French ar¬
mies. A third iron bridge was also erected in 1796, on
the Parrot at Bridgewater, by the Colebrook Dale Com¬
pany. It consists of an elliptic arch of seventy-five feet
span and twenty-three feet height, and somewhat resem¬
bles the bridge at Wearmouth in the mode of filling the
haunches with circular rings; a mode not very advantage¬
ous for obtaining the greatest possible resistance from the
materials, and consequently throwing a little too much
weight on the parts of the arch which support them, al¬
though it is probable that no great inconvenience has ac¬
tually arisen from this cause.
An attempt was also made about the same time to throw
?n bridge over the river Tame in Herefordshire, but
it fell to pieces as soon as the centre was removed. A si-
nmar failure occurred some time afterwards in a bridge of
yout feet span, which was erected on the Tees at
arm. In 1802 or 1803 an elegant iron bridge of 181
ee span and sixteen and a half of rise was erected at
_ aines. Its general form resembled that of the bridge at
earmouth, but the mode of connection of the parts was
omewhat difi’erent. In a short time after its completion,
it began to sink, and some of the transverse pieces broke Bridge,
in consequence of the change of form. Upon examination
it was found that one of the abutments had given way;
and when this was repaired and made firmer, the other
failed. The abutment was pushed outwards horizontally
without any material derangement of its form or direction ;
a circumstance which could not have happened if its weight
had been sufficiently great. But the architect seems to
have trusted to the firmness of the iron and the excellence
of the workmanship, and to have neglected the calculation
of the lateral thrust, which it is of so much importance to
determine.
Mr Rennie executed several iron bridges with success
in Lincolnshire; one at Boston over the Witham, of which
the span is eighty-six feet, and the rise five and a half
only; but the abutments being well constructed, it has
stood securely, notwithstanding the fracture of some of
the cross pieces of the frames, which had been weaken¬
ed by the unequal contraction of the metal in cooling.
At Bristol, Messrs Jessop erected two iron bridges of 100
feet span, rising fifteen; each of them contains 150 tons
of gray iron, and the expense of each was about L.4000.
The construction appears to be simple and judicious.
(Plate CXXXII. fig. 11.)
Mr Telford has been employed in the construction of
several aqueduct bridges on a considerable scale. One of
these was cast by Messrs Reynolds, and completed in
1796, near Wellington in Shropshire; it is 180 feet long,
and twenty feet above the water of the river, being sup¬
ported on iron pillars. Another, still larger, was cast by
Mr Hazledine, for carrying the Ellesmere Canal over the
river Dee, at Pontcysylte, in the neighbourhood of Llan¬
gollen. It is supported 126 feet above the surface of the
river by twenty stone pillars, and is 1020 feet in length,
and twelve feet wide. (See Aqueduct, Plate XLIX.)
In France, a light iron bridge for foot passengers only
was thrown across the Seine, opposite to the gate of the
Louvre, in 1803. It is supported by stone piers, which
are too narrow to withstand the effect of an accident hap¬
pening to any part of the fabric, and leaving the lateral
thrust uncompensated; nor is there any immediate reason
to apprehend that inconvenience should arise from this
deficiency of strength, since it is highly improbable that
any partial failure should occur in such a situation, sup¬
posing the bridge originally well constructed. (Plate
CXXXIII. fig. 1.)
But all these works have been far exceeded in extent
and importance by the bridges which have been built over
the river Thames. The Vauxhall Bridge was completed
and opened in August 1816 ; it consists of nine arches of
cast iron, each of seventy-eight feet span, and between
eleven and twelve feet rise. The breadth of the roadway
is thirty-six feet clear. The architect was Mr Walker.
The form of the arches considerably resembles that of
Messrs Jessop’s bridges at Bristol, but it is somewhat
lighter and more elegant, and it has the advantage of a
greater solidity in the blocks supporting the principal part
of the pressure. (Plate CXXXIII. fig. 3.)
This advantage also characterizes very strongly the mas¬
terly design of Mr Rennie shown in the structure at the
bottom of Queen Street, Cheapside, opposite to Guildhall,
under the name of the Southwark Bridge. It exhibits an
excellent specimen of firmness of mutual abutment in the
parts constituting the chief strength of the arch, which
has been shown in this essay to be so essential to the se¬
curity of the work, and which the architect had probably
been in a great measure induced to adopt from his practical
experience of the comparative merits of different arrange¬
ments. (Plate CXXXIII. fig. 4, 5.)
An act of parliament for the erection of this bridge was
280
Bridge.
bridge.
passed in 1811, but it was not begun till 1814, the act
having directed that no operations should he commeneed
until L.300,000 out of the required L.400,000 should be
raised by subscription^ The subscribers were allowed
to receive ten per cent, annually on their shares and te
remainder of the receipts was to accumulate until it should
become sufficient to pay off to the proprietors the double
amount of their subscriptions : after this time the budge
was to remain open without any toll. The middlearchis
240 feet in span, the side arches 210 feet each. 1
abutment is of firm masonry, connected by dowels to pre¬
vent its sliding, and resting on gratings oft^ber support-
ed by oblique piles. The piers stand on foundations nine
or ten feet below the present bed of the river, tn order t
provide against any alterations which may hereafter take
place in its channel from the operation of various causes;
and they are abundantly secured by a flooring of timber
resting on a great number of piles.
Weight of half of the middle arch of Southwark
No. 8 Blocks. 3
t- civt-
2 11
t. cwt.
1 62 18
2 60 19
3 54 15
4 51 3
5 50 17
6 51 2
half 7 25 12
Covering-plates. 
Cornice and palisades...
Roadway and pavement
12
13
11
13
13
12
Cross
Frames.
f. cwt.
11 0
10 13
10 2
9 17
9 15
9 15
Crosses Spandrels.
f. cwt.
9 1
8 15
8 2
t. cwt.
26 4
20 3
32 16
23 14
32 14
24 15
20 7
Bridge.
Total.
t. cwt.
Ill 17
103 4
108 10
87 6
95 19
88 6
48 12
.. 152 0
.. 77 5
.. 650 0
Whole weight  l’52^ ^
11.000 «
Span 240 feet; rise 24 ; depth of the blocks or plates at
the crown six feet, at the pier eight feet. .
It is evident from the inspection of this statement ot
the weights, that their distribution is by no means capable
of being accurately expressed by any one formula ; but it
will be amply sufficient for the determination of the thrust
to employ the approximation founded on the supposition
of a parabolic curve (Prop. T.); and if we afterwards
wished to find the effect of any local deviation from the
assumed law of the weight, we might have recourse to the
mode of calculation exemplified in the answer to the fifth
question. But, in fact, that answer may of itself be con¬
sidered as sufficient to show, that the effect of a variation
of a few tons from the load appropriate to each part would
be wholly unimportant. „
We must, therefore, begin by finding the weight of a
portion of the arch corresponding to a quarter of the span ;
r . 24
and the whole angle, of which the tangent is = "2,
being 11° 181', its sine is T961 ; and the angle, of which
the sine is -09805, being 5° 371', we have to compute the
weight of or of the angular extent, beginning
from the middle of the arch; and this will be 48 ^
+ 88 A + 95 ^ + (87^) X -7345 = 297 tons. Now
the weight of the covering-plates, cornice, palisades, road¬
way, and pavement, is distributed throughout the length,
without sensible inequality, making 879 tons, fiom which
the part immediately above the piers might be deducted,
but it will be safer to retain the whole weight, especially BridJ
as something must be allowed for the greater extent of
the upper surface of the wedges. We shall therefore
have for the interior quarter 297 + 439-5 = ')36-5 tons,
and for the exterior 1523 — 736-5 = 786-5, the difference
beino- fifty tons ; one sixth of which added to 736-5, gives
us 744-8 for the reduced weight, which is to the lateral
thrust as the rise to the half span. But for the rise vve
must take twenty-three feet, since the middle of the
blocks next to the piers is a foot more remote from the
intrados than that of the blocks at the crown ; and the
true half span, measured from the same point, will be 4
X greater than that of the intrados, amounting to
121-6. We have therefore 23 : 121-6 = 745-8 : 3942
tons, for m, the lateral thrust; and for ^ ax, 736-5 — —
_ 728-2 ; whence, ^ x being 60*8, a = 1P98, and r
= — Z= 329 feet, the radius of curvature of the curve of
equilibrium at the vertex, while that of the middle of the
blocks is 334. In order to determine the ordinate y, we
have = i + 4 S*1; but 1 f°r the wl,ole arcl1 is
~ 50
728-2, and f = 50 ; consequently my =728-,!:+ -3
the first portion varying as and the second as +; and
the sum y being 23 = 22-49 + -51, the ordinate at ? a: or
30-4 feet is ^ X 22-19 + ^ X = Ml i and, in a
Middle of the Blocks.
1-40
5-67
12-89
23-00
similar manner, any other ordinate may be calculated, so
that we have
x. V'
30-2 P4T
60-8 S'65
91-0 13-02
121-6 23-00 -
Hence it appears that the curve of equilibrium nowhere
deviates more than about two inches from the middle of
the blocks, which is less than one fortieth of the whole
dCThe half weight of the smaller arches is probably about
1300 tons, and their lateral thrust 3500; and, smco 1
abutment weighs 11,000 tons, the foundation ought
have an obliquity of or more than one in four, if it
were intended to stand on the piles without friction ; bjit
in reality it rises only sixty-six inches in 624, or ne y
one in nine ; so that there is an angular difference of one
in seven between the direction of the piles and that o
thrust, which is probably a deviation of no practical
^ifrem'ains to be inquired how far the series of masses
of solid iron, constituting the most essential Par‘ °
arch, is well calculated to withstand the utmost chan
of temperature that can possibly occur to i in
verest seasons (Prop. K.) For this purpose, we may ta^
the mean depth a = 7 feet, h being 23 ; then 1 + f
99 -14.14 and 1 4-1-— - 91 —= 12-52: consequent-
_ __ = 14 14, and 1 + lbaa - 135
1 The Southwark Bridge was not completed at the time this article was written.
BRIDGE.
281
idge. ly the greatest actual compression or extension of such a
structure is to the mean change which takes place in the
direction of the chord, as 14-14 to 12-53, or as 1-129 to one ;
and if, in a long and severe frost, the temperature varied
from 52° to 20°, since the general dimensions would con¬
tract about the extreme parts of the blocks near the
1-129
abutments would vary of their length ; and the mo¬
dulus M being about 10,000,000 feet, this change would
produce a resistance equivalent to the weight of a column
of the same substance 2258 feet high ; that is, to about
three tons for each square inch, diminishing gradually to¬
wards the middle of the blocks, and converted on the
other side into an opposite resistance; so that this force
would be added to the general pressure below in case of
contraction, and above in case of extension. Now, the
lateral thrust is derived from a pressure equivalent to a
column about 329 feet high, of materials weighing 1523
tons, while the blocks themselves weigh 357 ; that is, to a
column equal in section to the blocks, and 1400 feet high ;
it will therefore amount to about two tons on each square
inch; consequently such a change of temperature as has
been supposed, will cause the extreme parts of the abut¬
ments to bear a pressure of five tons, where, in the ordi¬
nary circumstances, they have only to support two.
The ingenious architect proposed to diminish this con¬
tingent inconvenience, by causing the blocks to bear some¬
what more strongly on the abutments at the middle than
at the sides, so as to allow some little latitude of elevation
and depression in the nature of a joint; and, no doubt,
this expedient would prevent the great inequality of pres¬
sure which might otherwise arise from the alternations of
heat and cold. But it cannot be denied that there must
be some waste of strength in such an arrangement, the
extreme parts of the abutments, and of the blocks near
them, contributing very little to the general resistance;
and when we consider the very accurate adjustment of
the equilibrium throughout the whole structure, we shall
be convinced that there was no necessity for any thing
like so great a depth of the solid blocks, especially near
the abutments ; and that the security would have been
amply sufficient if, with the same weight of metal, they had
been made wider in a transverse direction, preserving only
the form of the exterior ones on each side, if it had been
thought more agreeable to the eye. In carpentry, where
there is often a transverse strain, and where stiffness is fre¬
quently required, we generally gain immensely by throw¬
ing much ol the substance of our beams into the depth ; but
in a bridge perfectly well balanced, there is no advantage
whatever from depth of the blocks. We only want enough
to secure us against accidental errors of construction, and
against partial loads from extraneous weights; and it is
not probable that either of these causes, in such a bridge,
would ever bring the curve of equilibrium six inches, or
even three, from its natural situation near the middle of
the blocks.
We cannot conclude our inquiries into this subject with
a more striking example than by applying the principles
0 the theory to the magnificent edifice by the same judi¬
cious and experienced architect, which now bears the tri-
wnp lant appellation of Waterloo Bridge ; a work not less
pre-eminent among the bridges of all ages and countries,
ian the event which it will commemorate is unrivalled
in ie annals of ancient or modern history. It consists of
me e hptical arches, each of 120 feet span, and thirty-
tJ6 The piers are twenty feet thick, the road
fpp6/1 ^'G1 , t widc, besides a foot pavement of seven
vo°n Cac 1 s^e- The arches and piers are built of large
blocks of granite, with short counter-arches over each pier. Bridge.
The haunches are filled up, as is usual in the most mo-
dern bridges, by spandrels, or longitudinal walls of brick,
covered with flat stones, and extending over about half
the span of the arch ; the remainder being merely covered
with earth or gravel, which is also continued over the
stones covering the spandrels. The hollow spaces between
the walls are carefully closed above, and provided with
outlets below, in order to secure them from becoming re¬
ceptacles of water, which would be injurious to the dura¬
bility of the structure. The mean specific gravity of the
materials is such, that a cubic yard of the granite weighs
exactly two tons, of the brick work one ton, and of the
earth a ton and an eighth. Hence the weight of the
whole may be obtained from the annexed statement.
(Plate CXXXIV. fig. 1, 2, 3.)
Contents of the materials in half an arch of Waterloo Bridge,
from the middle of the pier to the crown, beginning from
the springing of the arch.
Cubic Feet.
Half of the arch stones 
Half of the inverted arch 
Square spandrel between them 
Outside spandrel walls 
Spandrels of brick 4976 (z=
Kirbels of the brick spandrels 
Flat stone covers 
Earth   10260 (=
Foot pavement 
Frieses, E. and W 
Cornice, E. and W 
Plinth of balustrade 
Solid in parapet 
Balusters 72, 151 cwt 
Coping, E. and W 
25311
2555
1994
4374
2489)
1271
969
5771)
620
1586
1120
510
416
102
142
From this statement, and from a consideration of the
arrangement of the materials, exhibited in the plate, we
may infer that the half arch, terminated where the middle
line of the arch-stones enters the pier, is equivalent in
weight to about 34,000 cubic feet of granite; its inner
half containing in round numbers 13,000, and its outer
21,000, whence we have 14,333 for the reduced weight
of the quarter arch (Prop. T.) The extreme ordinate will
be about twenty-one feet; the middle of the blocks being
somewhat more than sixteen feet above the springing of
the arch, and the key-stone being four feet six inches
deep ; consequently the horizontal thrust will be express¬
ed by 14,333 x = 40,952 cubic feet, weighing 3033
tons.
m
a ~
But ^ ax being 11667, and ^ a? =r 30, a = 389, and
40952
r — ■ = 105 feet; while the radius of curva-
obo *
ture of the ellipse at the crown is  = 103 feet.
It is obvious, therefore, that the curve of equilibrium will
pass everywhere extremely near to the middle of the
blocks, and there can be no apprehension of any deficiency
in the equilibrium. It is true that, as it approaches to the
piers, it acquires an obliquity of a few degrees to the
joints; but the disposition to slide would be abundantly
obviated by the friction alone, even if the joints were not
secured by other precautions.
In building the arches the stones were rammed toge¬
ther with very considerable force, so that, upon the re¬
moval of the centres, none of the arches sunk more than
an inch and a half. In short, the accuracy of the whole
2 N
282
bridge.
x 1 -A nf thp de- fered bv the works of the new bridge made it expedient Bi%,i
Bridge, execution seems to have vied with the beauty ot^the ^ ^ ^ ^ arches of the old bridSe at each
si<rn, and with the skill of the arrangement, to render the
Bridge of Waterloo a monument, of which the metropolis
of the British empire will have abundant reason to be
proud for a long series of successive ages. (l. l-)
Additions.1
The old London Bridge, which for more than 600 years
to throw two of the small arches of the old bridge at each .
end into one. This was effected with great skill, and in
the short space of about six weeks.
The flatness of an elliptical arch produces a greater load
on the centring which supports the arch while building,
than in the erection of semicircular arches; and for this rea¬
son the new bridge required centres of more than ordinary
The old London Bridge, which oi moie ^ strength. The principle of construction adopted was that
bad been exposed to the corrosive power of the atmo P.USS.P Each centre was composed often
sphere in the upper part of its structure, ani1Jhe c ,"t f ?ibs which were supported at the two ends on
action of a rapid current in the ^wer had for severa the bed of ^ river. On the top, these
years been reckoned insecure. Acddents, attended w tl p i boarded over with stout planks placed within
loss of life and the ^struct7«P b^ges two or tTree inches of each other. The arches being un¬
in consequence of the great ve y throueh&its equally wide, four sets of centres were used ; and although
and smaller craft were carried by the stream through its equa ^ ’ of nearly 800 tons of timber, it was erect-
arches, and of their descent, ^dt aboutlen dayl ke first arch was keyed in on the
from one level to anot iei. > -i Bno.’t]1P bridp-e and im- 4th of August 1827; and so much progress had been
parliament was The act made in the other arches, that the last was keyed in on the
proving and making suitab e Pi , q iQtb November 1828. Conformably to the improved mo-
directed that the new bridge should ^|rec^“°adfof practiCe of building bridges, instead of filling up the
to a plan “L 1f however, hav- spandrels of the arches with loose rubble-work, longitudi-
Ins “"f " s^Ut| " ;iews nal or hance-walls, as they are called, have been bu,It over
info effect Ihe execution was intrusted to his son, now Sir the arches. On the top of these large blocks of stone are
SnSe, and the building contracted for by Messrs hetlded, and ^SClnT^oZ
The8new b“dge, consisting of five elliptical arches, was the roadway. The approach from the city side is brought
originally intended to be on the site of the old one, and its to the level of the bridge, ” s0> ^ .‘eS °artic„.
elevation was to correspond with the level of the ancient arches in continuation of 1'e a„d
approaches, may cost about L.2,000,000; and of this sum a free space was left for carriages and foot passe g
L Thf builtogwa's rgun typing ZTs^le of a principal part of the bri^e
coffer-dam for "the south pier on the 15th of March 1824. from the original plan consisted m an ad^10n « SI^
The bed of the river at the site of the bridge is about to the width of the roadway, and of two feet to the height
thirty feet deep at low water of spring-tides, and the cur- of the abutment arches. 1 he first of these was conside
rent bebg at ^1 times extremely rapid, the Coffer-dams in ed to be of such importance that the expense, L.42,000,
which the piers were to be built, required to be construct- was defrayed out of the public puise.
Id whh more than ordinary strength to keep out the wa- The bridge was completed da^ of July 831,
ter. Their general form was elliptical; three rows of the whole time occupied in its election a g
piles dressed in the joints, and shod with iron, many of years, five months, and sev^t^ days; , ronsists 0f five
them eighty or ninety feet long, were driven into the Ihe bridge, as has been already state , .
ground, and, after being firmly bolted together, were pud- elliptical arches, the least of which is argei c Y
died with clay; wooden stays or props&were then intro- stone arch of this description ever before erected The
duced between the different rows of piers, and the whole centre arch is 152 feet span, with a 1186 ° 1 ^ hes
interior space strongly truss-framed in a diagonal manner, feet six inches above high-water mark. Jhe ^
and the longitudinal beams firmly strapped together, form- next the centre are 140 feet span, with t) ig()
ing at the joints abutments for the braces. Stairs were six inches of rise ; and the two abutment aidies a
also formed for descending into the coffer-dam, and pumps feet span, rising twenty-four feet six incl e . P
fixed to raise the water arising from springs or leakage. The are of a rectangular form, and perfect y . • • JLt|_
first coffer-damwascompletedonthe27th of April 1825, and diminution in the quantity of masonry by the sem P
the first stone of the bridge was laid on the 15th of June, cal form of the arch has admitted of the piers being
with all due ceremony. The foundations of the piers are duced in thickness below the ordinary propoi tions..
of wood. Piles of beech were first driven in the interior bases of the piers are of a circular cone-topped toin ’ ■j.
of the coffer-dam to a depth of nearly twenty feet into the harmonize with the waving line of the water, an P ,
stiff blue clay which forms the natural bed of the river; the impression of tameness which might Have 16
two rows of horizontal sleepers, about twelve inches square, from the plainness and rectangular shape o 16 ^ i
were then laid on the head of these piles, and covered A simple modillion cornice, supported on denti
with beech planking six inches thick, and on this floor the of solid beams of granite, runs along the upper par
lowermost course of masonry was laid. _ _ bridge, and marks externaHy the l^e^ofjoadwaj^ i
wermost course or masonry was, uuu. ----- ^ ,  r ':n(T w
The obstruction which the navigation of the river suf- is surmounted by a close parapet, in perfect ke p g
1 The foregoing article was written by the late Dr Thomas Young, for the Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Ed'
this Encyclopaedia.
BRIDGE.
283
dge. the simplicity of the whole structure. The line of road-
way, or upper surface of the bridge, is a segment of a very
large circle, the rise being only one in 132. The abut¬
ments are each seventy-three feet wide at the base, and
they spread out backward, so as to sustain the thrust of
the bridge with the best effect.
The length of the bridge from the extremities of the
abutments is 982 feet, and within the abutments 728 feet;
the roadway is fifty-three feet between the parapets, be¬
ing eight feet wider than the old bridge, and eleven feet
wider than any other bridge on the Thames. Of this
width, the footways occupy nine feet each, and the car¬
riageway thirty-five feet. The whole bridge, including
the dry arches over Thames and Tooley Streets, is con¬
structed of the finest granite, selected from the quarries
of Aberdeen, Heytor, and Penryn. The remaining arches
over which the approaches pass are of brick. The total
quantity of stone employed was about 120,000 tons. Mag¬
nificent candelabra of brass support the gas lamps, and
the ends of the parapet are finished with four immense
blocks of granite. The building expense of the bridge
amounts at present to L.506,000; the remainder of the
whole expense has been incurred by the approaches. A
side view of the bridge is exhibited in Plate CXXXIII.
fig. 7, and a plan of the roadway in fig. 8.
A few years ago the elliptical arches of Blackfriars and
Waterloo Bridges were considered as the largest ever
erected; but the centre arch of the one is less by one
half, and that of the other by one fourth, than the centre
arch of the new London Bridge. Plate CXXXIII. fig. 2,
will give a distinct notion of their relative magnitudes,
in which AA represents the curve of the Blackfriars
arch, BB that of the Waterloo, and CC that of the new
London Bridge, stretching out far above and beyond the
others.
Dunkeld Bridge, which crosses the Tay, was completed
in the year 1809, after a design of Mr Telford; and, by
competent judges, is regarded as one of his happiest ef¬
forts. It consists of five large and two small arches. The
figure of the arch is a segment of a circle. This is the
form which Mr Telford seems to have adopted for all his
bridges. Some may be of opinion that it is less elegant
than the semi-ellipse ; but looking at Dunkeld Bridge, we
hesitate to pronounce an absolute opinion.
The principal dimensions of the bridge are these :—
Feet. In.
Span of the middle arch 90 0
Span of the two adjoining arches 84j 0
Span of the two side arches 74 0
Span of the land arches 20 0
Hise of the middle arch 30 0
Breadth across the soffit 27 0
Breadth of roadway within the parapets 25 0
Breadth of footpath on each side  3 6
Thickness of each of the two middle piers 16 0
Thickness of each of the two adjoining piers... 14 0
Thickness of each of the two side piers 20 0
Thickness of the land abutment  7 0
( The Dean Bridge, Edinburgh, is remarkable on account
Edil urgh. °, ^ situation, its magnitude, the style of its elevation,
the peculiarities of the details of its construction, and the
practical advantages of those peculiarities as proved by
tie complete success which has attended the execution
°f the design.
Tins edifice is situated at the north-west extremity of
ie city of Edinburgh, and crosses the deep ravine formed
} tie stream called the Water of Leith, a little above St
ernards Well. This ravine had previously been found
an e ectual barrier to the extension of the New Town in the
nort i-western direction, and presented an obstacle to the
hi eld
Br
}e.
)ean
Bri, i
improvement of the high northern or Queensferry Road, Bridge,
which could only be surmounted by a spacious bridge.
The length of the Dean Bridge is 447 feet, and the
width between the parapets thirty-nine feet, consisting of
a carriageway twenty-three feet wide between the curb¬
stones, and two footpaths, each eight feet wide. The
height of the roadway above the bed of the river is 106
feet.
The style of the elevation is unprecedented, and de¬
mands our particular attention.
A lofty bridge forming a commodious roadway across
a deep ravine, will, from the nature of its romantic situ¬
ation, and its evident utility, excite our admiration, not¬
withstanding that, when examined as a work of art, solely
upon its own merits, and when our minds are divested of
the fulness of gratification derived from the surrounding
scenery, we frequently find its architectural details and
outline devoid of taste, and deservedly the object of our
disapprobation.
Upon examining, strictly upon their own merits as archi¬
tectural productions, even the grandest viaducts and aque¬
ducts hitherto constructed of masonry only, it will, we
venture to say, be generally felt, either that the pillars
have a heavy and clumsy appearance, or that the great
mass of masonry being uppermost, the superstructure ap¬
pears too massive, on account of the unusual altitude at
which it is supported; and we are of opinion that the ex¬
pansive mass of dead flat masonry presented by the span¬
drels over the pillars, and between the adjacent arches, is
the principal cause of the anomaly, especially when semi¬
circular arches, on many accounts to be preferred in such
situations, are adopted.
This observation is in some measure applicable to all de¬
scriptions of stone bridges. To large bridges over rivers,
of which the springers, and consequently the mass of the
spandrels, do not require to be elevated far above the
surface of the water, the objection has less weight; but
even in this case the difficulty has been genei’ally felt, as
is proved by the incessant endeavours of engineers to form
new designs for carrying up the masonry over the piers,
so as to give relief to the face of the spandrel walls. The
ordinary devices for this purpose, if applied to a lofty
bridge or viaduct, would be attended w ith many practical
objections, and would fail of producing the desired effect.
It therefore remained a desideratum to devise a method
by which the masonry composing the body of a bridge, to
be supported upon lofty pillars, may have its exterior ele¬
vation or outline relieved, so as to break the flatness of
the spandrel walls, thereby giving lightness and elegance
to the superstructure; and it was essential to the perfect
fulfilment of this object to produce the desired effect by
some bold stroke of extension upon the general plan, not
by the aid of minor superficial ornaments, now generally
discarded, particularly from bridges whose magnitude
alone insures grandeur, and purity of design the most ef¬
fective beauty.
W ith the aid of Plate CXXXV. the following description
will convey an accurate idea of the design of the Dean
Bridge, which may be regarded as consisting of these parts,
viz. the main body of the bridge supporting the carriage¬
way, and the wing-arches on each side supporting the
footpaths.
The main body of the bridge consists of four arches,
segments of circles, each ninety feet span and thirty feet
rise; consequently the radius of curvature of the arch is
forty-eight feet nine inches. The width across the soffit
is thirty-one feet. These main arches are supported
upon hollow pillars, hereafter more particularly described,
eleven feet thick and thirty-one feet wide, agreeably to
the soffit of the arch. The arch springers are set at the
284
bridge.
Bridge, height of sixty-seven feet above the level of the bed of
the stream flowing underneath the second arch from the
south. The depth of the arch-stones of these mam arches
is three feet, being one thirtieth of the span. Over the
pillars, and between the adjacent arches, the spandrels
are built up solid to the height of twelve feet above the
arch springers. The remainder of the spandrels is lett
hollow, with the exception of the longitudinal spandie
walls, four feet apart, and one foot six inches thick, which
being corbelled at the top, and covered with flag pavement
stones, support the bridge roadway. The exterior span¬
drel walls are two feet six inches thick, faced with close-
jointed ashlar. .
The wing-arches supporting the footpaths constitute
the peculiar characteristic of the Dean Bridge, springing
from pilasters brought up from the foundation, and exe¬
cuted at the same time with the main pillars, nve xeet
wide in front, and projecting six feet from the body ot
the pillars. These pilasters are continued up the lace ot
the spandrels of the main arches to the height of seven¬
teen feet four inches above the level of the lower arch
springers, at which height the springers for the upper
arches are laid. The upper or wing-arches extend oyer
the main arches. There are therefore four on each side
of the bridge, each ninety-six feet span, and sixteen feet
eight inches rise; consequently the radius of curvature is
seventy-seven feet five inches; the width across the soffit
is eight feet two inches, of which five feet project in front
of the face of the spandrels of the lower arches, the re¬
mainder, three feet twm inches, being bonded into the
main body of the bridge. The depth of the arch-stones
is two feet six inches, or about one thirty-eighth part of
the span. The face of the outer spandrels ol the uppei
arches is one foot within the face of the main pilasters,
allowing an intake of six inches upon the face of the up¬
per arch springers, and the remaining six inches for the
projection of a pilaster up the spandrels, in order to re¬
lieve, as far as practicable, the flatness of this part of the
work. _ '
The upper arches, by a bold projection of five feet, eitec-
tually break up and relieve the extensive surface of dead
masonry that would otherwise be presented by the span¬
drels of the ninety feet arches, which being elevated upon
lofty pillars, would, when view ed from the walks by St
Bernard’s Well, along the banks of the rivulet, present a
mass of flatness and uniformity detractive from the gene¬
ral gratification which the height and magnitude of the
edifice, and the beauty of the surrounding scenery, would
nevertheless insensibly create.
The upper arches of the Dean Bridge forming in a
measure a secondary member of the edifice, their span¬
drels may with propriety be further relieved with orna¬
mental sculpture, which, though generally excluded from
modern bridges, would in this case be rendered appro¬
priate by the circumstance of the close vicinity of the
bridge to the most splendid buildings of the New Town of
Edinburgh. However, the general purity of the design
renders it doubtful whether or not such embellishment
would be conducive to the perfection of the work, and may
be regarded as doubtful.
The cornice consists of a frieze course and cordon, to¬
gether two feet six inches in height. The parapet con¬
sists of a base, dado, and coping, together four feet in
height above the footpath pavement. The profile of the
cornice and parapet will be best understood by reference
to Plate CXXXV. It wall be observed that the mem¬
bers are very few, bold, and easily executed; the effect
thus produced upon the elevation is particularly striking ;
and smaller members at such an elevation would fail of
producing any effect.
We shall now consider the peculiarities and practical Bridge,
advantages of the details of the construction of the Dean ■
Bridge.piUar^ which SUpport tiie main arches or body of
the bridge are eleven feet thick, but not of solid masonry,
there being four voids in the shaft of each pillar, of which
the dimensions and construction will be clearly under¬
stood from Plate CXXXV. fig. 1 and 2. The side walls are
three feet thick, and the interior cross walls which con¬
nect them two feet, all of squared ashlar, laid in uniform
courses throughout; the interior stones being of the same
height as the face stones, and as fully and truly squared
upon the bed. In these three-feet walls every alternate
course consists entirely of headers, three feet on the bed,
and the intermediate courses are of stretchers laid in pairs,
each about one foot five and a half inches on the bed, the
space of about one inch being left for the longitudinal
joint, to allow room for forcing down stiff mortar wdth a
wooden sword, it being found that this method of grout-
ing the vertical joint with stiff mortar makes more solid
work than would be effected by laying the stones nearly
close, and pouring in thin grout, which gradually dries up
and leaves the joint void.
Many practical advantages attend the construction of
hollow pillars. That part only of the masonry is omitted
which, if the pillar were solid, would tend in the least de¬
gree to its effective stability, and, consequently, being al¬
most a useless mass, would do more harm than good, by
operating as a pernicious load upon the foundations. Also,
by this method, the bed of every stone throughout the
work is exposed to view, which insures perfect woikman*
ship in the setting, on which the strength of masonry
mainly depends. Moreover, the great proportion of ma¬
terials,' labour, and workmanship thus saved is an import¬
ant consideration.
In the dressing of ashlar required to carry a heavy load,
as that for the pillars of a bridge, especial pains must be
taken that the stones be as full at the back as at the front;
for it is here of importance to observe that workmen, espe¬
cially piece-workmen, find it much to their advantage to
infringe upon this fundamental rule in good masonry. By
working the stone lean on the back, they can slap away
more freely and do more work than if truth to the square
be insisted on; and, moreover, when the stone comes tope
laid, the inequality of pressure will produce a fine joint
without any trouble on the part of the setter. To t is
vicious practice of working ashlar lean on the bed, the
skirping of the face-work and bulging of the walls may
generally be attributed; and it is principally owing to its
having been specified that drafts be put along t ic ^ ®
of the beds of the ashlar, and the stone kept full, thaJJJ6
great pressure on the three-feet walls of the pillais o c
Dean Bridge has produced no skirps or cracks in any part
of the work. .
It remains to be explained by what method the upper
arches were executed, so as to allow of their subsiding
freely upon the centres being struck, without receiving
any obstruction from the lower spandrels; foi it is evi en ,
that had the centres of the main arches been struck an
the spandrels completed close up to the soffit of the ^PP6
arches, the upper arches would, upon their centies
subsequently struck, have been subject to unequa c
pression; the interior three feet two inches of the so
being hard upon the lowrer spandrel walls, and the Pr0J^.c.
ing five feet left to subside freely by its own weight, wmci
unequal bearing wmuld infallibly have disturbed t“e^v 1
superstructure. And it is equally evident that the low
and upper arches, being dissimilar, would not su
equally, and therefore could not be struck at the s
time dependent on each other. The course, theie >
E jge. pursued in the case of the Dean Bridge, was to strike the
W)-w/ centres of the lower arches as soon as the arch-stones
were laid, and immediately to proceed with the turning
of the upper arches and the striking of their centres, pre¬
vious to the completion of the lower spandrels. This was
a most delicate operation, and we believe it to have been
unprecedented; for the pilasters or pillars of the upper
arches being only five feet wide, it follows that the four
upper arches of ninety-six feet span each were supported
solely upon their pillars of five feet thick, being only one
nineteenth of the span of the arch. To accomplish this,
it was evidently necessary that all the four arches should be
struck as gradually and as equally as possible, and which
was done with great care, never allowing the slack blocks
to be driven farther at one time than sufficient to let down
the centre a quarter of an inch. It was found that these
upper arches subsided very nearly equally and gradually
during the course of a month, by which time they attained
permanent stability, and the total depression amounted to
about four and a half inches each at the crown. The lower
arches subsided about three inches each at the crown. In
constructing the centres a subsidence of three inches was
calculated upon for the lower arches, and six inches for
the upper arches, and so much additional rise given to the
centres accordingly, over and above what was intended
for the arches when complete.
After having allowed the upper arches freely to attain
their position of permanent stability, a considerable por¬
tion of their spandrel walling was built, and the centring
removed, and the masonry of the lower spandrels made
good up to their soffits. In completing the exterior span¬
drels of the upper arches, which are only eighteen inches
thick, they were connected with the interior spandrels by
means of dovetailed bond-stones, which, at the same time
that they gave stability and stiffness to the walls, effec¬
tually tied them to the interior work, rendering the wings
and the main body of the bridge a nerfectly connected
mass.
In all extensive edifices composed of heavy materials, it
is of primary consequence to the stability of the work that
good arrangements be made whereby every stone may be
laid with ease and expedition, by means of cranes or other
mechanical contrivances. This point cannot be too forcibly
insisted upon; for whatever pains may be taken in preparing
the materials, it will frequently be found, upon setting the
stones, that the bed of lime is either too full or too lean,
or that the stone is in some respects unsuitable, and ought
to be raised. If, therefore, it can be raised with ease and
expedition, it is done at once, and the fault rectified; but
if the arrangements for setting be imperfect, the unifor¬
mity of the bed of lime is disturbed before the stone is
properly seated in its place, and glaring imperfections will
be submitted to rather than incur the labour and loss of
time consequent to its reparation. The success which
has attended the execution of the Dean Bridge, and the
expedition with which the work was carried on, are in a
great measure attributable to the judicious manner in which
the cranes, machinery, and scaffolding were constructed.
The Dean Bridge was commenced in October 1829, and
completed, with the exception of the parapet, in Decem¬
ber 1831. It is gratifying to all concerned, that not a single
accident occasioning loss of life or limb occurred during
the progress of the work.
See Chain Bridges.
Bridge-
Town.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
Plate CXXXII. fig. 1. If AB represent the distance of
any two particles of matter, and BC, DE, EG, the repul¬
sive forces at the distances AB, AD, AF, respectively,
and BC, DH, FI, the corresponding cohesive forces, then
GI must be ultimately to EH as FB to BD. (Sect. I.
Prop. A.)
Fig. 2. The block wall support twice as great a pressure
applied at A as at B. (Prop. B.)
Fig. 3. It is obvious that ABC — ADE = ABC
— CFG, HI being = HK, and HG = HA; and the differ¬
ence ABFHA is always equal to DB X KH. (Prop. C.)
Fig. 4. It is evident that AB is to CD as AE to CE,
or as z + £ a to z. (Prop. E.) It is also obvious that as
z or CE is to CD, so is EF to FG. (Prop. F.)
Fig. 5. Supposing the arch AB to be so loaded in the
neighbourhood of C as to require the curve of equilibrium
to assume the form ADCEB, the joints in the neighbour¬
hood of D will be incapable of resisting the pressure in
the direction of the curve CD, and must tend to turn on
their internal terminations as centres, and to open exter¬
nally. (Prop. Y.)
Fig. 6. A, B, C, different steps in the fall of a weak
arch. (Prop. Y.)
Fig. 7. Elevation and plan of Messrs Telford and Dou¬
glas’s proposed iron bridge over the Thames. (Sect. V.)
Fig. 8. Elevation of Mr Darby’s iron bridge at Cole-
brook Dale. (Sect. VI.)
Bridge, in Gunnery, the two pieces of timber which
go between the two transums of a gun-carriage.
Bridge, in Music, a term for that part of a stringed in¬
strument over which the strings are stretched. The bridge
Fig. 9. Elevation of Mr Burden’s bridge at Wearmouth.
(Sect. VI.)
Fig. 10. Elevation of Mr Telford’s bridge at Buildwas.
(Sect. VI.)
Fig. 11. Elevation of Messrs Jessop’s bridges at Bristol.
(Sect. VI.)
Fig. 12. Elevation of Mr Telford’s bridge at Dunkeld.
Plate CXXXIII. fig. 1. Elevation of the bridge of the
Louvre at Paris. (Sect. VI.)
Fig. 2. Comparative size of the arches of Blackfriars,
Waterloo, and the new London Bridge.
Fig. 3. Elevation of Vauxhall Bridge. (Sect. VI.)
Fig. 4. Elevation of Southwark Bridge. (Sect. VI.)
Fig. 5. Plan of Southwark Bridge. (Sect. VI.)
Fig. 6. Elevation of the old London Bridge.
Fig. 7. Elevation of the new London Bridge.
Fig. 8. Plan of the new London Bridge.
Plate CXXXIV. fig. 1. Elevation of Waterloo Bridge.
(Sect. VI.)
Fig. 2. Plan of Waterloo Bridge. (Sect. VI.)
Fig. 3. Section of an arch of Waterloo Bridge, showing
the foundations of the piers and the spandrel walls of
brick, together with the centre supporting it. The dotted
line represents the direction of the curve of equilibrium.
(Sect. VI.)
Plate CXXXV. Elevation and plan of the Dean Bridge,
Edinburgh, and the section of an arch.
of a violin is about one inch and a quarter in height, and
near an inch and a half in length.
BRIDGE-TOWN, the capital of the island of Barba-
does. See Barbadoes.
286 B R I B R I
Bridgend BRIDGEND, a market-town of the county of Glamor-
il gan, in South Wales, being partly in the parish of New-
Bridjioit. cagj.]e anc| pari;]y in that of Coity, 179 miles from London.
It stands on the river Ogmore, which supplies a great
abundance of salmon and other fish, and the market, held
on Saturday, is well supplied with all other necessaries.
There is a neat county-hall, whei'e the sessions, and oc¬
casionally the county elections, are held.
BRIDGENORTH, a borough and market-town of the
hundred of Stoddendon, in the county of Salop, 140 miles
from London, on the river Severn. It is an ancient place,
in the vicinity of which are many interesting remains of
antiquity. There is a considerable trade carried on in iron,
leather, pipes, malt, and building boats for navigating the
Severn. The town returns two members to parliament,
who are chosen by the corporation and the freemen, in
number about seven hundred, over whom the family of
Whitmore have long held a predominant influence. The
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 4408, in 1811 to 4179,
and in 1821 to 4345.
BRIDGEWATER, a borough and market-town of the
hundred of North Petherton, in the county of Somerset,
142 miles from London. It stands on the river Parret, on
which vessels from sea ascend to the iron bridge, but are
aground at low water. There is much trade here, as coals
for the supply of the interior are imported in large quan¬
tities, and much malt and a peculiar kind of bricks are
exported. There is a good market on Thursday. Two
members are returned to parliament by the inhabitant
householders. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 3634,
in 1811 to 4179, and in 1821 to 6155.
BRIDLE, a contrivance made of straps or thongs of
leather and pieces of iron, in order to keep a horse in sub¬
jection and obedience.
The several parts of a bridle are the bit or snaffle; the
head-stall, or leathers from the top of the head to the
rings of the bit; the fillet, over the fore-head and under
the fore-top; the throat-band, which buttons from the
head-band under the throat; the reins or thongs of lea¬
ther, which, proceeding from the rings of the bit, and cast
over the horse’s head, are held by the rider in his hand ;
the nose-band, passing through loops at the back of the
head-stall, and buckled under the cheeks; the trench;
the cavesan; the martingal; and the chaff-halter.
Pliny assures us that one Pelethronius first invented the
bridle and saddle, though Virgil ascribes the invention to
the Lapithse, to whom he applies the epithet Pelethronii,
from a mountain in Thessaly named Pelethronium, where
horses were first begun to be broken.
The first horsemen, not being acquainted with the art
of governing horses with bridles, managed them only with
a rope or a switch, and the accent of the voice. This was
the practice of the Numidians, Getulians, Libyans, and
Massilians. The Roman youth also learned the art of
fighting without bridles, which was an exercise or lesson
in the manege; and hence it is that on Trajan’s column
soldiers are represented riding at full speed without any
bridles on.
BRIDPORT, a borough and market-town in the hun¬
dred of Beaminster and county of Dorset, 134 miles from
London, on the river Brit, which is divided into two
branches, one of them passing at the east, the other at the
west end of the town. The manufacturing industry here
is very great, producing sail-cloth, twine, nets, ropes, and
other requisites for the Newfoundland fishery. The har¬
bour is small and almost choked, but some vessels are
built celebrated for their fast sailing. The streets are wide
and well paved, and where the four cross streets meet is
a handsome town-hall. It returns two members to parlia¬
ment, chosen by the inhabitant householders. There is a
good market on Saturday. The population amounted in Brief
1801 to 3117, in 1811 to 3666, and in 1821 to 3742. Jj
BRIEF, in Law, an abridgment of the client’s case,
made out for the instruction of counsel on a trial at law;
wherein the case of the litigant is to be briefly but fully
stated.
Brief, or Brieve, in Scots Law, a writ issued from the
Chancery, directed to any judge-ordinary, commanding
and authorizing that judge to call a jury to inquire into
the facts mentioned in the brief, and upon their verdict to
pronounce sentence.
Apostolical Briefs, letters which the pope dispatches
to princes or other magistrates, relating to any public
affair. These briefs are distinguished from bulls, in re¬
gard the latter are more ample, and always written on
parchment, and sealed with lead or green wax; where¬
as briefs are very concise, written on paper, sealed with
red wax, and with the seal of a fisherman, or St Peter in
a boat.
BRIEG, a circle in the Prussian province of Silesia, ex¬
tending over 213 square miles, or 136,320 acres, contain¬
ing two cities, two market-towns, sixty-two villages, and
5226 houses, inhabited by 34,342 individuals. It is divid¬
ed into two parts by the river Oder, is a level district,
and, on the Polish side of that river, is covered with
woods. The only manufacture is that of linens. The
capital of the circle, the city of Brieg, is on the banks of
the Oder, a well-built town, containing four Lutheran and
three Catholic churches, with several public charitable in¬
stitutions. The inhabitants amount to 10,547, who are
occupied in various manufactures, and carry on trade by
the Oder with the Baltic Sea at Stettin.
BRIEL, a town in the province of South Holland, in the
Netherlands, the chief place of a circle of the same name,
on the north side of the island Boorne, near the mouth of
the Maas. It contains about 3800 men, of whom many
are fishermen and pilots. It is interesting as the place
the capture of which laid the foundation of the power and
wealth of the United Provinces. Long. 4. 3. 45. E. Lat.51.
54. 15. N.
BRIEY, an arrondissement of the department of Mo¬
selle, in France, extending over 474 square miles, compre¬
hending five cantons and 165 communes, with 56,112 in¬
habitants. The chief place, a town of the same name, on
the river Waget, contains about 1900 inhabitants.
BRIG, or Brigantine, a merchant-ship with two masts.
This term is not universally confined to vessels of a par¬
ticular construction, or which are masted and rigged in a
manner different from others, but is variously applied, by
the mariners of different European nations, to a peculiar
sort of vessel in their own marine. Amongst British sea¬
men this description of vessel is distinguished by having
her main-sails set nearly in the plane of her keel, whereas
the main-sails of larger ships are hung athwart, or at right
angles with the ship’s length, and fastened to a yard which
hangs parallel to the deck. In a brig, the foremost edge
of the mainsail is fastened in different places to hoops
which encircle the main-mast, and slide up and down it as
the sail is hoisted or lowered; and it is extended by a gaff
above and a boom below.
BRIGADE, in the military art, signifies the union of
several squadrons or battalions under the command of a
colonel, who has also the rank of brigadier-general in the
army. A brigade .of artillery consists of a certain number
of cannon or field-pieces, with the necessary munitions,
stores, and gunners. The soldiers attached to these guns
are also collectively denominated a brigade, and are under
the command of a superior officer of artillery. A brigade
of cavalry consists of different regiments, making together
eight or ten squadrons, and commanded by a colonel or
Br '3e
Bras.
B R I
cavalry, who has the rank of brigadier-general in the army.
A brigade of dragoons consists of different regiments of
dragoons, making together eight squadrons or more, and
commanded by a colonel of dragoons, who has also the
rank of brigadier-general in the army. A brigade of in¬
fantry consists of two or more regiments of foot, making
together four, five, six, eight, or more battalions, command¬
ed by a colonel of foot, who has the rank of brigadier-ge¬
neral in the army. And, generally, according to the most
modern arrangement of troops, two or more regiments con¬
stitute a brigade, two or more brigades a division, two or
more divisions a corps d’armee, and two or more corps
d’armee a grand army.
Bin gad E-Major is an officer appointed by the brigadier
to assist him in the management and ordering of his bri¬
gade.
BRIGADIER, a military officer, whose rank is next
above that of colonel, and who is intrusted with the com¬
mand of a brigade. In Great Britain this rank is in abey¬
ance during peace, but revived in actual service in the
field. Every brigadier marches at the head of his brigade
upon duty. The brigadier des arme.es of the French ser¬
vice corresponds to our brigadier-general, and, like him,
has the command of a brigade of cavalry, dragoons, or in¬
fantry.
BRIGANDINE, a coat of mail, a kind of ancient de¬
fensive armour, consisting of thin jointed scales of plate,
pliant and easy to the body.
BRIGG, or Glandford Brigg, a market-town in the
hundred of Yarborough and county of Lincoln, 153 miles
from London, on the river Ancolme, which is navigable to
the Humber. There is a large corn-market here on Thurs¬
day. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1327, in 1811
to 1497, and in 1821 to 1674.
BRIGGS, Henry, one of the greatest mathematicians
of the sixteenth century, was born at Warley Wood, in the
parish of Halifax, Yorkshire, in the year 1556. In 1592 he
was appointed examiner and lecturer in mathematics, and
soon afterwards reader of the physical lecture founded by
Di Linacer. W hen Gresham College in London was estab¬
lished, he was chosen the first professor of geometry there,
about the beginning of March 1596. In 1609 Mr Briggs
contracted an intimacy with Usher, afterwards archbishop
0 Aimagh, which continued many years, and was kept up
chiefly by letters, two of which, written by the subject of
this notice, are still extant. In one of these letters, dated
in August 1610, he tells his friend he was engaged on
the subjeet 0f eclipses ; and in the other, dated in March
, he acquaints him with his being wholly employed
about the noble invention of logarithms, then lately dis¬
covered, and in the improvement of which he had after¬
wards a large share. In his lectures at Gresham College,
ie pioposed the alteration of the scale of logarithms, from
.le ^ypci’bolic form which Napier had given them, to that
in w ich unity is assumed as the logarithm of the ratio of
en ^0. on®» antl soon afterwards he WTote to the inventor
0 e same proposal to himself. In 1616 Briggs paid
visit to Napier at Edinburgh, in order to confer with that
ninent person respecting the suggested change; and next
year lie repeated his visit for a similar purpose. During these
con erences the alteration proposed by Briggs was agreed
in lei 7i °n t^le 1!eturn latter from his second visit
’ le accordingly published the first chiliad of his lo-
cenm 1619 he was appointed Savilian professor of
1mm p 7at Oxford, and resigned his professorship ofGres-
tlempn°t 0rn .°^ July 1620. Soon after his set-
univp x101’(l lle was incorporated master of arts in that
lifp pmL7’ ,lere lle. continued a laborious and studious
and nn£i°y- l?artly ‘n discharging the duties of his office,
I y in the computation of logarithms and in other
B R I
useful works. In 1622 he published a small tract on the
North-west Passage to the South Seas, through the
continent of Virginia and Hudson’s Bayand in 1624 he
printed, at London, his Arithmetica Logarithmica, in folio,
a work containing the logarithms of thirty thousand natu¬
ral numbers to fourteen places of figures besides the index.
He also lived to complete a table of logarithmic sines and
tangents for the hundredth part of every degree to four¬
teen places of figures besides the index, with a table of
natural signs to fifteen places, and the tangents and se¬
cants for the same to ten places; all of which were print¬
ed at Gouda in 1631, and published in 1633 under the
title of Trigonometria Britannica. In the construction of
these works, the author, besides immense labour and ap¬
plication, displayed great powers of genius and invention ;
and in his investigations may be detected the germs of
discoveries in mathematics which are generally considered
as of later invention, namely, the binomial theorem, the
differential method and construction of tables by differ¬
ences, the interpolation by differences, together with an¬
gular sections, and several other things of scarcely inferior
importance. Mr Briggs terminated his laborious and use¬
ful life on the 26th of January 1630, in the seventy-fourth
year of his age. Dr Smith gives him the character of
being a man of great probity, a contemner of riches, and
contented with his own station, preferring a studious re¬
tirement to all the splendid circumstances of life. His
works are, 1. A Table to find the Height of the Pole, the
Magnetical Declination being given, London, 1602, 4to;
2. lables for the Improvement of Navigation, printed in
the second edition of Edward Wright’s treatise entitled
“ Certain Errors in Navigation detected and corrected,”
London, 1610, 4to; 3. A Description of an Instrumental
lable to find the part proportional, devised by Mr Edward
Wright, London, 1616 and 1618, 12mo; 4. Logarithmo-
rum Chilias prirna, London, 1617, 8vo; 5. Lucubrationes
et Annotationes in opera posthuma J. Neperi, Edinburgh,
1619, 4to ; 6. Euclidis Elementorum VI. libri priores, Lon¬
don, 1620, folio; 7. A Treatise on the North-west Passage
to the South Sea, London, 1622, 4to, reprinted in Purchas’s
Pilgrims, vol. iii. p. 852; Arithmetica Logarithmica, "Lon¬
don, 1624, folio; 9. TrigonometriaBritaniiica,Gondso, 1663,
folio ; 10. Two Letters to Archbishop Usher; 11. Mathe-
matica ab Antiquis minus cognita ; and some other works,
as his Commentaries on the Geometry of Peter Ramus,
and Remarks on the Treatise of Longomontanus respect¬
ing the quadrature of the Circle, which have not been
published.
Briggs, William, an eminent physician in the latter
end of the seventeenth century, was the son of Augustin
Briggs, Esq. four times member for the city of Norwich,
where our author was born. He studied at the university
of Cambridge ; and his genius leading him to cultivate
physic, he travelled into France, where he attended the
lectures of the celebrated anatomist M. Vieussens at Mont¬
pelier. After his return he published his Ophthalmogra-
phia in 1676. The year following he was created doctor
of medicine at Cambridge, and soon after was made fellow
of the College of Physicians at London. In 1682 he re¬
signed his fellowship in favour of his brother; and the
same year his Theory of Vision was published by Hooke.
The ensuing year he sent to the Royal Society a continua¬
tion of that discourse, which was published in their Trans¬
actions ; and the same year he was appointed by King
Charles II. physician to St Thomas’s Plospital. In 168?
he communicated to the Royal Society two remarkable
cases relating to vision, which were likewise printed in
their Transactions; and in 1685 he published a Latin
version of his Theory of Vision, at the desire of Mr, after¬
wards Sir Isaac Newton, professor of mathematics at Cam-
287
Briggs.
'288
B R I
B R I
Bright- bridge, with a recommendatory epistle from him prefixe
helmstone to it. He was afterwards appointed physician in Qui¬
nary to King William, and continued in great esteem tor
Brignoies. skill till his death, which took place in Sep-
tember 1704. ,
BRIGHTHELMSTONE, or Brighton, a town on the
sea-coast, in the hundred of Whalesbone and rape of Lewes,
in the county of Sussex. The growth of this place is one
of those manifestations of the progress of wealth and the
increased power of gratification m this kingdom, wine i
on reflection cannot fail to excite astonishment. Ihis
town, a small fishing place till 1784, with neither com¬
merce nor manufactures, and with no peculiar advantages
even for sea-bathing, which formed the only pretext for
visiting it, has, by the mere force of fashion acting upon
rapidly-augmented wealth, grown up to be a city almost
of palaces, exhibiting a display of every comfort and
even luxury, and containing a population of more than
40,000 persons. It is built under the shelter of the South-
down Hills, which protect it from the northern and east¬
ern blasts, and hence it is as much a place of resort for
the idle, the invalid, and the mere fashionist, in the win¬
ter, as it was at its first establishment in the summer sea¬
son. Magnificent squares and parades have been built,
which have speedily found occupants; the embellishments
have kept pace with their growth; churches and chapels
have been erected to supply religious aid to all sects and
all tastes; hotels, club-houses, and other establishments,
have been formed for purposes of amusement; carriages
and horses are in readiness equal to the demand for them ;
and every necessary, every accommodation, and almost
every luxury, may be found in the markets, the shops, and
the repositories. By means of steam-boats it has become
one of the passages to France, and from thence the inha¬
bitants can obtain supplies of fruit, vegetables, game, poul¬
try, and other articles at reasonable rates. In addition to
other inducements, a German institution for producing all
the waters of the most celebrated medicinal springs on
the Continent has, at much expense, and with very great
scientific skill, been constructed. A new town has been
built or is building, called Kemp Town, to contain houses
of a large kind, sufficient for ten thousand more inhabi¬
tants. According to the government census, the popula¬
tion amounted in 1801 to 7339, in 1811 to 12,012, and in
1821 to 24,429; but the greatest proportional increase has
been since the last of these years. . .
BRIGITTINS, or Bridgetins, more properly Bngit-
tins, a religious order, so called from their founder, St
Bridget, or Birgit, a Swedish lady of the fourteenth cen¬
tury, whom some represent as a queen, but Fabricius, on
better grounds, considers as a princess, the daughter of
King Birgenes, legislator of Upland, and famous for hei
revelations. The Brigittins are sometimes also called the
Order of our Saviour, from their pretending that Christ
himself dictated to St Bridget the rules and constitutions
observed by them. In the main, the rule is the same as that
of St Augustin ; only with certain additions supposed to
have been revealed by Christ, and hence called the Rule of
our Saviour. This order spread considerably through Swe¬
den, Germany, the Netherlands, and other parts. In Eng¬
land we read but of one monastery of Brigittins, which was
built in 1415 by Henry V., opposite to Richmond, and is
now called Sion House. The revenues were reckoned at
L.1495 per annum.
BRIGNOLES, an arrondissement of the department of
the Var, in France. Its extent is 492 square miles, and it
contains eight cantons, twenty-six communes, and 66,184
inhabitants. The chief place, of the same name, is situated
on the river Salme, in a mountainous district, containing
5301 souls. Long. 6. 50. E. Lat. 43. 24. N.
BRILLIANT, in a general sense, something that has a Brilliant
bright and lucid appearance. . 1 . , . I
BRILLIANTS, a name given to diamonds of the finest Bnndler
cut. See Diamond.
BRILON, a circle in the Prussian government of Arns-
berg, and province of Westphalia. It extends over 376
square miles, or 240,640 acres, contains six cities, four
market-towns, eight parishes, and 105 hamlets, with 3652
houses, and 29,082 inhabitants. Although the northern
partis hilly and woody, the valleys to the south aie fertile,
and yield sufficient corn and cattle for the dense popula¬
tion. The chief object of industry is the linen trade. The
capital, which gives its name to the circle, is near the
river Ruhr. It was formerly one of the Hans lowns.
It contains two churches, 396 dwelling-houses, and 2766
inhabitants, chiefly employed in the various branches of
the linen trade. Long. 8. 4. 10. E. Lat. 51. 22. 20. N.
BRIM denotes the utmost verge or edge, especially of
round things. The brims of vessels are made to project a
little over, to prevent liquors, when poured out, from run¬
ning down the side of the vessel. The brimming of vessels
was contrived by the ancient potters, in imitation of the
supercilium or dip of the cornices of columns.. . _
BRINDISI, a city on the shores of the Adriatic, in the
province of Otranto and kingdom of Naples. It was for¬
merly fortified, but its defences are now dilapidated, it
contains a cathedral, several cloisters and nunneries, and at
present only 6150 inhabitants. The harbour is now near¬
ly choked up with sand, and hence its importance has de¬
clined gradually from the state which it had attained un¬
der the name of Brundusium, when the population amount¬
ed to 60,000, and it enjoyed an extensive trade. Long.
17. 55. E. Lat. 40. 52. N. , . 4
BRINDLEY, James, a man celebrated for mechanical
inventions, and particularly skilful in planning and con¬
ducting inland navigation, was born in 1716, at I^nste
in Derbyshire. Through the mismanagement ot his la¬
ther, his education was totally neglected ; and, at seven¬
teen, he bound himself apprentice to a mill-wnght, near
Macclesfield, in Cheshire. He served his apprenticeship,
and afterwards setting up for himself, by inventions ana
contrivances of his own advanced the mil 1-wright usiness
to a degree of perfection which it had not attained be ore.
The consequence was, that his fame as an ingenious me¬
chanic spreading widely, his genius was no longer con¬
fined to the business of his profession. In 1752 he erect¬
ed a very extraordinary water-engine at Clifton, in Lan¬
cashire, for the purpose of draining coal mines; and, m
1755, he was employed to execute the larger wheels lor a
new silk mill at Congleton, in Cheshire. The potteries
Staffordshire were also about this time indebted to Him
for several valuable additions to the mills used by tnem
for grinding flint-stones. In 1756 he undertook to eie
a steam-engine near Newcastle-under-Line, upon a n
plan ; and it is believed that he would have brough
engine to a great degree of perfection, if some interested
; wy
engine to a great degree of perfectic
engineers had not opposed him. , /r
His attention, however, was soon afterwards called on
to another object, which in its consequences has prove
of high importance to trade and commerce; name 7’
projecting and executing of inland navigations. By
navigations the expense of carriage is lessened; ^ ^
munication is opened from one part of the king o
another, and from each of these parts to the sea,
hence products and manufactures are afforded at
derate price. The Duke of Bridgewater having at vvor
ley, about seven miles from Manchester, a large
abounding with coal, which had hitherto lain use e ^
aDOUnUing Willi MJai> wiiic-ii hciva ** v . Jr»eirnilS
cause of the expense of land-carriage, and being
to work these mines, perceived the necessity or cons
r w
B II l
[dley. ing a canal from Worsley to Manchester ; upon which oc-
casion Brindley was consulted, and having declared the
scheme practicable, an act for this purpose was obtained
in 1758 and 1759. But as it was afterwards discovered
that the navigation would be more beneficial if carried
over the river Irwell to Manchester, another act was ob¬
tained to vary the course of the canal ^agreeably to the
new plan, and likewise to extend a side-branch to Long¬
ford Bridge in Stretford. Brindley, in the mean time, had
begun these great works, being the first of the kind ever
attempted in England with navigable subterraneous tun¬
nels and elevated aqueducts; and, in order to preserve
the level of the water, and free it from the usual obstruc¬
tions of locks, he carried the canal over rivers and many
large and deep valleys. When it was completed as far as
Barton, where the Irwell is navigable for large vessels, he
proposed to carry it over that river by an aqueduct of
thirty-nine feet above the surface of the water; and though
this project was treated as wild and chimerical, yet, sup¬
ported by his noble patx*on, he began his work in Septem¬
ber 1760, and the first boat sailed over it in July 1761. The
duke afterwards extended his ideas to Liverpool, and ob¬
tained, in 1762, an act for branching his canal to the tide¬
way in the Mersey; this ramification of the work being
carried over the rivers Mersey and Bolland, and over many
wide and deep valleys.
The success of the Duke of Bridgewater’s undertakings
encouraged a number of gentlemen and manufacturers in
Staffordshire to revive the idea of a canal navigation
through that county, and Brindley was therefore engaged
to make a survey from the Trent to the Mersey. This
canal was begun in 1766, conducted under Brindley’s di¬
rection as long as he lived, and finished after his death by
, his brother-in-law Mr Flemshall in May 1777. The pro¬
prietors called it the Canal from the Trent to the Mersey;
but the engineer, more emphatically, the Grand Trunk
Navigation, on account of the numerous branches, which,
as he justly supposed, would be every way extended from
i it. It is ninety-three miles in length, and, besides a large
number of bridges over it, has seventy-six locks and five
tunnels. The most remarkable of the tunnels is the sub¬
terraneous passage of Harecastle, being 2880 yards in
length, and more than seventy yards below the surface of
the earth. The scheme of this inland navigation had em¬
ployed the thoughts of the ingenious part of the kingdom
for upwards of twenty years before, and some surveys had
been made; but Harecastle Hill, through which the tun¬
nel is constructed, could neither be avoided nor overcome
by any expedient which the most able engineers could
devise. It was Brindley alone who surmounted this, and
other similar difficulties arising from the variety of strata
and quicksands, which no one but himself would have at¬
tempted to conquer.
Brindley was engaged in many other similar undertak-
mgs ; for a fuller account of which the reader is referred
^ t*le Biographia Britannica, and to a curious and valu¬
able pamphlet, published many years since, entitled The
History of Inland Navigations, particularly that of the Duke
oj Bridgewater. Brindley died at Turnhurst in Stafford¬
shire on the 27th September 1772, in his fifty-sixth year,
emg supposed to have shortened his days by too intense
application, and to have brought on a hectic fever, which
continued in his system for some years before it consumed
nm. He never indulged or relaxed himself in the com-
mon diversions of life, not having the least relish for them ;
once Prevailed on to see a play in London,
ye he declared that he would on no account be present
a another, because it so disturbed his ideas for several
ays after as to render him unfit for business. When
ny extraordinary difficulty occurred to him in the exe-
vol. v.
B R I 289
cution of his works, he generally retired to bed, and lay Brine
there one, two, or three days, till he had surmounted it. II
He then got up and executed his design without any Banging-
drawing or model; for he had a prodigious memory, and t y
carried every thing in his head.
As his station in life was low, and his education totally
neglected, so his exterior accomplishments were suitable
to them. He could indeed read and write, but very indiffe¬
rently ; and he was perhaps as thoroughly abnormis sapiens,
“ of mother-wit, and wise without the schools,” as any
man that ever lived. “ He is as plain a looking man,” says a
writer of the time, describing him, “ as one of the boors in
the Peak, or his own carters; but when he speaks, all ears
listen; and every mind is filled with wonder at the things
he pronounces to be practicable.” The same author adds,
“ Being great in himself, he harbours no contracted no¬
tions, no jealousy of rivals ; he conceals not his method of
proceeding, nor asks patents to secure the sole use of the
machines which he invents and exposes to public view.
Sensible that he must one day cease to be, he selects men
of genius, teaches them the power of mechanics, and em¬
ploys them in carrying on the various undertakings in
which he is engaged. It is not to the Duke of Bridge-
water only that his services are confined; he is of public
utility, and employs his talents in rectifying the mistakes
of despairing workmen and artizans. His powers shine
most in the midst of difficulties ; when rivers and moun¬
tains seem to thwart his designs, then appears his vast ca-
pacity, by which he makes them subservient to his will.”
Happening on one occasion to be examined before a com- ,
mittee of the House of Commons, and to express a decid¬
ed preference for artificial navigation as a means of inter¬
nal communication, a member asked him, “ For what pur¬
pose, then, do you think rivers were created ?” “ To
furnish water for navigable canals,” replied Brindley after
a moment’s hesitation.
BRINE, or Pickle, water saturated with saline par¬
ticles.
Brine also denotes a pickle pregnant with salt, wherein
things are steeped for preservation.
BniNE-Pans, the pits where the salt water is retained,
and suffered to stagnate, that by the action of the sun it
may be converted into salt. There are divers sorts of
salt-pans, as the water-pans, second pan, sun-pan; the
water being transferred only from one to another.
BniNE-Pit, in salt making, the salt spring from which
the water to be boiled into salt is taken. There are some
of these springs in many places. That at Namptwich in
Cheshire is alone sufficient, according to the account of
the people of the place, to yield salt for the whole king¬
dom ; but it is under the government of certain indivi¬
duals who, that the market may not be overstocked, per¬
mit only a certain quantity of the salt to be made yearly.
BniNE-Springs are fountains which flow with salt wa¬
ter instead of fresh. Of these there are a good number
in England; but, though not peculiar to this island, they
are far from being common in the countries on the Con¬
tinent.
To BRING-to, in Navigation, to check the course of a
ship when she is advancing, by arranging the sails in such
a manner that they shall counteract each other, and pre¬
vent her either from retreating or moving forward. In
this situation the ship is said to lie by, or to lie to; hav¬
ing, according to the sea phrase, some of her sails aback,
to oppose the force of those which are full; or having
them otherwise shortened by being furled, or hauled up
in the brails.
Bringing-to is generally used to detain a ship in any
particular station, in order to wait the approach of some
other that may be advancing towards her; or to retard
2 o
290
Brioude
Brisson.
B R I
her course occasionally near any port in the course of a
BRIOUDE, an arrondissement in the department of
the Upper Loire, in France, extending over 706 square
miles, and containing eight cantons and 118 communes
with a population of 76,374 persons. The capital is the
city of the same name, on the left bank of the njer Alher,
with 5486 inhabitants. Long. 3. 15. E. Lat. 45. 14. N.
BRISSON, Mathurin James, a zoologist and natural
philosopher, born at Fontenay-le-Comte, 3d April LU3,
the son of Mathurin Brisson and Louisa GabrielleJourdai .
He was originally intended for the church, but he hat
acquired at an early age a taste for natural history, which
was particularly encouraged by the advantage that
enjoyed of passing his holidays with the justly-celebrated
Reaumur, who had an estate near Fontenay. At the age o
twenty-four he had made great progress in his theological
studies, and had fully qualified himself for the rank of a
subdeacon ; but his courage failed him at the time appoint¬
ed for taking orders, and he then determined to confine
himself to the study of physical sciences. Reaumur had
the direction of the chemical laboratory of the Academy
of Sciences, and had given up the salary attached to it
to several young men in succession, whom he appointed
as his assistants, and of whom Pitot and Nollet became
afterwards the most distinguished. He now chose bris¬
son for the situation, which served him, as it had done
his predecessors, rather as a step in his advancement with
respect to general science, than in enabling him to pursue
r -.F n'hpmioal: and he followed
B R I
by means of the different currents of fluid imagined by Brissot.
Nollet, but certainly with very little success. ^
He afterwards undertook a course of experiments on the
Specific Gravity of Alcohol and Water, mixed m different
proportions, which led him to a conjecture, at that time
somewhat singular, that water was not a homogeneous
substance. He assisted M. Trudaine and other observers
in the experiments which they made on Heat and Light
with the powerful lens of Berniere; and, in conjunction
with M. Cadet, he endeavoured to disprove the opinion
of Beccaria, that electricity has a power of reviving the
metallic oxides. He also made experiments on the re¬
fractive powers of fluids which might be substituted for
‘flint glass in the object-glasses of telescopes; on the uti¬
lity of different kinds of steel for magnetical purposes;
and on the mode of renewal of the shells of some species
of snails. . , „
In 1772, M. Brisson published a memoir on the bpecijie
Gravities of Metals, a subject which, in all its extent, oc¬
cupied a great portion of his attention during twenty
years of his life. The results of his experiments on a
o-reat variety of substances were collected into a single
volume of Tables of Specific Gravities, which was pub¬
lished in 1787. It was principally for the use of stu¬
dents who attended his lectures that he published bis
Trade de Physique and his Dictionnaire, both of them
containing elementary and popular information, rather
calculated exclusively for the immediate purpose which
they were intended to serve, than for being of permanent
..J. ■  4.:™ fRp c,6pr.pps. At a late period
respect to general science, than in enaming nun to u ^ ~ ~ Dromotion 0f the sciences. At a late period
any objects more immediately chemical; and he folio e F Lnewed his attention to the subject of che-
his passion in attaching himself almost exclusively to na- discoveries of his junior contemporaries
tural history. The collection of Reaumur furnished him mistiy, when the discov eries u ^ _ J . ^ 1q^c . nrul
with ample materials for his studies, and with the princi
W1L11 tun UlC Iti.o   ; - ' . . l T^r-
pal subjects described in his works on the Animal King¬
dom. The first of these was published in 1756, contain¬
ing quadrupeds and cetaceous animals. It consists of
simple descriptions of the different species, together with
synonyms in various languages, more in the natuie o a
prodromus than of a complete history. His Omifhologie
appeared in 1760, forming six volumes, and containing a
number of well-executed plates. But upon Reaumui s
death, the collection having been added to the royal ea-
had given greater certainty and precision to its laws ; and
his last work was an Elementary Treatise on that science,
intended for the use of his pupils in the central school.
His whole life was occupied in his studies, and the his¬
tory of his various works comprehends the history ot
everything that is to be recorded concerning him. After
eighty years of uninterrupted activity ot mind, an attack
of apoplexy reduced him to a state of second childhood
and effaced from his memory all traces even of his native
language, except a few _.of the
dpath the co lection having been acmeu ro we iuycu —---r- - , „„ „
binel; Messrs Buffon and Daubenton, the directors of that tlm academy was filled
cabinet, not affording him all the accommodations that he of June 1806 and^i p^ ^ vii. Hist.
expected, he discontinued the work, and altogether re- by M. Guy-Lussac. (Ueiamore, * (L> L>)
nounced the study of natural history in favour of natural
philosophy. .
M. Brisson had been chosen a member of the Academy
of Sciences in 1759: he soon afterwards associated him¬
self with the Abbe Nollet in delivering lectures on expe¬
rimental physics, and obtained the reversion of his ap
. J n r   * aT XTrvxrarro Qnrl in
1 189 ^ k*)
P’ BRISSOT, Peter, one of the ablest physicians of the
sixteenth century, was born at Fontenay-le-Com e, m
tou, in 1478. He studied at Pans, and, having taken lus
doctor’s degree, bent his thoughts on reforming physic,
by restoring the precepts of H.pPocrate*a„d Galen
rimental physics, and obtained the reversion ot ms ap- oy lesroi mg ^ which purpose
pointments of professor in the college of Navarre, and in- exploding -c ‘ ^ > works instead of those of
structor of the royal family in natural philosophy and na- he pub ic J CXP ‘ , M svj He afterwards resolved
tural history. The subject of electncrty was at tins tune ^es, -d He ^; ^ goi„
, . 1 . i i • !_ 4-u^ R.vnra. ills
t,v.t*,44 history. The subject   
warmly debated between Nollet and hranklin; and M.
Brisson had a difficult task to perform, in discussing the
merits of a mistaken friend and an overbearing opponent;
but, in fact, this department of science was at that time
too little understood to make it disgraceful for Nollet to
be in error with respect to the utility of conductors,, or
for Brisson to remain neutral upon this and other similar
questions. He seems, however, by no means to have ad¬
hered to the character of neutrality in his anonymous
Translation of Priestley s History of Electricity, published
in 1771, and accompanied by notes, which exhibit a spirit
of acrimonious criticism, not at all calculated to enhance
the merit of the work which he wished to intioduce to
the notice of his countrymen* He also attempted, in an
Essay on Waterspouts, published in the Memoirs of the
academy, to explain a variety of electrical phenomena,
LU LI cl V Cl iaj —  . ° x. n T? vo
Portugal, he practised physic in the city ot .0/- , re
new method of bleeding in pleurisies, on the sic _
the pleurisy was situated, raised a kind ot civ c ,
the Portuguese physicians, and was brought e
university of Salamanca, which at last gave judgmen ,
the opinion ascribed to Brissot was the pure doc 1 ,
Galen. The partisans of Denis, his opponent, appea eu
in 1529 to the emperor, to prevent the practice, as o
attended with destructive consequences; but Enaries
duke of Savoy happening to die at this time of a P ^
after having been bled on the opposite side, ve 1 .
tion dropped. He wrote an Apology for his p d
but died before it was published, in 15o2, by
Anthony Luceus. Renatus Moreau printed a n,j
tion at Paris in 1622, and annexed to it a treatise entitle
B R I
B R I
291
issot. Be Sanguinis Missione in Pleuritide, together with a life turned a member to the National Assembly, in spite of the
V of Brissot. opposition of the court, to whom he had become ex-
Brissot, John Peter, the chief of the Brissotine or tremely formidable; and from this time he displayed an
pure republican party in France during the early stages implacable enmity to the king. The National Assembly
of the revolution, was born at the village of Ouaroille, attributing to Brissot talents which he does not appear to
near Chartres, in the Orleannois, on the 14th of January have possessed, appointed him a member of the diplomatic
1754. His father, who was a pastry-cook, gave his son a committee, of which he became the habitual organ ; and in
liberal education, and Brissot became an author when he this capacity he was the constant advocate of the most
had scarcely left college. He exhibited a decided predi- violent public measures, and never ceased to demand a
lection for politics, and displayed an early zeal for repub- declaration of war against all the powers of Europe. In
lican principles. The boldness of his writings against the order to attain this object, it was necessary to remove
inequality of ranks excited the displeasure of the govern- the ministers, whose dispositions were favourable to peace,
ment, and subjected him to a prosecution and imprison- Brissot accordingly attacked them all, but particularly
ment in the Bastile. Having been restored to liberty M. Delessart, who was at the head of the department of
through the influence of the Duke of Orleans, at the so- foreign affairs; and, by repeated denunciations, he at
licitation of Madame de Genlis, he married one of the length succeeded in obtaining a decree of accusation
duchess’s women, and soon afterwards went to England, against him. His place was supplied by Dumouriez, under
with secret instructions, it is said, from the lieutenant of whose administration war was declared against the em-
the police. Others assert that he came over to London to peror of Germany, on the 20th of April 1792. From this
avail himself of the freedom of the press in conducting a period, however, the political influence of Brissot began
periodical publication, the design of which was to enlighten to decline. Robespierre, with whom he had previously
the people of France on the subject of civil liberty. It is been intimately connected, now declared himself his ene-
certain that he endeavoured to maintain himself in Lon- my, denounced him at the Jacobin Club as a traitor to his
don by his literary talents ; but the failure of this attempt country and an enemy of the people, and continued to
subjected him to embarrassments, from which he was re- persecute him with unrelenting rancour, until he finally
lieved by the liberality of a friend, and he then returned effected his destruction. Alarmed at the storm which
to his native country. was gathering around him, Brissot, in concert with the
Having again rendered himself obnoxious to the go- other leaders of his party, attempted to form a reconci-
vernment by an attack on the administration of the Arch- liation with the constitutional royalists; but this attempt
bishop of Sens, he escaped a second imprisonment by a having proved abortive, he reverted to his former opinions
journey to Holland. During a temporary residence at and line of conduct, and continued to denounce to popu-
Mecklin he published a periodical paper called Le Cour- lar vengeance all those whom he knew to be attached to
rier Belgique. In the beginning of the year 1788 he re- the king. But although his writings may naturally be
paired to America; but on the approach of the revolution supposed to have excited those dispositions among the
he returned to Paris, resolved to take an active part in people which gave rise to the atrocities of the times, he
tne scenes which were just preparing. He commenced had no direct influence on the revolution of the 10th of
his revolutionary career in 1789, by the publication of August, which appears to have been planned and directed
some pamphlets, and particular!}’- of a journal entitled Le by Danton. He was chosen a deputy to the National Con-
Patriote Francois. He belonged to the Representation vention for the department of the Eure, where he played
des Communes, which was formed in the capital a short only an inferior part, and was continually exposed to the
time previous to the memorable 14th of July. On the rancorous attacks of Robespierre. It was Brissot, however,
storming of the Bastile, the keys were deposited with who, as the organ of the diplomatic committee, obtained
him. He was elected president ol the Jacobin Club ; and, the declaration of war against England and Holland, on
in consequence of his zeal and activity in the revolution- the 1st of February 1793. This may be considered as
ary cause, he was appointed by his colleagues a member the last act of his political life; for from thenceforth he
of the Comite des Recherches, which served as the model was only occupied in defending himself against his nume-
of all those committees which were afterwards successively rous enemies.
formed under similar denominations, and with similar ob- The party distinguished by the name of the Mountain
jects; such as the Comites de Surveillance, de Surete Ge- had now acquired a complete ascendancy, and meditated
nerale, de Salut Public, &c. Of this committee Brissot the destruction of their opponents, the Girondists, to
was the president; and, while in this situation, he acquired which latter party Brissot was attached. Having at length
a number of enemies. A French writer of the name of been proscribed, after the revolution of the 31st of May,
Morande published at Paris, in 1791, a periodical pamph- he was arrested at Moulins while attempting to make his
let, under the title of Argus, in which he assailed the cha- escape into Switzerland, sent to Paris, subjected to a mock
racter of Brissot wdth great bitterness, representing his trial before the revolutionary tribunal, and beheaded on
conduct in the most odious colours, and even accusing him the 31st of October 1793, at the age of thirty-nine,
o robbery; an accusation which, there is reason to believe, Brissot was somewhat below the middle size, a little
was utterly calumnious. deformed, and of a feeble constitution. Plis countenance
On the flight of the royal family in 1791, Brissot, in was pale and melancholy, and he affected an extreme
concert with the Chevalier de Laclos, drew up the fa- simplicity in his dress. With regard to his intellectual
wous petition of the Champ de Mars, demanding the ab- character, his talents appear to have been much beneath
ication of the king, which became the signal for a dan- his reputation, and he certainly possessed more zeal than
gerous insurrection, that was with difficulty quelled by judgment. Notwithstanding the violence of his writings,
ie interposition of the national guard. This circum- declamations, and public conduct, however, he wras not
.W said to have been the occasion of his quarrel deficient in humanity; and, in the intercourse of private
Vl T i La%ette’ whom he had previously been life, his manners are said to have been mild and accom-
zeatmsly attached. At this period the republican faction modating. As an author, Brissot has not much merit;
gan to assume a consistent form, and to utter their his style is monotonous, verbose, and tedious; and, upon
entiments with freedom and boldness. Brissot, who had the whole, it is wonderful that, with such slender abilities,
een one of its first and most zealous apostles, was re- he should have acquired so great an ascendancy in public
Brissot.
292
B R I
B R I
Bristol, opinion. The best articles of his journal are said to have
been written by his secretary Dupre. Ihe following are
the principal productions of his pen 1. Moyens d ^ ou-
cir la Rigueur des Lois Penales en France, Chalons, 1 '81,
8vo; 2. Un Independant'de 1’Ordre des Avocats sur la
Decadence du Barreau en France, 1781, 8vo; 3. De la
Yerite, ou Meditations, &c. 1782, 8vo ; 4 Le Plnladelphien
a Geneve, 1783, 8vo; 5. Theorie des Lois Cnminelles,
1781, 2 vols. 8vo; 6. Bibliotheque Philosophique du Le
gislateur, du Politique, du Jurisconsulte, 1782-1786, iU
vols. 8vo; Tableau de la Situation Actuelle des Anglais
dans les Indes Orientales, &c. 1784-5, 8vo; 8 Journal du
Lvcee de Londres, &c. published in monthly numbers,
1784, 8vo; 9. Un Defenseur du People a 1 Empereur Jo¬
seph II., sur son Reglement concernant 1’Emigration, &c.
1785 l2mo; 10. Examen Critique des Voyages dans
I’Am'erique Septentrionale, par le Marquis de Chatellux,
1786, 8vo ; 11. Voyages en Europe, en Asie, et en Atnque,
translated from the English, with notes, 1786 and 17JO,
2 vols. 8vo; 12. Nouveau Voyage dans les Etats-Ums de
I’Amerique Septentrionale, 1791, 3 vols. 8vo. lo the first
volume of this work was prefixed a life of Bnssot, which
w'as translated into English, and published separately in
1794. Besides these works, Brissot wrote a variety ot
pamphlets, and articles inserted in periodical publications,
which it is unnecessary to enumerate. See the life ot
Brissot, above mentioned, and the Biographic UmverscUe.
BRISTOL, a city of England, partly within the bound¬
ary of the county of Somerset, and partly in that of Glou¬
cester, though it is a county of itself; distant 119 miles
from London, and 13 miles from Bath. It is situated in a
valley, rather contracted, at the junction of the riveis
Frome and Avon, which, by the construction of a canal
and locks, have been formed into a basin, where vessels,
which lay on the ground formerly at low water, are now
kept constantly afloat. From this floating dock the ships
are lowered by locks into the united stream, which joins
the Severn a few miles below the city. Bristol is a city
of extensive and beneficial commerce, and that with al¬
most every part of the globe. The trade with the ^est
Indies is the most considerable; that with Spain and 1 or-
tugal, with the Baltic ports, with the Mediterranean, with
Africa, and the East Indies, if inferior to that of London
and Liverpool, comes next to the latter place. There are
considerable manufactures also in and near the city, es¬
pecially of glass, sugar, braziery and tin ware, snuft, to¬
bacco, beer, soap, corn, spirits, vinegar, sugar refineries,
white lead, and many smaller articles. It has, from its
local position, an advantageous inland trade ; and is a kind
of emporium for South Wales, and the northern parts oi
Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall, to which theie is a con¬
stant water conveyance ; whilst by means of other canals
goods are transmitted to the central parts of the kingdom.
Many ships are built here ; and the equipment of them, as
well as the barges and trows for inland navigation, affords
considerable employment to the labouring portion ot the
population. _
Although this city dates its origin at a remote period,
and some parts of it contain streets that are narrow, ciook-
ed, and gloomy, and many houses of an antiquated appear¬
ance, yet many parts are not behind any city in England
in improvements of every kind. Several new stieetsand
squares have been built of late years in the valley; whilst
in Clifton, one of the parishes'which compose the city,
there have been constructed crescents, parades, and stieets,
which vie with the best in the metropolis, and, from theii
beautiful situation and prospects, far exceed them. An¬
other of the parishes of this city, Bedminster, has also much
increased in beauty of buildings, as well as in the number
of its inhabitants. The city is governed by a mayor, two
sheriffs, twelve aldermen, and twenty-eight common coun¬
cil men, besides a high steward, commonly a nobleman of
high rank, and a recorder, usually a lawyer of distinguish¬
ed eminence. The guilds are thirteen in number, and the ^
whole body of freemen many thousands, and the more so
as every daughter of a freeman conveys by marriage the
freedom to her husband. The two members for the city
are chosen by the whole body of them. Bristol contains,
besides the cathedral, eighteen parish churches and five
chapels, with a number of places of worship for the se¬
veral descriptions of separatists from the established re-
Ihrion. It has two scientific institutions, social establish¬
ments, and numerous societies for the laudable purposes
of benevolence, in the formation of which all the jarring
political and religious parties show an honourable rivalry.
There are several markets, where provisions are supplied
of excellent quality, in great abundance, and at very mo¬
derate rates. The inhabitants of Bristol are more dis¬
tinguished for their steady prudence than for their ad¬
venturous spirit in commerce ; hence, if the city has not
made occasionally such rapid advances, it has. gone, on
steadily, and scarcely ever suffered by extensive disappoint¬
ments in its commercial pursuits, or been the victim of
those crises and fluctuations which have frequently occur¬
red in other trading towns.
The hot wells near this city were formerly higher in
fame than at the present day, but the water is still in es¬
timation for its purity, and large quantities of it are dis¬
patched to distant parts of the world. The population of
Bristol has made the same regular advances as are to be
found in the other ports of the British islands. In our
view we include the parish of Bedminster in the city of
Bristol, because it forms a part of it, as much as West¬
minster or Southwark do of London. Ihe number of in¬
habitants thus taken amounted in 1801 to 66,922, in 1811
to 76,952, and in 1821 to 95,758. According to all pro¬
bable appearance this rate of increase must have continued
since the last census, which will make the present popu¬
lation at least 105,000 persons.
Bristol, a seaport town, and capital of a county of the
same name, in Rhode Island. It is a very pleasant town,
finely situated and handsomely built. The harbour is sam
and commodious, and the place has a considerable tiace.
In 1820, the shipping belonging to the port amounted to
10,701 tons. The trade is carried on principally with the
West Indies and with Europe. Bristol possesses a 9°^"
house, a jail, a market-house, a masonic-hall, a public lib¬
rary containing about 1400 volumes, and four places o
public worship. Great quantities of onions are raised i.ere
for exportation. Mount Flope, which lies about two miles
north-east of Bristol, within the township, is a pleasant
Bristol
II
Bristol
Channel
hill, of a conical form, and famous for having been theie
sidence of the Indian king, Philip. The population ot
Bristol in 1820 amounted to 3197. It is situated fifteen
miles south from Providence, fifteen north from Newport,
and fifty-six south-south-west from Boston. Long.
W. Lat. 41. 38. N. ,
Bristol, a town of the United States, in Bucks coun ),
Pennsylvania. It stands on Delaware river, opposite
Burlington in New Jersey, and contains-about one hundred
houses. It is a great thoroughfare, and is noted or i
mills of several kinds. It is situated about eleven mi e
south-south-east from Newton, and about twenty nor
east from Philadelphia. Long. 74. 56. W. Lat. 4). • ‘
There are several other places of this name in the Lni
States, but of inferior note. . ^
Bristol Channel, a portion of the Atlantic U >
on the coast of Great Britain, lying between t ie sc*u ,
coast of Wales and the counties of Somerset, Devon, an
Cornwall, in England.
293
B ish
d
K ’.an
]’ iod.
BRITAIN, OR GREAT BRITAIN,
The most considerable of all the European islands, is si¬
tuated between fifty and fifty-eight and a half degrees of
north latitude. It is bounded on the north by the North
Sea, on the east by the German Ocean, on the south by
the English Channel, and on the west by St George’s Chan¬
nel and the Atlantic Ocean. From north to south it ex¬
tends about five hundred and eighty miles in length; its
greatest breadth, from the North Foreland in Kent to the
Land’s-End in Cornwall, is about three hundred and seventy
miles ; and,its superficial area is computed at eighty-seven
thousand five hundred square miles. The figure of this
island is irregular, somewhat resembling that of a wedge,
to which indeed it was compared by the ancients, from its
gradually narrowing towards its northern extremity ; and
its whole line of coast is deeply indented by bays, creeks,
and estuaries, which, notwithstanding its boldness and rug¬
gedness in many parts, afford safe and commodious har¬
bours. From its geographical position, therefore, no less
than from its natural advantages, this island seems to have
been destined by nature to become the seat of a great and
powerful nation.
CHAP. I.
BRITISH AND ROMAN PERIOD.
Origin of the names Albion and Britain The Gauls, Kelts, or
Celts.—Their migrations and incursions Portion of Europe
occupied by them at the dawn of history.—Distinctive charac¬
ters of the race—Branches of the great Celtic family.—Celts
the earliest inhabitants of Britain—Followed by invaders of the
Gothic or Teutonic race—Predominance of the latter Abori-
ginal Celtic population of Scotland succeeded by the Gothic 
Condition of the Britons in the time of Caesar Druidism 
Character and habits of the Britons.—Commerce and War 
Roman Period—Caesar’s Expeditions—Subsequent attempts of
the Romans—Aulus Plautius—Ostorius Scapula.—Gallant
struggle of Caractacus—His defeat in South Wales Betray¬
ed—Aulus Didius—Attack on Anglesea by Suetonius Paulinus.
—Revolt of the Britons under Boadicea—Campaigns of Agri¬
cola—Extent of the Roman Conquests in Britain Introduc¬
tion of Christianity—Hadrian, Severus, and Caracalla Con¬
stitution of the Roman Provincial Government.—Usurpations
of Carnusius and Allectus—Constantine Cruelties of Paulus.
—Scots and Piets.—Their inroads and ravages Departure of
the Romans from Britain—Distresses of the Natives Arrival
of the Saxons under Hengist and Horsa.—Saxon Conquest.
Various etymologies have been proposed of the words
Albion and Britain; the former being the ancient name of
the island; the latter that which superseded it, and in time
became the appellation by which it was universally known.
Originally Albion was considered as only one of the
British islands, and it is described as such both by Aga-
themerus and Ptolemy ; but being by far the largest and
roost important of the group, the particular name was in
course ol time laid aside, and the general denomination
used in its stead. The etymological origin of both, how¬
ever, is involved in uncertainty. Some derive that of
Albion from the Greek AXpog or ATsirog, identical with the
Eatm Aldus and the Sabine Alpus, signifying White, and
being obviously mere variations of the Celtic Alb or Alp,
wmeh has the same meaning; conceiving, with Festus,
fiat as the mountains which separate France and Italy
weie called Alpes, by reason of their snowy covering, so
this island was denominated Albion on account of the
chalky cliffs and soil of its southern shores, which were the
portions that appeared to those who viewed it from the
coast of Gaul; and this conjecture derives some coun¬
tenance from the fact that the ancient Britons them¬
selves called it Inis-iven or Eilanban, the White Island.
Others, again, have recourse to the Phoenician, in which
Alp signifies High, and contend that the name Albion
was originally bestowed upon the island by the adven¬
turous navigators of Phoenicia, who first visited its shores,
by reason of the bold and precipitous aspect of its head¬
lands and coasts, and that hence it is descriptive, not of the
colour, but of tbe physical conformation, of these coasts.
Of the word Britain a still greater variety of etymo¬
logies have been proposed. Nennius derives it from Bru¬
tus, whom he likewise calls Brito, the fifth in descent
from iEneas. Camden supposes it a compound of Brith
or Brit, a Celtic word signifying painted, and reewa, a
Greek word denoting a region; so that, according to him,
the island was called Britannia from its being the country
of painted people. Carte, founding on the circumstances
that the ancient Britons called themselves Prydhain, and
their country Inis-prydhain, or the Isle of the Prydhain,
conceives that Britanni and Britannia are only latinized
forms of the original word Prydhain in the British or
Celtic tongue. Somner, disliking Camden’s etymology,
conjectures that Britain is derived from brydio, which in
the ancient language of the island signified rage, and, ac¬
cording to hing was intended to indicate its position in the
midst of a tempestuous sea. Whittaker is equally or even
more fanciful than Somner, contending that the true ety¬
mon of the word is brith, briet, brit, bris, or brig, which he
says means striped or divided. And Bochart, whose love
of the Phoenician was such that he found it every where
and in every thing, conceives that this island and some
others near it were denominated Barut Anac by the Phoe¬
nicians, that is, the country of tin, which, contracted into
Bratanac, passed from them to the Greeks and Romans,
and ultimately emerged in the softened forms of Britanni
and Britannia. This, at least, has the merit of ingenuity
to recommend it. Of the others, that of Carte seems to
us to be the most natural and probable ; although it leaves
unexplained the word Prydhain, the analysis of which is
essential to complete the etymology. It has been assum¬
ed by some that the name was originally bestowed on the
island by foreigners; and, on this supposition, they have
endeavoured to resolve it into its elements, or at least to
offer a conjectural explanation of the circumstance which
led to its primary application. But for our own part, we
see no grounds whatever for entertaining such a notion;
and think it much more likely that foreigners varied, ac¬
cording to their respective idioms and modes of articula¬
tion, the name in use among the natives, than that they
invented, applied, and rendered general a new one, con¬
structed on a remote and fanciful analogy, and having re¬
ference to accessory circumstances or particular localities.1
At the period when the Greek and Roman writers be¬
gan to turn their attention to the west of Europe, they
found it, from the remotest extremity of Ireland to the
banks of the Danube, peopled by a race called Gauls,
Kelts, or Celts, who, before the practice of tillage bound
them to the soil, had overspread a large portion of Spain
British
and
Roman
Period.
1 Carte, History, vol. i. pp. 4, 5, 6.
294
BRITAIN.
British
and
Roman
Period.
in the course of their armed migrations, and, through the
passes of the Julian and Rhsetian Alps, had poured preda¬
tory bands on the great plain of northern Italy, where they
established themselves, and afterwards struck a heavy blow
at the rising power of Rome, stretching their dominions
as far as the Appennines. This remarkable race, believed
with reason to be of oriental origin, extended along the
Danube till they reached the Sarmatians on the one hand,
and the Thracians and Illyrians on the other; and .rom
the central position which they thus occupied, they appear
to have diverged by various natural channels to the ditter-
ent countries of Europe where their descendants are still
to be found. How they came to establish themselves ori¬
ginally in such a position is uncertain. Their early mi¬
grations, undertaken for plunder rather than conquest,
occurred anterior to the period of history; and we have but
slender grounds for probable conjecture respecting either
their extent or their antiquity. But some of the latei in¬
cursions of this people into Italy and Greece are fortunate¬
ly better known to us. A numerous body of Gauls, for
example, deserting the bands of their countrymen who
ravaged Greece, established themselves in Asia Minor
under the successors of Alexander, and gave their name
to the country they occupied, which was accordingly call-
ed Galatia. In the opinion of some, this body of invaders
consisted wholly of Celts, wdiile others maintain that they
were of the Teutonic race; but it seems at least equally
probable that they were composed of both races. With
regard to the causes which produced these fierce and ex¬
tensive irruptions, the learned have lost themselves in
speculation, and wearied their readers with endless con¬
jectures. The motives which led to them were in all like¬
lihood different at different times, and they may therefore
be variously ascribed to the restless and adventurous spiiit
of such tribes, to the ambition and rapacity of their chiefs,
to the necessity which, after a certain period, urges on an
unproductive race to seek new settlements, or to the re¬
sistless pressure of invading barbarians from behind, or
perhaps to the simultaneous operation of several of these
causes.1
The Rhine formed the northern boundary of the Gauls,
and separated them from the Germanic or Teutonic race,
which spread into Scandinavia, towards the last retreat
of the Finnish tribes in the Arctic solitudes, and extend¬
ed, on the other side, from the shores of the Atlantic to
the vast plains inhabited by the Sarmatians and Dacians.
The Garonne divided them from the Aquitanians, a peo¬
ple who, from various circumstances, as the testimony of
the ancients, and the names of rivers and mountains, ap¬
pear to have been the original inhabitants of the Spanish
peninsula ; whilst a portion of this primitive Iberian race
occupied the southern coast of Gaul from the Pyrenees to
the frontier of Italy.
The intermingling, followed by the gradual fusion and
amalgamation of the various races by which most coun¬
tries have been successively overrun, renders it exceeding¬
ly difficult, if not impossible, to discriminate the first in¬
habitants from the more civilized visitants, as well as to
distinguish between the different tribes of the latter.
Greece, from its position near the earliest seats of civili¬
zation, was open to conquest and colonization from nume¬
rous points both by sea and land; on the side of Thrace,
on that of Asia Minor, from Egypt, and from the coun¬
tries of the East. Europe, Africa, and Asia, appear at
different times to have discharged portions of their popu¬
lation into this favoured spot; and hence has arisen the
difficulty of ascertaining the number, and much more of
detecting the peculiarities, of each successive immigration Bntis|
Italy, again, being accessible to colonists by sea from and
Greece, Asia Minor, and Egypt, and always exposed to Roma
the inroads of the tribes who inhabited or were able to make
themselves masters of the principal passes of the Alps, was WYV'
occupied by a greater diversity of races than any other
country of the West; and hence has arisen a confusion in
the genealogy of its tribes, whicji even the profound sa¬
gacity and varied learning of Niebuhr have not succeeded
in disentangling. Population appears to have originally
flowed into this country from its two extremities; but in
process of time the opposite streams met, and became so
thoroughly intermingled, that no moral or intellectual
chemistry can ever decompose them. With regard to the
colonies of the Phoenicians, they encircled the Mediter¬
ranean as far as Carthage and Cadiz, whilst no Grecian
colonists had as yet established themselves farther to the
west than Massalia, Massilia, or Marseilles. In circum¬
stances and times like these, the natural boundaries of
nations were often irregularly changed. The course of
migration was frequently diverted from its ordinary chan¬
nels, and sometimes forced back towards its original source.
Races were mingled so that their distinctive marks be¬
came no longer discoverable; and even languages were
changed, or altogether disappeared. Of this confusion the
Galatians in Asia Minor, and the Keltiberians in Spain,
afford examples. Even the Belgic inhabitants of northern
Gaul have been thought a mixed race, and it seems pretty
certain that, from whatever cause, Teutonic tribes were
generally classed amongst them. Again, although the
natural tendency of an unwritten language be to break
down first into dialects and afterwards into distinct lan¬
guages, yet languages originally different sometimes run
into each other, and coalesce in a very remarkable manner.
Of this the Hindustanee and Anglo-Norman have afford¬
ed examples at the opposite extremities of the globe, both
having been formed out of jargons used in intercourse be¬
tween the conquerors and the conquered. The victors
sometimes impose their language, with little mixture, on
the vanquished ; but in India every variety of dialect has
been deeply tinctured with Sanscrit, the original as well
as the sacred language of that country ; and nothing can
be imagined more heterogeneous or dissimilar than the
roots of most of the forms of speech which actually obtain
in it.2
It may not be out of place to observe here, that the term
race, as used in civil history, has a very different accepta¬
tion from that which is given to it by natuialists. ^
latter, confining their view to the physical form and or¬
ganization of man, and making no account of language, ana
of those other minor varieties and peculiarities which the
civil historian is obliged to notice, admit at present on y
five races of men; the Caucasian, the Mongolian, the
Ethiopian, the American, and the Malay. Colour is con¬
sidered as one of their tests or characters. The Caucasian
is accounted the primitive stock, and it deviates mto two
extremes, equally remote and different from each otie ,
namely, the Mongolian and the Ethiopian. But althoug
the Mongol and the Negro differ from the European nmcn
more deeply and radically than the Hindu and the ^ ia ,
yet if the lesser difference be admitted to be the resu o
physical causes, operating throughout a long tract of ages,
it will be difficult to prove that, the greater may not at
length have been produced by similar causes acting c u
ing a greater period of time. Be this as it may, however,
it must be obvious that, from lengthened separation, aiy
the natural divergency of language, the historical division
1 Mackintosh, History of England, vol. i. Introd.
2 Mackintosh, ubi supra.
BRITAIN.
Br sh of mankind become broken into portions or subdivisions
£ i not always corresponding with the political distribution of
Iti in territory among nations, and that, as the same state may
contain tribes of various race, so the same race may be
^ ^ subject to many distinct rulers.1
The Celtic race may be considered as subdivided into
two distinct portions, with languages which, though cer¬
tainly derived from a common stock, are not, it is be¬
lieved, reciprocally understood. One of these cognate
languages or dialects, called the Gaelic, is still spoken by
the native Irish, by the Highlanders of Scotland, and in
the Isle of Man; the other is the common speech of
Wales and Lower Bretagne, and, till a period comparative¬
ly recent, it was spoken in Cornwall; whilst, in each branch
or subdivision, the parent language seems only to differ
by provincial variations, which, accumulating in a long
series of ages, have produced a greater divergence than is
generally found to exist between affiliated dialects. The
Gaulish tribes are unable to converse with the Cimbric,
yet there is abundant evidence that the Gaelic and Cym-
raig or Welsh are branches of the same family. Indeed
it is supposed by some that the Cimbric or Cymraig fol¬
lowed, at a considerable interval, the Gaulish settlers ;
and it seems not improbable, that the tribes who spoke
this form or dialect of Celtic were, as Sir James Mackin¬
tosh observes, “ the same Cimbri who, in conjunction with
their Teutonic allies, were expelled from the Roman ter¬
ritory with a slaughter so enormous, and after atrocities
so unmatched, as to be suspected of exaggerational¬
though it should be borne in mind “ that the adversaries
of the Romans were not armies, but migratory nations,
bringing into the field women and children, and fierce
animals,” which all contributed to swell the horrors of the
I butchery, and first taught the Romans to dread the arms
of the northern barbarians.2
That the aboriginal, or at least the earliest inhabitants
of these islands were a people of Celtic origin and race,
seems to be admitted on all hands, and is rendered high¬
ly probable, both from the intimations of history and the
evidence of language. The former leave little doubt that
the migrations and settlements of the Celtic tribes pre¬
ceded those of the Scythian or Gothic nations by whom
they were almost everywhere displaced; and this conclu¬
sion derives additional probability from the consideration,
that the greater part of the names of mountains, lakes,
and rivers, in both the British islands, are still descriptive
and significant in some dialect of the Celtic language.
“ The appellations of these vast and permanent parts of na¬
ture,” says Sir James Mackintosh, “ are commonly observ¬
ed to continue as unchanged as themselves.” Of all the
languages that ever existed, the Celtic is perhaps the richest
m an appropriate and expressive nomenclature for physical
objects; and the facility with which its elementary forms
admit of combinations descriptive of the varieties obser¬
vable in external nature, must have greatly tended to im¬
press and perpetuate the appellations which it originally
supplied. Hence it is that, after the revolution of ages,
and the fluctuations of conquest, dominion, and race, to¬
gether with all the changes which time and usage insen¬
sibly operate in language, the names in question are still
distinctly traceable ; whilst the extent to which they still
obtain in both parts of Britain seems to argue the origi¬
nal ascendancy of the race from whose language they were
derived. Had the Gothic preceded, instead of following,
the Celtic colonists, the case would in all probability have
ieen exactly, or at least very nearly, the reverse of this.
As it is, however, the fact here mentioned appears to be
incompatible with any other supposition than that of Bri¬
tain being originally peopled by a Celtic race; and as the
Gaelic dialect explains many more of the names of exter¬
nal objects than that spoken by the other branch of the i
race, the same principle leads us to conclude, that those
who employed that variety of the common or parent lan¬
guage were the first settlers. Beyond these probabilities
the most ancient period of our history is involved in im¬
penetrable darkness.
To the Celtic population of Britain succeeded the Go¬
thic, by whom they were, at a very early period, displa¬
ced to a considerable extent. Advancing from the north¬
ern parts of Asia and Europe, where they had enjoyed a
wild independence, the Scythians or Goths drove the Cim¬
bri or northern Celts before them, and, seizing upon that
part of Gaul which is nearest to Britain, they crossed over
into England. The period of this immigration is uncer¬
tain ; but at the time of Caesar’s invasion, the primitive or
Celtic inhabitants had been driven into the interior and
more inaccessible parts of the island, while the south¬
eastern portion was peopled with colonies of Gothic de¬
scent, who may, therefore, be regarded as the chief ances¬
tors of the English nation. The expulsion of the aborigi¬
nal population from the south-eastern coasts and lowland
districts of the whole island was complete ; so much so, in
fact, that, but for the tenacity with which the names of
natural objects adhere to them, and some other indications
of a still fainter kind, not a trace or vestige of their origi¬
nal ascendancy would have remained. The Saxon con¬
quest was of a different character. The invaders, incon¬
siderable in number, sought political supremacy rather
than a settlement by means of extermination, and used
the privileges of conquest with more moderation than their
predecessors of the same race. There no longer existed
between the conquerors and the conquered that radical
diversity of physical conformation, habits, and customs,
which, in a barbarous age, is the source of inextinguish¬
able hostility; they accordingly enslaved, but forebore
from exterminating or utterly expelling the natives; a
gradual amalgamation took place; and, from the com¬
mingled Gothic dialects of both, at length sprung the
Anglo-Saxon, which is the parent of the English language.
Some, indeed, have maintained that, at the period of Cae¬
sar’s invasion, the population of Britain still continued
Celtic. But this opinion labours under serious objections.
The Anglo-Saxon and the English language, in its elder
and simpler form, exhibit scarcely a trace of Celtic in
their composition; and they have even less of that pecu¬
liar dialect of Gothic which the Angles and Saxons must
have spoken at the period of their arrival in Britain, than
of the Belgic and Dutch dialects, which are in all proba¬
bility of Scandinavian origin. To this it may, indeed, be
objected that Druidism, which is rightly considered as a
Celtic superstition, is mentioned by Caesar in the earliest
authentic records of the island which has reached our times.
But, in the first place, Caesar never speaks of having actual¬
ly seen Druids, nor does it appear that any one of this class
of priests was discovered until the Romans had penetrat¬
ed into South Wales; and, secondly, forms of superstition
often survive the races or nations amongst which they
originated, and pass indifferently from the conquered to
the conquerors, and conversely, by the operation of causes
totally distinct from those which determine the fate of
communities of men.
The expulsion of the Celts from the eastern coast of
Britain long preceded the arrival of Caesar. This may be
inferred from the account of Tacitus, whose description
295
British
and
Roman
Period.
Mackintosh, Hist, of England, vol. i. p. 12.
* History, Hid.
296
British
and
Homan
Period.
BRITAIN.
of the inhabitants of the lowland parts of Scotland as a
red-haired and large limbed race, clearly indicates their
Gothic origin; whilst, in the interval between Caesar and
Agricola, no material change appears to have occurred in
the relative distribution of the various tribes by whom
Scotland was then inhabited. It would be vain to attempt
to ascertain the epoch of a revolution which seems to have
been effected long anterior to the period of history; but
if the time of its occurrence be uncertain, the tact itselt
is nevertheless indisputable; and this is connected with
another, sufficiently remarkable, namely, that every trace
or vestige of the original Celtic population of the Lowlands
has been obliterated, and that there is neither monument,
record, tradition, nor circumstance of any kind which can
lead to a conjecture as to their fate. It is natural, indeed,
to suppose that in Scotland, as elsewhere, those who
escaped the fury of the invaders sought shelter m the
mountains or Highlands, where a people chiefly Celtic still
exists; but it seems as well established as any fact of the
kind can ever be, that the occupation of the Highlands by
a Celtic population does not date much earlier than the
sixth century, and. that the first settlers of this race were
a reflux of the Celts from Ireland, not a remnant of the
aboriginal inhabitants ot the Lowlands, dhe Dalriads or
Attacotii are indeed said to have established themselves
in Argyleshire about the middle of the third century , but
they were driven back to Ireland in the fifth century, and
did not return till the following one, when they effected
a second and permanent settlement. Extiavagant pie-
tensions to antiquity have, it is true, been set up in favour
of the Celtic Scots by Boyce, Buchanan, and others, who
gravely affirm that this people reigned in Scotland a thou¬
sand years before the Christian era. But the fabulous
millennium with which these writers gratified the credu¬
lous nationality of their countrymen in^ an uninquiring
age has found no supporters in more modern times.
The condition of the Britons in the time of Caesar very
much resembled that of the Gauls from whom they sprung.
They were divided into a number of petty kingdoms or
states, each of which was again subdivided among subor¬
dinate chieftains, who governed their respective tribes or
clans with more than feudal authority. On great emer¬
gencies, indeed, they united under a common leader; but
this “ king of kings” had only a limited and precarious
rule; and the confederacies of the ancient Britons, like
those of the ancient Greeks, were neither numerous nor
lasting. Like the mutually repellant atoms of the Epicu¬
rean philosophy, their union was fortuitous; and as there
existed no principle of compression to retain them in the
situation into which accident or a sense of common dan¬
ger sometimes threw them, a separation speedily followed.
It was this which gave the Romans so great an advantage
in their contests with these warlike nations. Never con¬
sulting together for the benefit of the whole, it was rare
that even two or three of them united against the com¬
mon enemy. They fought, for the most part, separately,
and, as a necessary consequence, were beaten in detail.
Of the limits of the regal authority among the Britons
little is known with any degree of certainty, though much
probably depended on the personal character of the indi¬
vidual who exercised it. Hereditary right seems to have
been recognised, and extended even to female succession,
but it was not strictly observed or enforced ; and instances
were not rare of the exclusion of a son by his father, whom
he had offended, from any share in his dominions. It has
been conjectured that the power of the people was consi¬
derable ; but tnis is merely conjecture. Among the Gauls
the few had not succeeded in excluding the many from all
participation in the conduct of their own affairs. But whe¬
ther the Britons resembled them in this respect or not, it
is difficult to say. From all that we learn, however, we are British
inclined to think that here the similarity failed. and
But whatever may have been the power of the kings or Roman
the influence of the people, there existed an order which
exercised an authority paramount to that of either, or of both
united. This was the Druidical or sacred caste, which, in
relation to the rest of society, occupied a station and en¬
joyed privileges in Britain, analogous to those possessed
by the Brahmins of India at the period of their greatest
glory. The power of the Druids was absolute, exclusive,
and peculiar to them as a body. Their sanction was ne¬
cessary to all public transactions, which otherwise were of
no validity. They could pardon malefactors who had been
judicially condemned, or ordain victims to the sacrifice
without the intervention of any trial or judgment but their
own. From the Druids the Romans seem to have bor¬
rowed the aquce et ignis interdictio, which became the most
terrible sentence of their law. It was, in fact, the Druidi¬
cal excommunication slightly varied. An individual de¬
barred from attending the holy rites, and interdicted the
use of fire, received sentence of eternal banishment from
the fellowship of his kind ; and this sentence, more for¬
midable than the excommunication of the Roman Catho¬
lic church in aftertimes, they could pronounce at plea¬
sure. Their ceremonies were at once mysterious and in¬
human. The mistletoe, which they accounted peculiarly
sacred, was gathered by them from the leaves of the oak
with circumstances of extraordinary solemnity, though for
what purpose or with what view is unknown. They dwelt
in the centre of concentrated woods, and their reheats
w ere defended from intrusion or violation by the power of
a dark and gloomy superstition. On their rude but hor¬
rid altars they sacrificed human victims; and from the
course of the blood as it flowed under the knife of the of¬
ficiating priest, they prognosticated future events. They
were the lawgivers, physicians, poets, and philosophers o
their country. They are said to have been, acquainted with
letters and the art of writing, though in what particular
form is uncertain. Caesar, probably from misinformation,
says that they employed the Greek letters, which is very
improbable. They' taught their disciples the doctime o
transmigration, and inculcated on them the duty of despis¬
ing death in defence of their country. They practised
celibacy, and continued their order by kidnapping chil¬
dren, whom they trained up and initiated in their myste¬
ries. Some of their observances are described as exces¬
sively revolting; others would seem to have been of a
more innocent and even humane character. Britain was
the great sanctuary of this superstition. Originally import¬
ed from Gaul, it seems to have found a congenial soil in
this country, where it struck its roots so firmly, and insi¬
nuated itself so deeply, into the general character, that
traces of it are still discoverable in several of the popular
superstitions which the “ schoolmaster” has not yet suc¬
ceeded in effacing. . , r < -os
The Druidical system is not without oriental features.
“ So much subserviency of one part of a nation to anot ier,
says Sir James Mackintosh, “ in an age so destitute of tne
means of influence and of the habits of obedience, 18 ? .
without resemblance to that system of ancient Asia, w ic
confined men to hereditary occupations, and consequen y
vested in the sacerdotal caste a power founded in the e
elusive possession of knowledge. The Egyptian an 1
nician colonists who settled in the Hellenic territory
by some fortunate accident unknown to history, set r
from those Asiatic restrictions which, having Prot,a '
long subsisted as usages, were at length sanctioned am g
their ancestors by law and by religion as the sole secu J
against a relapse into unskilfulness and barbarism,
the Celtic colonists who originally settled in Can
BRITAIN.
1 stlsh
id
I nan
1 iod.
Britain were not equally fortunate. Having imported,
long before the period of record, the oriental sj'stem, with
its restrictive and stationary spirit, they submitted to its
yoke in their new settlements, where it withstood the ex¬
ample of a more generous polity afforded by the neigh¬
bouring republics of Hellenic origin, and only yielded at
length to the ascendancy of the benignant genius of the
Christian religion.
The prevalence of such a system is, even under the
most favourable circumstances, incompatible with an ad¬
vanced state of civilization; and in Britain it co-existed
with a condition of society which, anterior to the Roman
occupation, was but little elevated above absolute barba¬
rism. The south-western shores of the island had, it is
true, been.early resorted to by foreigners for purposes of
traffic; the Phoenicians and Massilians, for example, trad¬
ed in the tin of Cornwall, and from them geographers
spoke of the Cassiterides or Tin Islands; but this traffic
was too limited in extent, and too confined in its sphere,
to have any material influence on the general character of
the people, who accordingly derived small benefit from
their occasional intercourse with foreigners. Their scan¬
ty clothing consisted of untanned skins; and the parts of
the body left exposed were bedaubed with an azure co¬
louring matter extracted from a particular herb. Tillage,
which had been introduced by the Belgic Gauls, was not
altogether unknown; but the principal articles of food
were the milk and flesh of their herds. Superstition, with
its usual blind absurdity, had forbidden them the use of
fish, which abounded on all the coasts of the island. Their
towns were merely clusters of wigwams, covered with turf,
boughs, or skins, and situated in the midst of some forest
or morass, with the avenues defended by ramparts of earth
and felled trees. In their persons they were large and
tall, excelling the Gauls alike in stature and in strength ;
but their features were heavy, their figures clumsy, and,
according to Strabo, they did not stand firm on their legs.
Laige men, indeed, are seldom handsome or elegantly
formed. But although barbarians in point of art and in¬
dustry, the ancient Britons commanded respect by their
intellectual and moral qualities. According to Tacitus,
they possessed a quicker apprehension than the Gauls;
and Diodorus Siculus commends their integrity as greater
than that of the Romans. A custom abhorrent to natural
morality is indeed said to have prevailed amongst them;
we are told that societies of ten or twelve persons possess¬
ed wives in common. But the supposition of such a cus¬
tom might be easily, though erroneously, formed, by a
Roman stranger, from the circumstance of the barbarians
sleeping promiscuously in their hovels, as the peasantry
do to this day in some parts of Scotland; and the fact,
when rightly understood, by no means warrants the con¬
clusion which seems to have been drawn from it. On the
contrary, the chastity of the sexes, and the purity of do¬
mestic intercourse, may have been as rigidly observed and
maintained among these simple barbarians as in periods
o society when the guards of virtue are multiplied, and
modesty is sheltered by factitious sentiment and conven¬
tional ceremony.
The trade in tin of Cornwall, carried on either directly
or indirectly by the Phoenicians and Massilians, has been
rea y noticed. Prior to the Roman conquest, however,
j musthave been inconsiderable ; and it is even
,u whether those early navigators were acquainted
.. le mainland of Britain, since we hear only of the
advm fndeS’ or adjacent islands, to which their mercantile
RomanTf8 t0 have.been confined. But after the
aupst la^ flr.mly established themselves in their con-
horsed CrfPer’ t!f’ lime’ chalk’ Pearls> corn> cattle, hides,
von v eeSe’anc^ slaves> began to be exported by
297
them, and we may conclude that the products of other
countries were imported in return or exchange for these
commodities. The only manufacture we read of was that
of baskets, in which, as we learn from various authorities,
the Britons greatly excelled. Some of the more useful
but baser metals seem not to have been found in Britain
before the time of Caesar, who informs us that even their
brass was imported ; and their skill in manufacturing such
as they had must have been very small indeed, since, as
we learn from the same authority, their ornamental trin¬
kets were supplied by strangers. But their warlike habits
had not left them ignorant of the coarser craft of the ar¬
mourer. Man has never been found, in any state or con¬
dition of his existence, altogether unprovided with weapons
of defence. Those of the Britons consisted of small tar¬
gets and swords, spears, and chariots armed with iron
scythes projecting from the extremities of the axle-tree;
and they were also provided with noisy rattles, intended
to strike terror into their enemies. Their chariots they
managed with considerable dexterity, and, on several oc¬
casions, succeeded in breaking the Roman line by means
of these vehicles ; but, on the whole, they proved unavail-
ing against the admirable discipline of "the legions, and
were no more heard of after the Romans gained a footing
in the island. It is even wonderful that they should ever,
in any instance, have been found in the least degree dan¬
gerous or formidable, except to theBritons themselves ; for
as these vehicles could only act on level unbroken ground,
and as the extreme mobility of the legion gave it the choice
of its own position, whether for attack or defence, nothing
but the grossest misconduct on the part of its commander
could ever have placed it in a situation to be successfully
assaulted by such clumsy and unmanageable engines.
Such are the principal notices supplied by historians
respecting the ancient inhabitants of this country prior to
the Roman conquest. The first events in the authentic
history of Britain are the landing of Caesar on the southern
shores, in the fifty-fifth year before tbe Christian era, and
his invasion of the country in the following year. The
course of his conquests in Gaul had brought him in sight
of an island hitherto known only by name, and, being pro¬
bably desirous of dazzling the people of Rome by a new
achievement, as wTell as of seeming to be engaged in ob¬
jects remote from internal aggrandizement, he resolved on
attempting a descent upon this unexplored region, on the
pretence that the Britons had rendered some assistance to
the Gauls in their struggle for independence. Another and
more secret motive for this expedition may have been,
that it would enable him to prolong his provincial com¬
mand, and, above all, to keep up an army devoted to its
chief, until the fulness of time should come for the execu¬
tion of his projects against liberty. On the first occasion,
when he disembarked near Deal, his landing was warmly
disputed by the natives; but discipline and skill at length
prevailed over wild valour, and after a sanguinary struggle
the Britons were defeated, and forced to sue for peace.
Deputies were accordingly sent to lay their submission
before Caesar, and learn the conditions on which they were
to be forgiven for the crime of defending their native soil.
But having ascertained the number of the invaders, and
learnt that accidents arising from ignorance of the navi¬
gation had damaged the Roman fleet, they acceded to
whatever terms Caesar thought proper to dictate, and
secretly resolved to renew the attack. They were again
repulsed, however, though not without inflicting a severe
loss on the enemy ; and Caesar, surprised at the resistance
he had encountered, as well as anxious to secure his re¬
turn to Gaul, which the approach of winter had endangered,
readily accepted the nominal submission proffered by the
islanders. Thus ended the first descent of the Romans
2 p
British
and
Roman
Period.
298
British
and
Roman
Period.
BRITAIN.
on Britain. After a brief but fierce strugg e of little more
than three weeks, Caesar embarked his whole army, and
returned to Gaul, glad to escape from a .^tuation wheie
his means were insufficient to enable him . P ,
ground, and where the slightest reverse would undoubted¬
ly have proved fatal. • or.
In the ensuing spring the same commander agam ap¬
peared on the British coast, with an armament of 800
vessels having on board five legions and 2000 auxiliary
horse. ? The sight of so formidable a fleet made the Bri¬
tons despair of resisting the landing of the invaders, an
they accordingly withdrew to tiieirforests,t^ere thejrcouhl
act with better chance of success. The tiieie
fore, disembarked without opposition, penetrated mto t(
country, and passing the Thames above Kingston, enter¬
ed the country of the Trinobantes, whose terntory^nclud-
ed the site of the present metropolis of Bntain. 1 ^ a“
vance was bravely disputed, and in the course of this io
rest campaign, the military qualities of the invaders were
t0 a severe trial, by the incessant activity, the daring
courage, ancfthe rapid7 movements of the hardy nat.ves
Cassivelaunus, a British chief, particularly Jstmgmshed
himself by his gallantry and enterprise, as well as by a na
tural talent for war, which was strikingly exhibited in the
bold design of cutting off Caesar from Ins fleet. But gemus
and science asserted their usual superiority. The Brito
were at length vanquished; and the chiefs having promis¬
ed to pay tribute, and to abstain from hostility against
those of their countrymen who had abetted the Romans,
the latter withdrew, content with the barren glory o av-
ing gained a victory without result, and conquered a cou -
trf which they could not retain. In fact, it is not easy to
dTvine the real object of these expeditions. It has been
said that Caesar showed no signs of an intention to esta¬
blish himself in Britain, and probably regarded his expe¬
ditions only as a means of flattering the Romans, and ot
displaying the complete reduction of Gaul. This may be
true ; but it was never the character of Roman policy to
fiaht useless battles, or lavish unprofitably the blood of
the legions. The more probable supposition appears to
be, that Csesar considered the entire conquest and subju¬
gation of a country covered with forests, without roads,
and inhabited by a hardy, warlike race, as a hopeless task
or at least as one which, in his particular situation, and
with the means at his disposal, it would be unwise or urn-
prudent to persevere in. One benefit, however resulted
from his enterprise ; he first laid open the countiy to s
tory, and collected those invaluable notices of the cha¬
racter, condition, habits, manners, customs, and religion of
the people, which he has preserved in his Commentaues,
and ^which still afford instruction and delight to every
1C Britain was threatened with invasion by Augustus, who
thereby extorted presents and tribute from the insular
chiefs ; Tiberius employed no menace, but exacted the
tribute ; and Caligula, in one of his insane freaks, landet
at the head of a body of troops, whom he commanded to
charge the ocean, and collect cockle-shells as fit emblems
of his imaginary triumph over that boisterous enemy. I fie
visit of the imperial madman took place ninety years alter
Cmsar’s expedition, and formed a subject of derision to the
whole Roman world. But the next attempt was of a more
serious character, and productive ot graver results. In
the reign of Claudius, the adventurous and hitherto un¬
profitable enterprise was resumed under two distinguish¬
ed officers, Aulus Plautius and Vespasian, who, landing
at the head of an army 50,000 strong, marched through
the territories of the Cattivelauni, and defeated Caracta-
cus and Trocodumnus, the British leaders, in thiee suc¬
cessive engagements. But the retreating enemy was sti
too formidable to be seriously; passed; reinforcements Bntii
were demanded by the emperors lieutenants; and seven
years elapsed before they succeeded in reducing the coun- Perio J
try southward of the Thames. This partial conquest cost ^
J ^ t tVip* Homans were not
try soutnwara or uie xuam^. v ; i ;V 1
the blood of thirty battles, in which the Romans were not
always victorious. . . .
Ostorius Scapula, who succeeded Aulus Plautius m the
provincial government of Britain, extended the province
to the banks of the Severn, and built a chain of forts to
check the incursions of the independent tribes. But Ca-
radoc or Caractacus still lived. This renowned chief had
lost his dominions; but, notwithstanding all his reverses,
the ascendancy he had acquired over the minds of his
countrymen remained unshaken, and, great in adversity,
he was still formidable. Despairing of success in the open
country, he transferred the war to the mountains of Wales,
and at the head of the Silures and other tribes, who had
arms in their hands and the love of liberty in their heaits,
he prepared to make another effort in defence of his coun¬
try. The position he selected for this final stand shows
him to have been possessed of that instinctive military
genius which anticipates science and often defeats its com¬
binations. It consisted of a rising ground or eminence,
with a rapid and scarcely fordable river, which it com¬
manded in front, and was incapable of being turned by
either flank, whilst its defensive strength was increased by
a stone rampart built along the brow of the hill. Here
he resolved to await the attack of the Romans ;- and ex¬
horting his followers to remember that Caesar himself had
been driven from the shores of Britain, he called upon
them to maintain by their valour the liberty which they
had inherited from their ancestors. 1‘ley vowed fidehty
to the cause of their country, and promised that they
would conquer or die where they stood. Ihe Roman
general was astonished. He saw that he had to encounter
a desperate enemy, skilfully posted, and unassailable ex¬
cept where his position was strongest; and, in viewing the
difficulties of his situation, his mind almost misgave him.
But the spirit of his soldiers was roused, and they cried
out that no position was impregnable to the brave. Hav-
i„g forded the river with extreme difficulty, they formed
the testudo, or close column, covered overhead with their
shields, to protect them from the missile weapons of the
natives; ascended the hill in this compact order; broke
through the rampart of loose stones ; and charging home
upon the Britons, overthrew them with great slaughter.
The brothers of the British prince surrendered ; Ins wife
and daughter were made captive ; and the hero hiraselfi
who had escaped the casualties of the field, and taken
refuge among the Brigantes in Yorkshire, was afterwar|
basely betrayed into the hands ot the enemy by thei
queen Cartismandua, his inhuman stepmother. He was
sent captive to Italy, whither the fame of his achieve-
ments had preceded him; and the people flocked ^to be-
hold the man who for nine years had defied the powe
Rome. His family supplicated for mercy ; but the mag
naTmous chief, suLhing in misfortune greatness f
character, stooped not to prefer any sohcitation, anefi ^
dressing the emperor with a manly dlgnitJ’ ^ ^ de
moved from abject submission and insolent defiance, m ^
so great an impression on the mind of Ckud ,
fetters were ordered to be struck off, and both his fam y
and himself treated with the most distingmshed regard^
Meanwhile the Silures, beaten but not subdued, i en
ed their attacks on the Romans, and kept UPa t0
sity of their countrymen by then- example. }
pieces some cohorts employed in building [°^s
country; harassed the enemy with contmual skirmishe^
and, although defeated in a general ncUon-which they ^
terwards risked, they escaped without entire rou
BRITAIN.
299
, itish cover of night. Weary of an obscure and destructive
nd warfare, barren of glory and productive of little save fa-
man tigue and anxiety, Ostorius died, and was succeeded by
riod.
Aulus Didius. The latter checked the incursions of the
Britons, who had again become formidable under a new
leader; but not till after they had defeated a Roman le¬
gion, and reaped some other advantages of a minor de¬
scription. Unfortunately for himself, however, Venusius,
the leader in question, and chief of the Huiccii of Warwick
and Worcestershire, had married the betrayer of Carac-
tacus, a woman as licentious in her personal conduct as
she had proved herself devoid of principle or patriotism.
Having scandalized her subjects by admitting Villocatus,
her armour-bearer, to a share of her bed and throne, Car-
tismandua implored the aid of the Romans against her
husband, who had collected a force to expel the usurper.
But the promised assistance proved too scanty for the
protection of the adultress, who, in the end, was driven
from her kingdom ; and although this civil war operated
as a seasonable diversion, the efforts of the Romans were
for several years confined to the preservation of what they
had already acquired.
But the season for action in due time arrived. Sueto¬
nius Paulinus, an officer of high reputation, but ambitious,
and prone to cruelty, having obtained the province of Bri¬
tain, resolved to destroy the sacred seat of Druidism in
the island of Mona or Anglesea, where the head of that
order resided, considering it as the centre of the British
nation, and the source whence emanated that spirit of
resistance which had already cost the Romans so much
blood. The project was equally bold and well conceived.
Having crossed the strait, however, he found a host drawn
up in order of battle to receive him, the declivities brist¬
ling with arms, soldiers occupying every defile, and women,
in funeral apparel, running along the ranks like furies with
burning torches in their hands, whilst Druids clustered
around, imprecating the wrath of heaven on the sacrilegious
intruders into their holy of holies. Awed by the spectacle,
the legions for a moment stood powerless ; but ashamed of
their momentary panic, they rushed forward to the attack,
drove all before them, and, after demolishing the altars
and groves, burned the Druids in their own fires.
In the midst of this havoc, however, Suetonius received
intelligence of a general insurrection of the conquered
tribes. The immediate causes of an outbreaking so little
expected were the gross injustice done to the family of
Prasutaegus, king of the Icini, and the atrocious outrages
offered to his queen Boadicea, who, having remonstrated
against the fraudulent exheredation of her children, was
publicly whipped, and constrained to witness the violation
of her daughters. Wrongs so great, and insults so intoler¬
able, required not the general spoliation which followed to
kindle up the spirit of an indignant people, and to turn
their vengeance on the oppressors. The standard of the in¬
jured queen was raised, and numerous tribes rallied round
^n^ant colony of Camelodunum (Malden or Col¬
chester) was destroyed; the infantry of the ninth legion
were annihilated; and in the more flourishing colony of
Verulamium (St Alban’s) seventy thousand persons are
said to have been put to death with all the cruelties of a
barbarous revenge. Suetonius flew to the assistance of
is countrymen, and soon succeeded in bringing the Bri-
ons to a general action on open ground, where their su-
peuority in point of numbers was of little avail against dis¬
cipline and science. They were defeated with prodigious
s aughter, whilst the victors, by their own account, lost
on y hve hundred men. The disproportion was doubtless
great; but this is probably an exaggeration in both direc¬
tions. The Britons seem to have fought gallantly, though
not successfully ; and hence the historian says, that “ the
glory won on that day was equal to that of the most re¬
nowned victories of the ancient Romans,” a statement in¬
consistent with the notion that it had been either easily
or cheaply purchased. Boadicea ended her miseries by
taking poison ; and Posthumus, the commander of a legion,
fell on his sword, indignant at not having a share in so
glorious a victory.1
Broken by this blow, the spirit of the Britons would have
soon been quenched had it not been kept alive by oppres¬
sion. Suetonius, with all his abilities, was injudiciously
vindictive, and frequently lost by his cruelty the advan¬
tages which he had gained by his talents. He was there¬
fore recalled by Nero ; and, under his more immediate suc¬
cessors, the Britons enjoyed a short interval of repose.
But the Roman energies revived under Vespasian, who
had gathered his first laurels in Britain. The Brigantes,
commanded by Venusius, were at length overcome; and
the Silures, after a gallant but hopeless resistance, were
in like manner subdued. In this double contest Cerealis
and Frontinus employed no less than seven years, a fact
which sufficiently indicates the persevering energy with
which these powerful tribes contended for independence.
These successes paved the way for the subjugation of
the greater part of the island under Crueus Julius Agricola,
who was now appointed to the government of the province.
The administration of this distinguished Roman would
probably have been as little known to us as that of any
of his predecessors, if it had not been for the circumstance
of having as his son-in-law the most able and philosophi¬
cal of the ancient historians ; “ a singular instance,” as Sir
James Mackintosh observes, “ of the power which ge¬
nius, in ages where historical materials are scanty, may
exercise over the allotment of fame.” In the character of
Agricola is exhibited an example of the union of great ca¬
pacity for war, with prudence, moderation, and judgment
in the administration of civil affairs. “ His well-balan¬
ced mind,” says the very eminent writer just cited, “ was
averse from all excess, but it was without those brilliant
peculiarities in which the biographer delights. The only
general maxim by which the historian attempts to exalt
his character is, that there is a conduct, even under tyran¬
nical reigns, equally distant from servility and turbulence,
by which an eminent man may serve his country with
safety and innocence. The work in question ought rather
to be regarded as the funeral panegyric than as the life of
Agricola. The age of Tacitus afforded him few opportuni¬
ties to acquire a talent for praise by frequent exercise : his
style did not easily descend to ordinary particulars; and
his affection in this case cramped his freedom.” Hence
the indistinctness of the outline presented to us by the
historian may be ascribed both to the generality of his lan¬
guage and to the limits of his information; circumstances
often render it difficult to extract a precise meaning from
his words, and, particularly, to fix the localities of some of
the most interesting events he relates.
Agricola began his military career in Britain by subdu¬
ing the Ordovici of North Wales, and reducing Mona,
which, after the fierce vigour of Suetonius was withdrawn
in consequence of the insurrection under Boadicea, had
regained its independence and religious pre-eminence as
the grand seat of Druidism. This he effected without
the aid of ships, by causing a sufficient force to swim across
the narrowest part of the strait with their arms and horses,
but unencumbered with baggage. In his second campaign
British
and
Roman
Period.
1 Mackintosh, History, vol. i. p. 22.
300
BRITAIN.
British
and
Homan
Period.
he carried his arms to the northward, and subdued tribes
who had never as yet come into contact with the Romans;
showing clemency to such as submitted to the power ot
Rome, and never, in any instance, abusing victory mr pur¬
poses of cruelty or oppression. To secure these advan¬
ced conquests, he built a chain of forts or military stations
from sea to sea, in nearly the same line where the ram¬
part of Hadrian and the wall of Severus were afterwards
ci'GCtcd# n
In his third campaign Agricola entered the country of
the Caledonians by the head of the Solway, and traversed
it as far as the Tay without encountering an enemy. Be¬
lieving that the invaders would retire on the approach ot
winter, they abstained from committing any hostilities;
but in this expectation they were deceived, for, when win¬
ter set in, they found the Romans established in fortified
towns, well provided with all necessary stores, and secure
alike against surprise or assault. Next year the Roman
o-eneral built a line of forts between the friths of forth
and Clyde, with the double view of excluding the conta¬
gion of revolt, and of protecting the inhabitants of the
province against the inroads of the northern barbarians.
In his fifth campaign he crossed the frith ot Clyde; and,
after a variety of skirmishes with the wild natives of Can-
tyre, Lorn, Argyleshire, and Lochaber, obtained a view of
the coast of Ireland, which, from the information he col¬
lected as to the force necessary for subduing and retain¬
ing, he meditated adding to the Roman empire; but this
design was never put in execution. During his sixth
campaign he passed the friths of Forth and lay, and led
his army, which was attended and supported m all its
movements by a fleet, along the eastern coast of Scotland.
The Caledonians hung upon his line of march, and harass¬
ed him considerably ; but, awed by the presence and sight
of the fleet, which was to them a novel spectacle, they
generally kept at a respectful distance. In a night attack,
however, they threw a portion of his army into confusion ;
and, having penetrated into the camp of the ninth legion,
would have overwhelmed them entirely if Agricola had
not come with great celerity to their aid, and driven the
assailants back to their woods and morasses. After this
action, Agricola retired into winter quarters, and left the
Caledonians a short respite to prepare for the final strug¬
gle in defence of their rude independence.
& When the Roman commander took the field in his se¬
venth campaign, he found the native host encamped in a po¬
sition the exact locality of which has been much disputed
(some fixing it at the base of the central and others at that
of the eastern portion of the Grampian chain), under a
chief whose name has been latinized into Galgacus. The
barbarians were estimated at near 30,000 men, whilst the
Roman army was little, if at all, inferior in number. Lut
solution succeeded to the noise of conflict. The pursuit
was soon discontinued; the vanquished found refuge in
their mountain fastnesses; and as the Giampian range
which towered in front constituted the advanced bulwark
of a country wholly unknown, Agricola did not attempt to
penetrate into its dangerous defiles, but, marching into
the country now. called Angus, took it from the Horesti,
whom he had previously subdued. Meanwhile his fleet
returned from a voyage of discovery which it had prose¬
cuted as far as the Orcades, and even Thule, supposed to
be Foula, the most northerly of the Zetland islands; and
Agricola established his winter quarters on the most level
district, which lay to the northward of the natural frontier
formed by the two friths. But in the reign of Domitian
it was difficult for the most prudent general to be long
successful with safety. Agricola was recalled; and, on
his return to Rome, all the arts by which he shunned po¬
pularity proved insufficient to lull the suspicions of a jea¬
lous tyrant, by whose directions his days seem to have
been shortened by poison. t
Under Agricola the -Roman dominion reached its ut¬
most extent in Britain, and the natives, as we have seen,
were driven into the rugged and inhospitable regions be¬
yond the Grampians. From this time till the close of the
third century the island is seldom noticed by the Roman
historians. We know, indeed, though chiefly by the evi¬
dence of medals, that the mountaineers broke into the
Roman province, and were driven back into their fastnesses
by the vigorous arm of Hadrian, who erected a second
wall, the remains of which are still traceable fiom the
Solway Frith to the mouth of the Tyne. Under Antoni¬
nus the same species of fortification was constructed on
the more northern frontier of the friths; while Seveius,
abandoning Agricolas rampart, which Antoninus had
caused to be repaired, erected a stone wrall almost paral¬
lel with that of Hadrian already mentioned, and in a man¬
ner equally solid and durable. These frontier works, ex¬
ecuted on so large a scale, and requiring a numerous body
of troops at the different stations for their defence, suiti-
ciently attest the persevering and formidable character of
the assaults of our rude ancestors on the Roman power m
Britain. They might be beaten, but they could not be
subdued; they might be driven back, but in a little time
they were sure to return to the attack. I he progress o
the Roman arms in the reduction of Britain was singular¬
ly slow; and, notwithstanding all their defensive precau¬
tions, the tenure by which the northern part of the pro¬
vince was held seems to have been exceedingly insecure.
Gaul was conquered by one great effort, and retained in
subjection without difficulty. Britain, on the other hand,
though peopled by a race of kindred origin, was only car¬
ried as it were foot by foot, and kept under by the direct
British
and
Period.
every possible advantage was on the side of the latter; for ascendancy of si^”d0f'|!,“"““dC
with what conceivable chance of snecess could a disorder- duced another, winch, tn /es“ “"““X a„d
Iv mass or rabble of 30,000 barbarians contend against an destinies of the Roman woild. Its insu a
^ , , (II- 1 • • 1 • 1  1 ... 
equal number of highly-disciplined and veteran troops, led
on by a general of consummate ability and great expe¬
rience in the art of war ? The elaborate description of
Tacitus has caused an importance to be attached to this
battle, which, in reality, does not belong to it. The issue
was never even for an instant doubtful. I he C-uledonians
were defeated with great slaughter, ten thousand having
fallen either in the battle or in the pursuit, whilst the loss
of the Romans scarcely exceeded three hundred men.
After the defeat of their main body, a reserve of the Ca¬
ledonians moved to take the Romans in flank ; but the at¬
tempt was defeated by Agricola in person at the head ot
a strong body of legionaries, and the flight then became
universal. The inhabitants mingled with the fugitives
after setting fire to their dwellings, and the silence of de-
ciesumes oi me imumu wunu. ~ - -
the large force which it was necessary to maintain tor me
support of order and government, offered irresistib e temp
tations to irregular ambition ; it became “ an island er i
in usurpers;” and the commander who assumed t e pu
pie had always at hand powerful means to enforce his pre¬
tensions. It was alike the object and the theatie o a
manner of intrigues and contentions; the first, thoug i n
the highest, prize in the lottery of ambition. Hence t
Roman cultivation was extended to it in a much less *
gree than to Spain and Gaul. Ihe writers of the a
province were respectable, those of the f?rrne.r,t
celebrated of the time; but Roman Britain die no P
duce a single literary name. In what degree the P^6
lence of the Latin might have paved the way for that
appearance of the ancient language of Britain in the
Bush
Sil
B :an
Pelbd.
BRITAIN.
301
ger and more fertile portion of the island, which was com»
pleted under the Saxons, there are no memorials extant
which warrant us to hazard a conjecture. The Roman re¬
mains seem rather to indicate the luxury of the military
stations of that people, than a desire to adorn their pro¬
vince with civil architecture; whilst, in the convenience and
magnificence of their roads, they only contemplated the
security of their power or the extension of their conquests.
The precise period of the introduction of Christianity
into Britain is uncertain. About the end of the second
century, however, we find Tertullian boasting that the
gospel had subdued tribes yet unconquered by the Ro¬
mans ; and from this circumstance, as well as from our
more accurate information respecting the diffusion of
Christianity in Gaul, it may be reasonably supposed that
its first planting in our island was considerably earliei'.
Two centuries afterwards, theological controversy had be¬
come so prevalent, that Pelagius and Celestius, the one a
Welchman and the other a Scotchman, agitated all Chris¬
tendom by their heretical notions on the subjects of ori¬
ginal sin and free will. The received opinion, which
ascribes to Constantine, who began his reign at York, the
introduction of Christianity into Britain towards the mid¬
dle of the fourth century, is founded upon the palpable
error of confounding the first preaching of the gospel with
the formal recognition or establishment of Christianity,
upon the ruins of Paganism, as the religion of the empire.
Long before that time intrepid and dauntless missionaries
had carried the faith of the cross to the hearths and the
homes of our barbarous ancestors ; and the policy of Con¬
stantine only kept pace with, instead of outrunning, the
natural course of events.
When Severus died at York, Caracalla, then known by
his original name of Bassianus, concluded a peace with
the Caledonians, and, along with his brother Geta, hasten¬
ed to Rome to plunge into all the debaucheries of the ca¬
pital. There now occurs in the history of Britain a chasm
of seventy years, during which the silence of the Roman wri¬
ters would lead us to infer that the island enjoyed peace. In
the reign of Diocletian, Carnusius, intrusted with the com¬
mand of a naval armament, fitted out to repress piracy on
the coasts of Britain, usurped the purple, and maintained
his assumed dignity for eight years. But while Constan¬
tins, the coadjutor of the emperor, was preparing to attack
him, he was assassinated by Allectus, who, imitating the
example of his master, usurped the sovereignty, and main¬
tained it for three years. He wras, however, defeated and
slain by Constantius, who put an end to the rebellion, and
dispersed the followers of the usurper. In the division of
the empire between Galerius and Constantius, Britain fell
to the share of the latter, who, in consequence, fixed his
residence in the island, and, after some contests with the
Caledonians, of which little is known, died at York, leav¬
ing his son Constantine his successor in the empire. This
prince, not unjustly surnamed the Great, assumed the
purple at York, where he staid some time to pay the last
honours to his father’s ashes, and to finish the war with
the Meaetse and Caledonians, who at this time began to
be known by the names of Piets and Scots. Called after-
waids to a higher destiny, and recognized as the undis-
puted master of the Roman world, he overthrew the altars
0 Paganism, and established Christianity as the religion
^ the empire, including that portion of it where he had
fst been invested with the ensigns of the imperial dig-
nity.. About eighteen years after the accession of Con-
santme, Britain took part with the unsuccessful usurper
p a8nentius. This entailed on it the bitter resentment of
onstantius, who sent into the island one Paulus, a Spa-
h!f[ v! Wlt 1 *nstrucfi°ns to discover and punish those who
een concerned in the rebellion. Tyranny is not al¬
ways so fortunate as so be provided with such instruments. British
d his inquisitor, surnamed Catena, from his expertness in and
connecting criminal charges, entered at once on his career, Roman
and soon filled all the western parts with tortures, confis- t F^nod-
cations, and murders. Martinus, the British governor,
unable to restrain his cruelties, attempted his life, but un¬
happily missing the aim, was obliged to pay the forfeit of
his own. On the accession of Julian to the purple, that
event was signalized by an act of exemplary justice ; the
inhuman Paulus was ordered to be burned alive.
A few words may be necessary here respecting the con¬
stitution of the provincial government of Britain. This
was generally intrusted to a prefect, who exercised the
civil and military power, subject only to the control of the
questors, whose peculiar department was finance. The pre¬
fect acted as imperial lieutenant or viceroy, and appoint¬
ed the governors of the six provinces into which Roman
Britain was divided. These were, first, Britain to the
south of the Severn and the Thames; second, Britain
along the Severn, including Wales and the adjoining dis¬
tricts ; third, Flavia Caesariensis, from the two former
provinces to the German Ocean, the Humber, and the
Don ; fourth, Maxima Caesariensis to the north of the
Humber, from its mouth, as far as the mouths of the Tyne
and the" Eden; fifth, Valencia, from the Tyne to the
Clyde and the Forth ; and, sixth, Vespasiana, the country
beyond the friths, a precarious and ill-defined conquest,
continually disturbed by the inroads of the barbarians.
Such were the territorial divisions of this country under the
Romans. They seem to have been adopted gradually as
conquest extended, and afterwards rounded off by natural
limits for the convenience alike of the general and of the
local government.
For about a century and a half the southern part of the
Roman province in Britain had suffered but little disturb¬
ance from the northern tribes, whose inroads were gene¬
rally checked by the frontier defences and garrisons. About
ten years, however, after the judicial campaign of Paulus,
the Scots and Piets, recovering from the chastisement in¬
flicted on them by the commanders of Julian, attacked
with greater force the legions of Valentinian and Valens,
and for three years ravaged the province with impunity.
They were at length driven back by Theodosius, governor
of Britain, and father of the celebrated emperor of that
name, who defeated them in several battles, and forcing
them beyond the rampart of Agricola, once more extended
the province to its utmost ancient limits. But the progres¬
sive decline of the empire having exposed its northern fron¬
tier to invasion at every point, the Roman troops were gra¬
dually withdrawn from this island for the more urgent pur¬
pose of protecting the seat of dominion ; and about the
middle of the fifth century Britain was abandoned to her
own resources. Gallio of Ravenna commanded the last de¬
tachment of troops that Rome ever sent to this island. This
was under Honorius. After repelling a furious inroad of
the Scots and Piets, the Roman general, assembling the
British chiefs, told them frankly, that, since the empire,
labouring under its own weight, could no longer afford
them protection, they must henceforth take courage and
defend themselves; and, in the name of the emperor, he
formally absolved the different cities or townships of the
province from their allegiance to Rome. Lastly, having
repaired the wall of Severus, erected useful forts, and
supplied the natives with military weapons and engines,
the Romans took their final departure from Britain ex¬
actly four hundred and seventy-five years after Julius
Caesar first landed on its shores.
These bequests, however, proved unavailing. The Bri¬
tish youth who had been trained in the Roman army more
than once drove back the barbarous tribes of their own
302
BRITAIN.
British
and
Roman
Period.
island ; but the latter increasing in numbers and audacity,
at length “ broke through their walls, like wolves into a
sheep-fold, retired with their booty, and returned every suc¬
ceeding year.” In their distress they made a yam appeal
to iEtius, who for a moment propped the falling empire.
« The barbarians,” said they in a letter entitled the hroans
of the Britons, “ drive us into the sea, and the sea drives
us back upon the swords of the barbarians. But Atius
bad to do with Attila, and, however much he might pity
the suppliants, he could afford them no relief. Disap¬
pointed of aid in this quarter, and despairing of their abi¬
lity any longer to resist their northern invaders, the Bri¬
tish states were led to employ in their defence auxiliaries
who soon became more formidable than the enemies
against whom they had been called in to combat. Ihese
mercenaries, who gradually rose to be • conqueroi s, con¬
sisted chiefly of Saxons, intermingled with Angles, Jutes,
and Frisians from the Cimbric Chersonesus, or peninsula
of Jutland. The Saxons, who appear to have had their
chief seat on the Elbe, were previously known to the Bri¬
tons only by predatory descents on their coasts ; and, cer¬
tainly, it does seem rather extraordinary that they should
have thought of calling in the aid of such perilous auxili¬
aries. But, under the pressure of urgent danger or actual
calamity, men are more inclined to seek present relief than
to calculate remote consequences ; and it should be recol¬
lected that the Britons, denied all assistance by their for¬
mer masters, and wholly unable to defend themselves
against the desolating inroads of the fierce tribes of the
north, were in a situation to close with any scheme
which promised even a chance of deliverance. That the
invitation given to this marauding race was as formal as
it afterwards proved fatal to the native population, may
safely be doubted, notwithstanding the direct testimony
of the Saxon historians. They were probably at hand,
and being always ready to embark in any enterprise which
held out a prospect of booty, they in all likelihood required
but little solicitation to induce them to join the Britons
against their northern enemies. Accordingly, in the mid¬
dle of the fifth century, the Saxon ships arrived on the
British coast, where they disembarked a few hundred wild
warriors of that roving nation under their leaders Hengist
and Horsa. These fabled descendants of Oden immedi¬
ately took the field at the head of their followers, and by
their aid the Piets and Scots were completely defeated.
One evil was thus averted, but another, and, if possible,
a greater, succeeded. The Saxons, acquiring a liking for
the country they had been hired to defend, and eager to
exchange the bleak shores and sandy wastes of the north
for the rich fields and more genial climate of Britain, in¬
vited fresh bodies of their countrymen to join them, and,
in a little time, from being the auxiliaries, they became the
conquerors and masters, of the ill-fated Britons. But the
latter did not yield without a struggle. Displaying, when
it was too late, a valour which, more opportunely exerted,
would have spared them the miseries of this contest, they
resisted their new tyrants, and occasionally with success.
Horsa fell in battle ; and so slow was the progress of the
Saxon arms, that Hengist, with all his boasted victories,
never penetrated beyond the county of Kent. The in¬
vaders, however, clung with desperate tenacity to the soil.
By degrees the Saxon power reduced the natives to entire
submission, or drove them to seek shelter in the moun¬
tains of Wales, Cornwall, and Cumberland. Many emi¬
grated to avoid the horrors of this conquest; and some
settling in Armorica, the peninsula between the Seine
and the Loire, laid the foundation of that singular resem¬
blance in language and manners to the insular Britons
which has ever since distinguished the inhabitants of Bre¬
tagne. For the history of England from this period until
the union of the crowns, we refer to the article England. Reign f
See also the article Scotland. James]
w
CFIAP. II.
REIGN OE JAMES I.
Accession of James to the English throne—State of the nation at
this time Origin of the patriotic party—Grievances of the
nation James’s arbitrary system of government—Puritans—
Attempt to establish Episcopacy in Scotland—Iniquity and
folly of the project First Parliament—Peace with Spain—
Proposed union' with Scotland—Difference between the King
and the Parliament New Parliament convoked—Execution
of Sir Walter Raleigh—Gunpowder Plot—Policy in regard to
Ireland Death of Henry Prince of Wales.—Affairs of the
Palatinate Spanish match proposed.—Remonstrance of the
Commons, and dispute consequent thereon—Marriage with
the Infanta resolved on—Prince Charles sets out for Madrid—
His reception there Articles of the Marriage treaty—Faith-
lessness of the Prince Marriage with the Infanta broken off—
New match proposed with Henrietta of France—War declared
against Spain Affairs on the Continent—Death and charac-
ter of James.
The history of Britain as one kingdom commences with
the union of the crowns in the beginning of the seven¬
teenth century. In 1603 the kingdoms of Scotland and
England fell under the dominion of one sovereign, by the
accession of James VI. of Scotland to the English throne.
He derived his title to the latter from being the great-
grandson of Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry VII.;
and, on the failure of the male line, his hereditary right
remained incontestible. Queen Elizabeth, with her last
breath, had recognised him for her successor; and the
parliament, conformably to her dying request,Jiad settled
the succession on the heirs of Henry VII.; so that few sove¬
reigns ever ascended a throne with more general approba¬
tion, or greater hopes of a peaceable and happy reign. The
memory of a disputed succession was yet fresh in the
minds of the English; and as the title of James was un¬
questionable, the accession of a protestant sovereign, who
was to extinguish the hostility of Scotland, and unite two
kingdoms intended by nature to form one, was regarded as
a new and auspicious era in the history of both countries.
But the popularity of James hardly survived his arrival
in England; the hopes which had been so eagerly che¬
rished were soon blighted ; and the history of this mo¬
narch’s reign consists of little else than a detail of disputes
and contentions between him and his parliament. A
minute account df these transactions would scarcely con¬
duce either to entertainment or instruction; but it is never¬
theless of importance to know their origin, as out of them
sprung those succeeding events which make so conspi¬
cuous a figure in the annals of Britain.^
In the ages which preceded the period upon which we
are now entering, the human mind, enervated by supersti¬
tion, and degraded by ignorance, seemed to have surren¬
dered all pretensions to liberty, either religious or civi •
Unlimited and uncontrolled despotism everywhere pre¬
vailed ; and although England suffered less in this respect
than almost any other nation, the numerous examples o
arbitrary power exercised by her sovereigns show tha
the country was then very far indeed from enjoying liber¬
ty in any rational sense of the term. As a proof of this,
and as an evidence how little restraint was at that time
imposed on the authority of the sovereign, it is only neces¬
sary to mention, that the proceedings of parliament were
accounted of so little consequence, that no journals were
kept of them ; nor was it till 1607, four years subsequen
to the accession of James, that parliamentary journals weie
commenced, on the motion of Sir Edwin Sandys, a mem
ber of great authority in the house.
Itei of
Jan;1 !•
BRITAIN.
303
The proceedings of parliament being held as of so little nation at this time laboured, and which the rising spirit Reign of
consequence, it is no wonder that the sessions were not of patriotism tended to redress. This disposition, how- James I.
regular, and that little attention was paid to the choice ever, the severe government of Elizabeth had confined
or continuance of the members. In the reign of Elizabeth within very narrow limits. But when James, a foreign
and her predecessors the sessions of parliament seldom ex- prince, less dreaded and less beloved, succeeded to the
ceeded in duration a twelfth part of the vacations. When throne, symptoms of a freer and more independent genius
parliaments were prolonged beyond one session, it was immediately appeared. Happily, James neither perceived
usual for the Chancellor to exert a discretionary authority the alteration, nor had sufficient capacity to check its ear-
of issuing new writs to supply the place of such members ly advances. He bad established in his own mind a spe-
as he judged incapable of attending, either by reason of dilative system of absolute government, which few of his
business, sickness, or any other impediment. No prac- subjects, and none but traitors and rebels, as he thought,
tice could be more dangerous to liberty than this', yet so would make any scruple to admit. He thought himself
little were the rights and interests of the nation then under- entitled to equal prerogatives with other European sove-
stood, that the Commons, of their own accord, confirmed reigns, not considering the military force by which their
the Chancellor’s power in this respect by the 23d of Eliza- despotism was sustained. The almost unlimited power
beth; nor did they proceed any further in the assertion which for upwards of a century had been exercised by
of their .privileges, than to vote, that during the sitting of the English sovereigns, he considered as the prerogative of
parliament no writ should issue for the choosing or return- royal birth, and not as the result of peculiar circumstances
ing of any member without the warrant of the house. skilfully improved. In his person, therefore, he imagined
But towards the end of the sixteenth and beginning of all legal power to be centred by a hereditary and divine
the seventeenth century, a great though insensible revo- right; and so fully was he persuaded of his absolute pro-
lution took place throughout all Europe. Arts and sciences perty in his subjects, that in his speech to the parliament
began to flourish ; commerce and navigation were greatly in 1621, he told them that he “ wished them to have said
extended; and learning of all kinds began to be diffused, that their privileges were derived from the grace and
More enlarged views naturally gave birth to generous pei'mission of him and his ancestors.” And when the
sentiments ; a love of freedom, in England especially, was same parliament protested that “ the liberties, franchises,
implanted in the breasts of most people of birth and edu- privileges, and jurisdictions of parliament, are the ancient
cation; and this was greatly promoted by an acquaintance and undoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects
with the ancient Greek and Latin writers. The exam- of England,” he was so enraged, that, sending for the
pie of the republics of Greece and Rome, the members journals of the Commons, he, with his own hand, before
of which had so often sacrificed their lives in defence of the council, tore out this protestation, and ordered his
liberty, produced a powerful impression; and a desire of reasons to be inserted in the council-book,
circumscribing the excessive prerogative and arbitrary The consequence of such opposite dispositions actuat-
proceedings of the crown began to be secretly formed ing the king and parliament was, that during this reign
throughout the nation. the prerogatives of the crown were openly and violently
Nor was this desire unreasonable, or without a solid attacked. But the chiefgrounds of discontent were money
foundation. During the last years of Queen Elizabeth’s and religion. The king’s high notions of the royal prero-
reign, the commerce, navigation, and number of seamen gative made him imagine that he had a right to whatever
in England, had sensibly decayed. A remonstrance from sums lie pleased to demand; whilst his profusion caused
the Trinity-house in 1602 bears, that since 1588, the num- him to dissipate in a short time the scanty supplies which
ber of seamen and shipping had decayed about a third, he succeeded in extorting from the parliament. With re-
Every species of domestic industry was fettered by mono- gard to religious matters, the nation was at that time great-
polies, and exclusive companies, which are only another ly infected with Puritanism. Though the severities of Eli-
species of monopoly ; almost all foreign trade, except that zabeth had almost totally suppressed the Papists, it had
to France, was in the hands of a few; and any prospect of been otherwise with the Puritans. So much had they in¬
future improvement in commerce was for ever sacrificed creased by the very means which had diminished the num-
to the temporary advantage of the sovereign. These ber of Catholics, that no less than seven hundred and fifty
companies, though arbitrarily erected, had carried their clergymen of that persuasion signed a petition to James on
privileges so far, that almost all the commerce of Eng- his accession to the English throne. They hoped that the
land centred in London ; the customs of that port alone king, having received his education in Scotland, and al-
amounted to L.l 10,000 a year, whilst those of the rest of ways professed an attachment to the church established
the kingdom amounted only to L. 17,000 ; and the whole there, would at least abate the rigour of the laws enacted
trade of London itself was confined to about two hundred against the Puritans, if he did not show them particular
citizens, who, by combining together, were easily enabled favour and encouragement. But in this they were griev-
to fix whatever price they pleased both on the exports ously mistaken. He had observed in their Scottish breth-
and imports of the nation. Besides this, the subjects ren a decided turn towards republicanism, and a zealous
were burdened by wardships and purveyances. The latter attachment to civil liberty. In his capacity of monarch as
constituted an old prerogative of the crown, by which the well as of theologian, he had experienced the little complai-
officers of the household were empowered to take, without sance they were disposed to show him. They controlled
consent of the owners, provisions for the king’s family, and his commands ; disputed his tenets ; and to his face, be-
carts and horses for the removal of his baggage, upon fore the whole people, censured his conduct and behaviour,
paying a stated price for them. The king had also a This superiority assumed by the Presbyterian clergy, the
power of sending any person, without his own consent, on monarchical pride of James could never digest. Although
whatsoever message he pleased; and thus he could easily he had been obliged, while in Scotland, to court their fa-
compel an individual to pay any sum of money he chose, vour, he treasured up, on that account, the stronger re-
rather than be sent out of the country on a disagreeable sentment against them; and he was determined to make
mission. Money extorted from individuals by this or by them feel, in their turn, the full weight of his authority.
any other method was usually called, doubtless in derision, He therefore not only rejected the petition of the clergy-
a “ benevolence.” men above mentioned, but throughout his whole reign re-
These were a few of the grievances under which the fused to relax in the least the severity of the law's against
304
BRITAIN.
Reign of Protestant nonconformists, although often petitioned to
James I. the contrary by his parliament.
The same principles which produced in James sue i
an aversion to the Puritans, prompted him to favour t ic
Episcopalians, and even the Catholics, as being gieatci
friends to despotism. In his jmuth he had been sus¬
pected of a bias towards the ancient religion; and it is
certain that when he ascended the throne of England,
he often endeavoured to procure some mitigation of the
laws against them, if not an absolute toleration. But in
this he was constantly opposed by the parliament; and
indeed the strong inclination shown by James to establis i
Episcopacy throughout the whole of his dominions, tended
very much to alienate the minds of his subjects, especially
in Scotland, and to create that suspicion of his intentions
which accompanied him to the grave.
The first intercourse between King James and his English
parliament discovered at once the character of the nevv
monarch, and the spirit of the people over whom he had
been called to reign. Vain, pedantic, garrulous, mean,
and accessible to flattery, however gross; arbitrary in his
principles, and in his own opinion the greatest master of
king-craft that ever lived; “ the wretched Solomon of
Whitehall” found in his English ministers, Cecil, Suffolk,
and Northampton, devoted parasites and ready tools. His
address to the parliament bespoke his own opinion of
himself, and showed that he believed himself an absolute
king, whose proclamations were to have the force of laws.
But it was only with his courtiers and bishoyis that James
passed for that paragon of wisdom and policy which he
devoutly believed himself to be. The House of Commons
already contained many men of free, fearless, and intelli¬
gent minds; nor were the principles of independence,
which in several instances had been asserted against all
the power and energy of Elizabeth, likely to be veiled
before the mock dignity of such a regal punchinello as
James. His first parliament, accordingly, reminded him
of their privileges; resisted the arbitrary issue, by the
Chancellor, of new writs for elections; and made some
laudable attempts to check the spirit of monopoly which
paralysed the trade and manufactures of the kingdom, as
well as to relieve the landed interest from some remnants
of feudal oppression.
The accession of James was speedily followed by the
conclusion of peace with Spain. rihe tendency of his dis¬
position was pacific, not so much from principle, as from
the want of all energy, vigour, and force of character, if
not positive cowardice. But whilst the nation was thus
delivered from the evils of war, a deadly blow was medi¬
tated against the government in all its branches, and
against the religion of the country. This was the famous
Gunpowder Plot, which the habitual fears of the king,
sharpened by the scenes he had witnessed in his youth,
enabled him to “ nose out,” as he called it, and to read
the true meaning of the threats contained in a letter from
one of the conspirators, after it had eluded the sagacity
of his wisest counsellors. The common danger which the
king and the parliament had escaped kept them for a time
in good humour with each other ; and a supply of L.400,000
was voted by the Commons to relieve the king from the
embarrassments in which his thoughtless profusion had
involved him, and to enable him to give a suitable recep¬
tion to his brother-in-law, the king of Denmark.
But the most important subject of discussion which oc¬
cupied the attention of this first parliament was a pro¬
ject for incorporating the kingdoms whose crowns were
already united on the head of James. A motion to this
effect was made by Sir Francis Bacon, the king’s solicitor,
who supported it with all the ability, ingenuity, and elo¬
quence for which he was so greatly distinguished; maintain¬
ing that, for the object contemplated, there was no need of Keigno
uniformity in the laws or religion of the two countries,— James I
and that, with Ireland subdued, Scotland united, and the
navy duly supported, the English monarchy would be¬
come the most formidable in the world. It is to the ho¬
nour of James, and reflects credit on the sagacity which
he at intervals displayed, that he was eager in forwarding
this measure. But the Commons remained inflexible, and
the project consequently failed. In conformity, however,
with an opinion obtained from the judges, the post-nati,
that is, all Britons born since the death of Queen Eliza¬
beth, were declared to be naturalized subjects in either
kingdom.
Pecuniary difficulties, from which the king was never
free, brought him again as a suppliant for aid from this
parliament. Squandering with reckless prodigality, he
was continually in want; and, in the present instance, his
embarrassments were aggravated by the expense incurred
in maintaining his government in Ireland. The parliament
acceded to his solicitations; but, in return, demanded a
redress of grievances, and amongst these the suppression
of the High Commission Court, which had become odious
by the severities it exercised against the Puritans. James
refused the supply tendered on such conditions, and the
dispute ended by his dissolving the parliament; on which
occasion the royal pedant told them “ not to meddle with
the main points of government—that was his craft; nor
pretend to instruct a king who had been thirty years at
the trade in Scotland, besides an apprenticeship of seven
years in England.”
But James found it impossible to dispense altogether
with this “ meddling” body. His usual extravagance soon
reduced him to straits, notwithstanding the discreditable
shifts he had recourse to for raising money; and, in
1613, he was obliged to convoke another parliament, for
the sake of obtaining a supply. At this time Robert
Carre, whom he had raised through several gradations of
dignity to be Earl of Somerset, engrossed the favour of
the monarch, and merited the hatred of the nation. The
sums spent on this worthless minion, and the countenance
shown him after the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury, at
once degraded the king in the eyes of the people, and drain¬
ed the scanty resources of his ill-supplied exchequer. The
consequence was, that his second parliament proved still
more refractory than the first. On their assembling, the
king proposed to them to vote a supply, and then proceed
to the consideration of such grievances as required to be
redressed. But the Commons inverted this order of pro¬
cedure, and began with the redress of grievances. The
king’s wrath was kindled at their obstinacy. He dis¬
missed them, and imprisoned some of the members who
had particularly signalized themselves in resisting the
supply; a proceeding of fatal example, as the son and
successor of James afterwards found to his bitter expe¬
rience, and which Lord Coke justly describes as the great¬
est violence ever done to the constitution by an Engbsi
monarch. . f
In 1617 the king revisited Scotland, wdth the design ot
establishing Episcopacy in that kingdom. He did no,
however, propose to abolish Presbytery entirely, and se
up Episcopacy in its room. He meant to content himse
with establishing the royal authority above the eccle¬
siastical, and introducing some ceremonies into the pu 1
worship, such as kneeling at the sacrament, private com
munion, private baptism, confirmation of children, the o
servance of Christmas, and the like. But as his desig
.was fully seen through from the beginning, every advanc
towards Episcopacy produced the greatest discon en >
and the ceremonies in question were rejected as so ma y
mortal sins.
BRITAIN. 305
Ueif of At this time the power of the Scotch clergy was ex-
Jam I. ceedingly great; and the severe spirit with which they
^ were actuated prompted them to exercise it in a manner
little calculated to operate in the way of conciliation.
Every ecclesiastical court possessed the power of excom¬
munication, which was then attended with serious tem¬
poral effects, to say nothing of the spiritual consequences
which were supposed to flow from it. The person excom¬
municated was shunned by every one as profane and im¬
pious; and his whole estate during his life-time, with all
his movables for ever, were forfeited to the crown. A
sentence of excommunication might be pronounced in a
summary manner, even by an inferior ecclesiastical court,
against a person, whether he lived within the bounds of
their jurisdiction or not; and as its effects were in every
instance the same, the power which the clergy thus exer¬
cised was truly formidable. But they were not satisfied
with this unbounded authority in ecclesiastical matters;
they assumed a censorial power over every part of the admi¬
nistration ; and, mingling politics with religion in their ser¬
mons, and even in their prayers, they inculcated principles
which were accounted alike turbulent and seditious. But
however much we may revolt at this intermixture of sa¬
cred and secular things, there was something in the spirit
and circumstances of the time which went far to justify
it. The pulpit was then the only place whence the people
could derive instruction, and their sole teachers and guides
were the clergy. No public press as yet existed. Books
were few and expensive, appearing at distant intervals, and
wholly inaccessible to the mass of the people. Journals
were wholly unknown. In such circumstances the clergy
naturally became the political as well as the religious in¬
structors of the people; the defenders of their civil rights
as well as the guardians of public morals, and of the purity
of ecclesiastical discipline.
That a monarch like James should have hated an order
of men whom he could neither intimidate by his power
nor cajole by his flatteries, is most natural. But this
forms a poor justification for the faithless and hypocritical
course he pursued; whilst his maxim of “ No bishop, no
king,” shows that his understanding was as confined as
his character was mean and grovelling. He began his
attack upon Presbytery by discontinuing the General
Assembly, and banishing those clergymen who had the
spirit to remonstrate. He procured a decree restoring
thirteen bishoprics ; and, at a packed meeting of the sub¬
servient part of the Scottish clergy, the holders of these
unenviable preferments were appointed perpetual mode¬
rators within their presbyteries. And to complete the
degradation of the people, a high commission was given
to the ^ prelates, conferring upon them inquisitorial and
discretionary powers of citing and punishing for religious
opinions, laymen as well as clergymen. But this tyran¬
nical and iniquitous project utterly failed. James aimed
at nothing less than subverting the established religion of
the country, and he was unable to introduce a single cere¬
mony borrowed from Episcopacy, Not a rag of the sur¬
plice would the stern Presbyterians of that age consent
to tolerate. Enough, however, was done to envenom the
hatred of the people, and to treasure up vengeance against
the coming day of retribution. James, it has been truly
said, was one of those kings whom God seems to send for
tie expr^s purpose of hastening revolutions.
JNor was he in any degree more successful in the oppo¬
sition which he attempted to the puritanical innovations in
ngland. He had observed, in his progress through that
kingdom, that a rigid, or, as some called it, Judaical observ-’
ance °‘ the Sabbath gained ground every day ; and that by
ns means the people were debarred from such sports and
iccreations as contributed to their health as well as amuse-
vol. v.
ment. Imagining that it would be easy to infuse cheer- Reign of
fulness into the spirit of devotion which then prevailed, Janies I.
he issued a proclamation to allow and encourage, after
divine service, all kinds of lawful games and exercises.
But this proclamation was regarded by his subjects as an
instance of the utmost profaneness and impiety. In 1620
a bill was brought in by the Commons for the more strict
observance of the Sunday, which they called the Sabbath.
One Shepherd opposed this bill, objecting to the appella¬
tion of Sabbath, as puritanical, and justifying indulgence
in sports and amusements on that day. For this he wras
expelled the house on the motion of Mr Pym ; and in the
sentence pronounced agains-t him his offence is described
as “ great, exorbitant, and unparalleled.” The men of that
day were in earnest, and seldom did things by halves.
From this sketch, imperfect as it necessarily is, a tole¬
rable idea may be formed of the situation of affairs during
the reign of James I., as well as of the character and de¬
signs of that weak, wavering, and on the whole mischievous
prince. It now becomes our duty to proceed to the more
proper business of the present article, and to give some
account of the remarkable transactions of this period.
The first thing of any consequence was a conspiracy
formed, or alleged to have been formed, in the year of the
king’s accession to the throne, to displace him, and be¬
stow the kingdom on Arabella Stuart, a near relation of
his own, and equally descended from Henry VII. Every
thing regarding this pretended conspiracy, except that
some such plot was favoured by one or two priests, remains
nearly in its original obscurity. What renders it remark¬
able, however, is the concern Sir Walter Raleigh was said
to have in it. For this he was tried, condemned without
proof, suffered thirteen years’ imprisonment in the Tower,
and was at length executed out of complaisance to the
Spaniards. The execution of this distinguished man is
one of the most unjustifiable acts of James’s reign. It is
certainly possible, as Hume has asserted, that Raleigh may
have made the pretended gold mine in Guiana a cloak for
his real design of plundering the Spanish settlements; but
if the fact admitted of as easy proof as has been alleged,
Raleigh ought to have been punished on that account,
and on no other. It has been conceded, however, that
an English jury would not have returned a verdict of
guilty against him 5 and if so, the sacrifice of the bravest
living commander, at the instigation of a foreign power,
was equally detestable in itself and derogatory to the dig¬
nity and independence of the country.
Allusion having been already made to the Gunpowder
treason, discovered in 1605, the origin and circumstances
of that desperate plot shall now be detailed. On the ac¬
cession of James, great expectations had been formed by
the Catholics that he would prove favourable to them;
and it is even pretended that he had entered into a positive
engagement to grant them toleration as soon as he should
mount the throne of England. But their hopes were built
on an insecure foundation. James on all occasions ex¬
pressed his intention of executing strictly the laws enact¬
ed against them, and of persevering in the rigorous mea¬
sures of Queen Elizabeth. A scheme of revenge was first
thought of by one Catesby, a man of good parts and an¬
cient family, who communicated his design to Percy, a
descendant of the house of Northumberland. The latter
proposed to assassinate the king. But Catesby deemed
this quite inadequate to the purpose, inasmuch as the
king would be succeeded by his children, who would also
inherit his maxims of government; and even if the whole
royal family were destroyed, the parliament, nobility, and
gentry, who were all infected with the same heresy,
would raise another Protestant prince to the throne. “ To
serve any good purpose,” said he, “ we must destroy, at
306
BRITAIN.
lleign of one blow, the king, the royal family, the lords and com-
James I. m0ns, and bury all our enemies in one common ruin-
Happily they are all assembled on the first meeting o
parliament, and afford us the opportunity of glorious and
useful vengeance. Great preparations will not be requi¬
site. A few of us may run a mine below the hall in which
they meet; and choosing the very moment when the king
harangues both the houses, consign over to^ destruction
the determined foes to all piety and religion.
This comprehensive scheme being approved ot, A was
resolved to communicate it to a few more. Ihomas Wm-
ter was sent over to Flanders in quest of Fawkes, an om-
cer in the Spanish service, of approved zeal and courage.
All the conspirators were bound by the most solemn oaths,
accompanied with the sacrament; and to such a degree
had superstition hardened their minds, that not one ot
them entertained the smallest compunction for the cruel
destruction they were preparing to commit. Some in¬
deed were startled at the thoughts of destroying a num¬
ber of Catholics who must necessarily be present as spec¬
tators, or attendants on the king, or as having seats m
the House of Peers; but Desmond a Jesuit, and Garnet,
superior of that order in England, removed these scruples,
by showing that the interest of religion requited in this
case the sacrifice of the innocent with the guilty.
This happened in the spring and summer of 1604, about
which time the conspirators hired a house in Percy’s
name, adjoining that in which the parliament was to meet.
Towards the end of the year they began to pierce through
the wall of the house, in order to get in below that where
the parliament was to assemble. 1 he wall being about
three yards thick, occasioned a great deal of labour ; but its
density yielded to perseverance, and they at length ap¬
proached the other side, when they were startled b;y a
noise for which they could not well account. Upon in¬
quiry, they found that it proceeded from a vault below
the House of Lords; that a magazine of coals had been
kept there; and that the coals were then selling off, after
which the vault would be let to the highest bidder. Upon
this the vault was immediately hired by Percy, and thirty-
six barrels of gunpowder lodged in it; the whole being
covered up with faggots and billets, the doors of the cel¬
lars boldly flung open, and every body admitted as if it
contained nothing dangerous.
Considering themselves as now certain of success, the
conspirators began to arrange the remaining part of their
enterprise. The king, the queen, and Prince Henry, were
expected to be present at the opening of the parliament.
But as the duke, by reason of his tender age, would be
absent, it was resolved that Percy should seize or murder
him. The Princess Elizabeth, likewise a child, being
kept at Lord Harrington’s house in Warwickshire, some
others of the conspirators engaged to assemble their friends
on pretence of a hunting match, to seize the person of
that princess, and immediately proclaim her queen. The
day so long wished for at last approached. The dread¬
ful secret, though communicated to more than twenty
persons, had been religiously kept for near a year and a
half; and nothing could be foreseen calculated to prevent
the success of their design. Ten days before the meeting
of parliament, however, Lord Monteagle, a Catholic, son
of Lord Morley, received the following letter, which had
been delivered to his servant by an unknown hand.
“ My Lord, out of the love I bear to some of your
friends, I have a care for your preservation. Therefore I
would advise you, as you tender your life, to devise some
excuse to shift off your attendance on this parliament.
For God and man have determined to punish the wicked¬
ness of this time. And think not slightly of this adver¬
tisement ; but retire yourself into the country, where you
may expect the event in safety. For though there be no Reign oi
appearance of any stir; yet, I say, they shall receive a James I,
terrible blow this parliament, and yet they shall not see
who hurts them. This counsel is not to be contemned,
because it may do you good, and can do you no harm ;
for the danger is over as soon as you have burned this
letter. And I hope God will give you the grace to make
good use of it, to whose holy protection I commend you.”
Though Lord Monteagle imagined this letter to be only
a ridiculous artifice to frighten him, he carried it to Lord
Salisbury, secretary of state ; and the latter laid it before
the king on his arrival in town a few days after. His ma¬
jesty looked upon it in a much more serious light than the
young nobleman to whom it had been addressed. From
the peculiar manner in which it was expressed, he con¬
cluded that some design had been formed to blow up the
Parliament House with gunpowder; and it was thought
advisable to search the vaults underneath.
The lord chamberlain, to whom this charge belonged,
purposely delayed the search till the day before the meet¬
ing of parliament. He remarked the great piles of wood^
and faggots which lay in the vault under the House of
Lords ; and easting his eye upon Fawkes, who stood in a
corner and passed himself for Percy s servant, he could
not help noticing the daring and determined courage con¬
spicuous in his face, and which so much distinguished this
man even amongst the other conspirators. As Percy lived
little in town, so large a quantity of fuel appeared some¬
what extraordinary; suspicions were thus excited; and,
upon comparing all circumstances, it was resolved to make
a further search. About midnight, Sir Thomas Knevet,
a justice of peace, was sent with proper attendants; and
meeting Fawkes, wdio had just finished all his prepa¬
rations, before the door of the vault, Sir I homas imme¬
diately seized him, and, turning over the faggots, disco¬
vered the gunpowder. The matches and every thing pio-
per for setting fire to the train were found in the pocket
of Fawkes, who seeing now no refuge except in boldness
and despair, expressed the utmost regret that he had missed
the opportunity of firing the powder at once, and of sweet¬
ening his own death by that of his enemies. _ For several
days he displayed the same obstinate intrepidity; but on
being shut up in the Tower, and the rack exhibited to him,
his resolution at last failed, and he made a full discovery.
Catesby, Percy, and the other conspirators, on learning
that Fawkes was arrested, hurried to Warwickshire, where
Sir Edward Digby, imagining that his confederates had
succeeded, was already in arms to seize the Princess Eli¬
zabeth. But she had escaped into Coventry; and they
were obliged to put themselves in a posture of defence
against the country people, who w'ere raised in all quar¬
ters and armed by the sheriffs. The conspirators, wit i
their attendants, never exceeded eighty in number, an
being surrounded on every side, could no longer op
either to prevail or escape. Haying therefore confesse
themselves, and received absolution, they boldly piepare
for death, and resolved to sell their lives as dear as po
sible. But even this miserable consolation was denieu
them. Some of their powder catching fire, exploded, an
disabled them from defending themselves. The peop
then rushed in upon them. Percy and Catesby were i
by one shot. Digby, llookwood, Winter, and others, be g
merit, nriannprs. wprp tripd. confessed their guilt, and 1 ’
made prisoners, were tried, confessed their guilt, an
as well as Garnet, by the hands of the common ^
tioner. The Lords Stourton and Mordaunt, two C atm)’
were fined by the Star Chamber, the former m LAW >
the latter in L.10,000, because their absence tr0.m.Pnre
liament had occasioned a suspicion of their acquain a
with the conspiracy. The Earl of Northumberlan
fined in L.30,000, and detained several years a prisoner
BRITAIN.
Rei of the Tower, by reason of his having admitted Percy into
Jain; I. the number of gentlemen-pensioners without taking the
^ requisite oaths.
James’s attempts to civilize the barbarous inhabitants
of Ireland, and to render their subjection durable and
useful to the crown of England, were more honourable
in the design than successful in the execution. He be¬
gan by abolishing the ancient Irish customs which sup¬
plied the place of laws, and were exceedingly barbarous
and absurd. By the Brehon law, every crime, however
enormous, was punished only by fine. Murder itself was
compensated in this way. Every one bad a value affixed
to him, called his eric ; and he who was able to pay this,
might kill whomsoever he pleased. As for such slight of¬
fences as oppression, extortion, or other things of that
nature, no penalty was affixed to them, nor could any re¬
dress be obtained for them. The custom of gavelkind, by
which, upon the death of any person, his land was divided
amongst all the males of the sept or family, both bastard
and legitimate, also operated as a powerful preventive to
improvement, and commenced that incessant subdivision
of the soil, the bitter consequences of which we have liv¬
ed to witness. Having abolished these customs, James
substituted English law in their stead, and taking the na¬
tives under his protection, he declared them free citizens,
and proceeded to govern them by a regular administration,
military as well as civil. But other measures of a more
doubtful character followed. As the Irish had been en¬
gaged in rebellion against Elizabeth, a renunciation of all
rights formerly granted them to separate jurisdictions was
rigorously exacted; a resignation of private estates was
even required; and when these were restored, the pro¬
prietors received them back under such conditions as
seemed calculated to prevent all future oppression of the
common people. Meanwhile a company was established
in London for planting new colonies in the province of
Ulster, which had fallen to the crown by the attainder of
rebels. The property was divided into moderate shares,
the largest not exceeding 2000 acres; tenants were
brought over from England and Scotland; the Irish were
removed from the hills and fastnesses, and settled in the
open country; husbandry and the arts were taught them ;
and Ulster, from being the most wild and disorderly pro¬
vince in Ireland, became in time the best cultivated and
most civilized.
On the 6th of November this year Henry prince of Wales
died suddenly, not without strong suspicions of poison.
On opening his body, however, no symptoms of the kind ap¬
peared ; but his death diffused a universal grief through¬
out the nation, as he was reckoned a prince of extraordi¬
nary accomplishments and high promise. But the mar¬
riage of the Princess Elizabeth with Frederic, elector
palatine, which was celebrated in February 1613, served
to dissipate the grief caused by Prince Henry’s death.
This marriage, however, proved unfortunate both with
respect to the king and to his son-in-law; for the elector,
tiusting to so great an alliance, engaged in enterprises be-
yond his means; and James, unable, and perhaps also un¬
willing, to assist him in his distress, lost his last hold on
the affections of his people.
These bad consequences did not begin to appear till the
year 1619. At that time the states of Bohemia, having
ta en arms in defence of the Protestant religion, and per¬
severed in the contest notwithstanding the preparations of
e emperor to crush them, made an offer of their crown
o t le elector palatine, induced doubtless by his connec-
lo.n W1^ ^e king of England, and his relationship to
nnce Maurice, whose authority in the United Provinces
was nearly absolute. Stimulated by ambition, the young
pa a me, without consulting either James or Maurice,
307
whose opposition he foresaw, accepted the offer, and Iteign of
marched into Bohemia in support of his new subjects. James I-
But the affairs of the new king soon came to a crisis.
Frederic, defeated in the decisive battle of Prague, fled
with his family into Holland; whilst Spinola the Spanish
general invaded the palatinate, where, meeting with little
resistance, except from onfi body of 2400 Englishmen
commanded by Sir Horace Vere, he quickly reduced the
whole principality. The ban of the empire was published
against the unfortunate elector in 1621; the upper pala¬
tinate was in a little time conquered by the elector of
Bavaria, to whom the execution of the decree of the diet
had been committed; Frederic was obliged to live with his
numerous family in poverty and distress, either in Hol¬
land or at Sedan ; and the new conquests of the Catholics
throughout Germany were attended with persecutions
against the Protestants.
By this intelligence the religious zeal of the English
was inflamed to the highest pitch. The sufferings of their
Protestant brethren in Germany excited universal sym¬
pathy, whilst the neutrality and inactivity of James were
loudly exclaimed against. But although the king might
have defended his pacific measures by plausible argu¬
ments, some of his motives were the most ridiculous that
can be conceived. In a spirit of pedantic self-conceit, he
fancied himself capable of disarming hostile nations by
dint of argument; and believed that the power of Austria,
though not awed by that of England, would submit to his
arbitration merely out of respect to his virtue and mode¬
ration. Wedded to his notions concerning the preroga¬
tive of kings, he also imagined, that wherever a conten¬
tion arose between any sovereign and his subjects, the
latter must necessarily be in the wrong; and for this rea¬
son he from the first denied his son-in-law the title of
king of Bohemia, and forbade him to be prayed for in the
churches under that appellation. Besides, Jarpes was on
other accounts extremely averse to a rupture with Spain.
He had entertained an opinion peculiar to himself, that
any alliance below that of a king was unworthy a prince
of Wales; and he never would allow any princess except
a daughter of France or of Spain to be mentioned as a
match for his son. This pitiful folly gave Spain an op¬
portunity of managing the English monarch in his most
important concern^. With a view of engaging him to ob¬
serve neutrality in regard to the succession of Cleves, the
elder daughter of the king of Spain had been indirectly
offered during the life of Prince Henry. The bait, how¬
ever, did not then take ; and James, in consequence of his
alliance with the Dutch, sent 4000 men to the assistance
of the Protestants, by which means the succession was
secured to the Protestant line. In 1618, Gondomar offer¬
ed the king of Spain’s second daughter to Prince Charles;
and, to render the temptation irresistible to so necessitous
a prince as James, he gave hopes of an immense dowry with
the Infanta. On this match James built great hopes, not
only of relieving bis own necessities, but of recovering
the palatinate for his son-in-law; at least the public were
taught to believe that the recovery of the palatinate was
one of the king’s chief motives for entertaining the pro¬
ject of such a marriage.
But the Commons viewed the matter in a very different
light; and this, joined to other parts of the king’s conduct,
blew into a flame the contention which had long subsisted
between them. On the 14th of November 1621, the Com¬
mons framed a remonstrance, which they intended to carry
to the king, representing that the enormous growth of the
Austrian powder threatened the liberties of Europe; that
the progress of the Catholic religion in England bred the
most melancholy apprehensions ; that the indulgence of
his majesty towards the professors of that religion had
308
BRITAIN.
Heign of encouraged their insolence and temerity; that the un-
James I. controlled conquests made by the Austrian family in tuer-
many raiSed mighty expectations in the English Catho¬
lics ; and particularly that the proposed Spanish match
had led them to hope for the entire toleration, if not final
re-establishment, of their religion. They therefore entreat¬
ed his maiesty to undertake the defence of the palatinate,
and maintain it by force of arms ; to turn his sword against
Spain, whose armies and treasures were the chief suppoit
of the Catholic interest in Europe; to enter into ne¬
gotiation for the marriage of his son except with a 1 ro-
testant princess; to cause the children of 1 opish recu¬
sants to be taken from their parents and committed to
the care of Protestant teachers and schoolmasters ; and
to exact with the utmost severity the fines and conhsca-
tions to which the Catholics by law were liable. 1 rotes-
tants had not yet learnt toleration m the school of adver¬
sity. The king was then at Newmarket; but hearing of
the intended remonstrance, he wrote a letter to the Speak¬
er, sharply rebuking the House for debating on matters
far above their reach and capacity, and strictly forbid¬
ding them to meddle with any thing that regarded his
government, or deep matters of state, and especially not
to touch on his son’s marriage with the Spanish princess.
Upon this the Commons framed a new remonstrance, in
which they asserted their right of debating on all matters
of government, and claimed entire freedom of speech m
their debates. The king replied, that their remonstrance
was more like a denunciation of war than an address of
dutiful subjects; that their pretension to inquire into all
state affairs without exception, was such a plenipotence
as none of their ancestors, even during the reign of the
weakest princes, had ever pretended to; that they could
not better show their wisdom, as well as duty, than by
keeping within their proper sphere; and that in any af¬
fair which depended on his prerogative, they had no title
to interpose with their advice, unless when he pleased to
ask it. The Commons in return framed the protestation
already mentioned, which the king tore out of theii joui-
nals, and soon after dissolved the parliament. Of the
leading members of the house, Sir Edward Coke and Sir
Robert Phillips were committed to the Tower, and Sel-
den, Pym, and Mallory, to other prisons; while, as a
lighter punishment, some others were sent into Ireland to
execute the king’s commands in that country. A moie
judicious course was followed with Sir John Saville, who
was made comptroller of the household, a privy counsel¬
lor, and soon after a baron.
This open breach between the king and the parliament
soon rendered politics a general subject of. discourse,
every man began to indulge himself in reasonings and in¬
quiries concerning matters of state ; and the parties which
arose in parliament were speedily propagated throughout
the nation. In vain did James, by reiterated proclama¬
tions, forbid discourses of this kind. These, if they had
any effect at all, served rather to inflame than allay the
curiosity of the public. In every company or society the
transactions just mentioned became the subject of argu¬
ment and debate ; some taking the side of monarchy, and
others that of liberty. And this was the real origin of the
two parties since known by the names of Whiys and Toxics*
During five years James continued the dupe of the court
of Spain. Firmly resolved to contract no alliance with a
heretic, the king of Spain continued to procrastinate and
invent one excuse after another; pretending all along a
willingness to conclude the match, though no step had as
yet been taken for obtaining a dispensation from the pope.
To pave the way for bringing the matter to a close, James
issued public orders for discharging all popish recusants
who were imprisoned ; and it was daily apprehended that
he would prohibit in future the execution of the penal Reign of
laws against them. This conduct, generous had it pro- Jama I.
ceeded from genuine principles of toleration, he was oh- WTV
liged to justify on the hollow pretence that it was done in
order to procure from foreign princes a corresponding in¬
dulgence for the Protestants ; the severity of the English
laws against Catholics having, it was alleged, been urged
as a reason against showing any favour to Protestants re¬
siding in Catholic kingdoms.
Armed with these concessions, which were but ill re¬
lished at home, Digby, earl of Bristol, was sent as am¬
bassador to the court of Spain ; and one Gage was secret¬
ly dispatched as an agent to Rome. After amusing him
so long with false hopes, the court of Spain seemed at
last sincere in the projected marriage. Lord Bristol him¬
self, although he had formerly opposed the Spanish match,
now came to be of this opinion, and considered the pro¬
posed marriage as an infallible prognostic of the pala¬
tine’s restoration ; nor, indeed, was it easy to conjecture
why Philip should be ready to bestow the Infanta with a
dowry of L.600,000 sterling on a prince whose demands
he meant to refuse at the hazard of a war, unless we sup¬
pose that he reckoned on the cowardice and imbecility
of the English monarch’s character.
But whilst the king exulted in his pacific counsels, and
boasted of his superior sagacity and penetration, all his
prospects were blasted by the temerity of the worthless
favourite who governed both court and nation with almost
unlimited sway. This was Villiers, duke of Buckingham,
who had succeeded Somerset in the capricious affections
of James, and had risen from the rank of cupbearer to a
dukedom and the highest honours of the state. Ihoug
possessed of some accomplishments as a courtier, he was
utterly devoid of the talent necessary to a minister; and
at once partook of the insolence which attends a foitune
newly acquired, and the impetuosity which belongs to
persons born in high stations, and unacquainted with op¬
position. Amongst those who had experienced the arro¬
gance of this overgrown favourite, was the Prince of W ales
himself; and a coldness, if not enmity, had in consequence
arisen between them. Desirous of putting an end to this
misunderstanding, and at the same time envious of the
great reputation of the Earl of Bristol, Buckingham per*
suaded the prince to undertake a journey to Madrid.
This, he said, considered as an unexpected piece of gallan¬
try, would equal all the fictions of Spanish romance; and,
suiting the chivalrous and enterprising character of that
nation, would immediately introduce him to the princess
under the agreeable character of a devoted and adventu¬
rous suitor. Little persuasion was necessary to prevail
with Charles to undertake the journey ; and the impetuo¬
sity of the favourite having extorted a consent from James,
the prince and Buckingham (or “ Baby Charles an
“ Steenie,” as the king ridiculously called his son and ms
minion) set out as knight-errant and squire. They tra¬
velled through France in disguise, under the assume
names of Jack and iom Smith. At a ball in Paris,
prince first saw the Princess Henrietta, whom he after¬
wards married. She was then in the bloom of youth ana
beauty, and the novelists of the time say that the prince
fell in love with her on this occasion. . ,
On their arrival at Madrid, every body was sin prise
by a step so little usual among great princes. The Spanis^
monarch made Charles a visit, expressed the utmost gr
titude for the confidence reposed in him, and made war
protestations of a corresponding confidence and friends np-
He gave Charles a golden key which opened all ms apa ■
ments, that the prince might, without any formality,
access to him at all hours; and heaped upon him 0
marks of distinction and favour if possible still more
BRITAIN. 309
lle^i of tering. The Infanta, however, was only shown to her
Jaiis I. lover in public ; the Spanish ideas of propriety being too
strict to allow any further intercourse till the arrival of
the dispensation. Meanwhile no attempt was made by
the Spaniards to profit by the circumstance of having the
prince of Wales in their power, in order to impose any
harder conditions of treaty. Their Catholic zeal, indeed,
prompted them on one occasion to seek more concessions
in the religious articles ; but, on the opposition of Bristol,
they immediately desisted. The pope, however, hearing
of Charles’s arrival in Madrid, tacked some new clauses
to the dispensation; and it became necessary to transmit
the articles to London for the king’s ratification. This
treaty, which was made public, consisted of several ar¬
ticles, chiefly regarding the exercise of the Ca'tholic reli¬
gion by the Infanta ; and of these, the only one that could
reasonably be found fault with, was that in which the king
consented that the children of the marriage should be
educated by the princess till they were ten years of age.
But besides this public treaty, there were some private
articles, which stipulated for a suspension of the penal laws
against the English Catholics in the first instance, together
with a toleration for the exercise of the Roman Catholic
religion in private houses, and, next, a repeal of these laws
by parliament. Meanwhile Gregory XV. who had granted
the dispensation, died ; and Urban VIII. was chosen as
his successor. Upon this the nuncio refused to deliver
the dispensation till the pleasure of the new pope should
be known concerning it. But the crafty pontiff delayed
his confirmation, in hopes that, during the prince’s resi¬
dence in Spain, some expedient might be fallen upon to
effect his conversion. The king of England, as well as his
son, became impatient; but, on the first hint, Charles ob¬
tained leave to return, and Philip graced bis departure
with the same marks of civility and respect which had sig¬
nalised his arrival.
The modest, reserved, and highly dignified behaviour of
Charles, together with the confidence he had reposed in
the Spanish nation, and the romantic gallantry he had
practised in regard to their princess, endeared him to the
whole court of Madrid. But in the same proportion that
Charles was beloved and esteemed, Buckingham was de¬
spised and hated. His sallies of passion, his indecent free¬
doms with the prince, his dissolute pleasures, and his ar¬
rogant, impetuous temper, which he either could not or
would not restrain, rendered him an object of undisguised
aversion to the Spaniards. Buckingham, on the other hand,
sensible how odious he had become to the Spaniards, and
dreading the influence which that nation would naturally
acquire after the arrival of the Infanta, employed all his
influence to prevent the marriage. What arguments he
used to prevail with the prince to offer so gross an insult
to the Spanish nation, from whom he had received the
most generous treatment, or what colours he employed to
disguise the ingratitude and imprudence of such a mea¬
sure, are totally unknown. Certain it is, however, that
when the prince left Madrid, he was firmly determined,
in opposition to his most solemn promises, to break off
the treaty with Spain. Accordingly, on their arrival at
London, the prince and Buckingham assumed the entire
direction of the negociation ; and it was not difficult to
find pretences under which to mask the breach of treaty
"Inch had been secretly resolved on. After employing
many fruitless artifices to delay or prevent the espousals,
Bristol received positive instructions not to deliver the
proxy which had been left in his hands, nor to conclude
t e marriage until security was given for the full restitu¬
tion of the palatinate. Philip understood this language;
ut, determined to throw the whole blame of the rupture
on the English, he delivered into Bristol’s hand a wrritten
promise, by which he bound himself to procure the resto- Reign of
ration of the palatinate either by persuasion or by every James I.
other possible means. When he found that this conces-
sion gave no satisfaction, he ordered the Infanta to lay
aside the title of Princess of Wales, which she had borne
after the arrival of the dispensation from Rome, and to drop
the study of the English language ; and as he foresaw
that the rash counsels which now governed the court of
England would not stop short at the breach of the mar¬
riage-treaty, he immediately ordered preparations for war
to be made throughout all his dominions.
A match for Prince Charles was soon afterwards nego-
ciated with Henrietta, daughter of Henry IV., and this
met with much better success than that with the Infanta.
But the king had not the same inducements to prosecute
this match as the former one, the portion promised being
much smaller; yet willing that his son should not be al¬
together disappointed of a bride, and the king of France
demanding only the same terms which had been offered to
the court of Spain, James thought proper to comply. In
an article of this treaty of marriage, it was stipulated that
the education of the children till the age of thirteen
should belong to the mother; and this probably gave that
turn towards popery which afterwards proved the ruin of
the unfortunate house of Stuart.
Being now deprived of every other hope of relieving his
son-in-law, except by force of arms, James declared war
against Spain and the emperor, for the recovery of the pala¬
tinate; and six thousand men were sent over into Hol¬
land to assist Prince Maurice in his schemes against those
powers. The people were everywhere elated at the course
which events had taken ; and so popular was the idea of a
Spanish war, and so great the joy at the rupture of the pro¬
jected Catholic alliance, that Buckingham became for the
time a favourite of the people, and was hailed even by Sir
Edward Coke as the saviour of the nation. The reinforce¬
ment sent to Prince Maurice was followed by another con¬
sisting of twelve thousand men, commanded by Count
Mansfeldt; and the court of France promised its assistance.
But the English were disappointed in all their views. The
troops embarked at Dover found, on arriving at Calais, that
no orders had arrived for their admission into that place,
much less for affording them a passage through France, as
had been promised ; and after waiting some time, they were
obliged to sail towards Zealand, where proper measures
had not as yet been taken for their disembarkation. Mean¬
while a pestilential disorder crept in amongst them; half
their number died while on board, and the other half,
weakened by sickness, was insufficient to march into the
palatinate; and thus ended this ill-concerted and fruitless
expedition. Whether its unfortunate result had any effect
on the king’s health is uncertain; but he was soon after
seized with a tertian ague, which put an end to his life on
the 27th of March 1625, after having lived fifty-nine years,
and reigned over England twenty-two, and over Scotland
almost as long as he had lived.
James, the son of Queen Mary and of Lord Darnley,
the handsomest couple of their age, was lumpish, not to
say deformed, in his person, vulgar in his air, and un¬
gainly in his manners. He had an awkward figure, a
rolling eye, a ricketty sidelong walk, nervous tremblings,
a slobbering mouth, and a boyishness of manner which
formed a ludicrous contrast with the airs of dignity and
regal state which he was constantly labouring to assume.
These imperfections, it is true, might have been found in
the best and greatest man ; and it is seldom indeed that
nature is equally lavish in physical and mental endow¬
ments. But, in this king, the ungainliness of his outward
man was not redeemed by intellectual or moral qualities
calculated to insure admiration or regard. He possessed
3io BRIT
Reign of some learning, indeed, and, within a narrow circle, exhi-
Charles I. bited considerable ingenuity of speculation on subjects
connected with government and morals. But his under¬
standing was deficient alike in depth and in soundness;
his principles were loose, vague, and undefined; his pre¬
judices ridiculously gross; his credulity boundless; and
his conceit only to be matched by his pedantry and imbe¬
cility. As a king he was perhaps the most extraordmaiy
phenomenon that history has ever presented to the won¬
der of mankind. What policy would have induced wise
tyrants to conceal, James was continually obtruding on all
who had the patience to listen to him. His despotic theo¬
ries of government, and his pretensions to arbitrary power,
were continually in his mouth; and whilst he had not a
regiment of guards to enforce his doctrines, he talked
with more confidence than Hadrian would have judged it
wise to assume when at the head of eighty legions and the
master of the Roman world. In practice, however, no
monarch ever held his prerogatives with less tenacity.
« jje neither gave way gracefully to the advancing spirit
of liberty, nor took vigorous measures to stop it, but re¬
treated before it with ludicrous haste, blustering and in¬
sulting as he retreated.” Whatever might have been the
frailties, vices, or crimes of former kings of England, they
had all possessed great force of character, and, whether
loved or hated, they had always been feared. James, on
the contrary, was only despised; and even his spoiled
minion Buckingham made no scruple to laugh outright
in the face of his “ dear dad and gossip.” Nor did the
follies and vices of the man tend in any degree to lessen
the contempt produced by the feeble and wavering policy
of the sovereign. The indecent gallantries of the com t,
and the habits of gross intoxication which even the fe¬
males indulged, were viewed with loathing and disgust by
a people whose manners were beginning to be tinctured
by a more than stoical severity. But there were shades
still darker and deeper than these. “ Crimes of the most
frightful kind had been discovered; others were suspect¬
ed. The strange story of the Cowries was not forgotten.
The ignominious fondness of the king for his minions,- ■
the perjuries, the sorceries, the poisonings, which his chief
favourites had planned within the walls of his palace,——
the pardon which, in direct violation of his duty and of his
word, he had granted to the mysterious threat of a mur¬
derer,—made him an object of loathing to many of his
subjects.”1 In a word, nature and education seem to have
done their best to make James a finished specimen of all
that a king ought not to be.
CHAP. III.
REIGN OF CHARLES I.
Accession of Charles I—His character as contrasted with that of
his father First Parliament—Their niggard supply—Dis¬
solved New Parliament—Impeachment of Buckingham—
Arbitrary proceedings of the King—Disputes—Dissolution.^—
Ship-money.—Forced loan resisted—Remarkable trial.—War
with France.—Buckingham’s Expedition.—Third Parliament.
A I N.
 Petition of Right Duplicity of Charles—Royal assent at Reign c
length given to the Bill—Assassination of Buckingham—Ton- Charles
nage and poundage Parliament dissolved—Peace concluded
with France and Spain—Archbishop Laud—Religious Innova-
tions New Ministry Strafford—Arbitrary measures of the
Kino- John Hampden prosecuted for the payment of ship-
money Particulars of this memorable case—Hampden, Crom-
well, and other Puritans prevented from emigrating to North
America Attempt to introduce Episcopacy into Scotland—
The Covenant King tries to soothe the Covenanters—Assem¬
bly at Glasgow.—Episcopacy abolished—War.—Peace.—A\ar
again declared A Parliament called and dissolved—Pecuniary
distresses of the King Royalists defeated at Newburn.—
Treaty of Rippon Meeting of Parliament.—Impeachment,
trial, and execution of Strafford.—Injustice of this proceeding.
 Parliament rendered perpetual—Imprisonment of Laud—
Delinquency Charles’s visit to Scotland—His concessions and
promotions The Incident—Rebellion and Massacre of the
Protestants in Ireland Reasons for attaching suspicion to the
King Proceedings of the English Parliament—Acrimonious
remonstrance of the Commons.— 1 heir violent proceedings.
Roundheads and Cavaliers—The Bishops retire from the House
of Lords Impeachment, by the King’s order, of six members
of Parliament.—He goes in person to seize them.—Consequen¬
ces of this rash act Proffered concessions unavailing—Com¬
mons demand the surrender of the executive power of the state.
—Refused by the King War between the King and Parha-
ment.
Charles I. succeeded to the same favourite, the same
ministers, and the same council, which his father had pos¬
sessed, to say nothing of the same pecuniary distress; and,
unhappily, he also inherited the same principles of govern¬
ment. But in other respects he bore no resemblance to
his sire. “ He was neither a driveller nor a pedant, a buf¬
foon nor a coward. Even in the judgment of his enemies
he was a scholar and a gentleman, a man of exquisite taste
in the fine arts, and of strict morals in private life. His
talents for business were respectable, and his demeanour
was grave, dignified, and kingly. But he was false, im¬
perious, obstinate, narrow-minded, ignorant of the temper
of his people, and unobservant of the signs of the times.
The main principle of his government was resistance to
public opinion; and hence his concessions were delayed
till it mattered not whether he resisted or yielded, till the
nation, which had long ceased to love or to trust him, had
at last ceased also to fear him.” (Edinb. Rev. vol. hv.
p. 515.) At the same time his accession to the throne
was greeted with favour, and even hailed as auspicious
by the nation, which had been wearied and sickened by
the pedantic and presumptuous incapacity of his father.
Nothing is more easy than for princes to gain golden
opinions; nothing more difficult than to rule with wis¬
dom and moderation in those great crises when the na¬
tional mind becomes agitated by a new spirit, and when
the old frame of government must either accommodate
itself to the advancing state of society, or be dashed in
pieces by a rude collision with a new and resistless force.
Pleased with his temporary popularity, obtained partly
by the rupture with Spain, and also in want of money for
carrying on his government, Charles resolved to cal to
gether the great council of the nation ; and, according },
1 Edinburgh Review, vol. liv. p. 512. “ The sovereign whom James most resembled,” says the very able writer of the art
referred to, “ was, we think, Claudius Caesar. Both had the same feeble and vacillating temper, the same childishness,
coarseness, the same poltroonery. Both were men of learning; both wrote and spoke—not, indeed, well, but still in a “ ude.
which it seems almost incredible that men so foolish should have written or spoken. The follies and indecencies of Janies are
scribed in the words which Suetonius uses respecting Claudius ‘ Multa talia, etiam privatis deformia, necdum P™^1’ JJ ;n
facundo, neque indocto, immo etiam pertinaciter liberalibus, studiis dedito.’ The description given by Suetonius, .ot . fuit
which the Roman prince transacted business, exactly suits the Briton. ‘ In cognoscendo ac decernendo mira vanetate ^ ^
modo circumspectus et sagax, modo inconsultus ac prseceps, nonnunquam frivolus amentique similis. Claudius was ruieos ^
by two bad women ; James successively by two bad men. Even the description of the person of Claudius which we P™, . re.
cient memoirs might in many points serve for that of James. ‘ Ceterum et ingredientem destituebant poplites minus n m 4
misse quid vel serio agentem multa dehonestabant, risus indecens, via turpior, spumante nctu, praeterea linguae tibubanua.
(9%
BRITAIN.
jl of
£es I
he issued writs for summoning a new parliament for the
7th of May 1625. But the arrival of the Princess Hen¬
rietta, whom he had espoused by proxy, obliged him to
delay, by repeated prorogations, their meeting till the 18th
of June, when they assembled at Westminster for the dis¬
patch of business.
The king’s discourse to the parliament was full of appa¬
rent simplicity and cordiality. He mentioned cursorily
the occasion he had for supply, but, it is said, employed
no means to influence the suffrages of the members. The
officers of the crown, who had seats in the house, were
not even allowed to specify the particular sum which he
had occasion for; he trusted entirely to the wisdom and
affection of his parliament. But the parliament, composed
chiefly of Puritans, was not in a humour to be generous,
or even just, in appreciating the king’s necessities. They
knew that all the money formerly granted had been ex¬
pended on military and naval preparations ; that great an¬
ticipations were made on the revenues of the crown ; that
the king was loaded with a debt contracted by his father,
who had borrowed money both from foreign princes and
from his own subjects; that the public revenues could
with difficulty maintain the dignity of the crown, even un¬
der the ordinary charges of government; that the present
war had been, in a great measure, the result of their own
importunate applications and entreaties; and that the na¬
tion was solemnly pledged to support their sovereign in
carrying it on. They could not be ignorant of the difficulty
of military enterprises directed against the whole house of
Austria; against the king of Spain, possessed of the great¬
est riches and most extensive dominions of any prince in
Europe; against the Emperor Ferdinand, hitherto the most
fortunate monarch of the age, who had astonished Ger¬
many by the rapidity of his victories. Yet, with all this
knowledge, and to answer all these important ends, the com¬
mons thought proper to vote a supply of only L.l 12,000.
The excuses wfliich have been made for this insulting par¬
simony are, the hatred of Buckingham, and the discovery
that the war had been produced by his artifices and in¬
trigues. But the validity of this apology may reasonably
be disputed. If the war was judged impolitic or unneces¬
sary, it became the duty of the Commons to address the
king, praying him to abandon it. If it was neither the one
nor the other, they ought not to have avenged themselves
for a trifling grievance by insulting the king and degrad¬
ing the country.
The parliament was adjourned for a few w'eeks in sum¬
mer by reason of the plague, which had suddenly broken
out; but on their re-assembling at Oxford, the king re¬
presented, in the most explicit manner, the necessity there
was for a large supply, urging that this request was the
first he had ever made them ; that he was young, and in
the commencement of his reign; and that if he now met
with kind and dutiful usage, it would endear to him the
use of parliaments, and for ever preserve an entire har¬
mony between him and his people. But the Commons
lemained inexorable, refusing even the addition of two
fteenths to the former supply. They renewed their com-
P amts against the growth of popery; they demanded a
strict execution of the penal laws against the Catholics ;
my remonstrated against some late pardons granted to
pnests; and they attacked Montague, one of the king’s
chaplains, on account of a book he had lately composed,
in which it was maintained that virtuous Catholics as well
as ot er Christians would be saved from eternal torments.
iar es gave them a complaisant answer, but at the same
ime rmly resolved to abate somewhat of the rigorous
aws against that unfortunate party, which his engage-
en s with France absolutely required. No measure of
w mie reign, however, proved more obnoxious to his
311
intolerant subjects, or in its consequences more fatal to Iteign of
himself, than this resolution. The Puritans, who had con- Charles I.
tinued to gain ground during the whole reign of James, '—'
now formed the majority of the House of Commons. Pe¬
titions were consequently presented to the king for repla¬
cing such clergymen as had been silenced for want of con¬
formity to the ceremonies; and laws were enacted for the
strict observance of Sunday, which was sanctified with the
most rigid and melancholy gloom. The inevitable result
of all this was the dismissal of the refractory parliament,
which was dissolved on the 12th of August.
During this interval Charles had been obliged to borrow
from his subjects on privy-seals and other expedients, by
which means he was enabled, though with great difficulty,
to equip a fleet destined to act against Spain. But the
force thus painfully fitted out performed nothing worthy
of notice, and the ill success of the enterprise onfy served
to increase the clamours against the court.
Charles’s second parliament, which was speedily con¬
voked, adopted substantially the same views as the first,
though without pushing their parsimony to such meanness.
They voted a supply of three subsidies, amounting to
L.l 68,000 and three fifteenths; but the passing of this vote
into a law was reserved until the end of the session ; a
proceeding which was tantamount to a threat of withhold¬
ing it unless their demands were satisfied. Charles was
greatly incensed at this conduct; but he found it prudent
to submit, and to wait the event with patience. In the
mean time the Commons attacked the Duke of Bucking¬
ham, who had become generally obnoxious; and he wras
also impeached by the Earl of Bristol in the Lords, on ac¬
count of his conduct in the Spanish negociation. But the
earl’s impeachment was entirely overlooked, and the Com¬
mons taxed Buckingham with offences, such as adminis¬
tering physic to the late king without consent of his phy¬
sicians^ from which he found little difficulty to exculpate
himself. While under this impeachment, Buckingham
was elected chancellor of the university of Cambridge, and ;
the king publicly thanked the university for their wise and
proper choice. This was keenly resented by the Com¬
mons ; but when they loudly complained of the affront,
the lord-keeper commanded them, in the king’s name, not
to meddle with his minister and servant, but to finish in a
few days the bill they had begun for the subsidies, other¬
wise they must expect to sit no longer. And to strip this
imprudent menace of all disguise, Sir Dudley Carlton em¬
phatically explained it by allusion to those monarchs in
Christendom who, owing to the turbulence of their sub¬
jects, had been obliged to overthrow parliaments altoge¬
ther. Nor was this the whole, or even the worst. Adding
injury to indignity, the king next ordered two members of
the House of Commons, Sir John Eliot and Sir Dudley
Digges, the chief managers of the impeachment against
the duke, to be thrown into prison, alleging as the reason
of this proceeding certain seditious expressions said to
have dropped from these members. Upon inquiry, how¬
ever, it appeared that no such expressions had been utter¬
ed ; and as the Commons refused to proceed with any busi¬
ness until they received satisfaction in their privileges, the
members were accordingly released, though with a very
bad grace. Soon after, the House of Lords, moved by the
example of the Commons, claimed liberty for the Earl of
Arundel, who had been lately confined in the Tower; and
after many fruitless evasions the king was obliged, though
somewhat ungraciously, to comply with their demand.
The next attack meditated by the Commons, if success¬
ful, would have proved decisive, and reduced the king to
an absolute dependence on his parliament. They were
preparing a remonstrance against the levying of tonnage
and poundage without consent of the legislature. This
312
lieigii of
Charles I.
BRITAIN.
impost, together with six new ones laid on Je[ch“^5® eommhmmt; the Special command of the king and
by King James, constituted nearly me-Mf o^he crown tl.e^^ But u was alleged that, by '-v-
revenues; and it was therefore of vital impo ta this was n„t sufficient reason for refusing bad or re-
king, situated as he ivas, to preserve it ent e, B leicement to the prisoners. The question was brought to
there can be no doubt whatever that, inRs ow a so]emn trial before the Court of King’s Bench and the
was an odious and oppressive tax. Ifc "a\ ‘ • tbis whoie kingdom was attentive to the issue of the cause,
tion of the Commons, if they succeeded in ta ) . . B j debates on this subject, it appeared that personal
point, to petition the king to remove Buckingham from h^ J gix different sta_
presence and ^Ihe8 ctmons tu,^ “by an article in kgna Char,a itself. In times
which was preparing for hl™’ 1626. The of turbulence and sedition, indeed, the princes had m-
by dissolving parliament, on the f e deter. fringed upon these laws ; and of this several examples were
House of Lords in vain interceded, ihe x S1 nroduced The difficulty then lay to determine when such
mined on his course ; and when the Peers prayed hat the Jcessary, and of that the court pre-
parliament might he allowed to continue its y tended to be supreme and only judge. As it was found
replied in anger, “ Not a moment longer Jhe king and that the fiVe gentlemen should plead
the Commons at their sepaiation published c II ^ statute, by which they might demand bail, so it was
to the nation. , ' . „„ri- ^^nt deemed expedient by the court to remand them to prison,
Charles having thus made a breach wi i P , without determining on the necessity of taking bail for the
which there were no hopes of repairing, wasobhged o without deter ^ ^ ^ of . andi as
have recourse to the naked exercise of his prerogat P . , , pvnpcted satisfied neither party. The court in-
order to supply himself with money. Ajommissmn was m.g ^ ^ ^ yu]d be taken . the country exclaimed
^wltrt^^acled against them an expe- that.the prisoners ought to he set fre^^ ]^
assistance ; from the city of London he requiied a oan g formed an alliance ; a temerity bordering on
L.100,000. The former contributed but slowly; the lat- hat .storians ao.ree that the French, like the
ter, sheltering themselves under ^ war, was of Buckinlham’s creating; and the mo-
cuses, gave at last a flat denial. To equip a ee , an apj j which ]ed t0 it would Appear incredible, if the vio-
portionment was made by order of the council among rwoflitracv and folly of that man’s character were
the maritime towns, each of which was required, with t e ’ P yt ’he time ,Jhen Charles married, by proxy,
assistance of the adjacent counties, to fui ms i Henrietta of France, Buckingham had appeared at Paris
number of vessels or amount of shipping. F e the festivity, and, by his showy superficial ac-
London was rated at twenty ships. And tms w, * g , . attracted the admiration of the Queen
appearance, in the present reign of ^p-money; a taxa- ® “P'f XLg conducted Henrietta safely
tion which had once been imposed by Elizabeth on a g F i i he vvas preparing, doubtless in the spirit of
emergency, but which, revived and carried some steps far- to Eng^nd he was PrePa emb . when
ther by Charles, produced the most violent discontents, disappointed lover of
These summary methods of supply, howevei, were eni ’ caused a message to be sent him from France,
ployed with some moderation, until the tidings arr i r • Vrp Virmnnr of his intended visit. Buckingham s
S,e king of Denmark's defeat by Tilly, the imperial gene- of passion,
ral. Money then became more than ever necessary; and rage at tlmknew no bounds ana, in ^ I ^ J ^ the
as the ways and means hitherto employed had notanswei- he s'0'® p “ He j determined, if possible, to em- •
ed expectation, it was suggested in council, as the most power of wit’h ^ yiew he pre.
speedy, equal, and eftective means of obtaining a supp }, o r®1 Charfes to dismiss the queen’s French domes-
exact a general loan from the subject, rating every man ac- vailed with Chai^b^ t0 seize on those of
cording as he was assessed in the rolls of the last subsidy tics, and encouraged the English ships to seize ^
The precise sum required was what each would have paid France. “ gr hich was t0 drive the French to a declara-
had the vote of four subsidies passed into a law ; but it in their obj , this Buckingham persuaded the king
was at the same time ostentatiously declared that the tion 0 • P » Huguenots, whose lead-
sums thus exacted were not to be considered as subsidies, ^^*^6 80^“, was then inTondon. And the
bUThis paltry and equivocating subterfuge imposed upon vain, shallow, SsTthe'E”
no one. It was plain that by the course which the court hunt ret s ip c ^ i ninformed of his designs, however,
was now pursuing, the liberty of the subject would be en- guenots of Rochelle. L. * ' Instead of attack-
tirely destroyed, and parliaments in future rendered wholly the latter shut t leu ga ^ o Qleron Buckingham
superfluous/ It was to no purpose, therefore, that the mg the rich and detence es ^
followers of the court, and their preachers in the pulpit Jen bent lus course to tha^ ^ovisioned, here-
enjoined submission to this loan as part of the duty of tie , f* • But his impatience soon
nassive obedience and non-resistance. A spirit oi oppo- solved to reduce it by c • „nj „ttpmDtins to storm
Lion arose among the people ; many refused these loans ; led him to abandon this design; and atte \ g f
r so "e0e?en a^tiv? iA encouraging their neigh- Je P^ce w;^t having made a breach m the cleffi^
hours to insist upon their common rights and privileges, he was lepulsed with the ioss 0 e. Desti-
Bv a warrant of the council these were thrown into pri- and returned to England copied ^ d com¬
mon" and most of them patiently submitted to confine- tute alike of capacity for war, of comm j liig
mem? akhough such as Applied\o the king by petition mon vigilance, his conduc^ hro^hou. the wh^ » ^
were commonly released. Five gentlemen alone, Sir expedition, was alternately that , nr.t tn have done;
Thomas ZS Sir John Corbet,SSir Walter Earl, Sir man He did t •«:
John Heweningham, and Sir Edmond Hampden, demand- neglected every thjng which it sacri(iccd
ed release, not os a favour from the court, but as their tempted what was impossible or impracticable.
BRITAIN.
:ign of the lives of brave men at the shrine of his insane folly;
(arles I. brought disgrace on the national arms ; and prodigiously
v aggravated all the difficulties and embarrassments with
which his master was then surrounded. Of all the popin¬
jays ever hatched and feathered in a court, Buckingham
was beyond all doubt one of the most mischievous as
well as most unprincipled.
Well then might the king and his favourite tremble at
the prospect of meeting a third parliament, after having
squandered the money illegally extorted from a nation,
now on the point of insurrection, on a wrar begun in the
madness of profligacy, and productive only of disaster
and shame. But, in the actual state of men's minds, it
would have been hazardous to renew the experiment of
raising money by the exercise of the prerogative alone.
A third parliament was therefore summoned, and met on
the 17th of March 1628. At the beginning of the ses¬
sion Charles plainly told them, that “ if they should not do
their duties, in contributing to the necessities of the state,
he must, in discharge of his conscience, use those other
means which God had put into his hands, in order to save
that which the follies of some particular men might other¬
wise put in danger.” Foreseeing that they might expect
to be dismissed on the first disagreement with the king,
the Commons proceeded with caution, yet relaxed nothing
in vigour. The nation was now really suffering from the
late arbitrary proceedings. They, therefore, began by re¬
monstrating against arbitrary imprisonments and forced
/loans; after which, five subsidies, or L.280,000, w^ere voted
to the king, a sum with which Charles declared himself
well satisfied. The Commons, however, resolved not to
pass this vote into a law, until they had obtained from the
king a sufficient security that their liberties should no
longer be violated as they had formerly been. With this
view they framed a law which was called a Petition of
Right, because it was only a confirmation of the ancient
constitution, in which they collected all the arbitrary ex¬
ertions of the prerogative which had taken place since the
kings accession, and in particular complained of the grie¬
vances of forced loans, benevolences, taxes without con¬
sent of parliament, arbitrary imprisonments, billeting sol¬
diers, and martial law. They made no pretensions to any
unusual power or privileges'"; nor did they intend to in-
unge on the royal prerogative in any respect. They
aimed only at securing those rights and privileges derived
from their ancestors.
. ®ut ^ie on his part, began plainly to show that he
aimed at nothing less than absolute power. This most
reasonable petition he did his utmost to evade, by re¬
peated messages to the house, in which he offered his
roya woia that there should be no more infringements
°n lberty tbe subject. But these messages had
no e ect on the Commons. They knew how brittle such
pi onuses were without further security, and accordingly
passed the bill. In the Lords an attempt wras made to
tfi11 e measure, by adding to a general declaration of
e rights of property and person a clause to the effect
nhr’ !? Ca-Se tbe sovereign be, from absolute necessity,
iged to imprison a subject, “ he shall be petitioned to
c are that, within a convenient time, he shall and will
press tie cause of imprisonment, and will, upon cause
mnnXiPreSS^ 1 leave the Prisoner t0 be tried by the com-
rpfn ^ ^ l.an(b” But in a conference the Commons
thp T6 i° ann*bilate their petition by such a compromise;
hm t]°r S t V311 Passed the bill, and nothing was wanting
af * ie r°yal assent to give it the force of a law. Charles
eume to the House of Peers, sent for the
of "ivin11^!,311^ be‘n& seated in the chair of state, instead
313
v/
of ffivin tu “CUJg s>cciieu in tne cnair ot state, instead
that riJt u jSUa* concise assent, said, “ the king wdlieth
vol v 6 ^0ne accortbnS to the laws and customs of
the realm, and that the statutes be put into execution; Reign of
that his subjects may have no cause to complain of any Charles I.
wrong or oppression contrary to their just rights and li-
berties, to the preservation whereof he holds himself in
conscience as much obliged as of his own prerogative.”
This equivocal answer was highly resented. The Com¬
mons returned in very ill humour; and their indignation
would undoubtedly have fallen on the unfortunate Catho¬
lics, had not the petition against that persecuted class of
religionists already received a satisfactory answer. To
give vent to their displeasure, therefore, they fell on Dr
Mamwaring, who had preached, and, at the special com¬
mand of the king, printed, a sermon, which was found to
contain doctrines subversive of civil liberty. For these
doctrines Mainwaring was sentenced to be imprisoned
during the pleasure of the house, to be fined in L.1000,
to make submission and acknowledgment for his offence,
to be suspended for three years, and declared incapable of
holding any ecclesiastical dignity or secular office; and
his book wras ordered to be called in and burnt. But the
session was no sooner ended than Mainwaring received a
pardon, and w’as promoted to a living of considerable value ;
and some years afterwards he was raised to the see of St
Asaph. Having dealt thus with Mainwaring, the Com¬
mons proceeded to censure Buckingham ; and the storm
of public indignation seemed ready to burst on his head,
when it wras diverted by the king’s yielding to the impor¬
tunities of parliament. He went to the House of Peers,
and when he pronounced the usual form of words, “ Let
it he law as is desired” the house resounded with accla¬
mations, which were re-echoed over all the country, and
the bill for five subsidies immediately passed.
But the Commons were not yet done with the redress of
gri^ances. They called for the abolition of a commission
which had been recently granted to thirty-three officers of
the crow-n for levying money by impositions or otherwise,
“ in which form or circumstance were to be dispensed
with rather than the substance be lost or hazarded.” They
adverted to a scheme for introducing into England a thou¬
sand German horse, probably to aid in levying contribu¬
tions ; they again attacked Buckingham, against whom
they w'ere justly implacable; and they also asserted that
the levying of tonnage and poundage without consent of
parliament wras a palpable violation of the ancient liber¬
ties of the people, and an open infringement of the peti¬
tion of right so lately granted. To prevent a formal re¬
monstrance on these subjects, the king suddenly prorogued
the parliament on the 26th of June 1628.
The band of an assassin soon rid the Commons of their
enemy Buckingham. He was murdered on the 23d of
August this same year, by one Felton, who had formerly
served under him as a lieutenant. The king did not ap¬
pear much concerned at his death, but retained an affec¬
tion for his family throughout his whole lifetime. He de¬
sired also that Felton might he tortured, in order to ex¬
tort from him a discovery of his accomplices; but the
judges declared, that though that practice had been for¬
merly very common, it was altogether illegal.
In 1629 the usual contentions between the king and his
parliament were renewed. The great article on which
the Commons broke with their sovereign, and which final¬
ly created in him a disgust at all parliaments, was their
demands with regard to tonnage and poundage. The ques¬
tion at issue was, whether this tax could be levied with¬
out consent of parliament or not. Charles, supported by
multitudes of precedents, maintained that it might; and
the parliament, in consequence of their petition of right,
asserted that it could not. But the Commons were re¬
solved to support their rights.
They began with summoning before them the officers of
2 R
v/
lieign of
Charles I.
\
Barons of Exchequer were questioned with regard to their ^i' o? En<r*land to be fast relapsing into the an-
decrees on that head. The sheriff of London was c . fil b t gn tiie court of Rome itself entertained
ted to the Tower for his activity in supporting the ^Uaith eve authorit in this island, and,
of the custom-house. The goods of Holies, a rne‘cbant, hopes of the zeal of ^ twice offered him,
and member of the house, being seized on accou Drivate a cardinal’s hat. He had just sense enough to
refusal to pay the duties, .c®I"P'ain^ha^re ™ the other decline a’tender which, if accepted, would have instantly
violence, as a breach of privilege. Charles, on , 11 :s overthrow. But it must nevertheless be con-
liaml, supported Ids officers “ a“ *^en^«ame every Cessed, that if he hesitated openly to declare himself a Ca-
the breach between him and the Commons beca . J h ; of his religion was essentially identical
day wider. Sir John Eliot framed Remonstrance against ^e-^ejenais 0 ^ ^ profound respect was ex.
tonnage and poundage, which he offered to the acted to the sacerdotal character; the same submission
read; but the latter refused, and Sir John then read .t of 8ynods and councils; the
himself. When the question was called for, the Sp , and ceremony in worship; the same supersti-
Sir John Finch, said, that he had it m commanc ‘ tious }.e,rard to days, postures, meats, and vestments. The
king to adjourn, and to put no question ; upo communion table was removed from the middle of the area
rose and left the chair. 1 he whole house v , , wiiere it had hitherto stood in all churches except cathe-
roar; the Speaker was pushed back, and foicil y 1 , , d rfaced at the east end, railed in, and denominated
the chair by Hollis and Valentine, till a short remon- Who officiated received the
strance was framed, and passed by acclamation. P 1, f prjest All kinds of ornaments, especially
and Arminians were now declared capital enemies to he appellation^of pnest^Ail ^ of copied f;om the
commonwealth ; those who levied tonnage an pou | , V And the crucifix too, that perpetual consola-
were branded with the same epithet; and even the mer mass-book ^ c uc ^ ^ pro,
chants who voluntarily paid these duties were declared ^ 0n this occasion,
betrayers of English liberty, and pub ic cr\emi • j return for the king’s indulgence towards the church,
doors being locked, the gentleman-usher of the House /"‘^iffXwers took care to magnify on every oc-
of Lords, who was sent by the kmg could get no adrmt- ^^^'Sority, and to treafwith the utmost
tance till this remonstrance was finished. _ By tne u pu,-itanical pretensions to a free and independ-
order he took the mace of^arch, the ent constitution. From this subjection, however, they took
to their proceedings; and, on the J care to exclude themselves, insisting upon a divine and
parliament was dissolved. borne of the me nnn^olic<il charter in preference to a legal and parhamen-
imprisoned and fined; but this severity servev on y ‘ i sacerdotal character was magnified as sa-
crease the general discontent, and pomt out the sufferers tary^one. rightt0 spiri.Sal authority,
as proper leaders for the popular party. nrivate judgment in spiritual subjects, was re-
Disgusted with parliaments, Charles now resolved to call 01 ev en to P^ate juag P j J hoid-
no mwe; but finding himself destitute of resources he S^n^S!,t»ny^
was obliged to conclude a war which was begun without e y P authority and Charles, though ex-
Charles bound himself to observe a neutrality with le¬
gat'd to the affairs of the Continent. In these treaties the
Huguenots and the palatinate were equally abandoned.
Charles, however, united with France in mediating be¬
tween Sweden and Poland, in hopes of gaining the former
store the palatinate, except on condition of its dependence effects of this pohtical aposta y. president of
upon himself. In short, the peace was as ignonnmous as dep^y of MaTand chlf counsel-
TheAbg-s corfucfto his'subjects cannot now there- lor of the king. Sir Dudley
fore appear blameless, nor the general discontent without rolls ; bury, attoiney-genera , an ^ man dis-
foundation. As if resolved to ruin himself utterly, and neral. But the arch-apostate vvas ^ entworth a ma
to forfeit any small degree of regard which his subjects tinguished by great force °[ C \aJ^ lxtraordinary intel-
still retained7 for him, Charles now set about making in- brilliant and commanding eioqmnc ‘ and 1 fierce
/ novations in religion. Archbishop Laud had obtained a lectual re^urces, unconf|uerable_m trampl^;ithout scru.
iirodigious ascendancy over the king, and, by a supersti- tumultuous ambitio , ~ accounted most sa-
tious attachment to fantastical ceremonies, led him into a pie or remorse upon eveiy punciple accou ^
conduct that proved fatal to himself and ruinous to the cred and most binding on public men. In hi l [ Pd
kingdom. The humour of the nation at that time inclined party lost one of its most powerful supporters, wh 1st
tE to enthusiasm rather than superstition; and the an- potism gained
cient ceremonies which had been sanctified by the per- his own apostacy on the meiRiRad 0f crush-
mission and practice of the first reformers, were barely to- ed, and to employ all powms fo I P mogt distin.
lerated in divine service. Yet Laud chose this time, in mg those liberties °f which he had be k bleaiike
every respect the most unseasonable that could have been guished champion _ I his bold bad man, ™ iate and
hit upon, for renewing the ceremonies of the fourth and m every aspect of his character, became
croachments of his clergy. e -q,
Meanwhile the king had changed his counsellois witn
out changing his councils. In order to weaken tbe popu¬
lar party, by creating suspicion and distrust of its >
Charles, resorting to an expedient often adopted by pf >nces, .
had chosen his ministers from the ranks of the patriots, in
BRITAIN,
scribed as a lower kind of Saint Dominic, “ differing from
the fierce and gloomy enthusiast who founded the Inqui¬
sition, as we might imagine the familiar imp of a spiteful
witch to differ from the archangel of darkness.” {Edin¬
burgh Review, vol. liv. p. 521.)
Whilst Charles ruled without parliaments he ruled by
the naked exercise of prerogative alone. He wanted
money for the support of government; and he levied it,
either by the revival of obsolete laws, or by violations of
the rights and privileges of the nation. In the Star-cham¬
ber and High Commission unheard of severities were
practised in order to support the present mode of admi¬
nistration, and suppress the rising spirit of liberty through-
V out the kingdom. Sir David Foulis was fined L.5000 for
dissuading a friend from compounding for knighthood.
Prynne, a barrister, was condemned to be pilloried in two
places, to lose his ears, to pay a fine of L.5000, and to be
imprisoned during life, for reviling stage plays, huntings,
and festivals, and animadverting on the superstitions of
Laud. Allison was ordained to pay L.1000 to the king,
to be publicly flogged, and to stand four times in the pil¬
lory, for reporting that the Archbishop of York had fallen
into disgrace by asking toleration for the Catholics. Nor
were these the only cases of the kind. Personal liberty
was annihilated. Meanwhile tonnage and poundage con¬
tinued to be levied by royal authority alone. The former
arbitrary impositions were still exacted, and even new
ones laid upon the different kinds of merchandise. The
custom-house officers received orders from the council to
enter into any house, warehouse, or cellar; to search any
trunk or chest, and to break any bulk whatsoever, in default
of the payment of customs. To exercise the militia, each
county was assessed by edict of the council, in a certain
sum for maintaining a muster-master appointed to that
service. Compositions were openly made with recusants,
and the toleration of the Catholic religion being sold, re¬
ligion became a regular part of the revenue. A commis¬
sion was also granted for compounding with such as pos¬
sessed crown-lands on defective titles ; and upon this ini¬
quitous pretence large sums were exacted from the peo¬
ple, who chose rather to submit to this fraudulent impo¬
sition, than to have the precise nature of their titles and
the state of their private affairs exposed to the world.
These arbitrary proceedings led to an occurrence which
will be ever memorable in the history of English liberty.
John Hampden had been rated at twenty shillings of ship-
money for an estate he possessed in Buckinghamshire,
which was assessed at a ship of four hundred and fift}' tons,
or four thousand five hundred pounds. The share of the tax
which fell to Hampden was very small; so small, indeed,
that the sheriff was blamed for setting so wealthy a man
at so low a rate ; but although the sum demanded was a
trifle, the principle of the demand was essentially despo-
tical. The judges, it is true, had declared that, in case
or necessity, the king might impose the tax of ship-money,
and that his majesty was the sole judge of that necessity.
ut after consulting the most eminent constitutional law¬
yers of the time, Hampden, undismayed by7 this judicial
e iverance, refused to pay the few shillings at which he
was assessed, and determined, rather than submit to the
imposition, to incur the certain expense and eventual
anger of bringing to a solemn hearing this great contro-
versy between the crown and the people. The leading
C0,U.”C1 aSa*nst the writ was the celebrated Oliver St John,
f ^ t16 attorn?y-general and solicitor-general appeared
•°r , e crown. The case was argued during twelve days
e,, cJle(lu>er Chamber, and the judges took a con-
erable time for deliberation. No one has ever doubted
that the law was clearly in favour of Hampden, and that Iteign of
the arguments of his counsel remained unanswered. The Charles I.
bench was, however, divided in opinion. Four of the
twelve judges pronounced decidedly in his favour; a fifth
took a middle course; and the remaining seven gave their
voices in favour of the writ. The majority against him
was, therefore, the narrowest possible; and when it is re¬
collected that the judges held their situations only during
the royal pleasure, and consequently were entirely de¬
pendent on the court, this decision may be regarded as in
reality a victory. In this light it was considered at the
time; and it certainly had the effect of awakening the pub¬
lic indignation against the arbitrary designs of the court,
and the abominable prostitution of judicial authority by
which these had been sanctioned and abetted. “ The
judgment,” says Clarendon, “ proved of more advantage
and credit to the gentleman condemned, than to the king’s
service.”
The decision of the Exchequer Chamber, however, had
placed at the disposal of the crow n the property of every
man in England; whilst the abominable proceedings of the
Star-chamber, which caused obnoxious individuals to be
mutilated and sent to rot in dungeons, showed that the
persons as w^ell as the estates of all who ventured to op¬
pose the crown were entirely at its mercy. What that
mercy was will immediately be seen. Hampden, with
some of his friends and connections, determined to quit
England for ever, and to betake themselves across the At¬
lantic, to a settlement which a few persecuted Puritans
had formed in the wilderness of Connecticut. Lords
Saye and Brooke wrere the original projectors of this
scheme of emigration ; and Hampden, who had been early
consulted respecting it, now resolved to withdraw himself
beyond the reach of further persecution, having reason to
dread the vengeance of the court for the resistance he had
offered to its tyranny. He was accompanied by his kins¬
man Oliver Cromwell; and the cousins took their passage
in a vessel which lay in the Thames, bound for North
America. They were actually on board, when an order
of council appeared, by which the ship was prohibited from
sailing; and seven other ships, filled with emigrants, were
also stopped by the same authority. “ Hampden and Crom¬
well remained,” says the writer from w hom we have bor¬
rowed so much, “ and with them remained the evil genius
of the house of Stuart.” (Edinburgh Revieiv, vol. liv. p.
526.)
While the discontent produced by these arbitrary pro¬
ceedings was at its height in England, and the people
ready to break out in open rebellion, Charles thought pro¬
per to attempt setting up Episcopacy in Scotland. The
canons for establishing a new ecclesiastical jurisdiction
were promulgated in 1635, and w ere received without any
external appearance of opposition, yet wdth great inward
apprehension and discontent. But when the reading of
the liturgy was first attempted in the cathedral church of
St Giles in Edinburgh in 1637, it produced such a violent
tumult that it was not thought safe to repeat the experi¬
ment. A universal combination against the religious in¬
novations began immediately to take place ; but Charles,
as if obstinately bent on his own destruction, continued
inflexible in his purpose, though he had nothing to oppose
to the united force of the kingdom but a proclamation, in
which he pardoned all past offences, and exhorted the
people to be more obedient for the future, and to submit
peaceably to the use of the liturgy. This proclamation
accelerated the insurrection which had before been but
slowly advancing. Four Tables, as they were called, were
formed in Edinburgh; one consisting of nobility, another
of gentry, a third of ministers, and the fourth of burgesses.
The table of gentry was divided into many subordinate
316
BRITAIN.
lleign
Charles
of ones, according «o the different counties In the hands of ^^^et^^^iningfc auth^rffc ^
I. the Four Tables the authority of the whole k.ngd»m was SJt°ted and ejected, and^in his ma- ^
■^placed. Orders were issued by them, and everyw ) . dissolved it. This measure was foreseen,
Id with the utmost regularity ; and amongst Id,e first acts V The court still continued to sit and
of their government was the 0f clo business8 All the acts of assembly since the acces.
This famous f ‘,In his vouth? and filled siou of James to the crown of England were, upon very
popery, formerly signed by James m bis you b an reasonable grounds, declared null and invalid. The acts
with many virulent invectives aganis that P1! -1' f liame®t „hich affected ecclesiastical affairs were on
of union or league followed, by winch X““sc™ au j to that very account supposed to have no authority. And
liged themselves to resist al religious in ^ the whole fabric which James and Charles, in along
defend each other ^'XTralks and con- course of years, had been rearing with much care and
Covenant was subscribed by people of a D0licv fell at once to the ground. The Covenant likewise
fewer^ared'openly^^condemn It", ^'^s’^s^ Ordered to be signed gy every one, under pain of eX-
and counsellors themselves were mostly onhe "•‘"“ "'ay commumca ^ C(. vt nanUirs prepared in earnest for war.
of thinking ; and none but pei so < • hd tl -phe Earl of Argyll, though he long seemed to temporize,
God, and traitors to their country, could w hdraw them Hie ^ ; Covenant, and became the chieflead-
selves from so salutary and pious a combination. at a 0f Rothes, Cassillis, Montrose,
The king now began-to be seriously alarme^. He sent er m uia^pa Linde Loudoun> Yesterj and Bal.
the Marquis ot Hamilton, as commissioner, w ^ merino,’also distinguished'themselves. Many Scottish
to treat with the Covenanters; • conces_ officers had acquired reputation in the German wars, par-
to be renounced and recalled and as s ft ^ ticu]ariy under Gustavus; and these were invited over
sions on his part, he offeied to suspend t e • i tj ir COuntry in its present necessity. The com-
liturgy till they couid be received in a air an^ ^ ‘ mand wag intrusted t0 Leslie, a soldier of experience and
and so to model the High Commiss o c ability Forces were regularly enlisted and disciplined;
longer give ^nce t„ M S^were^ommSionedlnd imported from foreign conn-
mand, however, the Covenanters declaredt a y ^ tries. a few casties which belonged to the king, be.ng
sooner renounce their baptism pan t tt -i linnr0vided with provisions, ammunition, and- garrisons,
they invited the commissioner himselt to sign it Hamd- with ;Pand ^ exc a all
ton returned to London ; ^^eb^hereturaed aJ(raln m part under the Marquis of Huntly, who still adhered to
LondoTanTwrTmmediately sengt back with still more the king, fell into the Covenanters’ hands, and was soon
• ’ • d 'Tl-io 1-incp wts now willing to put in a tolerable state of defence. _
satisfactory concessions. The king ^ ^ih 1 Charles, on the other hand, was not deficient in en-
abohsh entirely the canons, tbe btu gy. [ ® deavours to oppose this formidable combination. By re-
Commission Court; he even resolved to limit greatly tne he had not only paid a]l the debts con-
power of the bishops, and seemed con e s/ntland tracted in the^French and Spanish wars, but had amassed
he could retain that order in the Church of Scotland ‘ra^d £e had reserved for any sud-
Further, he gave Hamilton authority to summon first an a SnU1^ had t interesi with
assembly, and then a F^d en^u^heL Ta^dVan^re- the Catholics, both from sympathy of religion, and from
grievance should be redressed. But t e t dy he favours and indulgences which she had been able to
luctant concessions only showed the weakness oi uie k g, cmnloved her credit in persuading
The^)ffeis’however^ ofaan)Ia^slemblyramlIa parHameiTb in
^gly'embraced by^he0Covenante^rs^^'^^^^^^^1 ^ ^ *nSe^^S;#wMt
/
remove alf rile ^^cionfenSld UgallvVt'hlm.0 As the ancUhvee thousand ^STulidel^lmblemanrf
oppositioii^hadbeenlcarefld not'to’except^the’king^Charl^s ^
also formed a bond, which was annexed to this renuncia- htical abilities. The Fail ot Essex, a man ot smci
tion, and expressed the subscribers' loyalty and duty to his and extremely popular espectahy among the soW ^
majesty. But the Covenanters perceiving that tins new appointed heutenant-gene.al, and the Bari ot the
Covenant was only meant to weaken and divide them, re- made general of the horse I he king hm*elt J wd
ceived it with the utmost scorn and detestation ; and pro- army, and summoned a 1 the Peels “ ‘.'"S'™' ,. , court
ceeded without delay to model the assembly from which him. 1 he who e had the appearance of a sple I d
such great achievements were expected. rather than a military armament, and in tins state the
This assembly met at Glasgow in 1638. A firm deter- arrived at Berwick. of
mination had been entered into of utterly abolishing Epis- The Scottish force was equally numerous t more
copacy ; and, as preparatory thereto, there was laid before the king, but inferior in cavalry. Hie officer ^
the presbytery of Edinburgh, and solemnly read in all experience; and the solcheis thoug ' , rs{on to
the churches of the kingdom, an accusation against the jere amma ed 0f their
thp churches of the kingdom, an accusation against tne aimeu, weie ammai-cu, vvc*. ^ ■ nf their
bishops as guilty all of them, of heresy, simony, bribery, England, and the dread of becoming a provi
perjury, Cheating, incest, adultery, foLcX comnJn - old rival, as by that ^
swearing, drunkenness, gaming, breach of the sabbath, and occasion o 6 wai. - 1 -njocive messages to the
every other crime which had occurred to the accusers, that they immediately sent very submissive mes &
BRITAIN.
llei of king, and craved leave to be admitted to a treaty. Charles,
Chajis I. as usual, took the worst possible course. He concluded
w'-v'-da sudclen pacification, in which it was stipulated, that he
should withdraw his fleet and army; that within forty-
eight hours the Scots should dismiss their forces; that
the king’s forts should be restored to him, his authority
acknowledged, and a general assembly and parliament im¬
mediately summoned, in order to compose all differences.
But this peace was not of long duration. Charles could
not prevail on himself to abandon the cause of Episcopacy,
and secretly intended to seize every favourable opportu¬
nity to recover the ground he had lost. The assembly,
on the other hand, proceeded with the utmost vigour and
determination. They voted Episcopacy to be unlawful in
the church of Scotland ; they stigmatized the canons and
liturgy as popish; and they denominated the High Commis¬
sion tyranny. The parliament, which sat after the as¬
sembly, advanced pretensions which tended to diminish
the civil power of the monarch; and they were proceed¬
ing to ratify the acts of assembly, when, by the king’s in¬
structions, Traquair, the commissioner, prorogued them.
By reason of these claims, which might have easily been
foreseen, the war recommenced the same year.
No sooner had Charles concluded the peace, however,
than he found himself obliged to disband his army from
want of money; and as the soldiers had been held toge¬
ther merely by mercenary views, it was not possible, with¬
out great trouble, expense, and loss of time, to re-assemble
them. The Covenanters, on the contrary, in dismissing
their troops, had been careful to preserve nothing but the
appearance of a pacification. The officers had orders to be
ready on the first summons ; the soldiers were warned not
to think the nation secure from an English invasion; and
the religious zeal which animated all ranks of men made
them immediately fly to their standards as soon as the
trumpet of war was sounded by their spiritual and tem¬
poral leaders.
In 1640, however, the king managed to draw an army to¬
gether ; but finding himself unable to support them, he was
obliged to call a parliament after an intermission of about
eleven years. As the sole object of the king in calling
this parliament was to obtain a supply, and the only rea¬
son they had for attending was to procure a redress of
grievances, much harmony could scarcely be expected.
The king accordingly insisted for money, and the parlia¬
ment expatiated on their grievances, till a dissolution en¬
sued ; and, as if to render this measure still more unpo¬
pular, the king permitted the Convocation to sit after the
dissolution ;—a practice of which there had been very few
examples since the reformation, and which w as now deemed
exceedingly irregular. Besides granting a supply to the
king from the spiritualities, the Convocation, jealous of in¬
novations similar to those which had taken place in Scot¬
land, imposed an oath on the clergy and the graduates in
the Universities, binding them to maintain the government
of the church, by archbishops, bishops, deans, chapters, and
otherwise, as by law established. These steps were deemed
illegal, because not ratified by consent of parliament; and
the oath became a subject of general ridicule.
Disappointed of parliamentary subsidies, the king was
obliged to have recourse to other expedients. The eccle¬
siastical subsidies offered a considerable resource ; and it
seemed but just that the clergy should contribute to the
expense of a war which they had been mainly instrumental
m raising. Charles borrowed money from his ministers
^corn-tiers; and so urgent were his wants, that above
.300,000 were subscribed in a few days. Attempts were
made to levy a forced loan from the citizens; but these
were repelled by the spirit of liberty, which had now be¬
come unconquerable. A loan of L.40,000 was, however,
317
extorted from the Spanish merchants who had bullion in Reign of
the Tower. Coat and conduct money for the soldiery was Charles I.
also levied on the counties; all the pepper was bought up
from the East India Company upon trust, and sold at a
great discount for ready money; and an infamous scheme
was proposed for coining two or three hundred thousand
pounds of base money. Such were the extremities to which
Charles was now reduced. The fresh difficulties which
were every day raised with regard to the payment of ship-
money, obliged him to exert continual acts of authority,
and augmented extremely the discontents of the people,
while his indigence and necessities continued undiminished.
These expedients, however, enabled the king, though
with great difficulty, to set in motion an army, consisting
of 19,000 foot and 2000 horse. The Earl of Northumber¬
land was appointed general; the Earl of Strafford, who had
been recalled from Ireland, lieutenant-general; and Lord
Conway general of the horse. A small fleet wras thought
sufficient to serve the purposes of this expedition. The
Scottish forces, though somewhat superior, were sooner
ready than the king’s army, and marched to the borders of
England. But notwithstanding their warlike preparations,
the Covenanters still held the most submissive language
to the king; having entered England, they said, with no
other design than to obtain access to the king’s presence,
and lay their humble petition at his royal feet. At New-
burn-upon-Tyne they were opposed by a detachment of
four thousand five hundred men under Conway, who seem¬
ed resolved to dispute the passage of the river. The Scots
first entreated them civilly not to interrupt them in their
march to their gracious sovereign ; and then attacking the
detachment with great bravery, killed several, and chased
the remainder from the ground. A panic now seized the
wdiole English army ; the forces at Newcastle fled imme¬
diately to Durham; and not thinking themselves safe there,
they abandoned the town, and retreated into Yorkshire.
The Scots continuing to advance, dispatched messen¬
gers to the king, who had by this time arrived at York.
They took care to redouble their expressions of loyalty,
duty, and submission to his person; and they even made
apologies for their late victory. Charles was in a very
distressed condition; and, in order to prevent the further
advance of the Scots, he agreed to a treaty, and named six¬
teen English noblemen to meet with eleven Scottish com¬
missioners at Rippon.' Strafford, upon whom, by reason
of Northumberland’s sickness, the command of the army
had devolved, advised Charles rather to put all to the ha¬
zard than to submit to the terms which he foresaw would
be prescribed. He urged him to push forward, to attack the
Scots, and to bring the affair to a quick decision. If he
were ever so unsuccessful, nothing worse could befal him
than what he would certainly be exposed to from his inac¬
tivity; and, to show how easily this project might be exe¬
cuted, he ordered an assault to be made on some quar¬
ters of the Scots, and gained some advantage over them.
This energetic advice Charles had not resolution to adopt.
He resolved to summon a council of the peers ; and as he
foresaw that they would advise him to call a parliament,
he told them in his first speech that he had already taken
that resolution. Meanwhile, in order to subsist both ar¬
mies (for the king was obliged to pay his enemies, in or¬
der to save the northern counties), Charles wrote to the
city, desiring a loan of L.200,000; and the peers as¬
sembled at York joined in the same request.
The parliament met in November 1640. The House
of Commons had never been observed to be so numerous ;
and, in order to strike a blow at once against the court,
they began with the impeachment of the Earl of Strafford.
That nobleman, who was considered as prime minister,
both on account of the credit he possessed with his mas-
318
BRITAIN.
Ileign of ter, and his own uncommon vigour and capacity, had in-
Charles I. curred the hatred of' the three kingdoms. ihe Scots
looked upon him as the capital enemy of their country.
He had engaged the parliament of Ireland to advance
large subsidies to be employed in a war against them; he
had levied an army of nine thousand men, with which he
had menaced their western coast; he had obliged those
who lived under his government to renounce the solemn
league and covenant; and he had governed Ireland, first as
deputy, and then as lord-lieutenant, during eight years,
with great vigilance, activity, and energy, but with very
little popularity, owing to the severities he had exercised.
In a nation so averse to the English government and re-
lio-ion, these qualities were sufficient to draw upon him the
public hatred. His manners, besides, were at bottom
haughty, rigid, and severe; and no sooner did adversity
begin to seize him, than this concealed hatred blazed up
at once, and the Irish parliament used every expedient to
aggravate the charge against him. Nor was this all. The
universal discontent which prevailed throughout England
was all pointed against the Earl of Strafford; and for this
reason, that he was the minister of state whom the king most
favoured and trusted. His extraction was honourable, his
paternal fortune considerable ; yet envy attended his sud¬
den and great elevation, and his former associates in po¬
pular counsels, finding that he owed his advancement to
the desertion of their cause, denounced him as the arch¬
apostate of the commonwealth, whom it behoved them to
sacrifice as a victim to public justice.
From such causes nothing else could be expected than
what really happened. Articles of impeachment were
exhibited against Strafford, and this proceeding was fol¬
lowed by a bill of attainder. The king had induced Straf¬
ford to leave the army by a promise of protection, and an
assurance that not a hair of his head should be hurt; but
he soon learnt to his cost, that in neglecting the scriptural
admonition, “Put not your faith in princes,” he had rushed
into the jaws of destruction. It was not without extreme
difficulty, however, that the king could be brought to con¬
sent to the sacrifice of his favourite minister. He came
to the House of Lords, where he expressed his resolution
never to employ Strafford again in any public business;
but with regard to the treason of which that minister was
convicted, he professed himself totally dissatisfied. The
Commons, however, voted it a breach of privilege for the
king to take notice of any bill depending before the House.
Charles did not seem to perceive that his attachment to
Strafford was the chief motive for the bill; and that the
greater the proof he gave of this attachment to his minister,
the more inevitable did he render his destruction. The
House of Lords were intimidated, by popular violence,
into passing the bill of attainder against the unfortunate
earl; and the same battery was next employed to force
the king’s assent. The populace flocked about Whitehall,
and accompanied their demand of justice with loud cla¬
mours and open menaces. A thousand reports of conspi¬
racies, insurrections, and invasions, were spread abroad.
On whatever side the king cast his eyes he saw no re¬
source nor security. All his servants, consulting their
own safety rather than their master’s honour, declined in¬
terposing with their advice between him and his parlia¬
ment ; the queen, terrified at the appearance of so great
a danger, pressed Charles, with tears, to satisfy his people
in this demand, which it was hoped would finally content
them; Archbishop Juxon alone had the courage to advise
him, if he did not approve of the bill, by no means to con¬
sent to it. At last, after the most violent anxiety and doubt,
Charles granted a commission to four noblemen, in his
name, to give the royal assent to the bill; flattering him¬
self, that as neither his will was consenting to the deed,
nor his hand immediately engaged in it, he was free from Reig:
the guilt which attended this base and ungrateful act. Chart *
That Strafford, on general grounds, perhaps, merited his ''T'
fate, may be more easily conceded than the legality or
justice of the proceedings which issued in his condemna¬
tion and death. The articles of impeachment exhibited
against him respected his conduct as president of the Coun¬
cil of the North, as deputy of Ireland, and as commander-
in-chief in England; and four months were employed by
the managers in framing the accusation, so as, if possible,
to entangle him in the meshes of treason. But he baffled,
with wonderful ability, all the arguments of his accusers,
whom he met and overthrew on every point; nor was the
evidence produced against him at all sufficient to establish
the charge of absolute treason, or to warrant the bill of
attainder which was subsequently introduced. He was
convicted of that constructive or accumulative species
of treason, which, once admitted into the criminal juris¬
prudence of any country, must, in seasons of agitation
and excitement, place the life of every man in it at the
disposal of the ruling powers. He was sentenced to death
in virtue of an ex post facto law, and fell the victim of
popular odium, if not of party vengeance. It has indeed
been said, that the proceedings against Strafford were
justified by that which alone justifies capital punishment,
or warrants the ravages committed in war, namely, by
the public danger. But, even on this ground, it was in¬
cumbent on his accusers to show, first, that there was such
a pressing and urgent danger as to justify an act of at¬
tainder ; and, secondly, that the sacrifice demanded was
the only mode in which such danger could be obviated
or removed. Neither of these points, however, w'as esta¬
blished, or attempted to be established. Ihe high tribu¬
nal before which Strafford was tried, convicted, and con¬
demned, never seems to have thought of setting forth its
owrn fears for the public w^eal, whether well or ill found¬
ed, as the sole and only measure of the justice of its pro¬
cedure ; they went upon grounds totally different, and
sought to give a legal sanction to a judgment, for which
no better defence can now be devised than the plea ol
necessity. And had they followed a different course, their
conduct would have been at once absurd and inconsistent;
for where there is an urgent or admitted necessity, that,
from the nature of things, supersedes all ordinary prin¬
ciples of law, all questions of evidence, all considerations
of guilt or of innocence; and where, as in this case, a toi-
mal investigation and trial have been gone into, it converts
them into an absolute and intolerable mockery. The exe¬
cution of Strafford, therefore, may be more easily palliated
than defended. As a revolutionary measure, it may have
been expedient; considered as a judicial act, it seems to
have been a flagrant violation of the most sacred principles
of law and justice. _ .
These commissioners were empowered to give the royal
assent to a bill yet more fatal to the king, which provide
that the present parliament should not be dissolved, pro*
rogued, or adjourned, without their own consent. By this
last bill Charles perpetuated the power which had already
become uncontrollable. The reason of this extraordinary
step was, that the Commons, from policy rather than neces¬
sity, had resorted to the expedient of paying the two annies
by borrowing money from the city; and these loans tiey
were to be afterwards repaid by taxes levied on the peop e.
But at last the citizens began to start difficulties with regar
to a further loan which was demanded. “ We make no
scruple of trusting the parliament,” said they, “ were
certain that the parliament was to continue till our repay
ment. But, in the present precarious situation^ of affairs,
what security can be given us for our money ?” hi or e
to obviate this objection, the above-mentioned bill was su
BRITAIN.
R ;tl of
a ies I.
denly brought in, and having passed both houses with great
rapidity, was at last brought to the king, who, being op¬
pressed with grief on account of the unhappy fate of Straf¬
ford, did not perceive the effect of it until it was too late.
Soon after the impeachment of Strafford, Laud was ac¬
cused of high treason, and committed to custody ; and to
avoid a similar fate Lord Keeper Finch and Secretary
Windebank fled, the one into Holland, the other into
France. The house then instituted a new species of
crime, which was termed delinquency; and persons who
had acted under the king or by his authority during the
late military operations were now called delinquents.
Many of the nobility and gentry of the nation, while ex¬
erting what they considered as the legal powers of magi¬
stracy, thus found themselves unexpectedly involved in
this new and sufficiently vague offence. The Commons,
however, reaped great advantage from their invention •—
they disarmed the crown, established the maxims of rigid
law and liberty, and spread the terror of their own autho¬
rity. All the sheriffs who had formerly exacted ship-mo¬
ney, though by the king’s express command, were now de¬
clared delinquents. The farmers and officers of the cus¬
toms who had been employed during so many years in
levying tonnage, poundage, and other imposts laid on
without the authority of parliament, were likewise deno¬
minated delinquents, and were afterwards glad to com¬
pound for a pardon by paying L. 150,000. Every sentence
of the Star Chamber and High Commission Courts, which
from their very nature were arbitrary and oppressive, under¬
went a severe scrutiny ; and all who had concurred in such
sentences were voted liable to the penalties of law. No
minister of the king, no member of the council, was safe.
The judges who had formerly given judgment against
Hampden for refusing to pay ship-money were accused
before the Peers, and obliged to find security for their
appearance when required. Berkeley, a judge of the
King’s Bench, was seized by order of the house, even
when sitting in his court. The sanction of the Lords and
Commons, as well as that of the king, was declared neces¬
sary for the confirmation of ecclesiastical canons.
In a word, the constitution was new-modelled, in as far
as that may be said to have been done by reforming abuses
and striking terror into all those who had profited by them,
or had in any manner of way been accessory to the arbi¬
trary proceedings of the court. And during the first pe¬
riod of the transactions of this parliament, their merits so
greatly overbalanced their defects and errors, as to entitle
them to the admiration of all lovers of liberty. Not only
were former abuses remedied, and grievances- redressed ;
provision was also made, by excellent laws, against a re¬
currence of the like evils. And if the means by which
they accomplished such great ends savoured often of ar¬
tifice, sometimes of violence, it is to be considered that
revolutions in government cannot always be effected by
niere force of argument and reasoning; and that, factions
being once excited, men can neither so certainly regulate
the tempers of others, nor control their own, as to guard
against all excesses.
The king having promised to pay a visit this summer
to his subjects in Scotland, in order to settle their go¬
vernment, the English parliament was very importunate
with him to lay aside that journey; but they could not
prevail with him so much as to delay it. Failing in this,
ney appointed a small committee of both houses to at-
on nm; in order, as was pretended, to see the articles
o pacification executed, but in reality to watch the mo-
ions of the king, and to extend still further the ideas of
par lamentary authority. This committee consisted of the
Wnr ° Lord Howard, Sir Philip Stapleton, Sir
1 tam Armyne, Nathaniel Fiennes, and John Hampden.
Charles arrived in Scotland on the 14 th of August 1641,
intending, it is said, to give full satisfaction if possible to
the people of that country. And some useful changes were
in reality made. The bench of bishops and the lords of
articles were abolished ; it was provided that no man should
be created a Scottish peer who possessed not ten thousand
merks, above L.500 sterling, of annual rent in the king¬
dom ; a law for triennial parliaments was likewise passed;
it was resolved that the last act of every parliament
should be to appoint the time and place for holding the
parliament next ensuing; and the king was also deprived
of the power he had formerly exercised of issuing pro¬
clamations which enjoined obedience under the penalty
of treason. But the hardest blow given to the royal au¬
thority was an article which provided that no member
of the privy council, no officer of state, none of the judges,
should be appointed without the advice and approbation
of parliament. Charles even agreed to deprive of their
seats four judges who had adhered to his interests; and
their place was supplied by others more agreeable to the
ruling party. Several of the Covenanters were also sworn
of the privy council; and all the ministers of state, coun¬
sellors, and judges, were by law to hold their offices during
life or good behaviour. \\ bile in Scotland, the king con¬
formed himself to the established church; he bestowed
pensions and preferments on Henderson, Gillespie, and
other popular preachers; and he practised every artifice
to soften, if not to gain, his greatest enemies. The Earl
of Argyll was created a Marquis, Loi’d Loudon an Earl,
and Leslie was raised to the peerage by the title of Lord
Leven. But though Charles thus heaped favours on his ene¬
mies with a prodigal hand, they were not satisfied, believ¬
ing that all he did proceeded from artifice and necessity;
whilst some of his friends were disgusted, and thought
themselves ill rewarded for their past services. The king
was manifestly playing a part, and he played it ill, be¬
cause he overacted his assumed character.
Argyll and Hamilton, being seized with an apprehen¬
sion, real or pretended, that the Earls of Crawford and
Cochrane meant to assassinate them, left the parliament
suddenly, and retired into the country; but, upon receiv¬
ing assurances of safety, they returned in a few days.
This event, which had no visible result in Scotland, was
commonly denominated,the Incident; but it was attended
with very serious consequences in England. The English
parliament immediately took the alarm. They insinuated
that the Malignants, as they called the king’s party, had
laid a plot to murder the godly in both kingdoms; and
having applied to Essex, whom the king had left general
of the south of England, he ordered a guard to attend
them.
In the mean time a rebellion broke out in Ireland, with
circumstances of unparalleled atrocity, bloodshed, and de¬
vastation. By the judicious conduct of James the old
Irish had been subdued, and proper means taken for se¬
curing their subjection in time coming; but their ancient
animosity still remained, and only wanted an occasion, or
rather pretext, to burst forth. And this, according to the
received account, was furnished by the circumstances of
the times and the weakness of the government.
Roger More, a gentleman descended from an ancient
Irish family, but of narrow fortune, first formed the pro¬
ject of expelling the English, and asserting the indepen¬
dence of his native country. He went secretly from
chieftain to chieftain, and roused up every latent principle
of discontent. He maintained a close correspondence
with Lord Macguire and Sir Phelim O’Neale, the most
powerful of the old Irish chiefs; and, by his persuasions,
soon engaged not only them, but the most considerable
persons of the nation, in a conspiracy. It was also hoped
311)
Reign of
Charles I.
' 
320
BRITAIN.
Reign of that the English of the Pale, as they were called, or the old
'Charles I. English planters, who were all Catholics, would afterwards
join the party which proposed to restore their religion to its
ancient splendour and authority. The design was, that Sir
Phelim O'Neale and the other conspirators should begin an
insurrection on a given day throughout the provinces, and
attack all the English settlements; and that, on the very
same day, Lord Macguire and Roger More should sur¬
prise the castle of Dublin. Ihey fixed on the beginning
of winter for the commencement of the insurrection, that
there might be more difficulty in transporting ibices from
England. Succours of men and supplies of arms were ex¬
pected from France, in consequence of a promise to that
effect made them by Richelieu; and many Irish officers
who had served in the Spanish army expressed their
readiness to lend their aid as soon as they saw an insur¬
rection commenced by their Catholic brethren. Ihe news
which every day arrived from England of the fury ex¬
pressed by the Commons against Catholics struck tenor
into the Irish nation, and stimulated the conspirators to
execute their fatal purpose, by assuring them of the con¬
currence of their countrymen.
From the propensity discovered by the Irish to revolt,
it was deemed unnecessary as well as dangerous to trust
the secret to many; and, though the day appointed drew
near, no discovery, it is said, had yet been made by govern¬
ment. The king, indeed, had received information from
his ambassadors, that something w'as in agitation among
the Irish in foreign parts ; but though he gave warning to
the administration in Ireland, his intelligence was entire-
lv neglected. They were awakened from their security
only the day before the commencement of hostilities. The
castle of Dublin, by which the capital was commanded, con¬
tained arms for ten thousand men, with thirty-five pieces
of cannon and a proportional quantity of ammunition ; yet
this important place was guarded by no greater force than
fifty men, and even they did their duty negligently. Mac¬
guire and More were already in town with a numerous
band of retainers; others were expected in the course of
the night; and next morning they were to enter on what
seemed an easy enterprise, the surprisal of the castle. But
O’Connolly, an Irishman and a Protestant, discovered the
conspiracy. The justices and council immediately fled
to the castle, and reinforced the guards. The city was
alarmed, and the Protestants prepared for defence. More
escaped, but Macguire wns taken ; and Mahon, one of the
conspirators, being likewise seized, first discovered to the
justices the project of a general insurrection.
But though O’Connolly’s discovery saved the castle from
a surprise, Mahon’s confession came too late to prevent
the intended insurrection. O’Neale and his confederates
had already taken arms in Ulster. The houses, cattle,
and goods of the English were first seized. Those who
heard of the commotions in their neighbourhood, instead
of deserting their habitations, and assembling together for
mutual protection, remained at home in hopes of defend¬
ing their property, and thus fell separately into the hands
of their enemies. A universal massacre now commenced,
accompanied with circumstances of unequalled barbarity.
No age, no sex, no condition, was spared. In the frenzy
of this bloody tragedy, every ordinary tie was broken, and
death dealt by the hand from which protection was im¬
plored and expected. All the tortures which wanton
cruelty could devise, all the lingering pains of body, all
the anguish of mind, all the agonies of despair, could not sa¬
tiate revenge excited without injury, and cruelty derived
from no cause. Enormities, indeed, were committed, which,
though attested by undoubted evidence, appear almost in¬
credible. The stately buildings or commodious habita¬
tions of the planters, as if upbraiding the sloth and igno¬
rance of the natives, were consumed with fire, or laid level Reigt
with the ground; whilst the miserable owners, shut up in Chari.-
their houses, and preparing for defence, perished in the '“‘V
flames, together with their wives and children ; thus af¬
fording a double triumph to their insulting foes. If any¬
where a number assembled together, and resolved to op¬
pose the assassins, they were disarmed by capitulations
and promises of safety, confirmed by the most solemn
oaths ; but no sooner had they surrendered, than the re¬
bels, with perfidy equal to their cruelty, made them share
the fate of their unhappy countrymen. Others tempted
their prisoners, by the love of life, to embrue their hands
in the blood of friends, brothers, or parents; and having
thus rendered them accomplices in their own guilt, gave
them that death which they sought to shun by deserv-
ing it.
The barbarities by which Sir Phelim O’Neale and the
Irish in Ulster signalized their rebellion may be imagined
from this faint description. More, shocked at the recital
of such enormities, flew to O’Neale’s camp; but he found
that his authority, though sufficient to excite the Irish to
a rebellion, was too feeble to restrain their inhumanity.
Soon afterwards he abandoned the cause, and retired to
Flanders. From Ulster the flames of rebellion diffused
themselves in an instant over the other three provinces of
Ireland. In all places death and slaughter were com¬
mon, though the Irish in some provinces pretended to
act with moderation and humanity. But barbarous indeed
was their humanity. Not content with expelling the Eng¬
lish from their houses, they stripped them of their very
clothes, and turned them out naked and defenceless to all
the severities of the season; and the heavens, as if con¬
spiring with the wrath of man against that unhappy people,
were armed with cold and tempest unusual to the climate,
and destroyed what the sword had spared. By some com¬
putations, the number of those who perished by all these
cruelties is estimated at a hundred and fifty thousand;
by the most moderate, forty thousand are calculated to
have lost their lives; but even this estimate is in all pro¬
bability exaggerated.
The English of the Pale, who were not probably at first
in the secret, pretended to condemn the insurrection, and
to detest the barbarity with which it was accompanied;
and by their earnest protestations they engaged the justices
to supply them with, arms, which they promised to employ
in defence of government. But the interests of religion
were found to have more influence over them than a regard
to duty and the peace of their country. They chose Lord
Gormonstone as their leader; and, joining the old Irish,
rivalled them in acts of cruelty towards the English Pro¬
testants. Besides many smaller bodies dispersed over the
kingdom, the main army of the rebels amounted to twenty
thousand men, and threatened Dublin with an immediate
siege. Both the English and Irish rebels pretended autho¬
rity from the king and queen, but especially the latter, for
their insurrection; and they affirmed that the cause o
their taking arms was to vindicate the royal prerogative,
now invaded by the puritanical parliament. Sir Phelan
O’Neale having, it is said, found a royal patent in 110
house of Lord Caulfield, whom he had murdered, tore oa
the seal, and affixed it to a commission which he had pre¬
viously forged for himself. . ,
The king received intelligence of this insurrection while
in Scotland, and immediately communicated the disas¬
trous tidings to the Scottish parliament; expressing a op
that, as there had all along been an outcry against popery,
the nation would now, wflien that religion was appearing
in its blackest colours, support him vigorously in the sup¬
pression of it. But if he was sincere in this request, w
may not uncharitably be doubted, the Scots were no
BRITAIN.
I jn of posed to give so serious a pledge without due deliberation,
f ries I. Considering themselves now as secured in the enjoyment
^ Y''*' of their rights, and conceiving hopes from the present
distresses of Ireland, they resolved to ascertain precisely
the ground on which succours were demanded, before con¬
senting to grant them. Except dispatching a small body
of forces to support the Scottish colonies in Ulster, the
utmost length they would go, therefore, was to agree to
send commissioners to London, in order to treat with the
parliament. The king accordingly found himself obliged
to have recourse to the English parliament, and to de¬
pend on their assistance for a supply. He told them that
the insurrection was not, in his opinion, the result of any
rash enterprise, but of a preconcerted conspiracy against
the crown of England. To their care and wisdom, there¬
fore, he said, he committed the conduct and prosecution of
the war, which, in a cause so important to national and re¬
ligious inteiests, must of necessity be immediately begun
and vigorously pursued. These words are fair-seeming,
and it would be cruel to load the memory of an unfortu¬
nate prince with unjust reproach, or even ill-founded sus¬
picion. But the impartiality of history compels us reluc¬
tantly to admit that there are grounds for charging the
king with a guilty foreknowledge of what was designed
and perpetrated in Ireland. I he suddenness of his visit
to Scotland, and the time chosen for undertaking it; his
whole conduct in that country, particularly in at once
making concessions at utter variance with the principles
of his government and the integrity of his prerogative,
which he had risked a civil war to preserve entire, and in
heaping favours on his bitterest .enemies; his new-born
zeal against popery, which he had been so long covertly
labouring to introduce; the criminal intrigues of the queen
and those about her person, of which he could scarcely
be altogether ignorant; the known deceit and duplicity
of his own character; the strange inaction of the public
functionaries in Ireland, even after they were apprized of
the danger, to say nothing of the deaf ear they had turned
to many previous hints that danger was brewing, and
some sudden explosion contemplated; the absence'of all
rv\T^ t^le ^rau<^ sieged to have been committed by
U iNeale in regard to the royal patent said to have been
round in the house of Lord Caulfield;—these, and many
other circumstances that might be mentioned, seem to
establish, first, that Charles had some very particular and
urgent reasons for visiting Scotland at this time; second-
ly, that while there he acted a part which is only expli¬
cable on the supposition that he had a secret design to
cover by it; thirdly, that such an impression seems to have
been general at the time; and, lastly, that there are cir¬
cumstances connected with this atrocious rebellion which
iave never been explained in such a manner as to vindi¬
cate the king’s memory from the suspicion of at least
guilty knowledge.
• Tta English parliament, now re-assembled, discovered
ln each vote the same dispositions in which they had se-
parated. By the difficulties and distresses of the crown,
ne Lommons, who alone possessed the power of supply,
tlfCf fSg^dized themselves; and some were not sorry
inn he trish rebellion had succeeded, at such a critical
ta the pacification in Scotland. An expression
T ile kingsyby which he committed to them the care of
tl1oan ’ "as lrn,mediately laid hold of, and interpreted in
jUahruited sense. On other occasions the Com-
nowpr +^Gen &radualiy encroaching on the executive
onl o theJcr.0'vn;. but in regard to Ireland they now at
hv n ssuuied it.as if it had been delivered over to them
tenpp^11^ a®s!gnment* They levied money under pre-
Purnncp- Irish expedition, but reserved it for other
vol v 1 le^ t0°k arms from the king’s magazines, but
321
reserved them for more immediate use. Yet though no Iteign of
forces were for a considerable time sent over to Ireland, Charles I.
and very little money remitted during the extreme dis-
tress of that kingdom, so strong was the attachment of the
people to the Commons, that the fault was never imputed
to persons whose votes breathed nothing but destruction
and death to the Irish rebels.
In the meanwhile it was resolved to frame a general
remonstrance on the state of the kingdom; and the com¬
mittee, which at the meeting of the parliament had been
chosen for that purpose, w'ere commanded to finish their
undertaking. The king returned from Scotland on the
25th of November 1641, and was received in London with
shouts and acclamations by the people. Sir Richard Gour-
nay, the lord-mayor, had promoted these favourable dis¬
positions, and persuaded the populace, who had so lately
insulted the king, and wdio so soon after made war’upon
him, to show these marks of respect. But all the plea¬
sure which Charles had reaped from this reception was
soon damped by the remonstrance of the Commons, which
was presented to him, accompanied with a petition of si¬
milar import. The bad counsels which he had followed
were there complained of; his concurrence in the Irish
rebellion was plainly insinuated; the scheme laid for the
introduction of popery and superstition was inveighed
against; and, as a remedy for all these evils, the king was
desired to intrust every office and command to persons
in whom his parliament should see cause to confide. To
this bitter remonstrance Charles found it necessary to
make a civil reply. He knew that the public confidence
was at that time denied to his ministers, more especially
to such of them as had deserted the public cause; and
that whilst men detested the servile insolence of Williams,
the reckless levity of Digby, and the unblushing infamy
of Saville, their faith and hope were strong in the inflexible
virtues of Hampden, the mild integrity of Kimbolton, the
ardent patriotism of Hollis, and the cool sagacity of Pym.
from this period the proceedings of the Commons be¬
came bolder, and more determined and violent. Find¬
ing themselves likely to be opposed by the nobility, who
saw that their own degradation would speedily follow
that of the crown, they openly told the Upper House
that “ they themselves were the representatives of the
whole body of the kingdom, and that the Peers were no¬
thing but individuals, who held their seats in a particular
capacity ; and therefore, if their Lordships would not con¬
sent to acts necessary for the preservation of the people,
the Commons, together with such of the Lords as were
more sensible of the danger, must join together and re¬
present the matter to his majesty.” Every method of
alarming the country was now put in practice. Affect¬
ing continual fears of destruction to themselves and to
the whole nation, they excited the people by never-ceas¬
ing inquiries concerning conspiracies, by reports of in¬
surrections, by alleged rumours of invasion from abroad,
and by discoveries of dangerous combinations at home.
When Charles dismissed the guard which had been or¬
dered them during his absence, they complained; and,
on his promising them a new guard under the command
of the Earl of Lindesay, they declined the offer. They
ordered halberts to be brought into the hall where they
assembled, and thus armed themselves against those con¬
spiracies with which they pretended they were hourly
threatened. During this time several reduced officers
and young gentlemen of the inns of court offered their
service to the king; and between them and the populace
there occurred frequent skirmishes, which ended not with¬
out bloodshed. By way of reproach, these gentlemen gave
the rabble the name of Roundheads, on account of their
short cropped hair; whilst the latter distinguished their
2 s
BRITAIN.
Reign of
Charles I.
opponents by the name of Cavaliers ; and thus the nation
was furnished with party names, under which the factions
might rendezvous and signalize their mutual hatiet.
These tumults continued to increase about Westminster
and Whitehall. The cry against the bishops continually
resounded ; and being easily distinguishable by their habit,
as well as objects of violent hatred to all the sectaries, they
were exposed to the most outrageous insults. In these cir-
cumstances, the Archbishop of York, having been abused
bv the populace, hastily called a meeting of his biethren
and by his advice a protestation was drawn up and
addressed to the king and the House of Lords, setting
forth, that though they had an undoubted right o sit and
vote in parliament, yet in coming thither they had been
menaced and assaulted by the multitude, and could no
lono-er with safety attend their duty in the House; for
which reason they protested against all laws, votes, and
resolutions, as null and invalid, which should pass during
the time of their forced absence. This ill-timed protesta¬
tion was signed by twelve bishops, and communicated to
the king. As soon as it was presented to the Lords, that
house desired a conference with the Commons, whom they
informed of this unexpected protestation. An impeach¬
ment of high treason was immediately sent up against the
bishops, as endeavouring to subvert the fundamental laws,
and to invalidate the authority of the legislature; and on
the first demand they were sequestered from parliament,
and committed to custody. No man in either house ven¬
tured to speak a word in their vindication. One individual
alone remarked, that he did not believe them guilty o
high treason; he only thought they were stark mad, and
therefore desired that they might be sent to Bedlam.
This was a fatal blow to the royal interest, and it was ag¬
gravated by the imprudence of the king himself. Chai les
had long suppressed his resentment, and only strove to
gratify the Commons by the greatness of his concessions;
but finding all his compliances unavailing, he now gave
orders to Herbert, the attorney-general, to enter an ac¬
cusation of high treason, in the House of Peers, against
Lord Kimbolton and five commoners, Sir Arthur Hazlerig,
Hollis, Hampden, Pym, and Strode. The articles charged
them with traitorously endeavouring to subvert the fun¬
damental laws and government of the kingdom, to deprive
the king of'his regal power, and to impose on his subjects
an arbitrary and tyrannical authority; with inviting a
foreign army to invade the kingdom; with aiming at sub¬
verting the very right and being of parliaments; and v\ it i
actually raising and countenancing tumults against t ic
kino-. Men had scarce leisure to wonder at the precipi¬
tation and imprudence of this impeachment, when they
were astonished by another measure still more rash and
unwarrantable. A serjeant at arms, in the king s name,
demanded of the house the five members, and was sent
back without any positive answer. This was followed by
conduct still more extraordinary. Next day the king him¬
self entered the House of Commons alone, and advanced
through the hall, while all the members stood up to receive
him. The Speaker withdrew from the chair, and the king
took possession of it. Having seated himself, and looked
round for some time, he told the house that he was sorry
for the occasion that forced him thither, but that he was
come in person to seize the members whom he had ac¬
cused of high treason, seeing they would not deliver them
up to his serjeant at arms. Then addressing himself to the
Speaker, he desired to know whether any of the members
were in the house. But the Speaker, falling on his knees,
replied that he had neither eyes to see nor tongue to
speak, in that place, but as the house was pleased to di¬
rect him; and he asked pardon for not being able to gl' 0
any other answer. The king sat for some time to see if
the accused were present; but they had escaped a few Reign!,
minutes before his entry, and taken shelter in the city. Charles
Disappointed, perplexed, and not knowing on w hom to rely,
he next proceeded, amidst the invectives of the populace,
who continued to cry out, “ Privilege, privilege 1” to the
common council of the city at Guildhall, where he justi¬
fied his proceedings respecting the fugitives, and expressed
a hope that they would not find shelter or protection m
the city. The common council answered his complaints
by a disdainful silence; and, on his return, one of the po¬
pulace, more courageous or insolent than the rest, cried
out, “ To your tents, O Israel 1”
When the Commons assembled the next day, they
affected or felt the greatest terror, and passed a unani¬
mous vote that the king had violated their privileges, and
that they could not assemble again in the same place, till
they had obtained satisfaction, and a guard for their se¬
curity. Meanwhile the king retired to Windsor, whence
he wrote to his parliament, promising every satisfaction in
his power. But they were resolved to accept of nothing
unless he would discover his advisers in that illegal mea¬
sure ; a condition which they knew that, without render¬
ing himself for ever vile and contemptible, he could not
possibly submit to. . . . .. ^ f
The Commons had already stripped the king of most ol
his privileges ; the bishops were fled, the judges were in¬
timidated ; and it now only remained, alter securing the
church and the law, that they should also get possession of
the sword. The power of appointing governors and gene-
als, and of levying armies, still continued a prerogative ot
rais, ana ui ^ A
the crown. Having first magnified their terrors ot popery,
which perhaps they actually dreaded, the Commons pro¬
ceeded to petition that the Tower might be put into their
hands, and that Hull, Portsmouth, and the fleet, should be
intrusted to persons of their choosing. Compliance with
these requests was calculated to subvert what remained
of the monarchy; but such was the necessity of the times,
that they were first contested, and then granted, the
Commons then desired to have a militia, raised and go¬
verned by such officers and commanders as they should
nominate. But Charles hesitated. Being at that time in
Dover attending, the queen and the Princess of Orange,
who was about to leave the kingdom, he replied that he
had not now leisure to consider a matter ot such grea
importance; and therefore would defer an answer till
return. The Commons, however, were well aware that
they had gone too far to recede; and hence they were
desirous of leaving him no authority whatever, conscious
that they themselves would be the first victims of its free
exercise. They alleged that the dangers and distempers
of the nation were such as could endure no longei de y,
and unless the king speedily complied with deman^
they would be obliged, both for his safety and that of t
kingdom, to embody and direct a militia by the authority
of both houses. In their remonstrance they also des
to be permitted to command the army for an appomte
time; a request which so exasperated him, ia
claimed with indignation, “ No, not for an hour!
peremptory refusal broke off all further tiea y,
sides now resolved to have recourse to aims.
CHAP. IV.
REIGN OF CHARLES I. : CIVIL WAR.
Charles, with his family, retires to VorL—Pruitles^ neg(W^
tions—State of the belligerent parties—Ina 7^ of Edge-
liamentary army—Skirmish at VJ orceste • defeated in
hill—Association in favour of the d yaiists.
the north—Battle of Stratton—Bristol taken by the )
BRITAIN. 32.3
.jgn 0f —Siege of Gloucester—Raised—Battle of Newbury Advan-
atles I. tages gained by Fairfax and Cromwell Lord Fairfax defeated
at Atherton—The Scots agree to assist the Parliament—So-
lemn League and Covenant—Dexterity of Yrane King’s
Irish auxiliaries—Dispersed at Lantwich—Siege of York.
.—Royalists totally defeated at Marston-Moor Demands of
the Parliament—Execution of Laud—Exploits of Montrose
in Scotland—Defeat of the Covenanters under Burley at Aber¬
deen Subsequent movements—Devastation of Argyll’s coun¬
try Battle of Inverlochy—Sack of Dundee Battles of Al-
derne and Alford—Parliamentary army new-modelled by Crom¬
well—Royalists defeated at Naseby—Bristol taken Retreat
of the King to Oxford—Battle of Kilsyth—Montrose defeated
at Philiphaugh—Charles throws himself on the Scottish army at
Newark—Negociations and proceedings in consequence Sur¬
render of the King’s person to the English—The army usurp
the sovereignty—Seizure of the King by Cromwell Designs
of the army resisted, but ineffectually—Presbyterian members
forced to leave the House—Both parties treat with the King 
His resolution to quit the kingdom—Seized and confined in
the Isle of Wight—Levellers—Danger of Cromwell from this
sect.—Put down—The Scottish army under Hamilton defeat¬
ed—State of parties—Cromwell enters Edinburgh in triumph,
and settles the government of Scotland Negociations between
the King and Parliament—Pride’s Purge Charges against the
King.—His trial—His sentence—His execution Behaviour
in his last moments—Feelings of the nation on the King’s
death.
Charles, taking the Prince of Wales and the Duke of
York along with him, retired, by slow journeys, to the city
of York, where the people were more loyal, and less in¬
fected with the prevailing spirit of the times, than else¬
where. Here he found his cause backed by a more nume¬
rous party among the people than he had expected. The
nobility and gentry from all quarters, either personally or
by messages and letters, expressed their duty towards
him; and the queen, who was then in Holland, had suc¬
ceeded in levying men and procuring ammunition by sell¬
ing the crown jewels. But before war was openly de¬
clared, the semblance of a negociation was kept up, rather
with a view to please the people, than with any hope of
reconciliation. Nay, that the king might despair of all
composition, the parliament sent him the conditions on
which they were willing to come to an agreement. Their
demands were contained in nineteen propositions or ar¬
ticles, and in effect amounted to a total abolition of mo¬
narchical authority. It was required that no man should
remain in the council who was not agreeable to parlia¬
ment; that no deed of the king’s should be held valid un¬
less it passed the council, and was attested under their
hand; that all the officers of state should be chosen with
consent of parliament; that none of the royal family should
marry without the consent of parliament or of council;
that the laws should be executed against Catholics; that
the votes of Catholic lords should be excluded; that the
reformation of the liturgy and church government should
proceed according to the advice of parliament; that the
ordinance with regard to the militia should be acquiesced
m; that parliament should judge all delinquents; that a
general pardon should be granted, with such exceptions
as might be advised by parliament; that the forts and
castles should be disposed of by consent of parliament;
and that no peers should be created but with consent of
oth houses. War on any terms was esteemed by the
mg and all his counsellors preferable to a peace on such
'gnominious terms. “ If I should submit to these terms,”
sai he, “ I may have my hand kissed, and may retain the
i e of majesty, but I should remain but the outside, the
pic ure, the sign of a king.” Charles accordingly resolved
ho SUPPorfc authority by force of arms. His towns,
sai , were taken from him; his ships, his army, and
qnrAn116?' ^Ut t^ere remained to him a good cause,
e hearts of his loyal subjects, which, with God’s
blessing, he doubted not would recover all the rest. There- Reign of
fore, collecting some forces, he advanced southwards, and Charles I.
erected his royal standard at Nottingham.
The struggle now about to commence seemed, in many
respects, exceedingly unequal. The king, indeed, was
supported by a splendid nobility, and a large portion of
the more considerable gentry, who, dreading a total con¬
fusion of ranks, enlisted themselves under the banner of
their monarch, from whom they received, and to whom
they communicated, lustre. The cordial concurrence of
the bishops and church of England also increased the
number of his adherents. But it may safely be affirmed,
that the high monarchical doctrines so much inculcated by
the clergy had been eminently prejudicial to his cause;
while the bulk of the nobility and gentry who now attend¬
ed the king in his distress breathed the spirit of liberty as
well as of loyalty ; and it was only in the hopes of his sub¬
mitting to a limited and legal government that they were
willing to sacrifice their lives and fortunes in his cause.
On the other hand, the city of London, and most of the
great corporations, took part with the parliament. In the
capital, no less than four thousand men enlisted in one
day; and the demand for a loan, by the parliament, was
answered with so much alacrity, that the treasure flowed
in faster than it could be received. All the sea-ports, ex¬
cept Newcastle, were also in the hands of the parliament;
and the seamen naturally followed the party espoused by
the ports to which they belonged. Add to this, that the
example of the Dutch commonwealth, where liberty had
so happily supported industry, made the commercial part
of the nation desire to see a similar form of government
established in England; whilst many families, who had
enriched themselves by commerce, finding that, notwith¬
standing their opulence, they could not raise themselves
to a level with the ancient gentry, adhered to a power by
the success of which they hoped to acquire both rank and
consideration.
At first every advantage seemed to lie against the royal
cause. The king was totally destitute of money, while,
from the causes already mentioned, the parliament were
secure of a considerable revenue. They had begun by
seizing all the magazines of arms and ammunition, and
their fleet intercepted the greater part of the succours
sent by the queen from Holland; so that the king, in order
to arm his followers, was obliged to borrow the weapons of
the trained bands, under promise of restoring them on the
return of peace. The nature and qualities of his adherents
alone gave the king some compensation for all the advan¬
tages possessed by his adversaries. More bravery and
activity were hoped for from the generous spirit of the
nobles and gentry, than from the baser disposition of the
multitude; and as the landed gentlemen had levied and
armed their tenants at their own expense, greater force
and courage were to be expected from these rustic troops
than from the vicious and enervated population of cities.
But the parliamentary forces were ill officered or ill
directed, otherwise, with a disposable force of six thou¬
sand men, which lay within a few days’ march of the royal¬
ists, they might have easily dissipated the small number
of troops which the king had been able to collect, amount¬
ing to no more than eight hundred horse and three hun¬
dred foot. In a short time the parliamentary army march¬
ed to Northampton, where the Earl of Essex, who had join¬
ed them, found a force amounting to fifteen thousand men.
The king’s army too was soon reinforced from all quar¬
ters ; but having no force capable of coping with the
parliamentary army, he thought it prudent to retire to
Derby, and thence to Shrewsbury, in order to cover the
levies which his friends were making in those parts. At
Wellington, a day’s march from Shrewsbury, he assem-
324
BRITAIN.
Reign of bled his forces, amounting to near ten thousand men,
Charles I. and caused to be read at the head of every regiment Ins
military orders, in which he protested solemnly before his
whole army that he would maintain the Protestant religion
according to the church of England ; that he would govern
according to the known statutes and customs ol the king¬
dom ■ and that he would observe inviolate the laws to
which he had given his consent during the present and
P1 WMe'charles lay at Shrewsbury, he received the news
of an action, the first that occurred in this unhappy con¬
test, in which his party were victorious. On the »PPeai'-
ance of civil commotion in England, the Princes Kupert
and Maurice, sons of the elector palatine, had ottered
their services to the king; and the former at that time
commanded a body of horse which had been sent to Wor¬
cester to watch the motions of Essex, who was then march¬
ing towards that city. The prince, however, had scarcely
arrived, when he saw some of the enemy s cavalry ap¬
proaching the gates. Without a moments delay he at¬
tacked them as they were defiling from a lane and in the
act of forming, killed their commander, Colonel bandys,
routed the whole party, and pursued them above a mile.
At this period military science and skill were at the
lowest possible ebb in England; so much so, indeed, that,
however much the contending parties might (fitter in spi¬
rit or in means, they were on a footing of perfect equality
in ignorance of the principles and conduct of war. Ine
hostile armies moved simultaneously, the kings from
Shrewsbury, and the parliamentary from Worcester; but
so totally destitute were both of intelligence, that they
wandered about for ten days in absolute ignorance of each
other’s motions. At length, on the 23d of October 1642,
they met at Keinton, or Edgehill, in the county of Mar¬
wick. The royalists were commanded in chief by the
Earl of Lindesay, who had seen some^ service in the Low
Countries, and now had under him Prince Kupeit, master
of the horse, Sir Jacob Astley in charge of the foot. Sir
Arthur Aston commanding the dragoons, and Sir John
Heydon the artillery. The general-in-chief of the parlia¬
mentary forces was the Earl of Essex, assisted by a num¬
ber of subordinate officers as yet unknown to fame. In
the encounter which immediately ensued, the royalists
were at first victorious. Both wings of the parliamentary
army were broken and put to flight by the onset of Prince
Rupert’s cavalry, supported by the troops under Aston
and Wilmot; and if the royalist reserve had remained
steady, the day would have been won. But thinking the
victory already decided, they broke up from their position
to join in the pursuit, and, whilst in the confusion pro¬
duced by this disorderly movement, they were attacked
by Sir William Balfour, who had anxiously watched then-
motions, with the parliamentary reserve, and defeated
in their turn. Both armies then rallied, and faced each
other for some time, neither party venturing to renew the
attack: they lay all night under arms, and next day with¬
drew, Essex towards Warwick, and the king to his former-
quarters. Five thousand men, it is said, were left dead
on the field in this bootless encounter. Soon afterwards,
the king took Banbury and Reading, and defeated two re¬
giments of his enemies at Brentford, taking five hundred
prisoners. Thus ended the campaign of 1642, in which,
though the king upon the whole had the advantage, yet
the parliamentary army amounted to twenty-four thousand
men, and was much superior to his. Nevertheless, his ene¬
mies had so far been humbled as to otter terms of peace.
This led to the negociations at Oxford. The terms requir¬
ed by the parliament as the condition of the king s recal,
were the disposal of the militia, the abolition of Episco¬
pacy, and the settlement of ecclesiastical controversies by
an assembly of divines. But considerable abatement would Reign of
probably have been made in these demands if Charles had Chartel
not been extravagant in his ; and the failure of the nego-
ciation is ascribed to the king s fidelity to an unhappy
promise he had made to the queen to accede to no terms
without her intervention and consent.
While the treaty was in dependence no cessation of hos¬
tilities took place. On the 27th of April 1643 Reading
surrendered to fhe parliamentary forces under the Earl of
Essex, who commanded a body of eighteen thousand men.
In the north, the Earl of Northumberland united the coun¬
ties of Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmoreland,
in a league for the king, and some time after engaged other
counties in the same association. Fhe same nobleman
also took possession of York, and the Earl of Newcastle
dislodged the forces of the parliament under Fairfax at
Tadca*ster; but his victory was not decisive. Other ad¬
vantages were also gained by the royalists, the most im¬
portant of which was at Stratton, where Waller, who com¬
manded the parliamentary army, was entirely defeated,
and forced to fly with only a few horse to Bristol. This
happened on the 13th of July, andwas followed by the siege
of Bristol, which surrendered to Prince Rupert on the 25th
of the same month. .
Although the taking of Bristol cost the royalists dear,
five hundred having fallen in the attempt to carry it by
storm, yet their general success had greatly dispirited the
opposite party ; and the confusion which now prevailed at
London was so great that some proposed to the king to march
directly to the metropolis, which it was hoped might be re¬
duced bv an insurrection of the citizens, by victory, or by
treaty, and thus put an end at once to the civil disorders.
But this judicious advice was rejected; and it was resolved
first of all to reduce Gloucester, that the king might have
the whole course of the Severn under his commamk hy
this means it was hoped that the rich but disaffected
counties of the west, losing the protection of their friends,
might be forced to pay large contributions as an atone¬
ment for their disaffection; that a communication miglit
be maintained between Wales and these new conquests;
and that half the kingdom, freed from the enemy, and
united into one firm body, might be employed in re-esta¬
blishing the king's authority throughout the remainder.
The siege accordingly commenced on the 10th of August,
but the town being defended by Massey, a resolute go¬
vernor, and well garrisoned, made a vigorous defence.
The consternation in London, however, was as graat a
if the enemy had already been at their gates; an in
midst of the general confusion a design was formed oy
Waller of forcing the parliament to accept of some rea¬
sonable conditions of peace. He imparted his design o
some others; but a discovery being made of their pro¬
ceedings, he and two others were condemned to dea ^
Waller, however, escaped with a fine of L.10,000. In t
meanwhile Gloucester was reduced to the utmost extre¬
mity. A general assault had been repelled by the aes
perate enthusiasm of the garrison and city; but t e m
of prolonging the defence were nnO ^
of prolonging tne ueience wcie uu*, -a.
As a last resource, the parliament dispatched Esse
an army of fourteen thousand men to raise the siege,
he effected without much difficulty; and on entering
place he found only one barrel of gunpowder left, an
provisions nearly exhausted. _ ,, ti,e
But on his return to London he was intercepte y
king’s army, and a desperate battle ensued at e)v • „s
which lasted till night. Essex’s horse were several t_
broken by the king’s, but his infantry preserved its to ^
tion ; and the front ranks presenting a formidable 7
pikes, whilst those in the rear poured in a destruct
Prince Rupert and the gentry composing the royai
BRITAIN.
Re ji of ry were unable, notwithstanding the furious impetuosity of
Clui?9 !• their attacks, to make any impression on its compact or-
^ der. Night put an end to the contest, but left the vic¬
tory undecided. On the side of the king fell the brave,
accomplished, and virtuous Lord Falkland, one of the few
personages to be met with in history whose life and death
were equally honourable and glorious. Next morning
Essex proceeded on his march to London; and although
he had rather escaped a defeat than gained a victory, he
obtained the approbation of parliament. The king follow¬
ed in the same direction, and, having taken possession of
Reading, he established a garrison there, and by that means
straitened London and the quarters of the enemy.
In the north, during the summer, the Earl, now created
Marquis, of Newcastle, had raised a considerable force for
the king; and great hopes of success were entertained from
that quarter. But there appeared, in opposition to him, two
men, on whom the event of the war finally depended, and
who about this time began to be remarked for their valour
and military conduct. These were Sir Thomas Fairfax,
son to the lord of that name, and Oliver Cromwell. The
former gained a considerable advantage over the royalists
at Wakefield, and took General Goring prisoner ; the latter
obtained a victory at Gainsborough over a party command¬
ed by General Cavendish, who perished in the action.
But both these defeats were more than compensated by
the total rout of Lord Fairfax at Atherton Moor, and the
dispersion of his army, which happened on the 31st of
July. After this victory, the Marquis of Newcastle sat
down before Hull with an army of fifteen thousand men;
but, being beaten off by a sally of the garrison, he suffered
so much that he thought it proper to raise the siege. About
the same time Manchester advanced from the eastern as¬
sociated counties, and having joined Cromwell and young
Fairfax, defeated the royalists at Horne Castle, where the
conduct and gallantry of these two rising officers were
eminently conspicuous. But though fortune had thus ba¬
lanced her favours, the king’s party still remained much
superior in the north; and had it not been for the garri¬
son of Hull, which kept Yorkshire in awe, a junction of
the northern forces with the army of the south might have
enabled the king, instead of undertaking the imprudent
enterprise against Gloucester, to march directly to Lon¬
don and put an end to the war. The indecisive battle of
Newbury terminated the campaign of 1643, by both par¬
ties retiring into winter quarters.
The issue of the war being still doubtful, both the king
and parliament began to look for assistance from other na¬
tions. The former looked to Ireland, the latter to Scot-
land. The parliament of England, at the commencement
of the civil dissensions, had invited the Scots to interpose
their mediation, which, however, the king had declined.
Early in the spring of 1643 this offer was renewed, but with
no better success than before. Commissioners were also
empowered to urge on the king to a compliance with the
presbyterian worship and discipline ; but this he absolutely
refused, as well as to call a parliament in Scotland; and
the commissioners, finding themselves unable to prevail
1” any °ne of their demands, returned highly dissatisfied.
isappointed in all these views, the English parliament
now sent commissioners to Edinburgh, to treat of a more
P ose confederacy with the Scottish nation. The person
to whom they principally confided on this occasion Avas Sir
^ Yane, who, in eloquence, address, and capacity, as
.as art and dissimulation, was not surpassed by any
one m that age, so famous for men of active talents. By his
persuasions was framed at Edinburgh the Solemn League
vo ovynanb which effaced all former protestations and
crpr/3 1° koth kingdoms, and long maintained its
e 1 and authority. In this covenant, the subscribers,
325
besides mutually engaging to defend each other against Reign of
all opponents, bound themselves to endeavour, without re- Charles I»
spect of persons, the extirpation of popery, prelacy, super-
stition, heresy, and profaneness; to maintain the rights
and privileges of parliaments, together with the king’s au¬
thority ; and to discover and bring to justice all incendia¬
ries and malignants. They vowed also to preserve the re¬
formed religion as established in the church of Scotland;
but, b}^ the artifice of Vane, no declaration more explicit
was made with regard to England and Ireland, than that
those kingdoms should be reformed according to the word of
God and the example of the purest churches. This equi¬
vocal abjuration of prelacy completely blinded the Scottish
Presbyterians, who, assuming their own to be the purest
church, never doubted that it was intended to serve as a
model for England. But, as a leader of the sect of Inde¬
pendents, Vane had other views, and artfully reserved a
loophole of retreat whenever it should be convenient to
dispense with the assistance of the Scots. Meanwhile
the Solemn League and Covenant was received in the Scot¬
tish convention, and in the assembly of the kirk, with tears
of enthusiastic joy, and transmitted to the English parlia¬
ment and assembly of divines at Westminster, where, for
different reasons, it was received with equal applause, and
ordained to be universally subscribed in both kingdoms.
By a treaty with the convention, twenty-one thousand
Scottish troops Avere to be retained in arms at the expense
of England, to be led by their own generals, and to re¬
ceive orders from a committee of both kingdoms. 1
The king likeAvise, in order to secure himself, had con¬
cluded a cessation of arms Avith the Irish rebels, and re¬
called a considerable part of his army from Ireland. Some
Irish Catholics came over with these troops, and joined
the royal army, where they continued the same cruelties
and disorders to which they had been accustomed; and
the parliament voted that no quarter should ever be given
them in any action. But Prince Rupert having made some
reprisals, this inhumanity was repressed on both sides.
The campaign of 1644 proved very unfortunate to the
royal cause. The forces brought from Ireland were land¬
ed at Mostyne in North Wales, and placed under the com¬
mand of Lord Biron. They then besieged and took the
castles of HaAA'arden, Beeston, Acton, and Deddington-
house. No place in Cheshire or the neighbourhood now
adhered to the parliament except Lantwich, and to it Biron
laid siege in the depth of winter. Alarmed at this progress,
Sir Thomas Fairfax assembled an army of four thousand
men in Yorkshire, and having joined Sir William Brere-
ton, approached the camp of the royalists. Biron and his
soldiers, elated with success, entertained a most profound
contempt for their enemies, and, as usual in such cases,
paid dear for their absurd vanity. Fairfax suddenly attack¬
ed their camp, while the swelling of the river by a thaw di¬
vided one part of the army from the other. Those imme¬
diately opposed to Fairfax Avere quickly driven from their
post, and having retired into the church of Acton, were
surrounded and taken prisoners; the other part retreated
precipitately without fighting; and thus Avas dissipated
or rendered useless the body of auxiliaries from Ireland.
This happened on the 25th of January. On the 11th of
April ensuing Colonel Bellasis Avas totally defeated at
Selby in Yorkshire by Sir Thomas Fairfax, Avho had re¬
turned from Cheshire with his victorious forces. Being
afterwards joined by Lord Leven with the Scottish army,
Fairfax, in conjunction with his ally, sat down before the
city of York, but being unable to invest the city complete¬
ly, they Avere obliged to content themselves with incom¬
moding it by a loose blockade. Hopetoun, having assem¬
bled a body of fourteen thousand men, endeavoured to break
into Sussex, Kent, and the southern association, which seem-
326
B R I T A I
lleign of ed well disposed to receive him; but he was defeated by
Charles I. Waller at Cherington. At Newark, however, Trince Ku-
pert totally routed the parliamentary army which besieg¬
ed that place, and thus preserved the communication open
between the king’s northern and southern quarters. ;■
The great advantages which the parliament had gamed
in the north seemed now to second their enterprises, and
finally to promise them success. Manchester having taken
Lincoln, had united his army to that of Leven and hair-
fax; and York was now closely besieged by their nume¬
rous forces. That town, though vigorously defended by
the Marquis of Newcastle, was reduced to the last extre¬
mity, when Prince Rupert, having joined Sir Charles
Lucas, who commanded Newcastle s horse, hastened to its
relief with an army of twenty thousand men.
The Scottish and parliamentary generals raised the siege,
and, drawing up on Marston-moor, prepared to give bat¬
tle to the royalists. By a dexterous movement, or lathei
by masking his movements, Rupert, interposing the Ouse
between him and the enemy, threw military stores and
provisions into York, and joined his forces with those un¬
der Newcastle. The marquis then endeavoured to per¬
suade him, that, having successfully effected his purpose,
he outfit to be contented with the present advantage ; re¬
main on the defensive at least till an expected reinforce¬
ment arrived; and leave the enemy, diminished by losses,
and discouraged by ill success, to dissolve by the mutual
dissensions which had begun to take place among them.
The prince, however, hurried on by his natural impetuo¬
sity, gave immediate orders for fighting. His forces oc¬
cupied Marston-moor; those of his opponents were posted
in the adjacent fields; and both sides were nearly equal in
numbers. Fifty thousand British subjects were now drawn
up in order of battle, and ready to begin the work of mu¬
tual destruction. After an ineffectual cannonade across a
bank and ditch which separated the two armies, the sig¬
nal for close combat was given nearly at the same instant
by both sides. A moment of silent suspense followed,
each party expecting that the other would begin the at¬
tack. But evening approached, and no time was to be
lost. At the head of the left wing of the parliamentary
army Cromwell and David Leslie crowned the bank, drove
back Rupert’s right wing, dispersed his cavalry, and over¬
powered part of his centre. A different fortune awaited
the right wing of the parliamentary army, where young
Fairfax commanded. Charged with irresistible impetuo¬
sity by General Hurry, it was beaten back in disorder;
and a reserve of the Scottish infantry, which moved to its
support, was also cut up with astonishing celerity. The
royalists then pushed for the enemy’s baggage, and began
to plunder. But while they were thus occupied, Crom¬
well and Leslie wheeled round and restored the battle.
The parliamentary right wing now rallied on the left, and
the whole army having changed its front, drew up in a
position at right angles to that which it had occupied at
the commencement of the battle. The royalists did the
same, and the combat w^as renewed with great fury on
both sides. But fortune soon declared in favour of the
parliamentarians. The shock, though bloody, was brief,
and the victory decided by Leslie’s three Scottish regi¬
ments and Cromwell’s brigade of ironsides. The royal
army was driven off the field, and its whole artillery
taken.
Immediately after this unfortunate action the Marquis
of Newcastle left the kingdom, while Prince Rupert retir¬
ed into Lancashire. The city of York surrendered in a few
days, and Newcastle was soon afterwards taken by storm.
This was a fatal blow to the royal cause, and far from be¬
ing counterbalanced by an advantage gained at Cropredy-
bridge by the king over Waller, or even by the surrender
of Essex’s forces, which happened on the 1st of Septem- lleign
her. On the 27th of October another battle was fought Charles ij
at Newbury, in which the royalists were worsted; but
soon after they retrieved their honour at Bennington Cas¬
tle, which finished the campaign in 1644.
In 1645 negociations were renewed, afid the commis¬
sioners, sixteen from Charles, twelve from the parliament,
and four from the Scots, assembled at Uxbridge on the
30th of January; but it was soon found impossible to come
to any agreement. Ihe demands of the parliament were
exorbitant, and, what was worse, their commissioners al¬
leged that these were nothing but pichminaiies. The
kin0- was required to attaint, and except fiom a geneial
pardon, forty of the most considerable of his English, and
nineteen of his Scottish subjects, together with all the po¬
pish recusants who had borne arms for him. It was in¬
sisted that forty-eight more, with all the members of
either house wrho had sat in the parliament called by the
kino- at Oxford, all lawyers and divines who had embraced
theldng’s party, should be rendered incapable of any office,
be forbidden the exercise of their profession, be prohibit¬
ed from coming within the verge of the court, and should
forfeit the third of their estates to the parliament. It was
required, that whoever had borne arms for the king should
forfeit the tenth of their estates, or, if that did not suf¬
fice, the sixth, for the payment of public debts. And, as
if such terms would not have sufficiently annihilated the
royal authority, it was further demanded that the court of
wards should be abolished; that all the considerable offi¬
cers of the crown, and particularly the judges, should be
appointed by parliament; and that the right of peace and
war should not be exercised without consent of parlia¬
ment. Considerable abatement was, however, made in
these rigorous demands; and as the rising power of the
Independents made it the interest of the Presbyteuans to
conclude peace, if it could be done with any degree of
safety, the treaty was now limited to the three subjects of
religion, the militia, and Ireland. On the first, the kings
enemies required the abolition of prelacy, the confirmation
of the acts of the assembly of divines at Westminster, ana
the ratification of the Solemn League and Covenant, with
an injunction to all to take it, beginning with the king
himself; on the second, the management of the militia
till seven years after the peace, and an act of mutual ob¬
livion ; on the third, or Ireland, a cessation of arms, ana
the surrender to parliament of the direction of the war,
and of the power of concluding peace without their con
sent. But, after a great deal of fruitless negociation,
Charles ultimately refused to concede any of these points,
and the treaty was in consequence broken off. Ihe news
of Montrose’s victories in Scotland, and the hope of ten
thousand men under the Duke of Lorraine, which i
queen had stipulated for, are alleged to have been ne
chief causes of the failure of the treaty. A little be ore
commencement of this negociation, the parhamen ,
show their determined resolution to proceed as they
begun, brought to the block Archbishop Laud, w io
for a considerable time been a prisoner in the lowei,
was no longer capable of giving offence, or rendering
self dangerous to any one. The sacrifice of t11® ^ ’
wicked, and unfortunate man,- was therefore, poh^ J
considered, an act of bootless severity, and as suci g
to be condemned. rse
But while the king’s affairs were daily becoming
in England, they seemed to revive a little in ^co ’
through the conduct and valour of the Earl ofilo
On his return from his travels, Montrose had been ^
duced to the king; but not meeting with an agreea .
ception, he went over to the Covenanters, am
active in forwarding all their schemes. Being c
BRITAIN.
Ti Irn of sioned, however, by the tables to wait upon the king
C! ;es I. while the army lay at Berwick, he was gained over by the
v- .'^ civilities and caresses of that monarch, and thenceforth
devoted himself entirely, though secretly, to his service.
Having attempted to form an association in favour of the
royal cause, Montrose was thrown into prison ; and on his
release, which he managed to obtain, he found the kino-
ready to give ear to his counsels, which were of the boldest
and most daring kind. The whole nation of Scotland was
occupied by the Covenanters ; considerable armies were
kept on foot by them, and every place wras guarded by a
vigilant administration ; yet, by his own credit, and that of
a few friends who remained to the king, this bold rene¬
gade undertook to raise such commotions as should soon
oblige the malcontents to recal the forces which had so
sensibly turned the balance in favour of the English par¬
liament. The defeat at Marston-moor had left him no
hopes of any succours from England; he was therefore
obliged to stipulate with the Earl of Antrim for a sup¬
ply of men from Ireland. And having used various dis¬
guises, as well as passed through many dangers, he arriv¬
ed in Scotland, where he lay for some time concealed on
the borders of the Highlands.
Although the Irish did not exceed eleven hundred foot,
very ill armed, Montrose immediately put himself at their
head ; and, being joined by thirteen hundred Highlanders,
he attacked Lord Elcho, who lay at Tibbermore, near
Perth, with six thousand men, and utterly defeated him,
killing two thousand of the Covenanters. He next march¬
ed northwards in order to rouse the Marquis of Huntly
and the Gordons, who had before taken arms, but had
been overpowered by the Covenanters. At Aberdeen he
attacked and entirely defeated Lord Burley, who com¬
manded two thousand five hundred men. But by this
victory Montrose did not obtain the end he proposed; for
the Marquis of Huntly showed no inclination to join an
army where he was sure to be eclipsed by a powerful and
ivr ^ genius act*n& from its own impulses.
Montrose was now in a very dangerous situation. Ar-
gy k reinforced by the Earl of Lothian, was behind him
with a great army; while the militia of the northern coun¬
ties ot Moray, Ross, and Caithness, to the number of five
thousand, opposed him in front, and guarded the banks of the
£pey, a deep and rapid river. In order to save his troops,
he turned aside into the hills; but, after some marches
raMC°Unur"mai?heS’ Argy11 came UP with him at Fmvy
f astie. *Tere’ after some skirmishes, in which he was vie-
tonous, Montrose got clear of a superior army, and, by a
ml ,thr?ug1,1 a,most inaccessible mountains, pla¬
ced himself absolutely beyond their reach.
ill fnUi lt Was the misfortune of this general, that good or
ill fo tune proved equally destructive to his army. After
snoiiytlV1Ct0i!yihlS.?COttlsh adherents went home with the
ed nf lad cePected; and had his army been compos-
doned 1Rf 10fi y’ m must soon have been altogether aban-
to which thV16 I’f Under hls command, having no place
tune WiR ^1cou c retire, adhered to him in every for-
Atholemln1 t^erefbre’ and some reinforcements of
AmvllW,nrd ^acdonalds’ Montrose fell suddenly upon
in fher mn«f0086 Up°n k a11 the h°n-ors of war
sand men^"V • Having colIected three thou-
retired with thA U!arc led in fiuest of the enemy, who had
lochy snnnoe^eir Pjimder, and took up a position at Inner-
tance'from Hmsed to he still at a considerable dis-
blished itsein aJ?tagoni.st- While this force had thus es-
ned itself in front, the Earl of Seaforth, at the head of
levied trnrmc^ Inve™ess and a body of five thousand new
threatened ihf 688^? t le r°yalists on the other side, and
Montrose was crit’' 'r t0ia destruction. The situation of
as ci itical m the extreme; but a stroke of genius
and foitune relieved him, and brought back victory to his
standard. By a rapid and unexpected march he hasten¬
ed to Innerlochy, and presented himself in order of battle
before the Covenanters at the head of about eighteen hun¬
dred men. Argyll, seized with a panic, deserted his army,
and, at a secure distance, having pushed off from the shore
of the loch in a boat, witnessed the conflict which he had
not the courage to share. The Campbells, however, made
a stout resistance, but were at last defeated and pursued
with great slaughter. After this victory, Montrose was
joined by great numbers of Highlanders ; Seaforth’s army
dispelsed of itself; and the Lord Gordon, eldest son of
the Marquis of Huntly, having escaped from his uncle
Argyll, who had hitherto detained him, now joined Mon¬
trose with a considerable number of his followers, accom¬
panied by the Earl of Aboyne.
Alarmed at these victories, the council at Edinburgh
sent for Badlie, an officer of reputation, from England,
and, joining him in command with Urrey, dispatched them
with a considerable army against the royalists. Montrose,
with a detachment of eight hundred men, had attacked
Dundee, a town remarkable for its zeal in favour of the
covenant, carried it by assault, and given it up to be plun¬
dered by his soldiers, when Baillie and Urrey with their
whole force suddenly came upon him. He instantly call¬
ed off his soldiers from the plunder, put them in order
coveied his retreat by a series of skilful manoeuvres, and,
laving marched sixty miles in the face of a superior ene¬
my without stopping or allowing his soldiers the least time
for sleep or refreshment, he at last secured himself in the
mountains. His antagonists now divided their forces, in
order to carry on the war against an enemy who surpris¬
ed them as much by the rapidity of his marches as by the
boldness of his enterprises. Urrey met him with four thou¬
sand men at Auldearn, near Inverness, and, trusting to his
superiority in number, Montrose having only two thousand
men, attacked him in the post which he had chosen. Mon¬
trose posted his right wing on some strong ground, and
drew the best of his forces to the other, leaving no main
body between them ; a defect which he artfully concealed
by showing a few men through the trees and bushes with
which the ground was covered. And, that Urrey mUht
have no leisure to discover the stratagem, he instantly fed
Vs w^nS to tPe charge, and made a furious onset on
the Covenanters, whom he drove from the field in complete
disorder. Baillie now advanced to revenge Urrey’s de-
feat, and re-establish, if possible, the credit of the popu¬
lar arms. But he himself met with a similar fate at Al¬
ford. Montrose, weak in cavalry, intermixed his troops
of horse with platoons of infantry,“and, having put his ene¬
my s horse to rout, fell with united force upon their foot,
which were entirely cut in pieces, though with the loss
of the gallant Lord Gordon on the part of the royalists.
Victoi tous in so many battles, which his vigour had ren¬
dered as decisive as they were successful, Montrose now
piepared to march into the southern counties, in order to
put down the power of the Covenanters, and disperse the
parliament, which had been ordered to assemble at St
Johnstone or Perth.
M hile Montrose was thus signalizing his valour in the
noith, l airfax, or rather Oliver Cromwell under his name
and sanction, employed himself in new-modelling the par¬
liamentary army, and throwing the whole into a different
and much more effective form. And never perhaps was
there a more singular army established than that which
was now re-organized by the parliament. To the greater
number of the regiments chaplains were not appointed:
the officers assumed the spiritual duty, which they united
with their military functions. During the intervals of ac¬
tion they occupied themselves in sermons, prayers, and
327
Reign of
Charles I.
328 BRIT
Reign of exhortations. Rapturous ecstasies supplied the place of
Charles I. study and reflection; and whilst the zealous devotees
    > poured out their thoughts in unpremeditated harangues,
they mistook the natural eloquence which flowed from an
excited and enthusiastic temperament, for illuminations
and illapses of the Holy Spirit._ Wherever they were
quartered, they excluded the minister from his pulpit,
and, usurping his place, conveyed their sentiments to the
audience with all the authority that belonged to their power,
their valour, and their military exploits, united with zeal
and fervour. The private soldiers were infected with the
same spirit; and such an enthusiasm seized the whole
army as perhaps has scarce ever been equalled in the his¬
tory of the world. The royalists ridiculed the fanaticism
of the parliamentary armies, without being sensible how
much reason they had to dread its effects. They were at
this time equal, if not superior, in numbers to their ene¬
mies, but so licentious in their conduct, that they had
become more formidable to their friends than to their ene¬
mies. The commanders were most of them men of disso¬
lute characters ; in the west especially, where Goring com¬
manded, universal spoil and havoc were committed ; the
whole country was laid waste by the excesses of the
royalist army; and even the most devoted friends of chui ch
and state longed for success to the parliamentary foices
in these parts, as the only mode in which a stop could be
put to these frightful disorders.
The natural consequence of this enthusiasm in the par¬
liamentary army, and this licentiousness in that of the
king, was, that equal numbers of the latter were no longer
able to maintain their ground against the former. Ibis ap¬
peared conspicuously in the decisive battle of Naseby, which
wyas fought between forces nearly equal. Prince Rupert, by
his furious onset, broke the wing of the enemy opposed to
him, but, as usual, pursued too far. Cromwell also bore
down the wing of the royalists opposite that w^hich he com¬
manded ; but instead of imitating the example of the im¬
petuous prince, he sent a detachment in pursuit, and exe¬
cuting what is technically called a quart de conversion, at¬
tacked the exposed flank of the centre, where the royalist
infantry were pressing hard on Fairfax. rIhe result ot
this movement was decisive. When Rupert returned from
pursuit the battle was irretrievably lost. The king called
out to make but one charge more and the day would be
their own; but his artillery and baggage being already
taken, his infantry destroyed, and the prince’s cavalry
wholly exhausted by their exertions, it was now too late
to attempt any such effort. After an obstinate struggle,
Charles was entirely defeated, with the loss of five hundred
officers and four thousand private men prisoners, and all
his artillery and ammunition, while his infantry were total¬
ly dispersed.
After this fatal battle, the king retired first to Hereford,
then to Abergavenny, and remained some time in Wales,
in the vain hope of raising a body of infantry in these
quarters, already harassed and exhausted. His affairs now
went to ruin in all quarters. Fairfax retook Leicester on
the 17th of June; and on the 10th of July he raised the
siege of Taunton, while the royalists retired to Lamport,
an open town in the county of Somerset. Here they were
attacked by Fairfax, and driven from their position, with
the loss of three hundred killed and fourteen hundred
taken prisoners. This was followed by the loss of Bridge-
water, which Fairfax took three days after, making the
garrison, to the amount of tw'o thousand six hundred men,
prisoners of war. He then reduced Bath and Sharburn;
and on the 11th of September Bristol was surrendered by
Rupert, though a few days before he had boasted, in a
letter to Charles, that he would defend the place for four
months. This so enraged the king, that he immediately
AIN.
recalled all the prince’s commissions, and sent him a pass Hekiui
to go beyond sea.
In the mean time the Scots, having made themselves
masters of Carlisle after an obstinate siege, marched
southwards and invested Hereford, but were obliged to
raise the siege on the king’s approach. This was the last
glimpse of success that attended his arms. Having march¬
ed to the relief of Chester, which was anew besieged by
the parliamentary forces under Colonel Jones, his rear was
attacked by Poyntz, and an engagement immediately en¬
sued. The fight was maintained with great obstinacy,
and victory seemed to incline to the royalists, when Jones
fell upon them from the other side, and defeated them with
the loss ofsix hundred killed and a thousand taken prisoners.
The king, with the remains of his army, fled to Newark,
and thence escaped to Oxford, where he shut himself up
during the winter season. After the surrender of Bristol,
Fairfax and Cromwell, having divided their forces, march¬
ed, the former westwards in order to complete the con¬
quest of Devonshire and Cornwall, and the latter to attack
the king’s garrisons to the eastward of Bristol. Nothing
was able to stand before these victorious generals; every
town was obliged to submit, and every body of troops
which ventured to resist them were utterly defeated.
At last news arrived that Montrose himself, after some
more successes, had been defeated; and thus the only hope
of the royal party was destroyed. When he had descend¬
ed into the southern counties, the Covenanters, assembling
their whole force, met him with a numerous army, and gave
him battle at Kilsyth. But here he obtained a memorable
victory. Of the Covenanters above four thousand were
killed on the spot, and no remains of an army left them in
Scotland. Many noblemen, who had secretly favoured the
royal cause, now declared openly for it, when they saw a
force able to support them. The Marquis of Douglas, the
Earls of Annandale and Hartfield, the Lords Fleming, Se-
ton, Maderty, Carnegy, and many others, flocked to the
royal standard. Edinburgh opened its gates and gave n
berty to all the prisoners detained there by the Covenant¬
ers, and amongst the rest to Lord Ogilvy, son to the Eau o
Airly, whose family had contributed essentially to the vic¬
tory gained at Kilsyth. David Leslie was now detached
from the army in England, and marched to the rebel ot
his distressed party in Scotland. Allured by vain hopes
of rousing to arms the Earls of Hume, Iraquaire, and
burgh, who had promised to join him, and of obtaining
from England some supply of cavalry, in which he was still
very deficient, Montrose advanced still further to tne
south. But by the negligence of his piquet, or more pro¬
bably from security engendered by success, Leslie sur¬
prised his army at Philiphaugh in the Forest, then muc
diminished in numbers from the desertion ol the Hig
ers, who, according to custom, had retired to the In s
secure their plunder. After a sharp conflict, in w ic
Montrose displayed great valour, his forces were r®u jy
by Leslie’s cavalry, and he was himself forced to fly 0
mountains. _ i . i he
In the situation to which the king was now reduce ,
resolved to grant the parliament their own terms, an se
them repeated messages to this effect; but a consi er^
time elapsed before they deigned to make him relD
At last, after reproaching him with the blood spin n
the war, they informed him that they were prep’
some bills, to which, if he would consent, they sho
be able to judge of his pacific inclinations. In tie
time Fairfax was advancing with a victorious army i
der to lay siege to Oxford; and Charles, rather t .an , j.
mit to be taken captive and led in triumph by msinS ^
subjects, resolved to give himself up. to the kc?s’j .
had never testified such implacable animosity agams ^
BRITAIN.
R rn of and to trust to their loyalty for the rest. After passing
CLiesI-in disguise through many bye-ways and cross-roads, he
^ ^ arrived, in company with only two persons, Dr Hudson
and Mr Ashburnham, at the Scottish camp before Newark,
and immediately discovered himself to their general Lord
Leven.
This resolution, though adopted in the midst of disaster,
seems to have been formed by the king in hopes of divid¬
ing his enemies, and profiting by their dissensions, of
which, indeed, any prince in his situation would not have
hesitated to avail himself. Nor were there wanting cir¬
cumstances to justify a measure which, because it proved
unfortunate, has generally been considered as rash and ill-
advised. fhe Presbyterian form of church government
had indeed been adopted in England, under the sanction
of the divines assembled at Westminster; but the parlia¬
ment steadily refused to render the church supreme, and
to disjoin it from all connection with the state. The Inde¬
pendents, also, had combined with the Erastians in parlia¬
ment to procure a charitable indulgence of conscience,
or, in other words, unlimited though tacit toleration of all
sects and opinions; a proceeding which the English as
well as Scottish Presbyterians resisted as at once incompa¬
tible with the covenant, and favourable to boundless lati-
tudinanamsm. Nor were there wanting other causes of
deep offence to exasperate the Scots. Their pay was in
arrear; their supplies were neglected; their cautionary
garrisons in the north were demanded back; their free
quarters were refused. Ever since the battle of Naseby
the Presbyterian, and with it the Scottish, influence had
declined, whilst that of the Independents became every
day stronger and stronger. Symptoms of an approaching
schism, it not collision, were apparent. Is it to be won¬
dered that, in these circumstances, Charles, who had al¬
ready maintained a secret correspondence with the two
tactions of his enemies, should have now calculated on
widening, by his presence with one of them, the breach
that had so evidently taken place ? His previous views,
as expressed in a confidential letter to Lord Digby, were
to draw either the Presbyterians or the Independents
o side with him, ’ and to render whichever of the two
he succeeded in gaining instrumental in extirpating the
other ^ so that,” as he says, “ I shall really be king
SUV ,N*!l1SJhere.ainy reaSOn t0 doubt that’in betaking
mself to the Scottish camp, the real design of the kin?
declared ndeaV°Ur t0 ^ °bjeCt here 80 distinctly
329
On the authority of an intercepted letter of the king, it
has been asserted that he threw himself on the Scottish
skth; n ?onseTuen.ce °f an assurance that they would as-
forces undpreM0Vefnng hlS !°St I,rer°gative> unite with the
t~6r MontrosTe5 and comPel tlle Eng]ish Parliament
the Sr* a ^ec^aration still extant, however,
niihl.V ntlSh *leaders dlsclaim, in the strongest terms, any
and as th' P!,1-Vafe a£reement whatsoever with the king;
ed nn r*n * d!?clamation> which was publicly made, receiv¬
es dm b rad!^tl0n at the time, the reasonable conclusion
an ap-reempnf if 5? be dlsPuted< U is no doubt true that
French S haabeeu con1c.erted» through Montreville the
ledge and as'Sadoi> by which the Scots, with the know-
to escort the EnSlish ^esbyterians, were
broken off K rVng 5° t,heir camP' But the treaty was
Montrose and h6’fith® Sc°tS t0 C0-°Perate with
firm the Prpoh ^ -he ring S hesitatlon t0 sanction and con-
Scl se^t/fr f0rm10fchurch establishment. The
their dec!aiAf’ fPoiJe’ have been perfectly sincere in
amongst them011/^ 16 Lngbsb Parliament* Charles came
sequence of Tn r-S T* ProPer m?tion’ and not in con-
bim against thof ^lpulation on tlle‘r Part to unite with
vol. y. r Engbsh allies; and whatever discontents
might have arisen in England, such a stipulation to sup- Reign of
port the king, without first exacting from him an unequi- Charles I.
vocal pledge to grant all the objects for which they had v—   
taken up arms, would have been the height of folly, and
a saciifice of great national interests to a romantic senti¬
ment. Accordingly, they remained faithful to their ori¬
ginal engagements; and although they withdrew to New¬
castle to prevent the English intercepting their return
home, they obtained the king’s order for the surrender of
Newark, guarded his person with respectful vigilance, and
openly professed their resolution to avail themselves of
the advantage they had thus acquired, in order to obtain
the desired conformity in religion, and the establishment
of peace on a durable basis.
Next came the negociations between the Scots and Eng¬
lish for the payment of arrears due to the former, and for
the surrender of the king’s person into the hands of the
latter. The arrears, after many deductions, were finally
settled at L.400,000; and this adjustment has been per¬
petually identified by historians with the agreement to
deliver up the king’s person, and represented as the equi¬
valent given, or the price paid, for an act of unparalleled
baseness. The confusion of facts, however, is as gross as
the stigma attached to the Scottish nation is undeserved.
Ihe amount of the arrears was fixed in August. In No¬
vember the question as to the disposal of the royal person
remained still unsettled. At this time the Scottish par¬
liament, indignant at a vote passed by the English parlia¬
ment in September (a month after the settlement of the
arrears) claiming the sole disposal of the king’s person,
resolved to maintain the freedom of the king, and assert
Ins right to the English throne; but the vote was after¬
wards rescinded, on the just ground that it amounted to
an abandonment of the solemn league and covenant, adopt¬
ed in concert with the English Presbyterians, unless their
joint demands were granted by the king. They offered,
lowever, to reinstate him on the throne, and to obtain for
urn a just settlement with his English subjects, provided
be would consent to take the covenant; and commission¬
ers were appointed by the estates in Scotland to signify
to his majesty these conditions, upon which alone he could
expect to be received in Scotland, or assisted by the
Scottish nation. But the king remained inflexible. In
vain did the Duke of Hamilton, one of his principal friends
in Scotland, unite with the ministers in representing that
this alone could save him; in vain was it urged that if he
conceded the Presbyterian church to both kingdoms, the
demands respecting the militia would be relaxed, that all
Scotland would declare in his favour, and that, while the
l resbytenans remained numerous and powerful, few in
England would venture to oppose the reconstitution of
the monarchy with limited power. Nothing could move
him to accede to that which alone could save him. On
the eve of his departure, the commissioners renewed with
great earnestness their offers to conduct him to Berwick
and to procure more equitable terms, provided he would
take the covenant; and so anxious were they to save him,
that a bare promise to comply with their religious demands
would have been deemed sufficient. But all that could be
wrung from this unhappy prince was a doubtful consent
to tolerate Presbytery for three years; and even in mak¬
ing this concession, he justified it to his own curious con¬
science, by declaring before two of his bishops his unal-
terable resolution to restore and uphold Episcopacy. In
the case of a sovereign cursed with such blind and obsti-
nate infatuation, what else could be done but leave him
to his fate ?
It has been mentioned as a circumstance reflecting
disgrace on the Scots, that the English parliament still
withheld their arrears, and that the surrender of the king’s
2 x
330
BRITAIN.
Ileum of person was the only condition upon which payment could
Charles I. ke obtained. If the case had really stood so that the re-
fusal of the Scots to deliver up Charles would have been
punished only by defrauding them of the money which
was justly due to them, and by no other consequence
whatever, then the charge of selling the king for prompt
payment might well have been alleged against them. But
it must be obvious that the loss of the arrears, upon which
so much stress has always been laid, was a mere trifle in
comparison with the misery and bloodshed which must
have ensued from drawing the sword in defence of t le
king, without first securing the grand objects of the cove¬
nant. Conduct such as this, on the part of the Scottish
leaders, would have amounted to a violation of their so¬
lemn oaths, and a betrayal of the great national interests
intrusted to their guardianship. They offered all that
men, circumstanced as they were, could offer; they were
willing, at any hazard, to adhere to the king, if the king
would have been true to the country; and his refusal to
accede to the terms proposed to him shows, that, if the
Covenanters had conquered all England in his cause, they
would only have rivetted more firmly the chains of Epis¬
copacy and tyranny on themselves.1 ,
After the flight of Charles, Oxford surrendered to Fair¬
fax, and the civil war terminated exactly four years after
the king’s standard was first erected at Nottingham. In
consequence of the transactions at Newark* and the total
failure of all attempts at an accommodation with the Pres¬
byterians, the king was delivered over to the English com¬
missioners, and conducted under a guard to Holdenby, in
Northamptonshire, where he was very rigorously confined,
and debarred from visits of his friends, as well as all com¬
munication with his family.
The civil war being thus ended, the king absolved his
followers from their allegiance, and the parliament had
now no enemy to fear but the troops which had fought for
them. But it was not long before they found themselves
in the same unfortunate predicament to which they had
reduced the king. The majority of the house were Pres¬
byterians, but the majority of the army were Independ¬
ents. Soon after the retreat of the Scots, the foimer
seeing every thing reduced to obedience, proposed to dis¬
band a considerable part of the army, and send the rest
over to Ireland. But this was by no means relished by
the Independents, and Cromwell took care to heighten
the disaffection. Instead of preparing to disband, there¬
fore, the soldiers resolved to petition, and began by de¬
manding an indemnity, ratified by the king, for any illegal
actions they might have committed during the war. But
the Commons voted that this petition tended to introduce
mutiny, and threatened to proceed against the promoters
of it as enemies to the state and disturbers of the public Reign (:
peace. The army accordingly began to set up for them- Charles ,
selves, and a military parliament was organized, in oppo-
sition to the parliament at Westminster. I he principal
officers formed a council to represent the body of Peers;
the soldiers elected two men out of each company, called
the agitators of the army, to represent the Commons; and
of this assembly Cromwell took care to be a member. The
new parliament soon found many grievances to be re¬
dressed, and specified some of the most considerable.
The Commons were obliged to yield to every request, and
the demands of the agitators rose in proportion to the con¬
cessions they extorted. The Commons accused the army of
mutiny and sedition ; but the army retorted the charge, and
alleged that the king had been deposed only to make way
for their usurpations. In the mean time Cromwell, who se¬
cretly conducted all the measures of the army, while he ex¬
claimed against their violence, resolved to seize the kings
person. Accordingly a party of five hundred horse appeared
at Holmby Castle, under the command of one Joyce, ori¬
ginally a tailor, now a cornet; and by this man was the
king conducted to the army, who were hastening to then-
rendezvous at Triplow Heath, near Cambridge. Next day
Cromwell arrived, and being received with acclamations
°f joy, was immediately invested with the supreme com¬
mand. The Commons now discovered the designs of the
army; but it was too late. All resistance had become hope¬
less. Cromwell advanced with precipitation, and was in
a few days at St Alban’s. Even submission was now to
no purpose. The army still rose in their demands, m pro¬
portion as these were gratified, and at last proclaime
their intention of modelling the whole government, as well
as settling the nation.
Cromwell began with accusing eleven members of tne
house, leaders of the Presbyterian party, as guilty of high
treason, and enemies to the army. The Commons were
willing to protect them ; but the army insisting on tieir
dismission, they voluntarily left the house. At last t ie
citizens of London, finding the constitution totally over¬
turned, and a military despotism about to be established
on the ruins of the kingly tyranny which they formerly
dreaded, began to think seriously of repressing tie inso
lence of the troops. The common council assembled the
militia of the city ; the works were manned; and a mani¬
festo was published, aggravating the hostile intentions o
the army. Finding that the Commons, in comphan
with the request of the army, had voted that the city nil-
litia should be disbanded, the multitude rose, besieged 1.1
door of the house, and obliged them to reverse the vote
which they had so lately passed. The assembly was m con
sequence divided into tw-o parties ; the greatei pait s.
1 The comments which Mr Hume has thought it proper to make on this unfortunate transaction are sufficiently met and answered
by the statements contained in the text. The following defence of the Scots against the accusations which ia\ e cen .. .'.otbe
. . ... . . i *11 i t _  j  4 ~~ r»*r\m ci, writ6r WHO W 111 *lul' ^
neighbours OX XMlgiaim, xur xuveiginug su severely against, uui natiun nn uenvcnug mvii   e> ^ qjgjr i
up to the then parliament, who first imprisoned and thereafter murdered him : whereas how soon even our rebels discovere^ ^^ ^
their lives and fortunes for his safety. And albeit some bigot Presbyterians did use him unkindly out of too ni. . an<,h3jie attac!
own principles, yet even these did very generously oppose Cromwell, and such as had murdered the king; as is cleaf for [,in
made by Major-general Montgomery at Musselburgh, and by the remonstrators at Linlithgow. They fought also two ba
at Dunbar and Worcester, and suffered the greatest imaginable hardships.” {Memoirs of the Affairs of Scotland, fom tie rpjl0tna5
of King Charles II. a. d. 1000. By Sir George Mackenzie of liosehaugh. Printed at Edinburgh in 1821, and edited y
Thomson, Esq. Depute Clerk Registrar of Scotland.)
BRITAIN.
]J ?n of with the citizens, but tlie minority, with the two speakers
Cl iesl. at their head, being for encouraging the army. Accord-
ingly the two speakers, with sixty-two of the members,
secretly retired from the house, and threw themselves on
the protection of the army, which was then at Hounslow
Heath. They were received with shouts and acclamations ;
their integrity was extolled; and the whole force of the
soldieiy, to the number of twenty thousand men, now
moved forward to reinstate them in their places.
In the meanwhile the part of the house which was left
resolved to resist the encroachments of the army. They
chose new speakers, gave orders for enlisting troops, and
ordered the train-bands to man the lines ; while the whole
city boldly resolved to resist the invasion. But this reso¬
lution only held while the enemy was at a distance. When
Cromwell appeared, all was obedience and submission ;
and the gates were opened to the general, who attended
the tvyo speakers and the rest of the members peaceably
to tneir habitations. I he eleven impeached members hav¬
ing been accused as the cause ot the tumult, were expel¬
led, and most of them retired to the Continent. The
mayor, the sheriff, and three aldermen, were sent to the
Tower; several citizens and officers of the militia were
committed to prison; the lines about the city were level¬
led with the ground ; and the command of the Tower was
given to Fairfax.
It now only remained to dispose of the king, who con¬
tinued a prisoner at Hampton Court. The Independent
army, at the head of which was Cromwell, on the one
hand, and the Presbyterians, in name of both houses, on
the other, treated with him separately in private. He had
sometimes even hopes, that in these struggles for power,
he might be chosen mediator in the dispute; and he ex¬
pected that the kingdom, at last sensible of the miseries
of anarchy, would of its own accord relapse into tranquil-
A*' time he was treated with flattering marks
of distinction, and allowed to converse with his own ser-
vants; whilst his chaplains were permitted to attend him,
and celebrate divine service in their own way. But the
most exqmsite pleasure he enjoyed was in the company of
his children, with whom he had several interviews. The
meeting on these occasions was so touching, that Crom¬
well himself, who happened once to be present, could not
delp being moved, and was heard to declare that he never
before beheld such an affecting scene. But these in¬
stances of respect were not of long continuance. As soon
as tne army had gained a complete victory over the House
or commons, the king was treated not only with the great-
D«rJn^rPef !■’ but„Ieven in continual alarm for his
L -?\e conse(Iuence was> that Charles at
last resolved to withdraw himself from the kingdom.
a01idln^ly’ °n the llth of November 1647, the king,
attended only by Sir John Berkeley, Ashburnham, and
notgd£rnVate a Har"Pton Court 1 and his escape was
who pm Ver.e]d.11 h nearly an hour afterwards, when those
directprlTli118 Ch,amber found on the table some letters
cerwhnhV\lPaih^nt’t0 the Senera1’ and t0 the offi-
the ffirpm d at,tend<rd blm- He travelled all night through
the Earl ofl nVed n6Xt day at Titchfield, a seat of
ager a wnl bouti,amPton, occupied by the countess dow-
safpl’v • . ani ?f honour, to whom the king knew he might
he «« To8' ’,S PerSOn' Brf0re he “^0 “• ‘'’is plat!
that a shin KSta‘coast’ and expressed great anxiety
As he could hi he seemed t0 look for’ had not arrived,
field thp n, A0t h°pe t0 remain long concealed at Titch-
braced? Alf!]1011 what measure should next be em-
which Hamm a neighbourhood lay the Isle of Wight, of
dent ofZTdJas governor. This man was a depen-
stance • vet a S’ wblcb was an uotavourable circum-
’ y as he was nephew to Dr Hammond, the king’s
331
favourite chaplain, and had acquired a good reputation in Reign of
the army, it was thought proper to have recourse to him Charles I.
in the present emergency, when no other rational expe-
dient could be thought of. Ashburnham and Berkeley
w ere accordingly dispatched to the island. They had or¬
ders not to inform Hammond of the place where the king
lny concealed, till they had first obtained from him a pro¬
mise not to deliver up his majesty, even though the par¬
liament and army should require him, but restore him to
his liberty, if he could not protect him. The promise
would have been but a slender security ; yet, even without
exacting it, Ashburnham imprudently, if not treacherous¬
ly, brought Hammond to Titchfield ; and the king was
obliged to put himself into his hands, and to attend him
to Carisbrooke C astle in the Isle of Wight, where, though
he was received with great demonstrations of respect and
kindness, he was in reality a prisoner.
While the king continued in this forlorn situation, Crom¬
well found himself upon the point of losing all the fruits
of his schemes, by having his own artifices turned against
himself. Among the Independents, who in general were
hostile to all ecclesiastical systems, a set of men grew up
called Levellers, who disallowed all subordination whatso-
evei, and declared that they would have no other chap¬
lain, king, nor general, save Jesus Christ. All this would
have gone down very well with Cromwell as long as it
was only directed against his enemies, but he did not re¬
lish it quite so well when applied to himself. Accordingly,
having intimation that the Levellers were to meet at a
certain place, he unexpectedly appeared before them at
the head of his red regiment, which had hitherto been
deemed invincible, and demanding, in the name of God,
what these meetings and murmurings meant, he expostu¬
lated with them upon the dangerous consequence of their
precipitate schemes, and desired them immediately to
depart. Instead of obeying, however, they returned an
insolent answer; upon which he ordered his guards to dis¬
perse them, caused several of them to be hanged upon the
spot, sent others to London, and thus dissipated a faction
which was no otherwise criminal than in having followed
his own example. Cromwell’s authority was greatly in¬
creased by the reduction of this sect; and it becameirre-
sistable in consequence of a new and unexpected addition
to his successes.
. Meanwhile the relative situations of parties had mate¬
rially changed, and the power of the Independents been
increased as that of the Presbyterians declined. The for¬
mer, too, began to disclose ulterior views and intentions
which had never hitherto been suspected by their allies
the Scots, whom they now took all occasions to mortify.
The latter also found, that in the matter of Presbytery,
no less than in the conduct of the war and the policy pur¬
sued towards the king, they had been overreached and
deceived. The discovery in question brought on an ac¬
commodation between Charles and his Scottish subjects,
who, in consideration of his majesty agreeing to confirm
the covenant in parliament, and establish the Presbyterian
church till it should be revised by the assembly of divines,
cngfiged to assert and restore his authority by force of
arms. This treaty was afterwards called The Engage¬
ment; but although discontents had multiplied between
the two kingdoms, it was found no easy matter to induce
the nation to enter into the views of those by whom the
engagement had been concluded. The Scottish royalists,
under 1 raquair and Callander, were impatient for action;
the moderate Presbyterians, under the Duke of Hamilton,'
wished to restore the king and the power of the English
Presbyterians; the wild party, headed by Argyll, and se¬
conded by the kirk, denounced the engagement as a dead¬
ly breach of the covenant, and deprecated hostilities with
332
BRITAIN.
Reign of England. Amidst this division of party and opinion, new
Charles I. levies were raised for the invasion of England, and the
chief command given to Hamilton, as David Leslie and
the other officers could not act without the sanction ot
the church. , ,
Langdale headed a separate body of royalists who had
not taken the covenant, and both invaded the north or Lng-
land. But though these two armies amounted to above
twenty thousand men, Cromwell, at the head of eight thou¬
sand hardy veterans, feared not to give battle to the divided
and undisciplined mass, conducted by an incapable leader.
Attacking these bodies in succession, he routed and dis¬
persed them, took Hamilton prisoner, and, following up the
blow, soon entered Scotland. Of the whole Scottish force
only a small body under Callender, who disdained to sur¬
render, made their way back to Scotland. Ihis overthiow
was the signal for the High Presbyterian party to bestir
themselves. New levies were indeed raised by the Earl
of Lanark, Hamilton’s brother; but these proved of no
avail. The Earls of Argyll, Cassillis, and Eglintoun, at
the head of the Presbyterians of the west country and
the Highlands, marched to Edinburgh, and inviting Crom¬
well to the metropolis, conducted him thither in triumph,
suppressed the engagement, and renewed the solemn
league and covenant with England. This expedition of
the Covenanters to Edinburgh, commonly called the
Whigamores’ Inroad, gave the finishing blow to the royal
cause in Scotland at this time.
During these contentions the king, who was kept a pri¬
soner at Carisbrooke Castle, continued to negociate with
the parliament for putting an end to the unspeakable ca¬
lamities of the kingdom. And the parliament, on the
other hand, saw no method of restraining the military,
except to counterbalance it by the kingly power, fre¬
quent proposals for an accommodation accordingly passed
between the captive king and the Commons; but the
great obstacle which had all along stood in the way still
remained unshaken. This was the king’s refusal to abo¬
lish Episcopacy, though he consented to alter the liturgy.
However, the treaty was still carried on with vigour, and
the parliament for the first time seemed in earnest to con¬
clude their negociations. But all was now too late. The
victorious army, headed by Cromwell, advanced to Wind¬
sor, and with furious remonstrances began to demand ven¬
geance on the king. The unhappy monarch had been
lately sent in custody to that place; and from thence he
was now conveyed to Hurst Castle in Hampshire, oppo¬
site to the Isle of Wight. The parliament in the mean¬
while began to issue ordinances for a more effectual oppo¬
sition to these military encroachments, when they were
astonished by a message from Cromwell, intimating his
intention of paying them a visit next day with his whole
army, and at the same time ordering them to raise him
L.40,000 on the city of London.
The Commons, though destitute of all hopes of prevail¬
ing, had still the courage to resist, and to attempt in the
face of the whole army to finish the treaty they had be¬
gun with the king. They had taken into consideration
the whole of his concessions; and although they had for¬
merly voted them unsatisfactory, they now renewed the
consultation with great vigour. After a violent debate,
which lasted three days, it was carried in the king’s fa¬
vour, by a majority of 129 against 83, that his concessions
were a foundation for the houses to proceed upon in
settling the affairs of the nation. This was the last at¬
tempt in his favour; for the next day Colonel Pride, at
the head of two regiments, blockaded the house, and
seizing in the passage forty-one members of the Presby¬
terian party, sent Them to a low room belonging to the
house, that passed by the denomination of Hell. Above
a hundred and sixty members were excluded; and none Reignoi Iii
were allowed to enter but the most furious and deter- Charles I ^
mined of the Independents, in all not exceeding sixty. ^
This atrocious invasion of parliamentary rights commonly
passed by the name of Pride’s Purge, and the remaining
members were called the Rump, The latter soon voted
that the transactions of the house a few days before were
entirely illegal, and that their general’s conduct was just
and necessary.
Nothing now remained to complete the career of the
Rump but to put the king to death. In this assembly,
composed of the most obscure citizens and officers of the
army, a committee was appointed to bring in a charge
against the king; and on their report a vote was carried,
declaring it treason in a king to levy war against his par¬
liament. It was therefore resolved that a high court of
justice should be appointed, to try his majesty for this
newly-invented treason. For form s sake they desired the
concurrence of the few remaining Lords in the upper house;
but there was virtue enough left in that body unanimously
to reject the proposal. The Commons, however, were not
to be stopped by so small an obstacle. They voted that
the concurrence of the House of Lords was unnecessary,
and that the people were the origin of all just power.
And to add to their zeal, a woman of Plerefordshire, illu¬
minated by prophetical visions, desired admittance, and
communicated a revelation which she pretended to have
received from heaven. She assured them that their mea¬
sures were consecrated from above, and ratified by the
sanction of the Holy Ghost. This intelligence gave them
great comfort, and much confirmed them in their present
resolutions. Colonel Harrison, the son of a butcher, was
commanded to conduct the king from Hurst Castle to
Windsor, and from thence to London. His subjects, who
crowded to see their fallen sovereign, were greatly affect¬
ed at the change which appeared in his face and person.
He had permitted his beard to grow, and his hair had be¬
come venerably gray, rather by the pressure of anxiety
than by the hand of time; whilst the rest of his apparel bore
the marks of misfortune and decay. He had long been
attended by an old decrepid servant commonly called Sir
Philip Warwick, who could only deplore his master s fate,
without being able to revenge his cause. All the exterior
symbols of sovereignty were now withdrawn, and his at¬
tendants had orders to serve him without ceremony. He
could not, however, be persuaded that his adversaries
would bring him to a formal trial; but he every moment
expected to be dispatched by private assassination.
From the 6th to the 20th of January was spent in mak¬
ing preparations for this extraordinary trial. The court
of justice consisted of a hundred and thirty-three persons
named by the Commons ; but of these about seventy on y
met upon the trial. The members were chiefly composed
of officers of the army, most of them of very mean birtn,
together with some of the Lower House, and a few ci i
zens of London. Bradshaw, a lawyer, was chosen presi¬
dent ; Coke was appointed solicitor for the people of nS
land; Dorislaus, Steele, and Aske, were named assistants.
The court sat in Westminster Hall. When the king wa
brought forward before this court, he was conducte y
the mace-bearer to a chair placed within the bar. °ue>
long detained a prisoner, and now produced as a cnmina,
he still maintained the dignity of a king. The charge w
then read by the solicitor, accusing him of having
the cause of all the bloodshed which had flowed since
commencement of the war; after which Bradshaw ire
ing his discourse to Charles, told him that the coin
pected his answer. The king began his defence y
dining the authority of the court. He represente > ^
having been engaged in treaty with his two house
BRITAIN.
Re i of
Cha ?s I-
parliament, and having finished almost every article, he
expected a different treatment from that which he had
J now received. He perceived, he said, no appearance of
an upper house, which was necessary to constitute a just
tribunal. He alleged that he was himself the king and
fountain of law, and consequently could not be tried by
laws to which he had never given his assent; that having
been intrusted with the liberties of the people, he would
not now betray them by recognising a power founded in
usurpation; that he was willing, before a proper tribunal,
to enter into the particulars of his defence ; but that until
then he must decline any apology for his innocence, lest
he should be considered as the betrayer of, and not as a
martyr for, the constitution. Bradshaw, in order to sup-
port the authority of the court, insisted that they had re¬
ceived their authority from the people, the source of all
right. He pressed the king not to decline the authority
of the court which was delegated by the Commons of Eng¬
land, and interrupted, overruled, and browbeat him in his
attempts to reply. In this manner the king was three
times produced before the court, and as often persisted in
declining its jurisdiction. The fourth and last time he was
brought before this self-created tribunal, he was insulted
on his way thither by the soldiers and the mob, who cried
out, “ Justice! justice! Execution! execution!” but he
continued undaunted. His judges now examined some
witnesses, by whom it was proved that the king had ap¬
peared in arms against the forces commissioned by parlia¬
ment, and then pronounced sentence against him. He
seemed very anxious at this time to be admitted to a con¬
ference with the two houses, and it was supposed that he
intended to resign the crown in favour of his son ; but the
court refused compliance, and considered his request as
an artifice to delay justice.
The behaviour of Charles throughout this trying scene
was manly, firm, and dignified. In leaving the hall, the
soldiers and rabble were again instigated to cry out Justice,
and Execution, and to revile him with the most bitter re¬
proaches ; and, amongst other insults, one miscreant pre¬
sumed to spit in his face. He patiently bore their inso¬
lence. “ Poor souls,” said he, “ they would treat their gene¬
rals in the same manner for sixpence.” Those of the popu¬
lace who still retained the feelings of humanity expressed
their sorrow in sighs and tears. A soldier more compas¬
sionate than the rest could not help imploring a blessing
on Ins royal head. An officer overhearing him, struck the
honest sentinel to the ground before the king, who could
not help saying that the punishment exceeded the offence.
n his return to Whitehall, Charles desired permission
ot the house to see his children, and to be attended in
his private devotions by Dr Juxon, late bishop of London,
ihese request;8 were granted, and three days were also
owed him to prepare for execution. Every night be-
vveen his sentence and execution the king slept soundly
as usual, though the noise of the workmen employed in
electing the scaffold continually resounded in his ears.
^ ,mT,.!ng having at last arrived, Charles rose
J ’ and calhng one of his attendants, bade him employ
e than usual care in dressing him, and preparing him
wL f°hgreiat a ®ole.mnity- The street before Whitehall
tpml !e- i^e dest*ned f°r his execution; for it was in-
mcnt u 18 Way t0 increase the severity of his punish-
smffnhi v —8 ed through the banqueting house to the
attold adjoining to that edifice, attended by his friend
steadvrVint Blsh°P Juxon> a man of the same mild and
with LLiaraCter as hh master- The scaffold, covered
the comma V'jas/Jl!a1rded by a fegiment of soldiers under
seen the hi'1 i° ^°ionei Tomlinson; and on it were to be
The mm , .k> the axe, and two executioners in masks.
People, in crowds, stood at a distance. The king sur-
333
veyed all these solemn preparations with composure; and, Common
as he could not expect to be heard by the people at a dis- wealth
tance, he addressed himself to the few persons who stood
round him. He there justified his own innocence in the
late fatal wars, observing that he had not taken arms till
after the parliament had shown him the example; and
that he had no other object in his warlike preparations,
than to preserve that authority entire which had been
transmitted to him by his ancestors. But, though inno¬
cent towards his people, he acknowledged the equity of
his execution in the eyes of his Maker, and owned that he
was justly punished for having consented to the execution
of an unjust sentence against the Earl of Strafford. He
forgave all his enemies; exhorted the people to return to
their obedience, and acknowledge his son as his successor;
and signified his attachment to the Protestant religion as'
professed by the church of England. So strong was the
impression made by his dying words on those who could
hear him, that Colonel lomlinson himself, to whose care
he had been committed, acknowledged himself a convert.
At one blow his head was severed from his body. The
other executioner then, holding up the head, exclaimed,
“ Ibis is the head of a traitor.”
It is impossible to describe the grief, indignation, and
astonishment, which took place, not only among the spec¬
tators, who were overwhelmed with a flood of sorrow, but
throughout the whole nation, as soon as the report of this
execution was conveyed to them. Each blamed him¬
self, either with active disloyalty to the king, or a passive
compliance with his destroyers. The very pulpits which
used to resound with insolence and sedition were now be¬
dewed vyith tears of repentance ; and all united in their
detestation of those dark hypocrites, who, to satisfy their
own enmity, involved a whole nation in the guilt of this
catastrophe. Charles was executed on the 30th of Ja¬
nuary 1649, in the forty-ninth year of his age, and twenty-
fourth of his reign. He was of a middling stature, robust,
and well-proportioned. His countenance was pleasant,
but melancholy; and it is probable that the continual
troubles in which he was involved might have given this
expression to his features. As it had been remarked that
the king, the moment before he stretched out his neck to
the executioner, had addressed to Juxon, with a very
earnest accent, the single word “ Remember” great mys¬
teries were supposed to be concealed under that word;
and the generals vehemently insisted with the prelate that
he should inform them of the king’s meaning. Juxon told
them that the king, having frequently charged him to in¬
culcate on his son the forgiveness of his murderers, had
taken this opportunity, in the last moment of his life, when '
his commands, he supposed, would be regarded as sacred
and inviolable, to reiterate that desire ; and that his mild
spirit thus terminated its earthly course by an act of be¬
nevolence to his greatest enemies.
CHAP. V.
THE COMMONWEALTH.
Dissolution of the Monarchy, and establishment of the Common¬
wealth—Council ot State.—Negociations with Prince Charles.
—Descent of Montrose in the North.—His defeat and execu-
tion—Arrival of Charles in Scotland—His treatment there. 
The Scots proclaim him King—War with England Battle of
Dunbar—Subsequent operations—The Scots march into Eng¬
land—Battle of Worcester.—Adventures of the King, and Ins
escape into France—Cromwell’s policy towards Scotland.—
Mar with the Dutch—Cromwell resolves to seize on the So¬
vereign power.—Parliament turned out—Protest of Bradshaw
and the Council—Barebone’s Parliament Dissolved Crom¬
well declared Protector—Settlement of the Government 
His vigorous administration.—Jamaica conquered Arbitrarv
334
Common-
wealth.
 '
BRIT
methods of raising money.—Another Parliament called.—-The
Crown offered to Cromwell—Refused —Situation to which he
was reduced by the frequent conspiracies of the Royalists and
the Levellers His death and character—Richard Cromwell
declared Protector—His abdication—Rump Parliament rein¬
stated Dissolved bv the army—Military Government—Pro¬
ceedings of Monk—Negociations—March to London—His
quarters established in Westminster—City of London pu¬
nished Secluded Members of Parliament recalled —A ew i ar-
liament assembled—Charles II. leaves Spain—His message to
the Parliament He is recalled, and lands in England—Cha¬
racter of Monk’s proceedings in the matter of the Restoration.
The dissolution of the monarchy followed, as a natural
consequence, the execution of the king. At the com¬
mencement of the struggle the demands of the two houses
were limited to the redress of existing grievances , but
now when it was over, the triumphant party refused to
be content with any thing less than the abolition of the
old, and the establishment of a new and more popular form
of government. They had sinned too deeply against loyal¬
ty to trust themselves to the mercy or moderation of a
king. A republic was therefore their choice, first, because
it promised to shelter them from the vengeance of their
enemies; and, secondly, because it offered them the ad¬
ditional advantage of sharing among themselves all the
power, the patronage, and the emoluments of office. In
accordance with this decision, the head of the king had no
sooner fallen on the scaffold at Whitehall, than a procla¬
mation was issued, declaring it treason to give to any per¬
son the title of king without the authority of parliament;
and at the same time was published the vote of the 4th of
January (1649), by which it had been decreed that the
supreme authority in the nation resided in the represen¬
tatives of the people. The peers, though aware of their
approaching fate, met on the day fixed at their adjourn¬
ment, and proceeded to business ; but after a pause of a
few days the Commons voted that the House of Lords, as
useless and dangerous, ought to be abolished; and they
declared it high treason to acknowledge Charles Stuart,
son of the late king, as successor to the throne. A coun¬
cil of state was next appointed, consisting of forty-one
members, with powers limited in duration to twelve
months, and charged with the preservation of domestic
tranquillity, the disposal of the military and naval force,
the superintendence of internal and external trade, and
the negociation of treaties with foreign powers. A new
great seal was then made, on one side of which were en¬
graven the arms of England and Ireland, with this inscrip¬
tion, “ The great seal of Englandand on the reverse
was represented the House of Commons sitting, with this
• motto,—“ On the first year of freedom, by God’s blessing
restored, 1649.” The forms of all public business were
changed, and instead of proceeding in the king’s name,
ran in that of the “ keepers of the liberties of England.”
The Court of King’s Bench was called the Court of Pub¬
lic Bench; and so cautious on this head, it is said, were
some of the republicans, that, in reciting the Lord’s pray¬
er, they would not say, “ thy kingdom,” but “ thy com¬
monwealth, come.” The king’s statue in the exchange was
thrown down; and on the pedestal these words were in¬
scribed, Exit tyrannus, regum ultimus, “ The tyrant is
gone, the last of the kings.” The merit or demerit of thus
erecting a commonwealth on the ruins of the monarchy
belongs chiefly to Cromwell, Ireton, Bradshaw, and Mar¬
ten, who by their superior influence guided and controlled
the opinions and passions of their associates in the senate
and the army.
The Commons next proceeded to punish those who had
been most remarkable for their attachment to their late
sovereign. The Duke of Hamilton, Lord Capel, and the
Earl of Holland, were condemned and executed ; the Earl
'AIN.
of Norwich and Sir John Owen were also condemned, and Comm
afterwards pardoned. These executions greatly irritated weak
the Scots; and the insolence of the Independents, with
their victories, inflaming them still more, they determined
to acknowledge Prince Charles as their king, but at the
same time to abridge his power by limitations similar
to those which they had attempted to impose upon his fa¬
ther. But as Argyll and the more rigid Covenanters still
predominated, they made their loyalty conditional on his
own good behaviour. The first propositions were made
to Charles at Paris, where he had passed some time in
hopes of obtaining assistance; and renewed olfers were
made to him at Breda, to which place he had withdrawn
on finding France indisposed to lend him any aid. But as
he had by this time commanded Montrose to attempt a
descent in his favour upon Scotland by force of arms, he,
with the characteristic duplicity of his race, protracted
the negociations until the result of this enterprise should
be known. With arms and money furnished by Sweden
and Denmark, and accompanied by about six hundred
Germans, Montrose, accordingly, arrived in Orkney from
Hamburg, and by a compulsory levy of the islanders, rais¬
ed his force to fourteen hundred men. He then passed
over to the mainland of Scotland, where the people, re¬
membering his former cruelties, fled in horror before him.
But his career was destined to be a short one. Having
advanced beyond the pass of Invercarron, his motley
band was surprised by a superior force, surrounded, bea¬
ten, and dispersed. Montrose contrived to effect his es¬
cape, but having thrown himself on the protection of
Macleod of Assynt, he was betrayed by that worthy for
a thousand bolls of meal, and being brought prisoner to
Edinburgh, he was condemned on his former attainder to
be hanged for the space of three hours on a gibbet thirty
feet in height, and his limbs were ordered to be stuck up
in the principal towns of the kingdom ; his head on a spike
in Edinburgh, his arms on the gates of Perth or Stirling,
his legs on those of Glasgow and Aberdeen, and his body
to be interred by the hangman in Boroughmuir, unless the
sentence of excommunication by the kirk were previously
relaxed. Montrose’s defeat and death, however, were
productive only of a further limitation of the terms offered
to Charles; and as he no longer refused to accept these
conditions, and to take the covenant, if required to do so,
he embarked with his court in a Dutch fleet, and arrived at
the mouth of the Spey. But as the jealousy of the Scots
had been roused by the late invasion, the covenant was
exacted from him before he was suffered to land. His
English attendants, with the exception of a few complying
persons, who accommodated themselves to the times, were
dismissed ; and he was surrounded by the fanatical clergy¬
men, wrho, though they approached his person in the most
respectful manner, launched out in continual invectives
on the iniquity of his father’s house, the idolatry of his mo¬
ther, and his own connection with inveterate malignants.
Charles pretended to listen to their discourses, but never
theless made an attempt to escape. Being overtaken, how¬
ever, and brought back, he owned the greatness of 118
fault, and testified his repentance for what he had done.
Cromwell, in the mean time, having been appointed y
the parliament to command the army in Ireland, prose
cuted the war in that kingdom with his usual success.
He had to encounter the royalists commanded by 11
Duke of Ormond, and the native Irish led on by 0 1 _e^ e'
But he quickly overcame their force; and most of
towns, intimidated by his energy, opened tlieir S1*16,8 ]e
his approach. He was on the point of reducing the w o
kingdom, when he was recalled by the parliament to
fend his country against the Scots, who had raised a co
siderable army in support of the royal cause.
BRITAIN.
C, mon- As Fairfax had conscientiously declined to draw his
V Ith. sword against the Presbyterians of Scotland, Cromwell
J received the command of the forces destined to invade
335
that kingdom, and, in a month from the time of the king’s
arrival, he was on the banks of the Tweed at the head of
sixteen thousand veteran troops. Argyll, then at the head of
the committee of estates, made the most vigorous prepa¬
rations for his reception ; while Leslie, who had never yet
been beaten, opposed his great experience and cool saga¬
city to the genius of Cromwell. The latter, having esta¬
blished between Edinburgh and Leith a fortified camp, as
a secure rallying point, wasted the Merse and the Lo-
thians, in order to deprive Cromwell of subsistence; and
when forced at length to retire within his entrenchments,
he remained resolutely on the defensive, in spite of every
expedient tried by his adversary to draw him out to ac¬
tion. At this time the king arrived at the Scottish head¬
quarters, but his presence having excited the jealousy of
the clergy, they ordered him to leave it, and forthwith
proceeded to purge the camp of four thousand Malignants
and Engagers, the only soldiers of credit and experience
in the army; so that being now a host of saints, they con¬
cluded, somewhat hastily, that they could not be beaten.
In the blindness of their folly, they murmured at their
prudent general; and, in the extravagance of their fana¬
ticism, they expostulated with the Lord in praver on the
urgent necessity of his interposition, in order "to uphold
the kirk, and deliver them from the sectaries. An oppor¬
tunity of striking a blow to advantage having presented
itself on a Sunday, Leslie proposed instantly to attack;
but hepvas prevented by these insane fanatics, who affect¬
ed great horror at the crime of Sabbath-breaking. Mean¬
while Cromwell, straitened for provisions, withdrew his
army, now reduced in numbers by sickness, to Dunbar.
Leslie followed his movement, and encamped on the
heights which command the town, taking care at the same
time to occupy the passes by which alone the enemy could
retire to Berwick. Cromwell’s situation had become
now most critical. His adversary’s position was too
strong to be assaulted with any hope of success; his re¬
treat was intercepted; his provisions were nearly ex¬
hausted ; sickness was daily thinning his ranks; destruc¬
tion brooded over him. But the madness of the clergy
restored the ascendency of this extraordinary man’s for¬
tune, and snatched from Leslie the fruits of his masterly
combinations, when he was on the very eve of reaping
them in a bloodless harvest of victory. They had been
wrestling with the Lord in prayer, as they termed it, and
pretending some special revelation, they now fancied that
hey had obtained the victory, and that the heretical army,
ogether with Agag their general, would forthwith be de-
ivere into their hands. 'I hese holy idiots, accordingly,
orccd their general to descend to the plain, and to'attack
e English. When Cromwell discovered through his
frfS« Scots were actually in motion, he exclaim-
. ley are coming down; the Lord hath delivered
rpor* \nt01-?ur ^a^s-’ H)S anticipation was speedily
m 1S^ j F)escending from the hills during a tempestu-
c mght’ ^.'ch had extinguished their matches, the
wprJ*’ con*lst‘ng entirely of raw undisciplined levies,
of 0™°^ i,1Cm,n at ^le ^rst onset; by the veteran troops
storm m;ie ’ W?° Iiad been carefully sheltered from the
nmnnl . lreej , ousan(* were slain, nine hundred made
tbp Fr/r ,?1K 116 rema*nder dispersed, whilst the loss of
Tl ' ' scarcely exceeded forty men.
point nf 1.Saster1> 80 richly merited, showed, in a striking
at Peril/h'V’ danSer °f disunion. In a meeting held
call in thr *e/ parliament accordingly resolved to
tion of repentant t efMaHgnantS ^ Engagers> 011 condi-
1 a ice of past errors ; but two of the western
shires still held out against this approximation of parties,
and withdrew from the general levy about five thousand
men. Charles had by this time become thoroughly satis¬
fied that soothing the religious prejudices of the kirk was
indispensable to give him a chance of acquiring due pre¬
ponderance in the state. On the first of January 1651,
his coronation was performed with great solemnity at
Scone. Ihere, on his bended knees, and with his arm up¬
raised, he swore by the Eternal and Almighty God to ob¬
serve strictly the two covenants ; to establish the Presbyte¬
rian government in Scotland and in his own family ; to give
his assent to acts for establishing it in his other domi¬
nions ; to rule according to the law of God, and the vene¬
rated laws of the land; to abolish and withstand all false
religions; and to root out heretics and enemies to the
true God, when convicted as such by the kirk. Argyll
then placed the crown upon the king’s head, an act for
which his own was afterwards the forfeit; and having
seated him on the throne, both nobility and gentry swore
allegiance, “ according to the national covenant, and the
solemn league and covenant.”
In the meanwhile Cromwell was making rapid progress
in subduing the kingdom. He had obtained possession of
Edinburgh Castle, taken Tantallon by storm, attempted
Dumbarton, though without success, and carried many
places of inferior note. A severe attack of ague for a
time retarded his operations; but in the month of July
he marched with his army towards Stirling. The Scots
faced him in their entrenched camp at Torwood, and re¬
solved to pursue the same cautious conduct observed by
Leslie till it had been so fatally overruled by the clergy.
After observing them for a time, Cromwell withdrew to
Glasgow, and the Scots took up a position at Kilsyth:
he retrograded to Falkirk, and his opponents returned to
their camp at I orwood. Both parties had now resumed the
lespective positions which they had originally occupied;
but the aspect of affairs had materially changed. Whilst
the attention of the Scots was engaiged by the enemy in
their front, a body of men had crossed the Frith in boats,
and, having fortified a hill near Inverkeithing, were imme¬
diately followed by Lambert at the head of a powerful
division. Holburn was dispatched from the camp at Tor-
wood, with orders to drive the enemy into the sea; but
being suddenly charged by Lambert at the head of a su¬
perior force, he was routed and put to flight. Cromwell
then transported his army to the left bank of the river,
and advanced on the rear of the Scots, who, in conse¬
quence, retired from the position which had thus been
completely turned. The progress of the English excited
the most fearful anticipations in the minds of the Scottish
leaders; to Charles it suggested the execution of a pro¬
ject which he had long meditated, namely, to march into
England, accompanied by such of his subjects of Scotland
as were willing to share in the toils and perils of the en¬
terprise. This scheme was opposed by Argyll and a few
other chieftains, who regarded it as utterly desperate;
but the king was inflexible ; and the rest having express¬
ed their readiness to stake their lives on the issue of the
attempt, twelve thousand men began their march from
Stirling, in the direction of Carlisle, and gained three days
in advance before the movement was discovered.
Cromwell was surprised and embarrassed: he had not
calculated on such a daring adventure, and his army was
unprepared to follow at a moment’s notice. But exerting
all the energies of his powerful mind, he quickly assem¬
bled a large force, more formidable even for its quality
than its numerical strength, and set out in quest of the
fugitive invaders, who had met with none of the support
upon which they had so confidently reckoned, either from
the English royalists or Presbyterians. At last the Seot-
Common-
wealth.
336
Common-
wealth.
BRITAIN.
tish army, which had thrown itself into Worcester, was
attacked by Cromwell at the head of thirty thousand men,
and, after a desperate contest, completely defeated. The
battle was fought on the 3d of September 1651, the day
on which, twelve months before, the English general had
defeated the Scots at Dunbar. In the morning, Fleet-
wood, who had advanced from Upton to Powick, received
orders to force the passage of the Team ; whilst Cromwell,
in order to preserve his communications, threw a bridge
of boats across the Severn at Bunshill, near the conflu¬
ence of the two rivers. The operations necessarily occu¬
pied a considerable time, and at one o clock in the altei-
noon the attack was not fully developed. About this
time, while Charles with his staff was reconnoitring the
he deliberated about the means of escaping into France; Common
and Bristol being supposed the most suitable port, it was wealtli
resolved that he should ride thither before this gentle-
man’s sister, on a visit to a person who lived in the neigh¬
bourhood of that city. During this journey the king every
day met with persons whose faces he knew, and at one time
passed through a whole regiment of the enemy’s army.
But on finding that, for a month to come, no ship would
sail from Bristol either for France or Spain, he was obliged
to go elsewhere for a passage. He therefore repaired to
the house of Colonel Wyndham in Dorsetshire, where he
was cordially received; and thence pursuing his journey
to the sea-side, he once more had a narrow escape at an
where he tarried for the night. The day had been
action, ordered Montgomery with a brigade of horse and
foot to defend the line of the deam, and oppose the con¬
struction of the bridge. But it was now too late. After
a hard struggle Fleetwood effected a passage, at the mo¬
ment when Cromwell, having completed the bridge, mov¬
ed four regiments to his assistance. The Scots, though
attacked by superior numbers, made a gallant resistance,
disputing every field and hedge, repeatedly charging with
the pike, and struggling to protract the contest in the
hope of preventing Fleetwood from effecting a junction
with Cromwell. Meanwhile the latter having secured the
communication across the river, directed a battery to open
upon Fort Royal, a work lately raised to cover the Sid-
bury gate of the town, and, under cover of its fire, moved
his troops in two divisions to Perrywood and Redhill.
With great promptitude Charles immediately marched
the whole of his disposable infantry, the Duke of Hamil¬
ton’s troops of horse, and some volunteers, to attack one
of these divisions, while the other was still separated from
it by the Severn ; and fortune smiled on his first efforts.
The English militia recoiled from the shock, and some
guns were taken by the royalists. But Cromwell had
placed in reserve some veteran battalions, who soon re¬
stored the battle, and forced the royalists to retreat in
their turn. Still they remained unbroken ; availing them¬
selves of every advantage of ground to check the advance
of the enemy, and anxiously expecting the arrival of the
cavalry under Leslie, which had remained in the city.
Leslie, however, did not appear till it was too late. The
infantry, overpowered by superior numbers, were now fly¬
ing in confusion to the gate protected by the fort. The bat¬
tle was irretrievably lost. Disorder everywhere prevailed.
The enemy assaulted the town on all sides, and, after an
unavailing struggle in the streets, completed the victory
by the capture of the place, and the annihilation of the
whole royalist force.
The king, who had greatly signalised his personal coui'age
during the battle, now entered upon a scene of adventures
the most romantic that can be imagined. After cutting
off his hair, the better to disguise his person, he worked
for some days in the habit of a peasant, making faggots in
a wood. He next attempted to retire into Wales, under
the conduct of one Pendrel, a poor farmer, who was sin¬
cerely attached to his cause ; but in this attempt he fail¬
ed, as every pass was guarded to prevent his escape. Be¬
ing obliged to return, he met one Careless, who had
escaped the carnage at Worcester; and in his company
the king was obliged to climb a spreading oak, among the
branches of which they lay concealed during the day,
while the soldiers of the enemy were heard in pursuit of
them below. After this he experienced all the varieties
of famine, fatigue, and pain, till he arrived at the house of
Colonel Lane, a zealous royalist, in Staffordshire. Here
suspicion, Charles wras himself among the audience. But
it happened that a smith, of the same principles with the
weaver, had been examining the hofses belonging to the
passengers, and came to assure the preacher that he knew
by the fashion of the shoes that one of the strangers’
horses came from the north. The preacher immediately
affirmed that this horse could belong to no other than
Charles Stuart, and instantly went with a constable to
search the inn. But the king had taken timely precau¬
tions, and left the inn before the constable’s arrival. At
Shoreham, in Sussex, a vessel was at last found, in which
he embarked. He was known to so many, that if he had
not set sail at that critical moment, it would have been im¬
possible for him to escape. After forty-one days’ conceal¬
ment he arrived safely at Feschamp in Normandy. No
fewer than forty persons of both sexes had at different
times been privy to his escape, although a reward of a
thousand pounds was offered for his person.
In the mean time Cromwell returned in triumph, leaving
Ludlow to improve the victory; and his first care was to
depress the Scots, on account of their having “ with¬
stood the work of the gospel,” as he called it. An act
was passed for abolishing royalty in Scotland, and annex¬
ing that kingdom as a province to the English common¬
wealth. It was, however, permitted to send some mem¬
bers to the English parliament; judges wrere appointed
to distribute justice ; and the people of that country, now
freed from the tyranny of the ecclesiastics, were not much
dissatisfied with the government.
All parts of the British dominions being now reduced
to perfect subjection to the parliament, they next resolv¬
ed to chastise the Dutch, who had given some cause for
complaint. It happened that Dorislaus, one of the late
king’s judges, being sent by the parliament as their envoy
to Holland, was assassinated by one of the royal party who
had taken refuge there ; and some time after, Mr St John,
appointed their ambassador to that court, was insul ted by
the friends of the Prince of Orange. These were judged
sufficient grounds for a declaration of war against Holland
by the commonwealth of England. The parliament seme
dependence lay in the activity and courage of Blake their
admiral, who, although he had not entered the navy ti
late in life, yet surpassed all who wrent before him in cou¬
rage and skill. On the other side, the Dutch opposed to
him Van Tromp, justly celebrated for his bold and enter¬
prising genius. Many engagements took place between
these renowned commanders with various success; bu
these fierce encounters served rather to show the exce
lency of the admirals than to determine their superioiity-
At last the Dutch, who experienced many disadvantages
by the loss of their trade, and by the total suspension o^
their fisheries, were willing to treat of a peace. The par^
liament, however, gave an evasive answer, and studied
BRITAIN.
Ccimon-keep their navy on foot as long as they could; rightly
w Lth. judging, that while the force of the nation was exerted by
sea, it would diminish the formidable power of Cromwell
by land.
But this remarkable man quickly perceived their de¬
signs, and, secure in the attachment of the army, resolv¬
ed to seize the sovereign power. He persuaded the of¬
ficers to present a petition for payment of arrears and re¬
dress of grievances. His orders were obeyed. A peti¬
tion was drawn up and presented, in which the officers,
after demanding their arrears, desired the parliament to
consider how many years they had sat, and what profes¬
sions they had formerly made of their intention to new-
model the house, and establish freedom upon the broadest
basis. They alleged, that it was now full time to give
place to others; that, however meritorious their actions
might have been, yet the rest of the nation had some
right, in their turn, to manifest their patriotism in defence
of their country. The house was highly offended, and ap¬
pointed a committee to prepare an act, declaring that all
persons who presented such petitions for the future should
be deemed guilty of high treason. Against this the officers
warmly remonstrated, and the parliament as angrily re¬
plied. Cromwell, informed of the altercation, started up
in the utmost seeming fury, and turning to Major Vernon,
cried out “ that he was compelled to do a thing that
made the very hair of his head stand on end.” "Then
hastening to the house at the head of three hundred
soldiers, and with marks of violent indignation on his
countenance, he entered, took his place, and attended to
the debates for some time. But when the question was
about to be put, he suddenly started up, and, after some
general remarks, began to load the parliament with the
bitterest reproaches for their tyranny, ambition, oppres¬
sion, and robbery of the public. Having finished his
harangue, he stamped with his foot on the ground, which
was the preconcerted signal for the soldiers to enter; and
the place was immediately filled with armed men. He then
turned, and again addressing himself to the members, said,
for shame, get you gone ; give place to honester men,
those who will more faithfully discharge their trust. You
are no longer a parliament; I tell you, you are no longer
a parliament; the Lord has done with you.” Sir Harry
Vane exclaiming against this conduct, “ Sir Harry,” cried
Cromwell with a loud voice, “ O Sir Harry Vane; the
Lord deliver me from Sir Harry Vane.” Then taking hold
ot one of the members by his cloak, he exclaimed, “ Thou
art a whoremaster;” to another he said, “ Thou art an
adultererto a third, “ Thou art a drunkard;” to a fourth,
hou art a glutton and afterwards selecting different
members in succession, he described them as dishonest and
corrupt; livers, a shame and scandal to the profession of the
gospel. Suddenly checking himself, however, he turned to
e ?U^ ,anc* ordered them to clear the house. At these
- sCol-el Harrison took the Speaker by the hands
pnrrmH him fr01? t.he chair 5 Algernon Sidney was next
• ^e, C( *° seat; and the other members, eighty
num er, on the approach of the military, rose and mov-
conre War«ST t^le door’ Cromwell now resumed his dis-
tn Hn^’i • r \S y°u’” l16 exclaimed, “ that have forced me
that- u 1S‘ A llave sought the Lord both day and night,
of fu:a W°l1» rat.her slaT than put me on the doing
that ™en P0lnLng to the mace, “ Take away
hall nrri S. Uu 6 j crle(l lle; after which he cleared the
in hi« r,61^ 1 le doors t0 he locked, and putting the keys
the LK et’ let?med t0 Whitehall. In the afternoon
usua? n?oberS f the .C0UnciI of state assembled at their
however ^ °! n}eeting* As Bradshaw took the chair,
thev wprAfk hmd'general entered and told them, that if
vol v 6re aS Private individuals they were welcome,
337
but if as the council of state, they must know that the Common-
parliament \vas dissolved, and with it also the council, wealth.
“ Sir/' replied Bradshaw, with the spirit of an ancient Ro- V^Y^W'
man, “ we have heard what you did at the house this
morning, and before many hours all England shall know
it. But, sir, you are mistaken in thinking that the par¬
liament is dissolved. No power under heaven can dis¬
solve them but themselves. Therefore take you notice of
that.” After this protest they withdrew. But the de¬
cisive blow had been struck. By the parricidal hands
of its own children perished the long parliament, which,
under a variety of forms, had for more than twelve years
defended and invaded the liberties of the nation. It fell
without a struggle, unpitied and unregretted. The mem¬
bers slunk away to their homes, where, by submission, they
sought to purchase the forbearance of their new master;
while their partisans, if such they had, reserved themselves
in silence for the day of retribution, which, however, came
not until after Cromwell slept in his grave.
The whole civil and military power of the state now cen-
tred in Cromwell, who, by this bold transaction, became, in
effect, king of Great Britain, with uncontrollable authority.
Desirous, however, to amuse the people with the form of a
commonwealth-, he proposed to give his subjects a parlia¬
ment, but such a one as should be altogether obedient to
his commands. For this purpose it was decreed that the
sovereign power should be vested in a hundred and forty-
four persons, under the denomination of a parliament; and
the lord-general undertook to select them himself. The
persons pitched upon were the lowest, meanest, and most
ignorant of the citizens, and the very dregs of the fanatics.
Io go farther than others in the absurdities of fanaticism
was the chief qualification upon which each of these valued
himself. Their very names, borrowed from scripture, and
rendered ridiculous by their misapplication, served to show
their excess of folly. One of them particularly, a cant-
mg leather-seller, called Praise-God-Barebone, gave his
name to this odd assembly, which was called Barebone’s
Parliament. rI hey were principally composed of Antino-
mians, a sect which, after receiving the spirit, supposed
themselves incapable of error, and fifth-monarchy men,
who every hour expected Christ’s second coming on earth.
They began by choosing eight of their number to seek the
Lord in prayer, while the rest calmly sat down to deli¬
berate upon the suppression of the clergy, the universities,
and courts of justice ; and besides all this, it was their in¬
tention to substitute the law of Moses in the room of the
law of the land.
It was impossible such a legislature as this could stand;
even the vulgar exclaimed against it, and Cromwell him¬
self began to be ashamed of its absurdities. He had care¬
fully chosen many persons among the members who were
entirely devoted to his interests, and these he commanded
to dismiss the assembly. They accordingly met by con¬
cert earlier than the rest of their fraternity; and observ¬
ing to each other that this parliament had sat long enough,
they hastened to Cromwell, with Rouse, their Speaker, at
their head, and into his hands resigned the authority with
which he had invested them. Cromwell accepted their
resignation with pleasure; but being told that some of
their number showed themselves refractory, he sent Co¬
lonel White to clear the house of such as ventured to re¬
main there. They had placed one Moyer in the chair by
the time the colonel arrived ; and he being asked by the
colonel what they did there, replied very gravely, That
they were seeking the Lord. “ Then you may go else¬
where,” rejoined Colonel White, “ for, to my certain
knowledge, the Lord hath not been here these many
years.” J
This shadow of a parliament being thus dissolved, the
2 u
338
BRITAIN.
Common- officers, by their own authority, declared Cromwell pro¬
wealth. tector of the Commonwealth of England. The mayor and
aldermen were sent for to give solemnity to Ins aPP01.^-
ment, and he was installed into his new office at W hite¬
hall, in the palace of the kings of England. He was to be
addressed by the title of Highness ; and his power was
proclaimed in London, and in other parts of the kingdom.
It was now, indeed, in a great measure necessary that
some person should take the supreme command ; for attairs
, . , 1 i l.i. •  oi'fnati’rm VlV thP TliriOUS aiU-
protector’s revenues were so much exhausted, that he was Common,
obliged to have recourse to methods which he probably wealth,
would not have chosen had he not been driven to them '-'W
by necessity. One or two royalist conspiracies, though
detected and punished, served him as a pretext for impos¬
ing a tax upon that party, of the tenth penny on all their
possessions ; and in order to raise this oppressive impost,
ten major-generals were instituted, who divided the whole
kingdom into as many military jurisdictions. They had
some person should take the supreme com ’ . c . D0^er t0 subject whom they pleased to this tax, and to
had been brought into such a situation, y short of Lprison such as denied their jurisdiction. Under colour of
mosities of the contending parties   tlJL nnwers thev exercised the most arbitrary authority;
absolute power could prevent a renewal of bloodshed and
confusion. The government of the kingdom was adjust¬
ed in the following manner. A council was appointed,
which was not to exceed twenty-one, nor fall below thir¬
teen persons, who were to enjoy their offices for life, or
durino- good behaviour; and, in case of a vacancy, the
remaining members were to name three, of whom the pro¬
tector was to choose one. The protector was appointed the
supreme magistrate of the Commonwealth, with powers
such as the king was formerly possessed of. The power
of the sword was vested in him jointly with the parliament
when sitting, or with the council at other times. He was
obliged to summon a parliament once every three yeais,
and to allow them to sit five months without adjournment.
The standing army was fixed at twenty thousand foot and
ten thousand horse, and funds were assigned for their sup¬
port. The protector was to enjoy his office for life, and
on his death his place was to be supplied by the council.
Of all these clauses, that in regard to the standing army
was alone sufficient for Cromwells purpose; for, while
possessed of that instrument, he could at any time mould
the rest of the constitution to his pleasure. He chose his
council from among his officers, who had been the com¬
panions of his dangers and victories, and to each of them
he assigned a pension of a thousand pounds a year. He
took care to have his troops, upon whose fidelity he de¬
pended for support, paid a month in advance. The maga¬
zines were also well provided, and the public treasuie was
managed with frugality and attention; whilst by his acti¬
vity, vigilance, and resolution, he discovered every con¬
spiracy against his person, and every plot for an insurrec¬
tion, before they took effect.
Thus Cromwell continued to govern, though without
assuming the title of king, in as absolute a manner as the
most despotic prince in Europe. As he was feared at
home, so he made himself respected abroad. The Dutch,
humbled by repeated defeats, were obliged to sue for
peace; to consent to pay deference to the British flag ;
to abandon the interests of the king ; to pay L.85,000 as
an indemnification for former expenses; and to restore
to the English East India Company a part of those domi¬
nions which they had been dispossessed of by the Dutch
during the former reign. The ministry of France thought
proper to pay court to the protector; and as he had fur¬
nished that court with a body of six thousand men to at¬
tack the Spanish dominions in the Netherlands, the French
put Dunkirk into his bands as a reward for his attach¬
ment. By means of the fleet under Blake he humbled
Spain and chastised the Algerines and Tunisians. Penn
and Venables, two other admirals, made an attempt on
the island of Hispaniola; but failing in this, they steered
to Jamaica, which was surrendered to them without a
blow. Yet so little was thought of this conquest at the
time, that, on their return, the two admirals were commit¬
ted to the Tower, by reason of the failure of the principal
object of their expedition.
It is not to be supposed that a numerous standing army
could be maintained, and so many foreign wars carried on,
without incurring extraordinary expenses. In fact, the
IHJ IJ*.    # - ,
these powers they exercised the most arbitrary authority;
pgopig had no protection against their exactions, the
very mask of liberty was entirely thrown off; and all pro¬
perty was placed at the disposal of a military tiibunal. It
was in vain that the nation cried out for a free parliament.
Cromwell assembled one in consequence of their clamours,
but as speedily dissolved it when he found it refractory to
his commands. At last, as parliaments were always held
in such estimation by the people, he resolved to give them
one, but such as should be entirely of his own choosing,
and chiefly composed of his creatures. Lest any of a dif¬
ferent description should enter the house, guards were
placed at the doors, and none admitted but such as pro¬
duced a warrant from his council.
The principal design of convening this assembly was
to offer him the crown, with the title of king, and all the
other ensigns of royalty. His creatures, therefore, took
care to insinuate the confusion which existed in legal pro¬
ceedings without the name of a king; that no man was
acquainted with the extent or limits of the authority of
the present magistrates ; but that those of a king had been
well ascertained by the experience of ages. The motion
was at last formally made in the house, easily carried
through, and nothing seemed now wanting but Cromwells
own consent to have his name enrolled among those of
the kings of England. This consent, however, he had
not resolution enough to give. His doubts continued for
some days; and the conference carried on with the mem¬
bers who bad made him the offer, as for as it is intelligible
on his part, seems to argue that he was desirous of being
compelled to accept the offer. The conference, however,
terminated in his total refusal. „
But with all these proffered honours, and with all ms
despotic power, the situation of Cromwell was fai rom
being enviable. Perhaps no situation, however mean or
contemptible, was more truly distressing than his, even at
the time when the nation was loading him with congratu¬
lations and addresses. He had at last rendered himseii
hateful to every party, and he owed his safety solely to
their mutual hatred and distrust. His arts of dissimula¬
tion were exhausted; none could be any longer deceivea
by them ; and even those of his own party and principle
disdained the use to which he bad converted Ins zea an
professions. Though the whole nation silently t e es
his administration, he would not have been comp e
wretched if he could have found domestic consolatio •
But even his own family had embraced republican prin
pies wuth so much vehemence, that they conic 110 w ,
out indignation behold him invested with uncon io
power; and even Mrs Claypole, his favourite dajig1 ’
upbraided him, on her death-bed, with all the »
which he had waded “ through slaughter to a 11
To aggravate all this, conspiracies were fmme aS __
him; and it was at last openly taught, that his deat
not only desirable, but that his assassination w 011 ( " „
ritorious. A book was published by one Colonel i >
fnrmprlv hppn attached to his cause, c
man who had formerly been attached to his cause,
“ Killing no Murder.” Of all the pamphlets whic F
peared at that time, or which have since been pudii
BRITAIN.
Co non-
w; :th.
this was one of the most masterly. Cromwell read it, and
is said never to have smiled afterwards.
The protector now found, that the grandeur to which
he had sacrificed his former tranquillity was only an inlet
to fresh inquietudes. He was haunted with perpetual ap¬
prehensions of assassination. He wore armour under his
clothes, and always kept pistols in his pockets. His as-
-pect was clouded by a settled gloom, and he regarded
every stranger with suspicion. He was always attended
by a numerous guard, and generally travelled in a hurry.
He never returned from any place by the road he went;
and never slept above three nights together in the same'
chamber. At last, however, he was delivered from this
life of horror and anxiety by a tertian ague, of which he
died on the 3d of September 1658, after having held the
reins of government nine years.1
“ Till the commencement of the present century,” says
Dr Lingard, “ when that wonderful man arose who, by the
splendour of his victories and the extent of his empire,
cast all preceding adventurers into the shade, the name of
Cromwell stood without a parallel in the history of civili¬
zed Europe. Men looked with a feeling of awe on the fortu¬
nate individual who, without the aid of birth, wealth, or con¬
nections, was able to seize the government of three power¬
ful kingdoms, and to impose the yoke of servitude on the
necks of the very men who had fought in his company
to emancipate themselves from the less arbitrary sway of
their hereditary sovereigns. That he who accomplished
this was no ordinary person, all must admit; and yet, on
close investigation, we shall discover little that was su¬
blime or dazzling in his character. Cromwell was not the
meteor which surprises and astounds by the brilliancy and
rapidity of its course. Cool, cautious, calculating, he stole
on with slow and measured pace, and, while with secret
pleasure he toiled up the ascent to greatness, laboured to
persuade the spectators that he was reluctantly borne for¬
ward by an exterior and resistless force, by the march of
events, the necessities of the state, the will of the army
and even the decree of the Almighty. He looked upon
dissimulation as the perfection of human wisdom, and
made it the key-stone of the arch on which he built his
tortunes. The aspirations of his ambition were concealed
under the pretence of attachment to the ‘ good old cause •’
and his secret workings to acquire the sovereignty for
imselfand his family were represented as endeavours to
secure for his former brethren in arms the blessings of
Snaan,?rell,fr/reed0m’ the two great objects which
gey called them into the field. Thus his whole con-
duct was made up of artifice and deceit. He laid his
L; 01?g befoi'ehand ; he studied the views and dispo¬
sitions of all from whose influence he had anything to hope
nffppt- 5 anid 16 emPloyed every expedient to win their
f. 10ns, and to make them the blind unconscious tools
thrpw J f F°-r purpose he asked questions, or
aloof with !,nSm-iatcnS in the‘r hearinS; now kept them
off their d- /I! °f re,Serve and dlgnity; now put them
at ™.guard by condescension, perhaps by buffoonery ;
ft Zo iT addreSfed himself t0 their vanity or avarice,
at wilD th eTSed t0 them Wlth tears (for tears he had
found them Ca arf!t!f °f1 the natlon 5 and then, when he
to the ark' OU,lded 10 his purpose, instead of assenting
reluctance nr he- had hunself suggested, feigned
5 rged objections, and pleaded scrunles of enn-
339
science. At length he yielded; but it was not till he had Common-
acquired by his resistance the praise of moderation, and wealth,
the right ot attributing his acquiescence to their impor-
tunity rather than to his own ambition.
“ Exposed as he was to the continual machinations of
the royalists and levellers, both equally eager to precipi¬
tate him from the height to which he had attained, Crom¬
well made it his great object to secure to himself the at¬
tachment of the army. To it he owed the acquisition,
through it alone could he insure the permanence, of his
Power. Now, fortunately for his purpose, that army, com-
posed as never was army before or since, revered in the
lord-protector what it valued mostly in itself, the cant and
practice of religious enthusiasm.” “ In minds thus dis¬
posed, it was not difficult to create a persuasion that the
final triumph of £ their cause’ depended on the authority of
the general under whom they had conquered ; while the
full enjoyment of that religious freedom which they so
highly prized rendered them less jealous of the arbitrary
power which he occasionally assumed. In his public
speeches he perpetually reminded them, that if religion
was not the original cause of the late civil war, ‘yet God
soon brought it to that issue that amidst the strife of
battle, and the difficulties and dangers of war, the reward
to which they looked was freedom of conscience ; that this
iieedom to its full extent they enjoyed under his govern¬
ment, though they could never obtain it till they placed the
supreme power in his hands. The merit which he thus
arrogated to himself was admitted to be his due by the
great body of the saints : it became the spell by which he
rendered them blind to his ambition and obedient to his
will; the engine by which he raised, and afterwards secur¬
ed, the fabric of his power.
“ On the subject of civil freedom the protector could
not assume so bold a tone. He acknowledged, indeed, its
importance; it was second only to religious freedom: but
if second, then, in the event of competition, it ought to
yield to the first. He contended that under his govern¬
ment every provision had been made for the preservation
of the rights of individuals, as far as was consistent with
the safety of the whole nation. He had reformed the
chancery, he had laboured to abolish the abuses of the
law, fie had placed learned and upright judges on the
bench, and he had been careful in all ordinary cases that
impartial justice should be administered between the
paities. Ibis was indeed true; but it was also true that
by his orders men were arrested and committed without
lawful cause ; that juries were packed; that prisoners, ac¬
quitted at their trial, were sent into confinement beyond the
jurisdiction of the courts; that taxes had been raised with¬
out the authority of parliament; that a most unconstitu¬
tional tribunal, the high court of justice, had been esta¬
blished ; and that the major-generals had been invested
with powers the most arbitrary and oppressive.
“ Some writers have maintained that Cromwell dissem¬
bled in religion as well as in politics; and that when he con¬
descended to act the part of the saint, he assumed for in¬
terested purposes a character which he otherwise despis-
ecl. Dut this supposition is contradicted by the uniform
tenor of his life. Long before he turned his attention to
the disputes between the king and the parliament, religi¬
ous enthusiasm had made a deep impression on his mind •
it continually manifested itself during his long career both
I rp}i0 ’ 1 ~ " — —       
th7d.ev™W 0f the '"in<1 incrcase,i tm il » hurricane. Trees were torn
SSSSSS
°-hUeha«^
340
BRITAIN.
Common- in the senate and the field; and it was strikingly disp ay-
wealth. gd in his speeches and prayers on the last evening o is
v—life. It should, however, be observed, that he made re¬
ligion harmonize with ambition.”1
Oliver Cromwell was succeeded in his office of protect¬
or by his son Richard, who immediately called a parlia¬
ment. To this assembly the army presented a remon-
of the capital, leaving all the world in doubt as to his mo- Common
tives and designs. Here he sent the parliament a mes- wealth. |
sage, desiring them to remove such forces as remained in '■'’V*
London to country quarters. Some of the regiments wil¬
lingly obeyed this order; and such as did not, Monk turn¬
ed out by force; after which he took up his quarters in
Westminster. The house voted him thanks for his ser-
ment. xo uus a»ociiiuV   j r . . . • tt6 desired them to call a free parliament; and
strance, desiring to have sjmae person ^PP01^ vot_ this s'oon inSpired the citizens with courage to refuse sub¬
general in whom they could confide. mission to the present government. They resolved to pay
ed such meetings and re^st^“{|^d“nhaouSe ’forced no taxes until the members formerly excluded by Colonel
which the officers, surroundin0 Ric f ’ r i pr;de should be replaced. But for this they were punish-
him to dissolve the fd by Monk, at ZSre of the parliament He’arrest-
signed an abdication of gave n . H ed efeven of the most obnoxious of the common council;
brother Henry, who had been appo • d his broke the gates and portcullises, and, having exposed Lon-
in Ireland, followed Richard s example, and resigned his brok^the gate^ j aU who -hated it? he re.
commission without striking a blow. thp turned in triumph to his quarters at Westminster. The
rfnrr^The^l^^^rZytl ^
gan to humble the army by cashiering some of officers, Pr^^ Commons were now greatly alarmed. They tried
and appointing in them room others on whom they cou C general from his new alliance;
place more reliance. The officer LmJof them even promised to invest him with the dig-
to dissolve the assembl). JP ^ i i a w nV nitv of supreme magistrate, and to support his usurpation,
of the general officers, tlrew together a cliosen^hody of nUy too.wisfto hearken £ such
members were likewise" intercepted; and the army return- -d^“^^ckS^rthTstlf^rty now withdrew^
rS ^rvitud^and ^vrannT without redress!'08^0*' ^ end' ordelf for Ihe immediate assembling of a new parliament.
CUponVleUarning that the"officers bad by their own autho- Meanwhile Monk new-modelled his ar"'J'. “ l
rity dissolved the parliament, General Monk, who was poses he had in view; and some ^cfrs, by his^ct‘°’
thJn in Scotland with eight thousand veteran troops, pro- presented him with an address, m which they promise
tested1 agaffistthe measure, and^resolved to defend'the obey implicitly the orders of the ensuing Pa;l^ent. He
national privileges. As soon as he had put his army in approved ot this engagement, which he orde • , i ,g-
motion, he found himself eagerly courted by all parties ; ed by all the different regiments; and ^1S it
but so cautious .was he of declaring his mind, that, till the with a pretence for dismissing all the officers by
very last, no one knew which side he would take. As a was rejected. . T wv.0 had
remarkable instance of this politic or hesitating behaviour, In the midst of these transaCt^dS’f ^ is0’n be-
when his own brother came to him with a message from been confined in the Tower, esca^d from P ’
Lord Granville in the name of the king, he refused all gan to raise forces; and as his activity and pnncip
conversation with him upon hearing that he had told his sufficiently known, Monk j^goldsbyfwith
errand to Mr Price, the general’s own chaplain, and a man his proceedings. He dispatched Colonel I g }
of known probity and honour. h}s own regiment, against Lambert, before th^latter f
Informed that the officers were preparing an army to op- time to assemble bis dependents. \\ . blft the
pose him, Monk amused them with negociations; and the horse Lambert had taken possession Lambert
people, finding themselves not entirely defenceless, began greater part of them having joined Ingo y,
to declare for a free parliament. The Rump, being invit- also surrendered, not without exhibiting strong
ed by the navy and part of the army, again ventured to pusillanimity. . . , . , • VfiS.prxe- nor
resume their seats, and to thunder votes in their turn All this time Monk still persisted in i ’ eX.
against the officers and that party of the army by which had he intrusted his secret intentions to any p
they had been ejected. Without taking any notice of cept one Morris, a gentleman of Devonshire. ^
Lambert, they sent orders to the troops to repair imme- was of a sedentary and studious disposition; an
diately to the garrisons appointed for them. The soldiers alone had the general deliberated on the grea ,
obeyed; and Lambert at last found himself deserted by gerous enterprise of the restoration, bir Jo n 0
his whole army. Monk in the mean time proceeded with who had a commission from the king, appuea _
his army to London. The gentry, on his march, flocked the general; but he was desired to commumca e ^
round him with addresses, expressing their desire of a new ness to Morris. Granville refused, thougn
parliament; but that general, still continuing his inflexible to deliver his message to any h'A the 8erieia tjds mi-
taciturnity, at last reached to St Alban’s, within a few miles upon which Monk, finding he could depenu o
1 History of England, vol. vii. p.274-279. London, 1829, 4to.
BRITAIN.
Cordon- nister’s secrecy, opened to him his whole intentions, but,
wnth. with his usual caution, refused to commit any thing to pa-
per. In consequence of these overtures the king left the
Spanish territories, but very narrowly escaped being de¬
tained at Breda by the governor, under pretence of treat¬
ing him with proper respect and formality. From this he
retired to Holland, where he resolved to wait the course
of events.
The new parliament being assembled, Sir Harbottle
Grimstone was chosen Speaker, a man known to be a roy¬
alist in his heart. The eyes of all were now turned to¬
wards the king; yet such were their fears, and such the dan¬
gers which attended freedom of speech, that for some days
no one ventured to make any mention of his name. At
length Monk gave directions to Annesley, president of the
council, to inform them that one Sir John Granville, a
servant of the king’s, had been sent over by his majesty,
and was now at the door with a letter to the House of
Commons. After some manoeuvring, this message was
received, Granville was called in, the letter read, and the
king’s proposals accepted of. He offered a general amnesty
to all persons whatsoever, and that without any other ex¬
ceptions than should be made by parliament. He promised
to indulge scrupulous consciences with liberty in matters
of religion ; to leave to the examination of parliament the
claims of all such as possessed lands with contested titles;
to confirm all these concessions by act of parliament; to
satisfy the army under General Monk with respect to their
arrears; and to give the same rank to his officers when
they were enlisted in the king’s army.
In consequence of this agreement between the king and
the parliament, Montague, the English admiral, waited on
Charles, to inform him that the fleet expected his orders
at Scheveling. The Duke of York immediately went on
hoard, and took the command as lord high admiral. The
king embarked without delay, and landing at Dover, was
received by Monk, whom he honoured with particular
marks of attention. He entered London on the 29th of
May 1660, which was his birth-day; and was attended by
a great number of people, who testified their joy, as the
multitude commonly do on such occasions, by loud accla¬
mations.
“ That the re-establishment of royalty was a blessing
to the country,” says Dr Lingard, “ will hardly be denied.
It presented the best, perhaps the only, means of restoring
public tranquillity, amidst the confusion and distrust, the
animosities and hatreds, the parties and interests, which
had been generated by the civil war, and by a rapid suc¬
cession of opposite and ephemeral governments. To Monk
belongs the merit of having, by his foresight and caution,
effected this desirable object without bloodshed or vio¬
lence : but to his dispraise it must also be recorded, that
he effected it without any previous stipulation on the part
of the exiled monarch. Never had so fair an opportunity
been offered of establishing a compact between the sove¬
reign and the people, of determining by mutual consent
the legal rights of the crown, and securing from future
encroachment the freedom of the people. That Charles
would have consented to such conditions, we have suffi¬
cient evidence; but when the measure was proposed, the
ord-general declared himself its most determined oppo-
nent. It may have been that his cautious mind figured
0 ltse^f danger in delay; it is more probable that he
Sfltf ^ a(^t'onal value to his services in the eyes
o ie new sovereign. But, whatever were the motives of
is conduct, the result was, that the king ascended the
rone unfettered with conditions, and thence inferred
3*1
that he was entitled to all the powers claimed by his fa- Reign of
ther at the commencement of the civil war. In a few charles D-
years the consequence became manifest. It was found
that by the negligence or perfidy of Monk a door had been
left open to the recurrence of dissension between the
crown and the people ; and that very circumstance which
Charles had hailed as the consummation of his good for¬
tune, served only to prepare the way for a second revolu¬
tion, which ended in the permanent exclusion of his family
from the government of these kingdoms.”1
CHAP. VI.
REIGN OF CHARLES II.
Charles II—His first measures popular—The regicides punish¬
ed—Indignities offered to the remains of Cromwell, Ireton, and
Bradshaw—Death of the Duke of Gloucester Parliament dis¬
solved—-State of the nation.—Profligacy and ingratitude of the
King—Slavish disposition of Parliament King’s extravagance.
—Marriage with the Infanta of Portugal War with the Dutch.
—Naval engagements—Action off Lowestoffe Battle of the
Four Days—Negociations—The Dutch fleet appears in the
Medway and the Thames—Plague in London.—Great Fire. 
Peace with Holland—Clarendon disgraced The triple alliance.
—Arbitrary proceedings of the King—The Cabal Renewal of
the war with Holland—Desperate naval battle in South wold
Bay—Successes of the French king against the Dutch Meet¬
ing of Parliament—Test Act—Bold procedure of the Com¬
mons—National Discontents—Popish Plot Impeachment of
Danby—Exclusion Bill brought in—Duke of York returns to
England—Petitioners and Abhorrers—Whig and Tory At¬
tempt to establish Episcopacy in Scotland Persecution of the
Presbyterians—Rising at Pentland—Insurgents defeated 
Cruelties exercised by Archbishop Sharpe Act against Con¬
venticles—Scheme, of Comprehension and Indulgence The
King takes out lawburrows against his subjects Letters of In-
tercommuning—Trial and execution of James Mitchell In¬
famous conduct of the Privy Council—Murder of Archbishop
Sharpe—Second Insurrection—Insurgents defeated at Both-
well Bridge—Parliamentary proceedings—Parliament dissolv¬
ed, and a new one summoned to meet at Oxford Case of
Fitzharris—Parliament dissolved—Arbitrary proceedings of
the King.—Fitzharris condemned and executed Spies, in¬
formers, suborners, and plotters—Bill of indictment against
Shaftesbury ignored by the Grand Jury—Affairs in Scotland.
—-Cameron and Cargill declare war on the government. Skir¬
mish at Airmoss—Cargill excommunicates the King and the
Ministers at Torwood—Subsequent atrocities Insidious and
diabolical proceeding of the Council.—Trial of the Earl of Argyll.
—London deprived of its Charters—Compositions entered into
by other Corporations—Designs against the King The Rye-
house Plot—Consequent proceedings—Death of Charles II 
His character.
Charles II. was thirty years of age at the time of his
restoration. Being naturally of an engaging countenance,
and possessed of an open, affable disposition, he became a
favourite with all classes of his subjects. They had now
experienced all the miseries of anarchy, and in proportion
to these was the satisfaction they felt on the accession of
the young monarch. His first measures were also calcu¬
lated to give general satisfaction. He seemed desirous of
obliterating the memory of past animosities, and of uniting
every party in affection for their prince and country. He
admitted into his council the most eminent men of the
nation, without regard to former distinctions. The Pres¬
byterians shared this honour equally with the royalists.
Calamy and Baxter, presbyterian clergymen, wrere even
made chaplains to the king. Admiral Montague was creat¬
ed Earl of Sandwich, and General Monk Duke of Albe¬
marle. Morris, the general’s friend, was appointed se¬
cretary of state. The choice which the king at first made
of his principal ministers and favourites, was, in like man-
1 History of England, vol. vii. pp. 342, 343.
342
BRITAIN.
Reign of ner, popular. Sir Edward Hyde, created Earl of Claren-
Charles II. don, was made prime minister and chancellor ; the Marquis,
created Duke of Ormond, was named steward of the house¬
hold; the Earl of Southampton became high-treasurer; and
Sir Edward Nicholas secretary of state. These men, unit¬
ed in the strictest bonds of friendship, supported each
other’s credit, and for a time steadily pursued the interests
of the public.
The parliament having been summoned without the
king’s consent, received at first only the title of a Conven¬
tion ; and it was not until after an act had passed for that
purpose that they were acknowledged by the name of a
Parliament. Both houses acknowledged the guilt of the
former rebellion, and gratefully received in their own name,
and in that of all the subjects, his majesty’s gracious par¬
don and indemnity. The king having before promised an
indemnity to all criminals, excepting such as should be ex¬
cluded by parliament, he now issued a proclamation, de¬
claring, that such of the late king’s judges as did not sur¬
render themselves within fourteen clays should receive no
pardon. Nineteen surrendered themselves; some were
taken in their flight; and others escaped beyond sea. The
Peers seemed inclined to great severity on this occasion,
but were restrained by the king, who, in terms apparently
the most earnest, pressed the act of general indemnity.
After repeated solicitations, the act of indemnity passed
both houses, with the exception of those who had an im¬
mediate hand in the king’s death. Even Cromwell, Ire-
ton, and Bradshaw, though dead, were considered as pro¬
per objects of resentment. Their bodies were dug from
their graves, dragged to the place of execution, and, after
hanging some time, buried under the gallows. Of the rest
who had sat in judgment on the late monarch’s trial, some
were dead, and others thought worthy of pardon. Ten
only out of eighty were doomed to immediate destruc¬
tion. These were enthusiasts who had all along acted
from principle, and who, in the general spirit of rage ex¬
cited against them, showed a fortitude which would have
done honour to any cause.
This was all the blood that was shed at the restoration.
The rest of the king’s judges were reprieved, and after¬
wards dispersed in several prisons. The army which had for
so many years governed the nation was now disbanded, and
prelacy, with all the ceremonies of the church of England,
was at the same time restored; yet the king pretended to
preserve the air of moderation and neutrality. In regard
to religion, Charles, in his gayer hours, was a professed
deist; but in the latter part of his life he showed an in¬
clination to the Catholic persuasion, which he had strongly
imbibed in his infancy and exile.
On the 13th of September this year died the young
Duke of Gloucester, a prince of some promise. The king
was never so deeply affected by any incident in his life.
The Princess of Orange, also, having come to England, in
order to share the joy attending the restoration of her fa¬
mily, with whom she lived in great friendship, soon after¬
wards sickened and died. The queen-mother paid a visit
to her son, and obtained his consent to the marriage of the
Princess Henrietta with the Duke of Orleans, brother to
the French king. The parliament having met on the 6th
of November, and carried on business with the greatest
unanimity and dispatch, was dissolved by the king on the
29th of December 1660.
During the reign of Charles II. the spirit of the people
seemed to take a turn quite opposite to that which it had
exhibited in the time of his father*. The latter found his
subjects animated with a fierce though often ill-regulated
zeal for liberty. They knew not what it was to be free,
and therefore imagined that liberty consisted in throwing
off entirely the royal authority. After a bloody and pro¬
tracted struggle they carried their point; the unhappy Reign0
monarch was dethroned and put to death ; but instead ofTforfesI
liberty they found themselves involved in the meshes of a
more formidable tyranny than that which they had over¬
thrown. From this, however, they were freed by the re¬
storation ; but they now ran into the contrary extreme;
and instead of an unbounded spirit of opposition, there
was nothing but an unbounded spirit of submission, through
which Charles at length found means to render himself
almost quite absolute, and to govern without requiring, or
indeed without having any occasion for, parliaments. A
similar revolution, or rather revulsion, took place in mat¬
ters connected with religion. During the former reigns a
spirit of the most gloomy enthusiasm had overspread the
whole island, and men imagined that the Deity was only
to be appeased by their denying themselves all social
pleasure, and resisting every thing which tended to make
life agreeable. The proceedings of Cromwell and his as¬
sociates, to say nothing of the conduct of others, showed
that this was not genuine religion ; but, in avoiding one
error, they ran into another equally dangerous. Every
thing religious or serious was now discountenanced; riot
and dissipation everywhere prevailed. The court set the
example. Nothing but scenes of gallantry and festivity
were to be seen; the horrors of the late war became the
subject of ridicule ; the formality of the sectaries was dis¬
played on the stage, and even laughed at from the pulpit;
in a word, the best mode in religion now was to have as
little as possible, and, in deriding the hypocrisy of the
sectaries, to transgress even the common duties of mora¬
lity. In the midst of this riot and dissipation, the old and
faithful followers of the royal family were left unrewarded.
Numbers who had fought both for the king and his father,
and had lost their whole fortunes in his service, were
suffered to pine in want and oblivion; whilst their perse¬
cutors, who had acquired fortunes during the civil war,
were permitted to enjoy them without molestation. Ihe
wretched royalists petitioned and murmured in vain. The
monarch fled from their expostulations to scenes of mirth
and festivity: and the act of indemnity was with some
reason described as an act of forgiveness to the kings
enemies, and of oblivion to his friends.
In 1661 the Scottish and English parliaments vied with
each other in protestations of loyalty and attachment to
the king. In England, monarchy and episcopacy were
raised to the greatest splendour. The bishops were per¬
mitted to resume their seats in the Flouse of Peers, and
all military authority was acknowledged to be vested m
the king. He was empow*ered to appoint commissioneis
for regulating corporations, and expelling such members
as had intruded themselves by violence, or professed prin¬
ciples dangerous to the constitution. An act of uniformity
was passed, by which it was required that every cleigy*
man should be re-ordained, if he had not before receive
episcopal ordination; that he should declare his consent
to every thing contained in the Book of Common Prayer,
and should take the oath of canonical obedience. In con¬
sequence of this law, aboie two thousand of the presby-
terian clergy resigned their cures at once. In Scotian
the right of the king was asserted in the fullest and mos
positive terms to be hereditary, divine, and indefeasib e.
His power was extended to the lives and possessions o
his subjects, and his original grant was held to be t e
source whence all that they enjoyed was derived. 1 ey
voted him an additional revenue of L.40,000; and all tie
former violences were spoken of in terms of the utmos
detestation. a-
But this intoxication of loyalty soon began to wear o^
The king’s profusion and extravagance in his pleasure-j
together with his indolence in administration, furnisi
If?"
|!fi
BRITAIN.
lleiii of
Char II
opportunities of making very disadvantageous comparisons
between him and Oliver Cromwell. And these dispositions
were increased by the ejectment of so many ministers,
and also by observing Dunkirk, which had been acquired
during Cromwell’s vigorous administration, sold to the
French for LAO,000, and that merely to supply the king’s
extravagance. From this time, August 1662, Charles found
himself perpetually opposed ; and his parliaments granted
supplies much more reluctantly than before.
A few months previously, the continual exigencies of
the king had forced him to conclude a marriage with the
Infanta of Portugal, for the sake of her portion, which was
to be L.500,000 in money, together with the fortress of
Tangier in Africa, and that of Bombay in the East Indies.
The Lord Chancellor Clarendon, and the Dukes of Ormond
and Southampton, urged many reasons against this match,
particularly the likelihood of her never having any chil¬
dren; but all their objections were fruitless, and therefore
Clarendon, like a true courtier, set himself to promote it as
far as lay in his power. But the king’s necessities being
still greater than his supplies could meet, he resolved to
sacrifice his minister, Clarendon, to the resentment of the
parliament, to whom he had become obnoxious, in order
to procure more money. In 1663 an extraordinary sup¬
ply was demanded. On the 12th of June the king sent
for the Commons to Whitehall; and having complained
of their inattention, he informed them of a conspiracy
which had been formed to seize the castle of Dublin,
hoping by this means to furnish a reason for demanding
a piesent supply. The artifice succeeded. Four sub¬
sidies were immediately granted, and the clergy in con¬
vocation followed the example of the Commons/ On this
occasion the Earl of Bristol ventured to impeach the
Chancellor in the House of Peers ; but as he did not sup¬
port his charge, the affair was dropped for the present.
In 1664 Charles was induced to declare war against
the Dutch, with the view, probably, of getting the money
to be employed for that purpose into his own hands. In
this war the English, under the command of Sir Robert
Holmes, expelled the Dutch from Cape Coast Castle in
Africa, and likewise seized on their settlements of Cape
Verd and the Isle of Goree. Sailing thence to America,
the admiral took possession of Nova Belgia, since called
Wew York, and long afterwards a dependency of Britain.
Un the other hand, De Ruyter, the Dutch admiral, dis¬
possessed the English of all their settlements in Guinea
except Cape Coast. He afterwards sailed to America,
where he attacked Barbadoes and Long Island, but was
at last repulsed.
At length a battle between the grand fleets of each
nation was fought near Lowestoffe on the 3d of June
,b5’ the one under the Duke of York, to the number of
a hundred and fourteen sail; the other commanded by
^dam, admiral of the Dutch navy, of nearly equal force,
me Rnghsh fleet was divided into three squadrons; the
tWUrdJ:r-the command of the duke; the white, under
taat of 1 rince Rupert; and the blue, under the Earl of
^andwich. James hoisted his flag on board the Royal
ai es. The Dutch fleet sailed in seven divisions, com-
nohhS T iUndred and thirteen shiPs- The bravest and
slmt-A ti °f,the Dutch youths had repaired on board to
had J • da.nSer.s.of the expedition; and as the admiral
with th eiiVed P0*/1/6 orders to fight, every heart beat high
confirip6 10peTot vlctory- Hut Opdam did not share this
and tlf0 ?e* in-the lnexperience of many of his captains,
covered nsudl<rIency of their crews, this able seaman dis-
hr!denough to make him doubt the result of the com-
what n.-.V aiH t0 <dlose near bim he observed, “ I know
ders and\enC<4 •WOldd su&Sest; but I must obey my or-
’ y t ns time to-morrow you shall see me crown-
343
ed with laurel or with cypress.” Early in the morning of Reign of
the 3d the hostile fleets descried each other near Lowes-Charles II.
toffe, and seven hours were spent in attempts on each
side to gain the weather-gage. At length the English,
tacking in the same direction as the enemy, soon pushed
alongside of them, in a parallel line, upon which the signal
was made for each ship to bear down and engage her op¬
posite in the enemy’s fleet. The sea was calm and the
sky cloudless, but a slight breeze which blew from the
south-west facilitated the execution of the duke’s order.
The two nations fought with their characteristic obstinacy,
and during four hours the issue hung in suspense. On one
occasion the duke was in imminent peril. All the ships of
the red squadron except two had dropped out of the line to
refit and prepare again for action, and the weight of the
enemy’s fire was poured into the flag-ship. The Earl of
Falmouth, Lord Muskerry, and Boyle, son to the Earl
of Burlington, were killed by the same shot, and James
was bespattered with their blood. But the disabled ships
gradually resumed their stations in the line; and as the
fire of the English began to increase, that of the enemy
was observed to slacken. At length the Eendract, bear¬
ing Opdam’s flag, blew up, and the admiral with five hun¬
dred men perished in the explosion. Dismayed at the
loss of their commander, the Dutch fled in confusion.
Four of their sternmost ships running foul of each other,
were destroyed by a fire-ship, and three others shortly
afterwards experienced the same fate. Van Tromp en¬
deavoured to keep the fugitive ships together; and as the
darkness of the night retarded pursuit, the Dutch fleet in
the morning was moored in safety within the shallows.
In this battle the enemy lost four admirals, seven thou¬
sand men slain or made prisoners, and eighteen sail either
burnt or taken. The loss of the victors was small in pro¬
portion, not exceeding six hundred men.
I his success excited the jealousy of the neighbouring
states, particularly France and Denmark, who immediate¬
ly resolved to protect the republic against such a formi¬
dable enemy. De Ruyter, the great Dutch admiral, on
his return from Guinea, was appointed, at the head of
seventy-six sail, to join the Duke of Beaufort, the admiral,
who it was supposed was then entering the British chan¬
nel from Toulon. The Duke of Albemarle (Monk) and
Prince Rupert now' commanded the British fleet, which
did not exceed seventy-four sail. Albemarle detached
Prince Rupert with twenty ships to oppose the Duke of
Beaufort; a piece of rashness against which Sir George
Ayscue protested in vain. The fleets thus engaged on
most unequal terms, and the memorable battle of the Four
Days ensued. The first day the Dutch admiral Evertzen
was killed by a cannon-ball, one of their ships was blown
up, and three of the English ships wrere taken; darkness
parted the combatants. The second day the battle was
renewed with incredible fury. Sixteen fresh ships joined
the Dutch ; and the English were so shattered that their
fighting ships were reduced to twenty-eight. They re¬
treated towards their own coast, followed by the Dutch;
and another fierce conflict commenced, but was put a
stop to by the darkness of the night. In the morning of
the third day the English continued their retreat, and the
Dutch their pursuit. Albemarle came to the desperate
resolution of blowing up his own ship rather than submit
to the enemy, when he found himself happily reinforced
by Prince Rupert with his squadron of twenty sail. By
this time, however, it was night; but the next day, being
the fourth, the fleets came again to close action, which
was continued with great fury till they were parted by
a mist. Sir George Ayscue had the misfortune to strike
on the Galoper Sand, where he was taken, with a ship,
the Prince Royal, of a hundred guns. Both sides claim-
344 BRIT
Reign of ed the victory, but the Dutch certainly had the advan-
Charies II. tage in this engagement. A second, however, equally
bloody, happened soon after, with larger fleets on both
sides, but commanded by the same admirals. In tins the
Dutch were vanquished ; but few prizes were made, and
De lluyter conducted his retreat in such a gallant and
masterly manner, that he kept the pursuers at bay, and
soon moored his fleet in safety within the W'ieiings.
This success brought on negociations, which were pro¬
tracted on various pretexts. The English exchequer was
completely drained, and to prepare the fleet for sea again
required an immediate supply of money. Parliament had
indeed made a grant for the public service; but, though
liberal in amount, it offered only a distant resource. In
these circumstances it was, in an evil hour, proposed to
lay up the larger ships in ordinary, and to equip two squa¬
drons of light frigates for harassing the enemy’s trade in
the Channel and the German Ocean; and although the
Duke of York stated that such a proceeding was in truth
tantamount to an abandonment of the sovereignty of the
sea, the difficulty of procuring money, and the expecta¬
tion of a speedy peace, weighed so much with the king and
council, as to obtain their consent to a measure which
brought lasting disgrace on the government and the coun¬
try. It wras in fact disarming, and inviting attack. Nor
did the enemies of England forego the opportunity which
was thus offered. A secret treaty was on the eve of being
concluded between that couritry and France; and four
out of the seven United Provinces, desirous of peace, re¬
solved to withdraw their contributions towards the ex¬
penses of the war. But the pensionary, E)e Witt, still
thirsted for revenge. The Dutch fleet being ready for
sea, w'hilst that of England was dismantled and in the
docks, he determined not to throw away the opportunity
which fortune had placed in his hands. The English ar¬
gued, and the French remonstrated, but the pensionary con¬
tinued inexorable. He left the Texel in company with De
Ruyter, and ordered the fleet, to the amount of seventy,
to join him in separate squadrons off the Nore. The
English government was not taken altogether by surprise.
The warnings of the Duke of York had awakened them
to a sense of their danger; and three months before or¬
ders had been issued to strengthen the fortifications at
Sheerness, to throw a boom across the Medway at the
stakes, to mount guns on the batteries, and to prepare a
number of fire-ships. But these orders were very ill exe¬
cuted. The commissioners of the navy were already a
million in debt; their credit was gone; to procure ready
money, either by application to the treasury, or by loan
from the bankers, was impossible; and, without imme¬
diate payment, the sailors refused to serve, the labourers
to work, and the merchants to sell. Little had therefore
been done, and that little imperfectly. Meanwhile De
Witt, in order to distract the attention of the government,
ordered one division of his fleet to sail up the Thames as
far as Gravesend, and the other to destroy the shipping
in the Medway. The works at Sheerness opposed but a
feeble resistance, and were levelled with the ground by a
few broadsides. At the first alarm, Monk hastened to
the mouth of the Medway, where he erected batteries,
moored guard-ships for the protection of the boom, and
sunk five ships before it in the narrowest part of the
channel. He had scarcely completed these preparations,
when the Dutch advanced with the wind and tide in
their favour; but the obstructions in the main passage
proved insurmountable; and they were forced to drop
away with the ebb. In the night, however, they disco¬
vered another channel deep enough for large ships at high
watei’, and in the morning worked their way through with¬
out impediment. The foremost ships then opened their
'AIN.
fire on the batteries, while a heavy fire-ship running against Reign 01
the boom, hung upon it, and a second following in her Charles I
wake, it broke under their united pressure. The guard-
ships were soon in a blaze, and the Royal Charles, a first-
rate, became the prize of the assailants. Finding all his
efforts here fruitless, Monk hastened back to Upnor Castle,
and employed the night in mounting guns, collecting am¬
munition, and manning the batteries. Morning revealed
a most humiliating spectacle, the Dutch fleet advancing
triumphantly up the river. Two line-of-battle ships led
the line ; then came six enormous fire-ships; which, at a
short distance, were followed by the rest of the squadron.
The men of war anchored to receive and return the fire
of the batteries on either bank; the fire-ships passed be¬
tween them, and speedily set fire to the Royal James, the
Oak, and the London, three first-rates. Indescribable
consternation reigned in the capital. It was fully ex¬
pected that the Dutch would sail up next tide to London
Bridge, destroy the whole shipping, and reduce the me¬
tropolis to a heap of ruins. At the ebb, however, their
commander, Van Ghent, made the signal to the fleet to
fall down the river, and having burnt two of his vessels
which had grounded, he rejoined the other division at the
Nore. The disgrace which had thus been inflicted on
England, so lately mistress of the seas, sunk deep in the
hearts of the people. Unable to conceive how the Dutch,
whom they had so often defeated, should ride triumphant
in their rivers, burn their ships, and fill with dismay the
capital and the country, their grief and indignation knew
no bounds; and whilst many attributed the calamity to the
imaginary machinations of the Catholics, others believed
that the king had secretly leagued with the enemy to de¬
press the nation, that he might the more easily establish
a despotic government.
During these transactions London was desolated by one
of the most calamitous visitations ever experienced by
this or any other nation. In the winter of 1664, two or
three isolated cases of plague had occurred in the out¬
skirts of the metropolis, and excited general alarm; but it
was not till about the end of May 1665, that, under the
malignant influence of excessive heat, and a close, stag¬
nant atmosphere, the evil burst forth in all its terrors.
From the centre of St Giles the infection spread with ra¬
pidity over the adjacent parishes, threatened the court at
Whitehall, and, in spite of every precaution, crept into
the city. A general panic ensued. I he nobility an
gentry fled; the royal family followed; and all who had
the power or the means prepared to imitate their example-
By every outlet the tide of emigration flowed towards the
country, till it was checked by the lord mayor refusing to
grant certificates of health, and by the opposition o t e
neighbouring townships, which rose in their own deience,
and drove back the fugitives into the devoted city, ihe
absence of the wealthier class of citizens, and the conse¬
quent breaking up of establishments, with the cessa^®,°
trade, served to aggravate the calamity; and althoug
charity of the opulent seemed to keep pace with the pio
gress of the pestilence, forty thousand servants w^re e
without a home, and the number of artizans and laboure
thrown out of employment was still more considera
The mortality was at first confined to the lower c asse
carrying off a larger proportion of children than of a >
and of females than males; but, by the end of ^une,’jts
diffusion became so rapid, its virulence so great, aI^
ravages so destructive, that the civil authorities, in vi
of the powers with which they had been mveste y
act of James I. “ for the charitable relief and or“erlI?^es
persons infected with the plague,” divided the paris ^
into districts, allotting to each a competent numbei o ^
fleers; and ordered a red cross, one foot in length>
BRITAIN.
ij jrn of painted on the door of every infected house, with the
Ct esII.words “Lord have mercy on us” placed above it, that
^ •r'-/ the healthy might be warned of the existence of the dis¬
ease. Provision was also made for the interment of the
dead. In the day-time persons were always on the watch
to withdraw from public view the bodies of those who ex¬
pired in the street; during the night the tinkling of a bell,
accompanied with the lurid glare of torches, announced
the approach of the pest-cart making its melancholy round
to receive the victims of the previous twenty-four hours.
“ No coffins were prepared; no funeral service was read;
no mourners were permitted to follow the remains of then-
relatives and friends. The cart proceeded to the nearest
cemetery, and shot its burden into the common grave, a
deep and spacious pit, capable of holding some scores of
bodies, and dug in the church-yard, or, when the church¬
yard was full, in the outskirts of the parish.”
The distemper generally manifested itself by the febrile
symptoms of shivering, nausea, headach, and delirium;
but in some these affections w-ere so mild as to be mis¬
taken for a slight and transient indisposition. The insi¬
dious approaches of the mortal foe were not discovered,
and the patient applied to his usual avocations, till sud¬
denly faintness seized him, the'fatal “ tokens” or plague-
spots appeared on his breast, and then his hour was come.
In most cases, however, the pain and delirium left no room
for doubt. The sufferings of the patients were dreadful, and
often threw them into paroxysms of frenzy, during which
they burst the bands that confined them to their beds,
precipitated themselves from the window-s, ran naked into
the street, and plunged into the river. If the patient
survived till the third or fourth day, buboes appeared,
and when these could be made to suppurate recovery
might be anticipated; but if the efforts of nature and
the physician proved unavailing, death became inevitable,
ilen of the strongest minds were lost in amazement when
they contemplated the woe and desolation wrought by the
pestilence; the timid and credulous became the dupes of
their own imaginations and the victims of their own ter-
101s; whilst fanaticism scattered abroad its wild predic¬
tions and fierce denunciations to add to the inexpressible
horror of the scene. During the months of July and Au¬
gust, when the weather was sultry and the heat oppres¬
sive, the eastern parishes, which had at first been spared,
ecame the chief seat of the pestilence, and the substan-
ia citizens suffered in common with their poorer neigh-
ours. The regulations of the magistrates could now no
onger be enforced. The nights were insufficient for the
mual of the dead; coffins were borne along the street at
f 0U1S °f the day; and the poor burst from their in*
ec e dwellings .to seek relief for their families, who were
pens img of famine as well as of the pestilence. “ Lon¬
don, says Dr Lingard, in a passage worthy of Thucydides,
presented a wide and heart-rending scene of misery and
eso ation. Rows of houses stood tenantless and open to
e win s; others, in almost equal numbers, exhibited the
sol o1?88 “aPri1‘n§ on the doors. The chief thoroughfares,
witi, 6 ^ *'10^^en by the feet of thousands, were overgrown
wqlL-0^r-aSS’i. ^evv individuals who ventured abroad
om.. ln., e noiddle, and, when they met, declined on
if li 1 e to av°id the contact of each other. But
lind S.°,ltu^e anci stillness of the streets impressed the
34,1
in tliQWlt; 1 a,'ve’ ,t!lere was something yet more appalling
one inn°Un^S wkich occasionally burst upon the ear. At
wail ?ment J1'61'6 heard the ravings of delirium or the
merrv ^roai the infected dwelling; at another the
sailers n/fK01" t le an<^ careiess laugh from the was-
became l c 0r the inmates of the brothel. Men
their fpnr° am .arised with the form, that they steeled
vol. v. aSamst the terrors> of death. They waited
each for his turn with the resignation of the Christian or
the indifference of the Stoic. Some devoted themselves
V-6 .exe.rcises of pioty; others sought relief in the riot
of dissipation or the recklessness of despair.”
In September the heat of the atmosphere abated • but
contrary to expectation, the mortality increased. From
this time infection became the certain harbinger of death
which followed often within the space of twenty-four
hours, generally in the course of three days. An experi¬
ment, gi-ounded on the practice of former times, was now
oidered to be tried. Fires of sea-coal, in the proportion
of one to every tw-elve houses, were kindled in the streets,
courts, and alleys of London and Westminster, and were
kept burning three days and nights, till a heavy, conti¬
nuous rain extinguished them. By the supposed disin¬
fecting power of heat, it was hoped to dissipate the pes-
tilential miasm, or at least to abate its virulence; and, in
fact, the next report exhibited a considerable diminution
in the number ot deaths. But whilst the survivors were
congratulating themselves on the prospect of deliverance,
the destroying angel was scattering a fiercer pestilence
from his wings. In the following week, ten thousand vic¬
tims sank under the accumulated virulence of the disease,
and despair reigned in every heart. Yet even now, in this
lowest depth of human misery, deliverance was at hand.
I he high winds which usually accompany the autumnal
equinox, cooled and purified the air; the fever assumed a
less malignant form ; the weekly number of deaths succes¬
sively decreased ; in the beginning of December seventy-
three parishes were pronounced clear of the disease ; and in
Febiuary the court, attended by the nobility and gentry,
letuined to Whitehall. Upwards of a hundred thousand
individuals are said to have perished in London alone;
and as the pestilence extended its destructive sway over
the greater part of the kingdom, the fugitives from the
metropolis carrying the infection with them wherever
they found an asylum, the total amount of its ravages
must have been truly dreadful.
This calamity was followed by another, if possible, still
more dreadful. On the night of Sunday the 2d of Sep¬
tember 1666, a fire broke out in Pudding Lane, near Fish
Street, one of the most crowded quarters of the metro¬
polis. It originated in a bakehouse; the buildings in the
neighbourhood being constructed of wood, with pitched
roofs, quickly caught the flames; and the stores with
which they were filled consisting of the highly combus¬
tible articles used in the equipment of shipping, nourished
the conflagration. The pipes from the new river were found
empty, and the engine which raised water from the Thames
was consumed. No decisive measures were adopted to
check the progress of the devouring element, and several
hours elapsed before the aid of the military was called
for. Meanwhile the wind, which during the day blew
from the east, augmented hourly in violence, and became
a perfect hurricane. The fire spread with astonishing ve¬
locity, leaping as it were from roof to roof, and frequently
igniting houses at a distance; “ the night was as light as
day for ten miles round;” a vast column or pillar of fire,
about a mile in diameter, ascended to the clouds; the
flames, as they rose, were bent, broken, and shivered, by the
fury of the tempest; and every blast scattered through the
air flakes of fire, which, falling on inflammable materials,
kindled new conflagrations. The lurid red glare of the sky,
the scorching heat of the atmosphere, the roaring of the
flames, and the frequent crash of falling buildings, combined
to fill every breast with astonishment and terror. While
the storm raged, the conflagration bade defiance to every
effort of human ingenuity or power. Ftouses had been
blown up or demolished, and gaps thus made, in hopes of
arresting the progress of the flames; but ignited flakes
2 x
Reign of
Charles II.
346
BRITAIN.
oanln therefore set on foot, and concluded at Breda on the 21st Keign of
Reign of were carried over the empty space, or the ru‘n® J , T , ]667> this treaty the only advantage gained CharlesII
Charles II. took fire, or the flames unexpectedly turned in a BrUain was, the cession of the colony of New York.
^ r r., cbS txa % i ^
as well as Westminster Abbey and Whitehall, were saved
the blame of it thrown upon the Earl of Clarendon, who,
besides, was charged with the sale of Dunkirk, the bad pay¬
ment of the seamen, the disgrace inflicted by the Dutch
fleet, and his own ambition. His daughter, whilst yet in
Paris, had countenanced the addresses of the Duke of York,
and, under a solemn promise of marriage, had admitted
him to the privileges of a husband. James, however,
either of his own accord, or through the persuasions of
his brother Charles, afterwards married her; and this was
vances towards the Tower. W.m tne am o. tas WM ^ ^ ^ to clarendon. 0n these grounds ttle
however, large openings were made; and as the kinP who had never much loved this nobleman, ordered
continued calm, the conflagration KeWalsl“belken from him and given to Sir’Orlando
bv “the des't'ructioTof the neighbouring buildings. To-
wards the evening of Thursday the weather became calm,
Tnd hopes wei^e Entertained that this dreadful calamity
was approaching its close. But in the night new alarms
were excited. The fire burst out again in the Temp e,
while it still raged with unabated fury near Cripplegate,
and a laro-e body of flame seemed to be making lapid ad¬
vances towards the Tower. With the aid of gunpowder
C©Htinu6U Cdiiu* tuc . J. J.,-.IKr
extending its ravages, and, in consequence, gradually died
out, although months elapsed before the combustion was
altogether extinguished in the immense accumulation ot
ruins. By this deplorable calamity two thirds of Lon¬
don, including the whole space from the lower to the
Temple, were reduced to ashes. The number of houses
consumed amounted to thirteen thousand two hundred,
and that of churches, including St Paul s, to eighty-mne,
covering three hundred and seventy-three acres within,
and sixty-three without the walls. .
The history of this fire accounts sufficiently for its ori¬
gin, as well as for the destructive ravages it committed.
But at this time political and religious prejudices hac
perverted the understandings by inflaming the passions ot
men, and every occurrence was viewed through a false
and distorting medium. By some it was considered as
an evident visitation of Providence in punishment of sin:
but the precise nature of the sin was not agreed upon;
the more rigid religionists declaring it to consist in the
immorality of the king and the courtiers, whilst the cava¬
liers were equally positive that nothing but the guilt of
the late rebellion could have entailed such a chastisement
on the nation. Others, again, attributed it to the dis¬
loyalty and revenge, either of the republicans, who sought
to destroy the seat of the monarchy, or of the Catholics,
who wished to punish the stronghold of Protestant heresy.
Of these charges, however, no vestige of proof could ever
be discovered ; and in the report of the House of Commons,
which i, still extant, will be found a complete refutation P'^J^^d;rce"“^eo~by'to Cabal wore a secret
^ned ITX wtt tyTd1e“7aet^h^ alliance with Fmoce. ^
SSLdiS the ki„S bad taken a bribe from. France,
lumnious falsehood, that “ the burning of this Protestant
city was begun and carried on by the treachery and malice
of the Popish faction.” Next to the guilt of him who per¬
petrates an atrocious crime, says Dr Lingard, is the guilt
of those who charge it upon the innocent. One good, how¬
ever, resulted from this great evil. The plague was fairly
burnt out, and the city rose like a phoenix from its ashes ;
the streets being widened, the narrow and unwholesome
alleys totally banished, and the houses built of brick in¬
stead of wood. In so frightful a devastation, it is remark¬
able that not a single life was lost.
These complicated misfortunes did not fail to excite
many murmurs among the people. Whilst the blame of the
fire was laid on the Papists, the Dutch war was exclaimed
against as unsuccessful and unnecessary, and as an at¬
tempt to humble that nation, who were equally enemies
to Popery with themselves. Charles himself also began to
be sensible, that all the ends for which he had undertaken
this war were likely to be entirely frustrated. Instead of
being able to lay up money for his owTn purposes, the
supplies of parliament had hitherto been so scanty* that
he found himself considerably in debt. A treaty was
the seals to be taken from him and given to Sir Orlando
Bridgemen. Clarendon \Vas again impeached; and though
the charges were manifestly frivolous, yet so strong was
the popular torrent against him, that he thought proper
to withdraw into France. Soon after, Charles formed an
alliance with Holland and Sweden, in order to prevent
the French king from completing his conquest ot the
Netherlands, the greatest part of which he had already
subdued; and he was unexpectedly stopped in his career
by this league, in which it was agreed by the contracting
powers to constitute themselves arbiters of the diflerences
between France and Spain, and to check the exorbitant
pretensions of both.
The king now began to govern in a very arbitrary man¬
ner. He had long wished to extend his prerogative, and
to be able to furnish himself with whatever sums he want¬
ed for his pleasures, and he therefore sought ministers
who would make no scruple of gratifying him in both par¬
ticulars. In Clifford, Ashley (afterwards Shaftesbury),
Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale, who were dis¬
tinguished by the term Cato/, a word formed from the
initials of their names, he found a junta m all respec s
suited to his wishes. These men, it is probable, were as
ready to betray their king as they speedily showed them¬
selves to betray their country; yet it seems pretty e
dent that they were deceived by their master, who con¬
cealed from them the real state of his degrading connec¬
tion with France, and also the secret of what he was
pleased jocosely to denominate his religion.
undivided disgrace oi uum v an„.
notwithstanding the king had taken a bribe bomhanee,
which, however, he kept from the knowdedge o n ’
ters, lest they should claim their share in the wage
infamy. Soon after this the Duke of \ork declarS • j
self a Catholic; and liberty of conscience was pr<W^a
to all sectaries, Dissenters as well as Catholics. A P
clamation was also issued containing very ngorousclau
in favour of impressment; and at the heels o
another full of menaces against these who should ^
undutifully of his majesty’s measures, nay, even ag
those who heard such discourses, unless they
in due time against the offenders; These thl^s |L
great and just offence to the people ; but they vi ., 0f
cially alarmed at the alliance with France, and af
the perfidy by which the policy of that nation
racterized. , r on
In the meanwhile the Dutch, attacked by ,, nte
land, and by the combined navies of England an ^
on sea, and at the same time deserted by tneir y ^
den, seemed on the very verge of destruction. ^ -t.
republic of the United Provinces was not wanting ^
self in this crisis. War was declared with Ho a
17th of March 1672 p mid by the beginning ot ^
BRITAIN.
347
;n of Dutch fleet put to sea. It consisted of seventy-five men Michael which rnnhl with rfiflK/^nU. u i j. a i
De Ruyter stationed himself between Dover and Calais,
to prevent the intended junction of the French and Eng¬
lish fleets. The Duke of York lay at the Nore with forty
sail, being all he was able to muster ; but with this force
he contrived, under cover of a fog, to pass the enemy un¬
noticed, and to reach St Helens, where he awaited the ar¬
rival of the French squadron under D’Estrees. When the
latter had joined, the combined fleet immediately sailed
K a “'if8?'!.each~ereS iTeTkt S ,""4"“ f ^ ^
turned to Southwold Bay, in order that his ships might having entered into the heato^ihr^^1^ Ve,y .llUlTe’ 110t
take in their full complement of men and provisions^ even Opposed Z ^ ^ VVaS
both of which they had previously been deficient Mean this cnnE { , that ^ had orders to observe
'r™^ CTcSX^ht! cltd ,t
De Uuyter shrunk from the conflict, and sailed to overtake
the Zealand squadron. The honour of the victory belong¬
ed to the English. With all the disadvantages of a sur¬
prise, and with wind and tide against them, they encoun-
tered a force greatly superior, and, notwithstanding the
skill of the Dutch admiral and the bravery of his men,
they maintained the combat with that cool determined
courage which, when properly directed, nothing under
ed his enemies at anchor, had it not been for Cogolin, the
captain of a French frigate, who, ignorant of the coast, had
anchored during the night at a distance of several miles
from Southwold Bay, and having descried two of the
Dutch ships in the morning, fired off his guns in succes¬
sion as a signal of the approach of the enemy. Still the
bold and decided advance of De Ruyter had all the effect
of a surprise. James, it is true, immediately ordered every
ship to get under weigh, and take her station in the line ;
but the wind being easterly, and the tide running to lee¬
ward, not more than twenty sail could form to meet the
enemy. The duke, with part of the red squadron, en¬
countered De Ruyter and the fleet from the Maas; the
Earl of Sandwich led the blue against Van Ghent and the
fleet from Amsterdam ; whilst D’Estrees opposed Banker
with the ships from Zealand, though, probably from respect
01 conseivative principles, the French commander cau-
tious y avoided coming to close action with his opponent,
the battle raged long and fiercely. The English had to
contend with a bold, skilful, and experienced enemy, and,
owing to the inexplicable inactivity of their French allies,
no less than to the suddenness of the attack, they had to
make head against a fearful disparity of force. Their
ships, becoming intermingled with those of the enemy,
COUiu HTrnrn    i m . .i r’
Rhine, took the frontier towns of the enemy, and threat¬
ened the new republic with dissolution. Terms were pro¬
posed to them by the conquerors. Louis offered them
such as would have deprived them of all power of resist¬
ing an invasion from France by land; those of Charles
would have exposed them equally to invasion by sea. At
last the murmurs of the English at seeing this brave and
industrious people, the supporters of the Protestant cause,
totally sunk and on the brink of destruction, were too loud
not to reach the king. Fie was obliged to call together the
Parliament in order to take the sense of the nation re¬
specting his conduct; and he soon found how his subiects
stood affected towards him.
The parliament met on the 24th of February 1673.
they began with resisting some of the king’s extraordi¬
nary stretches of prerogative, and taking means for pro-
motmg umforrmty in religious matters. A law was passed
entitled the lest Act,-imposing an oath on all who should
enjoy any public benefice. Besides taking the oaths of
a egiance and supremacy, such persons were obliged to
receive the sacrament once a year in the established
church, and to abjure all belief in the doctrine of transub-
stantiation. As the Dissenters also had seconded the ef-
torts of the Commons against the king’s declaration of in-
could afford each other little sunnort whilst thZ ZZL - i , G LT?mmons against the king’s declaration of in-
imminent danger of be nfoYXwd bv he Zmher If ^ t0,A0mr fatholi“- a bil1 passed for their
their adversaries. Sidil thX&llu w th desneX if ■ an-d '''Y YY’ l,oweter- "ith some difficulty
)'a_ge, in order to protract them resfstance^ilHbey could°be T'« Dutch, in the
joined by the remainder of the fleet from the bay. About
e even 0 clock the flag-ship, the Prince, of one hundred
|,uns, lay a complete wreck on the water, having lost all
time, continued to defend themselves with such valour,
that the Commons began to despair of success. They
therefore resolved that the standing army w-as a grievance •
and declared that they would grant no more supplies to
carry on the Dutch war, unless it appeared that the ene-
my were so obstinate as to refuse all reasonable condi¬
tions. Io cut short these disagreeable altercations, the
king resolved to prorogue the parliament; and with that
lntfntlon le went unexpectedly to the House of Peers,
surrounded ; carried by beardingrs^ent^uoshin'wirb ^ Usher of ,the black rod to summon the House
% athwart his hawse ; and STfireSl.Vh Co™m°»s to attend. The usher and the Speaker bap-
drifting towards him. But after a contest ofeight hours’ WA- t0,m.eet n.early at the door of the house ; but the
duration, the Royal James became unmanageable • n tjP a Cr beinjg ^ltbin’ some of the members suddenly shut
?ond fire-ship now grappled her oTthe hrhnfrd door’1a1nd c"ed> “ To the chair.” It was then moved,
m a few grappled her on the la,board side ; and and voted by acclamation, that the alliance with France
hpr I'Jr*. * 11 *' c vvai/C1? Waving JOSt ail
ler rigging and above one third of her crew. Finding her
no longer manageable, the duke ordered her to be towed
MielV i G, • ’ and Mediately shifted his flag to the St
W f! °f mnety gUns* The gallant Earl of Sandwich was
jess fortunate. In his ship the Royal James, a first-rate,
surro r1ep1eatedl7 beat the enemies by whom he
in a fewt!;ip ?°W f aPPled ber on the larboard "side T and
The duke n,iUteSi1 uat magnificent vessel was in flames,
to hasten tnHiered tbe Dartmouth and a number of boats
hundred nf assistance» and between two and three
lant comltbe crew were saved ; the rest, with their gal-
other shins wer’iPe,nS eed in the waves* Meanwhile the
equal. Ahn and the combat became more
u five the duke shifted his flag from the St
was a grievance, that the evil counsellors of the kino-
were a grievance, and that the Earl of Lauderdale was S
grievance; upon which the house rose in great confusion,
ihe king finding that he could expect no supply from the
Commons for carrying on a war so unpopular, resolved to
make a separate peace with the Dutch, on the terms which
they had proposed through the Spanish ambassador; and
348
BRITAIN.
, . n, • 1! * „ rnn- kingdom. The plot having thus attained a sudden and Reign of
Reign of having asked the advice of his parliament, a peace was con it was greedily adopted by the popular Cll"ks II
Charles IL cluded accordingly. „ , ]w in partvas an engine against the court; andwhilst the extraor-
The prepossess,on wlVch Ch^ fSy hallucLtion lasted, every species of injustice and
favour of trance, and his manliest inchna 1 ininuitv was perpetrated without compunction or remorse,
casions to attach himself to that kingdom, ia g1 ^ . Colera^n irjjand, Grove, Pickering, and others suffered
offence to his people; and other circurnstance ^ f1 d h f imaginary conspiracy, on the contradictory
ed to raise a general discontent. The t0>« a“n “ testimony of incredible witnesses, and after trials inwhich
lies, so much wished for by the kinB, an v g y indires and the iuries seemed to vie with each other in
the Duke of York, the heir-apparent to the crown who was ^et^f was the reign of delusion and blood
zealous for the propagation of the ^ ^ nSthaJ. the si10rt-lived.J For two years, Protestant credulity and ven-
cited an alarm, not altogether without k t ^ ^ ^ were satiated, from time to time, with the inven-
Protestant religion was in danger, but - „ horrors and the immolation of fresh victims;
discontents were carefully fomented by wicked and de- murders sta d tU1 the execution of
signing men, who, to promote then own in cl^s’ 1 h venerable Lord Viscount Stafford excited pity and re¬
pot to advance the greatest falsehoods. ^8 an ac ^ bUc mind. This event seems to have con-
count of a plot, supposed to have 01 ^ Rati, trihuted to awaken the nation from its trance ; the still
pists, for burning London, putting the agdn to be
and destroying the king and thelrotestan g gradually shook off both the delusion and the
circulated by one Kirby, a chemist; ^ong, a weak, credu nea a g { ^ hurried int0 such excesses.
lous pareou; and litus Oa eB wto had beenJ th rccLred the use of their faculties suffi-
clergyman, and was in reality one ' f. ”os.tr“bac^""“ “e,ltly t0 eml\e them to take a deliberate survey of the
SS^n^s'X^ discoyei'y were so ^r- ^ F*;
Imw anyCpersoti rttZZZe col glreTa? to them® diabolical miscreants by whose instrumentality it had been
vet so violently were the minds of the nation at this time effected,
inflamed against the Catholics, that it not only produced
the destruction of many individuals of the Romish persua¬
sion, but a general massacre of that unfortunate sect was
apprehended. The parliament, who ought to have repress¬
ed these delusions, and brought back the people to calm
deliberate inquiry, showed themselves even more credu¬
lous than the vulgar themselves. The cry of the plot was
immediately echoed from one house to the other; the coun¬
try party could not let slip so favourable an opportunity
of managing the passions of the people ; and the couitieis
were afraid of being thought disloyal if they ventured to
doubt the guilt of those who were accused of designs
effected. •
In the midst of this general uproar and persecution,
the lord treasurer Danby was impeached in the House of
Commons by Seymour the Speaker. The principal charge
against him was, his having written a letter to Montague,
the king’s ambassador at Paris, directing him to sell the
king’s good offices at the treaty of Nimeguen, to the king
of France, for a certain sum of money ; contrary to the ge¬
neral interests of the confederates, and also to those of nis
own kingdom. But although the charge was just, Danby had
the good fortune to find the king resolved to defend him.
Charles assured the parliament that, as he had acted m
every thing by his orders, he held him entirely blameless;
anainst theWs person. ' The whole nation was seized and although he would deprive him of all his employmerts,
by a sort of epidenlic madness. Danby, the prime minis- yet he positively insisted ““ bl?
ter, himself entered into it very furiously, and persisted Lords, “ ™Pa“^’ceSf„lloweI
in his inquiries notwithstanding all the king s advices to was sent to the Ten e , ‘ > hv i House oftCom-
the contrary; and Charles himself, who was the only per- I hese proceedings we e ^ KGVenteen
son that ou'dit to have been most concerned, was the only moos winch had continued in existence above o t e
one who Treated it with contempt. Nothing, however, years. They were now dissolved, however, and wtot
could check the popular phrenzy; and for a time the king parliament was called; but this one proved as L l™' cf
was obliged to give way ?o it. Meanwhile accident aftS able as the preceding. The members resolved M check
rcid“roccu.fi„g in l manner unparalleled in history, the growth of Popery by a«nk,ng at the oo of h e.,1,
contributed to maintain the delusion, and to give tempo- and therefore brough. “b;'' '0'*bat13 ^ Ireland,
rarv credibility to the infernal perjuries of Oates, Bedloe, the Duke of York from the crown of England ana
and their associates in infamy. Letters were seized which which passed the owei ^ Standing army and
discovered the Duke of York’s correspondence with France, nine. They next voted ^ ^^ stand ^ the
in opposition to the religion and interests of his country ; guards to be d ega ,_anc pi » ' ceieijVated
Danby’s correspondence, which involved the king in the king s power of imprisoning delmque , c nfirmS t0
disgrace of similar machinations, was also detected ; and, statute of Habeas Corpus was passed, M h cl J _
to crown the whole, Godfrey, the magistrate who had first the subject an absolute security agai^toppres V ^
given publicity to the plot, was either murdered, or, which During these troubles the Duke o induced him
seems at least equally probable, committed suicide. This Brussels; but an indisposition of the k g t0
last occurrence made every good Protestant imagine that to return to England, to be ready, m case
he felt a Catholic poniard at his throat; and, whilst it assert his right to the throne. After prevailing
aggravated the terrors, confirmed the credulity, of the peo- brother to disgrace Ins natural son the ^ q tfor
pie. The verdict of wilful murder returned by the core- mouth, who had now become very poputer, he se f
ner’s inquest on the body of Godfrey imparted the stamp of Scotland, under pretence of quieting the aPPrJ ests
authority to all the reports previously in circulation. The the English nation, but in reality to strong 1 uowever,
ignorant believed and trembled, the artful secretly foment- in that part of the kingdom, i ms F066*** f ’ bo were
ed the panic with which the nation was now seized. It was served still more to inflame the country pa ), j^v.
no longer safe to deny that Godfrey had been murdered by strongly attached to the Duke o 01(1,rr'? , ’ ]y[obs, pe-
the Papists, or that the latter had conspired the destruc- ed to support him against the Duke ot im • rtjflees
tion of the king, the constitution, and the church ot Eng- titions, and burnings of the pope in e g)^ 61 .
land, with the extermination of every Protestant in the employed to keep up the terrors ot the p I ’
BRITAIN.
It< a
Cha ‘S
of alarm the court. The parliament had shown favour to the
If-various tribes of informers, and that of course served to
'J increase the number of these miscreants. Plots also be¬
came more numerous. Conspiracy was set up against
conspiracy; and the people, uncertain what to believe or
whom to trust, were kept in a state of the most dreadful
apprehension.
But it was not by plots alone that the adverse parties
endeavoured to supplant each other. Tumultuous peti¬
tions on the one hand, and adulatory addresses on the
other, were sent up from all quarters. Wherever the
country party prevailed, petitions were sent to the king,
filled with grievances and apprehensions. Wherever the
church or court party had the ascendency, addresses were
framed, containing expressions of the highest regard for
his majesty, and the deepest abhorrence of those who en¬
deavoured to disturb the public tranquillity. Thus the
nation came to be distinguished into Petitioners and Ab-
horrers. I he names of Whig and Toi-y, also, were now
first used as terms of reproach. The whigs were so deno¬
minated from a cant name given to the Presbyterian con-
venticlers, “ whig” being milk turned sour ; and the tories
received that honourable appellation from the Irish ban¬
ditti so called, whose usual phrase, in ordering people to
stand and deliver, was the Irish word toree, “ give me.”
During all this time the king had tyrannized over the
Scots in a very cruel manner. Being apprized of the
tendency of Presbyterian principles to a republican form
of government, Charles, like his predecessors, had endea¬
voured to introduce Episcopacy there, but in a much more
violent manner than had formerly been attempted. The
rights of patrons had for some years been abolished, and
the power of electing ministers had been vested in the
kirk-sessions and lay elders; but it was now enacted, that
all incumbents who had been admitted upon this title
should receive a presentation, and be instituted anew by
the bishop, under the penalty of deprivation. In conse¬
quence of this, three hundred and fifty parishes were at
once declared vacant. New ministers were sought for all
over the kingdom, and none was too vicious or ignorant
to be rejected. The people, as might have been expected,
were displeased to the highest degree, but gave no sign
of mutmy or sedition, notwithstanding their discontent.
Ilns submission made their case still worse; it being ra¬
ther hastily imagined, that, as they did not complain for
a little ill usage, they would submit with equal patience
to worse.
Affairs remained tolerably tranquil, till, in 1661, a se-
vere act was passed in England against conventicles,
wtncli severity was imitated by the Scottish parliament,
who passed an act of the same kind. Military force was
next let loose on the people. Wherever they had forsa¬
ken their churches, the guards were quartered through-
°!f k cr0Untry‘ These legalized banditti were command-
n y Sir James lurner, a man of a furious temper and
uissolute life, who went about and received lists from the
cJeigy, of those who absented themselves from the church¬
es, or were supposed to frequent conventicles. Without
Foot or legal conviction, he exacted fines, and quartered
miers on the supposed criminals till he received pay-
wnr * A- lnsurrecti°n being dreaded during the Dutch
Were levied> and intrusted to the com-
* Dalz1lel and Drummond, two men of savage dis-
whatp,1185 tlnt kc°It;isfi parliament gave full scope to
ei enormities they chose to commit.
mispTln!!11^1?"8 Were nmv niade t0 the king> who Pro-
1668 il °me r(:dress- Kut Ids lenity came too late. In
ner in n ^ 6 r0Se in arms’ and having surprised Tur-
his oriW fnek resolved t0 Pufc him to death ; but finding
ders much more violent than his execution of them,
349
they spaied his life. At Lanark they renewed the cove- Iteign of
nant, and published a manifesto, in which they professed Charles 11.
submission to the king, and only desired the re-establish-
ment of Presbytery, and the re-instatement of their former
ministers. Their force never exceeded two thousand men ;
and although the country in general bore them great fa¬
vour, men’s spirits were so subdued, that the insurgents
could expect no further increase of numbers. Dalziel
took the field to oppose them. The number of the Cove¬
nanters had now been reduced to little more than a thou¬
sand, and these were no way capable of contending with
regular forces. Having advanced towards Edinburgh, and
met with no support, they attempted to make their way
back to the west by the Pentland Hills. But at a spot
called Bullion Green they were attacked by the king’s
troops, and received the first charge with great firmness.
Ibis, however, ivas the whole action. They immediately
fell into confusion and fled. About forty were killed on
the spot, and a hundred and thirty taken prisoners.
As long ago as the year 1661 the Presbyterians had
deputed Sharpe, then one of their number, to lay their
grievances before the king. Instead of doing so, however,
their deputy abandoned the cause altogether, became
their-violent enemy, and, as a reward of his treachery,
w as created Archbishop of St Andrews. After the affair
Pentland this man was the foremost to take vengeance
on the unhappy insurgents, whose oppressed state and in¬
offensive behaviour made them objects of universal com¬
passion. Ten were hanged on one gibbet in Edinburgh,
and thirty-five before their own doors in different parts of
tne country. Some of them were previously tortured, and,
after death, their mutilated limbs were stuck up in different
parts of the kingdom. All of them might have saved their
lives upon condition of renouncing the covenant; but this
they absolutely refused. The executions were proceeding
without mercy, when the king wrote a letter to the privy
council, in which he ordered that such of the prisoners as
simply promised to obey the laws for the future should be
set at liberty, and that the incorrigible should be sent to
the plantations. I his letter was brought to the council
by Burnet, but was not immediately delivered by Sharpe,
whose renegade vengeance was not yet satiated. It had
been customary to put these unfortunate men to the tor¬
ture, in order if possible to make them confess that to be
false which they believed to be true. By Sharpe’s criminal
delay had been tortured Hugh Maccail, a young preacher,
who would otherwise have escaped; and so violent w-ere
the torments inflicted on him by the iron boot, that he ex¬
pired under them. He seemed to die in an ecstacy of joy.
His last words, uttered with an accent which struck all the
bystanders with astonishment, were in the highest degree
impressive and sublime. “ Farewell sun, moon, and stars,”
exclaimed this lofty-minded enthusiast; “ farewell world
and time ; farewell weak, frail body. Welcome eternity;
welcome angels and saints; welcome Saviour of the world •
and welcome God, the judge of all I”
In 16(0 an act was passed against conventicles, with a
professed design of mitigating the former persecuting laws,
though even the mitigation was oppressive and tyrannical.
By this act, the hearer in a conventicle, that is, in'a dissent¬
ing assembly where more than five persons besides the
family were present, was liable to a fine of five shillings
for the first offence, and ten shillings for the second; while
the preacher was fined twenty pounds for the first offence,
and forty for the second. The person in whose house the
conventicle assembled was declared subject to the same
amount of fine as the preacher. In a remarkable clause
it was provided, that if a doubt should arise as to the in¬
terpretation of any part of the act, the judges should al¬
ways explain such doubt in the sense least favourable to
V
350
BRITAIN.
Reign of conventicles, inasmuch as it was the intention of parha-
Charles II. ment entirely to suppress them.
' No religion was ever extirpated by subjecting its pro¬
fessors to imprisonment, confiscation, and death ; and the
government, which had plunged headlong into all the ex¬
cesses of persecution, soon perceived that they had pio-
duced a very different effect from that which had been in¬
tended; that Presbytery had burst forth with fresh vi¬
gour in the midst of blood and oppression; and that the
people, by being driven desperate, had become formidaole.
In this situation recourse was had to a notable expedient,
which at once betrayed the jealousy of the government,
and rendered it ridiculous. From some supposed analogy
between the case of one subject dreading bodily harm
from another, and a king jealous of his people, Sir George
Mackenzie, afterwards king’s advocate, conceived the
brilliant idea of causing his majesty to take out a general
writ of lawburrows against his whole Scottish subjects.
Accordingly, a bond of the peace was framed, by which
the subscribers became bound, under heavy penalties, nei¬
ther to frequent conventicles themselves, nor to allow
their families and tenants to be present at such unlawful
assemblies, and, in general, not in any way to infringe the
public peace. By this extraordinary proceeding, the go¬
vernment, while it betrayed its fears, prostituted the dig¬
nity of the king, and incurred the ridicule of attempting
to give additional sanction to public law by private con-
tract.
But the violent methods used by the king having been
found ineffectual to accomplish this purpose in Scotland,
a Scheme of Comprehension was tried in 1678, by which
it was proposed to diminish greatly the authority of the
bishops, to abolish their negative voice in the ecclesiasti¬
cal courts, and to leave them little more than the right of
precedency among the presbyters. But this, too, was le-
jected by the people, who well knew its character and ten¬
dency. The next project was that of an Indulgence,^ by
which the most popular of the expelled preachers, with¬
out being required to accede any terms of submission to
the established religion, were settled in vacant churches;
and small salaries of about twenty pounds a year were of¬
fered to the rest till they should be otherwise established.
These tardy and suspicious boons were at first accepted
by some of the less firm and decided preachers ; but the
trick,—for it was nothing more,—was soon discovered ;
and every man’s motto became Timeo Danaos et dona fe-
rentes. The replaced ministers soon repented their com¬
pliance ; the bounty was rejected as the wages of criminal
silence; conventicles multiplied; and the Covenanters, now
at open hostility with the law, met in arms at their places
of worship, though, after divine service, they dispersed
quietly.
The expedients tried by the government having thus
failed, the persecution of the Covenanters was renewed
under the administration of Lauderdale, and strenuously
abetted by Archbishop Sharpe. By an old law, but sel¬
dom put in execution, a man w ho was accused of any crime,
and did not appear to take his trial, might be intercom-
muned, that is, he might be publicly outlawed; and who¬
ever afterwards, either on account of business, relation¬
ship, or even charity, had the least intercourse with him,
was subjected to the same penalties which the law inflict- Reign
ed on the criminal himself. A great many Letters of /«-CharlesL[
tercommuning1 * * * * * were now issued against the Covenanters.
By this severe and absurd proceeding, crimes and punish¬
ments went on multiplying in a geometrical progression;
and, lest the cry of an oppressed people should reach the
throne, the council prohibited, under severe penalties, all
noblemen and gentlemen of landed property from leaving
the kingdom.
The course of these violent proceedings was distinguish¬
ed by an event which, in all its circumstances, is eminently
characteristic of the men who bore rule at this period.
We allude to the trial and execution of James Mitchell for
an attempt to assassinate the Archbishop of St Andrews
ten years before. One evening in July 1668, as Sharpe
w7as sitting in his coach at the head ot Blackfriar s Wynd,
waiting for the Bishop of Orkney, and while the lattei was
in the act of stepping into it, Mitchell, then a Presbyterian
preacher, discharged a pistol at the dignified apostate;
but the Bishop of Orkney, happening at the instant to ex¬
tend his arm, intercepted the shot, and was severely
wmunded in consequence. This occurred in the principal
street of the city; yet so generally w^as the archbishop
hated, that the assassin was allowed to walk off without
interruption ; and, having turned down a street or two, he
threw aside a partial disguise he had worn, re-appeared in
public, and remained altogether unsuspected. Six years
after this, Sharpe happening one day to notice a man who
seemed to observe him narrowly, and dreading lest ano¬
ther attempt at assassination should be made, caused him
to be arrested and examined. Two loaded pistols weie
found upon his person; and, as he was now concluded to
have been the author of the former attempt, Sharpe pro¬
mised, that if he would confess his guilt, he should be dis¬
missed without any punishment. Mitchell (for it was he),
was credulous enough to believe the archbishop, and was
immediately produced before the council by the faithless
primate. But this righteous conclave having no proof
against him, and hoping to implicate in his crime the
whole body of the Covenanters, solemnly renewed the pro¬
mise of pardon, upon condition that he would make a fu
disclosure. Mitchell accepted the terms offered him; but
when the council found, by this man s confession, that
only one person, then dead, had been privy to his design,
their rage and disappointment knew no bounds. He was
immediately carried before the Court of Justiciary, and re
quired to adhere to his confession, with certification that
if he did not comply, he would forfeit the benefit of the
assurance which had been given him. Mitchell now saw
with whom he had to deal. On being judicially interro¬
gated, he refused to confess, and was, in consequence, pu
to the torture, which he endured with singular fortitude;
obstinately persisting in his refusal to criminate himselt,
till he fainted through excessive agony. As the boots ( e
instrument of torture) had failed to extort a confession,
he was sent to the Bass, then used as a state P1^8.011, ^
the persecuted Covenanters, and remained ^ieJe oa e
with irons, in the greatest misery, till the end of the ye
1678, the period at which we have arrived. Infuriated a
the failure of all their coercive measures, and resolved,/
some new examples, to strike terror into the breasts o
1 Letters of Intercommuning, which bore an analogy to the Aqua; et Ignis Interdictw of the Roman law, conclude * .d our
command and charge all our lieges and subjects, that none presume to reset, supply, or intercommune with any ot t ^ have
rebels, nor furnish them with meat, drink, house, harbour, or victuals, nor any other thing useful or eonformabie to me , ^
any intelligence with them by word, writing, message, or otherwise, under pain of being repute and est^Ted af Jl6-4*8?
them in the crime foresaid, and to be pursued therefore with all rigour.” (Laing, iv. 77, /b, 2d ed. ; \\ odrow, i. ,
Burnet, ii. 156-183.)
BRITAIN.
11 m of Covenanters, the council once more produced him ; and he
Cli esll.was now indicted at the instance of Sir George Macken-
^ rr* zie, his majesty’s advocate, upon 4 act of 16 Pari, of
James VI., by which the invading of privy counsellors is
made death. No proof of his guilt could be adduced ex¬
cept his former confession, which he judicially denied.
But it was proved against him by the testimony of Lau¬
derdale the commissioner, Rothes the chancellor, Mait¬
land the lord-treasurer depute, and the archbishop of St
Andrews, all of whom,—when it was alleged in behalf of
the accused, that any confession he had emitted was upon
promise of life etspe Venice,—expressly swore, that no assu¬
rance of life had been given him, although the records of
the privy council remain to this hour the incontestible monu¬
ment of their perjury ! The prisoner then produced a copy
of the act of council which contained the assurance of
his life, and moved that the original might be exhibited.
This, however, was refused, on the pretence that the fact
was already sufficiently established by the parole testimo-
ny of privy counsellors ; and the unhappy man was accord¬
ingly condemned and executed.1
When Lauderdale, who probably felt some remorse on
account of the iniquitous means which had been used to
obtain his conviction, wished to commute Mitchell’s sen¬
tence, the unrelenting primate interposed, and insisted
upon its execution, as the only way of securing his own
life against a repetition of similar attempts in future. But
he calculates ill who seeks protection by means of perjury,
injustice, and cruelty. Some acts of local oppression,
added to the hatred which was so generally entertained
for him, brought down upon the primate the very fate
which he thus sought to avoid. On the 3d of May 1679, he
was waylaid and murdered in Magus Muir, near St An¬
drews, by a troop of fanatics, who had been driven to mad¬
ness by his tyranny, and who, in perpetrating this unholy
deed, were actuated solely by their own enthusiasm or re¬
venge. But the act committed by these men was never¬
theless imputed to the party to which they ostensibly be¬
longed ; and the consequence was, that all who attended
held conventicles were ordered to be indiscriminately
massacred. This brought matters to a crisis,
i ^ 1^°venanters’ifinding themselves obliged to meet in
large bodies, and bring arms for their own security, drew
up a declaration against prelacy, which they published at
Kutherglen, a small burgh near Glasgow; and in the mar-
Ket-piace they burned the several acts of parliament which
a established that mode of ecclesiastical government,
• d 'had prohibited all conventicles. For this purpose
icy c lose the '20th of May, the anniversary of the Resto-
ation, having previously extinguished the bonfires which
naa been kindled on that occasion. Graham of Claver-
351
house, afterwards \iscount Dundee, an active and merci- Reign of
less agent of the council, attacked a great conventicle Charles II.
upon Loudon Hill, but was repulsed with the loss of thirty
men. The Covenanters, finding themselves thus unwarily
engaged in rebellion, were obliged to persevere, and there*-
fore pushed on to Glasgow, which, though repulsed at first,
they afterwards made themselves masters of. Here they
dispossessed the established clergy, and issued proclama¬
tions, in which they declared that they fought against the
king’s supremacy, against popery and prelacy, and against
a popish successor to the crown.
Alarmed at this rising, Charles dispatched against the
Covenanters a small body of English cavalry under the
Duke ofMonmouth, who, having joined the Scottish guards,
and some regiments of militia levied from the well-affect¬
ed counties, marched with great celerity in quest of the
insurgents. They had taken postal Bothwell Bridge, be¬
tween Hamilton and Glasgow; a good position, to which
there was no access but by the bridge, which a small body
might have defended against the king’s army. The whole
force of the Covenanters never exceeded 8000 men, and
they had in reality no other generals than their clergymen.
Monmouth attacked the bridge, and a party of the Cove¬
nanters stoutly maintained their post as long as their am¬
munition lasted. When they sent for a fresh supply, they
received orders to quit their post and retire; and this im¬
prudent measure occasioned an immediate defeat. Mon¬
mouth passed the bridge without opposition, and, drawing
up his forces opposite to the enemy, soon put them to
the rout, which, indeed, was effected by his cannon alone.
About seven hundred wrere killed in the pursuit, for, pro¬
perly speaking, there was no action. Twelve hundred were
taken prisoners, and treated with humanity by Monmouth.
Such as promised to live peaceably under the present go¬
vernment were dismissed; and about three hundred who
refused this condition were shipped for Barbadoes, but un¬
fortunately perished during the voyage. Two of their
clergymen, however, were hanged. Soon afterwards an
act of indemnity was passed; but Lauderdale took care
that it should afford little protection to the unhappy Cove¬
nanters ; for, although orders were given thenceforward to
connive at all conventicles, he found means, under a variety
of pretences, to elude the execution of them.
That Charles had formed a scheme for overturning the
established religion, and substituting popery in its place,
as well as for rendering himself absolute, is now certainly
known. But in this he met with strenuous opposition
from his parliaments; and as the present one seemed to
surpass its predecessors in resisting the schemes of the
court, the king was induced to dissolve them and to call
another in 1680. By this step, however, he gained no-
pace ^pi'7 6thatCw^se instance Mitchell, as we have seen, was prosecuted and capitally convicted, asserts in his H\s
n^S^i2SxG^i!1/i^tUnate T br05ht1 bfore the council, « he fell upon his^nLs and ^oXid "he wfoTe’
supposing that Mitchell did not “ ASK^either^life^or^nr’ >Wf C0n^ssi<>n *’,e also s5gne(h TMs is abominable equivocation. Even
pardon, was the oblirratinn i • r either life or promise of any favour, it the council ultroneously nave him an assurance of
die Lord Advocate’sVeracitv thaT w r” ^ \CrC°^nt ? • BU- apI,ears frora the face of the record, which still remains to impeach
life ’ and, as if this had not been sufficienr^oveSn^he S®" Mitcheli confessed and obtained assurance of his
says that Mitchell, “ being persuaded that extrainrUpinl tatements of the public prosecutor, he himself; two sentences farther on,
forfeited any promise^/L S1 COnfes,slon uot binding, resiled ; whereupon the council declared, that he
because, “ being vosterinr tn th» f ■ •*- ’ u same learned person affirms, that the act of council was “ justly' refused,”
nul the confession and so could *“?£*** fthat the confession was upon promise of life; and tlrat act designed to an-
tenns, tliat “ the coSsion ™ ^ • l ^ructmg' it.” The act of council however states, in the most explicit
and as to the legal sophism that the “ lKm promise of life, which implies that the “ promise” was miterierrto the “ confession ;’*
extent of proving the‘< promise ^ the con,fession’ and 80 could not be made use of for attracting it,” to the
there, and that if it was held enmneiV.nl in SU. t° observe, that the act of council was legally probative of what had occurred
which it was emitted No one can d^nht ii prgVe t!i.e confession,” it must have been equally so to establish the “ promise” on
structed the “ promise that wL m J »bi ’ If/1® Production of the act was ” refused,” because it would have clearly in¬
volved to perjure themselves l? and bf ause four privy counsellors had, in order to effect this man’s destruction,
boo* Mackenzie adds that the mnnel’^' m tlle ®ee®rd of their own proceedings, that no assurance of life had been given
(History, ubj^i^ra.) ’ P nel s counsel, Sir George Lockhart, “ refused to speak for him, being unwilling to offend Lauderdale."
352
BRITAIN.
lieign of thing; for they voted the legality of petitioning the king,
Charles II. and fell with extreme severity on the Abhorrers, who,
in their addresses to the crown, had expressed their disap¬
probation of such petitions. Great numbers of this class
were seized by their order in all parts ol England, and
committed to close custody; and the liberty ol the sub¬
ject, which had been so carefully guarded by their own
recent law, was violated by such arbitrary and capricious
imprisonments. But one Stowel of Exeter put a stop to
these proceedings. He refused to obey the serjeant at
arms who had been sent to apprehend him; and, stand¬
ing upon his defence, declared that he knew of no law by
which the House of Commons could pretend to commit
him. The house, finding it equally dangerous to proceed
or recede, got off by an evasion. They voted that btowel
was indisposed; and a month was allowed him for his re¬
covery, about which, as may well be supposed, they gave
themselves no further concern.
But the chief point laboured by the present parliament
was the exclusion bill, which, though voted by a formei
house, had never yet made any further progress. In the
present House of Commons it passed by a great majority,
but was thrown out by the House of Peers. All the bishops
except three voted against it; being of opinion that the
church of England was in greater danger from the preva¬
lence of Presbyterianism than from the introduction ot
popery. The Commons were extremely mortified at the
rejection of their favourite bill, and in retaliation they
passed several other disagreeable acts. Amongst these
was one which set forth, that, till the exclusion bill was
passed, they could not, consistently with the trust repos¬
ed in them, grant the king any manner of supply ; and that
whoever should hereafter lend, by way of advance, any
money upon the branches of the king’s revenue, should oe
responsible to parliament for his conduct, binding that
there were no hopes of extorting either money or compli¬
ance from the Commons, Charles came to a resolution of
once more dissolving the parliament; and this accoiding-
ly took place while they were voting that the dissenters
ought to be encouraged, and that the city of London had
been burned by the papists.
It was for some time doubtful whether the king would
ever call another parliament. But his necessities sur¬
mounted all his fears, and in 1681 he summoned a par¬
liament to meet at Oxford, that he might thus have an
opportunity of punishing the city of London, by showing
his suspicions of their loyalty. In this, however, as in all
former parliaments, the country party predominated; and
they trode exactly in the footsteps of their predecessors.
The same Speaker was chosen, and the exclusion^ bill
urged more fiercely than before. Ernely, one of the king s
ministers, wrent so far as to propose that the duke should
be banished five hundred miles from England, and that on
the king’s decease the next heir should be appointed re¬
gent. Yet even this expedient, which left the duke only
the barren title of king, failed to obtain the approbation of
the house ; nothing but a total exclusion could satisfy them.
The opposite factions had for some time indulged their
animosities by reviling and ridiculing each other in pamph¬
lets and libels; but this practice, too common in party warfare
to deserve particular mention, was at length attended with
an incident which deserves notice. One bitzharris, an Irish
adventurer, employed a Scotsman named Everard, who,
like himself, hung loose on society, to write a libel against
the king and the Duke of York. The Scot, who wras actually
a spy for the opposite party, supposing this a trick to en¬
trap him, discovered the whole to Sir W illiam W aller, a
justice of the peace; and, to convince the magistrate of
the truth of his information, secreted him and two other
persons in a place where they overheard the whole con¬
ference between Fitzharris and himself. The libel con- RejCil0
cocted betwixt them was replete with the utmost rancour Charles I
and scurrility. Waller carried the intelligence to the''■'V'*-
king, and obtained a warrant for committing Fitzharris,
who at the time happened to have a copy of the libel in
his pocket. Finding himself in the hands of a party from
which he could expect no mercy, Fitzharris resolved to
change his game, and to throw the odium of the libel upon
the court, who, he said, had employed him to draw it up
with the view of imputing it to the exclusionists, and thus
rendering them hateful to the people. And, in order to
enhance his services in the estimation of the country par¬
ty, he revealed to them a new popish plot, still more tre¬
mendous than any of those previously hatched, and ac-
cus*ed the Duke of York as a principal accomplice in the
conspiracy. The king, however, imprisoned Fitzharris in
Newgate. But the Commons immediately espoused his
cause, and voted that he should be impeached by them¬
selves, in order to screen him from the ordinary forms of
justice. The Lords rejected the impeachment; the Com¬
mons asserted their right; and a commotion was likely to
ensue, when the king, in order to break off the contest,
wrent to the house and dissolved the parliament, with a
fixed resolution never to call another.
From this moment the king ruled with despotic sway.
Flis temper, which had generally been easy and merciful,
now became arbitrary and cruel; he entertained spies and
informers round the throne, and imprisoned all those whom
he thought most daring in their designs. In particular,
he resolved to humble the Presbyterians. They were
divested of all their employments, and their offices given
to such as were favourable to the court, and approved the
doctrine of non-resistance. The clergy began to testify
their zeal and their principles by their writings and ser¬
mons ; but although the partizans of the king were the
most numerous, those of the opposite faction were the
most enterprising. The king openly espoused the cause
of the former; and thus placing himself at the head of
a faction, he deprived the city of London, which had
long headed the popular party, of their charter. 1 error
w-as also employed to confirm this new species of monar¬
chy. Fitzharris was brought to trial, condemned, and exe¬
cuted. The whole gang of spies, witnesses, informers, and
suborners, who had long been encouraged and supported
by the leading patriots, finding now that the king w;as en¬
tirely master, turned short upon their ancient employers,
and tendered evidence against those who had first put
them in motion. The king’s ministers gave encourage¬
ment to these miscreants; and in a short time the same
injustice and the same cruelties were practised under pre
tence of Presbyterian, as had formerly been committed
under the delusive apprehension of Catholic treasons.
But the king’s chief resentment w'as levelled against the
Earl of Shaftesbury; and not without reason, as he had
been very active in the late disturbances. No sums were
spared to seek for evidence, nor even to suborn witnesses,
against this intriguing and formidable man. A bd o m
dictment was presented to the grand jury, and witnesse
were examined, who swore to such incredible c*rc?im^anifa(i
as must have invalidated their testimony, even if they
not been branded as perjured villains. AmPnSst ^.lsPa^f|
indeed, was found a draught of an association, wine mig
have been construed into treason ; but it was not.in, j
earl’s handwriting, nor could it be proved
ever communicated this scheme to any body, or SIS?, ,
his approbation of any such project. But the shen ^
taken care to summon a jury whose principles coin. p.
with those of the earl; and in that, more than 11Lan^
ficiency of proof, consisted his safety. The bi ^
nored by the grand jury; the hall resounded w
BRITAIN.
Be i
Cha -3
of plause; and the day was closed with the ringing of bells,
II-the burning of bonfires, and other demonstrations of popu-
lar joy..
But it was in Scotland that the character of the restor¬
ed government appeared in its most hideous features. The
duke, after a temporary exile from Britain, had been sent
to that country; and there, during his administration, he
exercised a tyranny, if possible still more frightful than
that of Lauderdale. The battle of Bothwell Bridge had
tamed the spirit of the Covenanters, and many of them, by
frequenting the churches of the indulged ministers, suc¬
ceeded in screening themselves from the vengeance of the
government. But there was still left a remnant of faithful
adherents of the covenant, inconsiderable in number, and
despicable in point of influence, but men of stern charac¬
ter, exalted enthusiasm, and indomitable zeal, who fol¬
lowed their spiritual guides, Cargill and Cameron, into the
■wilderness,.and, amidst the glens and morasses, were fed
by them with the manna of the divine word. Hunted
like partridges on the mountains, and subjected to military
execution wherever they were caught, these men, naturally
led to inquire into the authority of those by whom their
sufferings were inflicted, came as naturally to the conclu¬
sion, that the king having broken the condition upon which
he received the crown of Scotland, by rejecting the cove¬
nant, had therefore forfeited all right to the exercise of
the regal authority. Deeply convinced of the truth of
this doctrine, Cameron, accompanied by twenty persons
of his. sect, proceeded to Sanquhar, and there published
A.Declaration and Festimonie of the true Presbyterian,
Anti-Prelatic, Anti-Erastian, and persecuted Party in
Scotland, setting forth their grievances, disowning the
king by reason of his tyranny, proclaiming war against him
as a tyrant and usurper, and testifying against the recep¬
tion of the Duke of York, a professed Papist, in Scotland,
as repugnant to their principles, and their vows to the most
high God. This persecuted remnant, who mustered in
all twenty-six horse and forty foot, now prepared to sup¬
port their bold defiance by force of arms ; but they, were
surprised, defeated, and dispersed, by three troops of dra¬
goons, at Airmoss, in the district of Kyle. Cameron fell
in the skirmish, fightingwith heroic courage; his brother,
wath seven of his companions, shared his fate ; Hackston
ot Katlnllet, who had been a passive spectator merely of
tne murder of Sharpe, and a few others, were wmunded and
made prisoners. Cargill escaped from the field, and pre¬
pared to avenge the death of his friends. Having repaired
to lorwood m Stirlingshire, and assembled a number of
ms disciples, henceforward known by the name of Came-
romans, he proceeded, after a lecture and sermon, to ex¬
communicate the king, “ for his mocking of God, his per-
jury, iis uncleanness of adultery, his drunkenness, and his
dissembling with God and man the Duke of York, for
coaiy; the Duke of Monmouth, for invading God’s
people at Bothwell Bridge; the Duke of Lauderdale, for
asphemy, apostacy, and adultery; and the Duke of
Mackenzie, and Dalziel of Binns, for
nnw n °®eilces* .He concluded by declaring that “ no
of Hip °n eartih’ of klngs’ princes, magistrates, or ministers,
sons could, without the repentance of the per-
munic0aPHon^”andi aPPearing> reverse this excom-
affirmo*' ’ an<^ ^lere can he no doubt whatever that his
™ation was most devoutly believed.
measnrf pro,cf dil?Ss exasperated the council beyond all
rallolpd ’ and.humed them into the commission of unpa-
were excnn^f168'- The Prisoners brought from Airmoss
strict Sp^ it d Wlth every circumstance of barbarity; a
also for tbp r made’ rml only after their associates, but
manv in 1 ^ofes?ors of their doctrines; and of the latter,
voL vdUdlng females> testified with the loss of their
353
h^es the sincerity of their belief. Even those innocent of Reign of
all offence towards the government were insidiously involv- Charles II.
ed in the same fate with those who had openly defied it.
Taking advantage of the spirit which the cruelties of the
government had alone excited and inflamed, the privy
council sought to entrap fresh victims by means of ensnar-
ing questions, thus imitating the great master they served,
in tempting men to sin, that they might have the plea¬
sure of punishing them for it. Was Archbishop Sharpe’s
death murder? Was the rising at Bothwell Bridge re¬
bellion ? Is Charles a rightful king or a tyrant ? Such
were the interrogatories put to the victims of rage and
suspicion, who being for the most part too sincere to dis¬
semble their opinions, and too fearless to be intimidated
even by the most cruel tortures, were commonly dismissed
from the iron boot to the court of justiciary, and thence,
by a rapid transition, to the scaffold.
But the mass of the people were not the only objects
of this fierce and frantic tyranny. Anon it took a higher
flight, and struck at the Earl of Argyll, a man whose only
fault appears to have consisted in his submission to the
frightful misrule under which his country had so long
groaned; a submission dictated by a love of peace, not
by an approval of its enormities. When required, as a
privy counsellor, to take a self-contradictory test, which
the Scottish parliament had prescribed, Argyll accepted
it with an explanation, that he took it in as far as it was
consistent with itself and the Protestant religion, adding,
that he would “ not debar himself from endeavouring in a
lawful way, and in his station, to make such changes in the
church and state as he might judge beneficial.” For this
explanation he was imprisoned in the castle of Edinburgh,
brought to trial, and, by an infamous perversion of his
words, a charge of treason made out against him. Nairne,
a superannuated judge, carried into court at midnight to
make a majority on the relevancy of the indictment, fell
asleep during the proceedings, and was only wakened to
glve Ins vote. A jury of Argyll’s personal enemies, with
the Marquis of Montrose at their head, found him guilty
of treason, leasing-making, and leasing-telling, though not
of the perjury libelled ; and he received sentence of death,
although the execution of it was suspended during the
kings pleasure. But Argyll did not choose to trust to
the tender mercies of his enemies. He escaped from the
castle in disguise, and thus saved his life ; but sentence of
attainder was passed against him. After the defeat of
the exclusionists, and the dissolution of parliament, the
duke was iccalled to England ; but the consequent change
of. axlministration was productive of little or no relief to
this oppressed country.
In 1683 the city of London was deprived of its charter,
which was only restored upon terms of abject submission’
and its giving up the nomination of its own magistrates.
Fins was so arbitrary a proceeding, that all the other cor¬
porations in England began to dread the same treatment,
and, in fact, were successively induced to surrender their
chaiters into the hands of the king. Considerable sums
were exacted for the restoration of these charters, and
all the offices of power and profit were left at the dispo¬
sal of the crown. Resistance now, however justifiable,
was no longer safe; and prudent men saw no other expe¬
dient but submitting with patience to the present griev¬
ances.
I here was a party in England, however, which still
cherished their former ideas of freedom, and resolved to
restore liberty to their country by dethroning the mo¬
narch who acted in a manner so despotic and arbitrary.
The principal members of this confederacy were Mon¬
mouth, Shaftesbury, Russell, Essex, Howard, Algernon
Sidney, and John Hampden, grandson to the great man
2 Y
354
BRITAIN.
_ T  A nf Marries- was now as absolute as that of any prince in Europe; but Ba*n ;
Reign of of that name. Monmouth engaged the Ea * .-.lease his subiects bv a popular act, he judged it pro-Ct^-s .
about eight iu the
rates chiefly relied. These schemes had been laid m 1681. came aressea out immediately bled, he
But the caution of Lord Russell, who induced the Duke ^"“enses, and hopes were entertained of
of Monmouth to postpone the enterprise, saj £ hi rec0Very. But on the fourth day the physicians des-
dom from the horrors of a civil war; whilst Shaftesbury ^is recovery. » ^ therefore SentJ for the queen. He
was so struck with a sense of his impen ing c g > 1 ‘ . ^.g perfect senses, when she arrived. She threw
he left his house, and lurking about t le ci y, a p i ^ ir on ]ier knees and asked his pardon for all her of-
ed in vain to force the Londoners into open msur ec-
tion. Enraged at tne numberless cau i°n J t]iat pe iiaj been guilty of offences against her, and asked
which clogged and defeated his projects, c . s 1 nardon He spoke with great affection to the Duke of
ened to begin with his own friends singly; but after a ^^X ^eUent counsel for his future con-
bng struggie between ^arJ^^terdam where duct,’advising him to adhere to the laws with strictness,
doned all hope:, of success, and J Shaftesbury, and invariably to support the church of England. But
he soon afterwards died. But the , • ^ e duke seemed anxious to convince his brother before
though it retarded, d,d not put an end o the designs of ahneX!°“eSnded t0 follow his advice. Hav-
vate interest during the confusion.
Besides these there was a subordinate set of conspira¬
tors, who frequently met together, and carried on pro¬
jects quite unknown to Monmouth and his council. Among
them was Colonel Rumsey, a military adventurer; Lieu¬
tenant-Colonel Walcot, a man of the same stamp; Good-
give iiiiii Hie &aGiaiiicxii,.   1 
read the visitation of the sick, and, after the dying nuin
had said that he repented of his sins, the absolution. I he
king assisted with seeming devotion at the service; but
his mouth being distorted with fits, and his throat con¬
tracted, he could not swallow the elements. He profes¬
sed, however, his satisfaction with the church of England,
tenant-Colonel W alcot, a man ot me same siamp ; vruuu- A' V ’ “ AI fifh nf February after a rei<m of twen-
enough, under-sheriff of London, a zealous and noted and expmed on the Bth of ^
* ’ __ .• j — t. . anrl co. tv.fnnr vears. and in the titty-nttn vear oi ms a=e.
party-man; Ferguson, an independent minister; and se
vend attorneys, merchants, and tradesmen of London.
But Rumsev and Ferguson were the only persons who
had access to the great leaders of the conspiracy. These
men took the resolution of assassinating the king in his
ty-four years, and in the fifty-fifth year of ins .
In person Charles was tall and well-proportioned, with
a swarthy complexion and features austere and forbid¬
ding. His constitution, originally sound and robust, he
had8 in his youth impaired by indulgence, and afterwards
mpn took the resolution of assassinating tne King in ms huu m ma  ^  o- ' „ in
wav to Newmarket; and as Rumboldt, one of the party, laboured to restore by attention to diet and exe a •
no^essed a farm upon the road called the Rye-house, the disposition he was kind, familiar, communicatee,
conspRacy wi tEe called the Rye-house Plot The ing in social converse; averse to parade audcerem^,
scheme they had fixed on was to stop the king’s coach by and eager, on all occasions, to escape ,om ,j vj
overturning a cart on the highway at this place, and to of official dignity to the ease and comfort of jollog
shoot him through the hedges. But the house in which
the kins lived at Newmarket having accidentally taken
fire, he was obliged to leave that place eight days sooner
than was expected, and to this circumstance he owed his
safety. Soon afterwards the conspiracy vTas discovered;
' ill i y ikj iiic   
familiarity. Fie had good talents ; but these wcie
ed to an insuperable antipathy to application, whic i-
qualified him for business, and kept him in a state o
ignorance disgraceful to one in his station; , f011® _
amusement alone, and seems to have cared htt e or
satetv. 5>OOn anerwarcis me cunspiraejr was l.is^uvC1CU,    „ r .-.rnnpnsity. He
Russell, Sidney, and Walcot, were executed; Essex cut thing beyond the gratification of tins p p - . d
his own throat;' Hampden was fined forty thousand pounds; looked upon the practice of dls®1I"u a , , who
and scarcely one escaped who had been in any manner secret in the art of reigning. Surroui . ive
concerned, except the Duke of Monmouth, who was the made it their object, as it was their into e,
most culpable of all. ^ ^is only protection, he argued ^^d inffie^ ^
This was the last blood shed on account of plots or con- ployment of the same weapon, and it . During
spiracies, which had abounded during the greater part him to deceive, that he might not be dece‘\ • ^
of this reign. Severe punishments, however, were in- his whole reign he was the slaye,ot’ ‘ints 0f mo-
flicted on many who had treated the Duke of York un- became a school of vice, in which all the re whilst
worthily. The infamous Titus Oates was fined a hundred rahty and even decency were laughed w
thousand pounds for calling him a popish traitor, and was the distinctions he lavished on his mis holding
imprisoned till he paid the mulct, which he was abso- them to put a bold front on their vouthlul
lutelv incapable of doing. A similar sentence was passed out an encouragement to crime, tended to sap ^
upon Dutton Colt; and^Sir Samuel Barnadiston was fined breasts those principles of modesty ' . n0tber
ten thousand pounds for having in some private letters guardians of female virtue. “ I here may na .ailedj-’
reflected on the goYemment. The government of Charles periods of our history in which immora y r
BRITAIN.
R TJ1 of says Dr Lingard; “ but none in which it was practised
Ja es II. with more ostentation, or brought with it less disgrace.”
Of Charles's pecuniary transactions with France it is im¬
possible to think without feelings of shame, or to speak ex¬
cept in the language of reprobation. They were equally
disgraceful in themselves, and humiliating’ to the nation,
which had at its head a king who thus sold himself to its
natural rival and enemy. That he cherished designs sub¬
versive of the liberties of the subject, is evinced by the
whole tenor of his conduct, especially during the latter
part of his reign ; and had he been as active in his habits
as he was unprincipled in his character and despotical in his
disposition, the constitution might have been overthrown,
and a monarchy as absolute as any in Europe erected on
its ruins. With respect to what he was pleased to call
his religion, he appears to have been a deist; and although
he had embraced the Catholic worship before the restora¬
tion, yet he was not formally reconciled to the church of
Rome until the eve of his death. By this means he was
enabled to play the hypocrite, and,’ for five-and-twenty
years, to hold himself out as an orthodox protestant, whilst
he satisfied his conscience by secretly professing Catho¬
licism, and in reality believed no religion at all. Finally,
in all the relations of life, whether public or private, he
was equally unprincipled, profligate, false, immoral, vici¬
ous, and corrupt; whilst, from the example of his debauch¬
ed and licentious court, public morals contracted a taint,
which it required little less than a century to obliterate,
and which for a time wholly paralysed the character of
the nation.
CHAP. VII.
REIGN OF JAMES II.
Accession of James II—Slavish Addresses.—Remarkable one by
the Quakers—Imprudent Measures of the Kini? Pleasure
in favour of the Catholics—Monmouth’s Conspiracv Defeat
and Execution of Argyll—Landing of Monmouth.—Battle of
aedgemore—Defeat, Capture, and Execution of Monmouth. 
James endeavours to establish Popery—Parliament dissolved.
—Catholics promoted—Opposition of the English Clergv An
ambassador sent to Rome—Declarations in favour of libertv
o conscience—The seven Bishops imprisoned—Popular com¬
motions—Pnal and acquittal of the Bishops—Attachment of
the army to the Protestant Cause—Birth of the Prince of
vv ales—Treachery of Sunderland—Proceedings of the Prince
«™?gcTIriVlted t0 Englani1 bJ the malcontents—Janies
arned of his danger by the French king—Rejects all offers
-SrCec~cPar!I-V,Sed by the news of the ^tended invasion.
T3nrl^nd7c0w^nde^and—Vain attempt5 at conciliation—
v gT? dllam Pnnce of Orange—Defection of James’s
hv dressing situation of the King, who is deserted even
Si, A" clllidreii—Conduct of William—James attempts to
Lt,,™ ff10?’ but is 86120(1 and detained—His distress—
iteturn to London—Ordered to leave the palace—Urged to
France Ttf0^ °f bjS adherents—His refusal—Lands in
SoverP ~ ?e hr°-ne declared vacant—William raised to the
sovereignty in conjunction with the Princess Mary his wife.
nrivvt^r!>t r- ^a.mes H* 8 feign was to assemble the
the memrn-v’fU-WhlC!1’ after I)estowing sorne praise on
resolutm ? ° k-1S Predecessor, he made professions of his
chiimh n i° 10311113111 ^e established government both in
life in def stat0; and as he had heretofore ventured his
still go^far^ ^ nati•0n, he declared that he "'ould
and privileges ^ ^ “ maintainiDg aU its jU8t rights
onlybvthp0^86 Tau re,ceived Wlth great applause, not
came from all UnC1 ’ but by the whole nati°n- Addresses
vile adulation qTters’ [,dl °,f dut>’’ nay’ of the most ser-
cepted that of th^n ^1S chaf?e’ however, must be ex-
f the Quakers, which is remarkable for its
good sense and simplicity. “ We are come,” said they,
to testify our sorrow for the death of our good friend
Charles, and bur joy for thy being made our governor.
V e are told that thou art not of the persuasion of the
church of England, no more than we; wherefore we hope
that thou wilt grant us the same liberty which thou allovv-
est thyself, which doing, we wish thee all manner of hap¬
piness.” 1
. The king> however, soon showed, either that he was not
sincere in his promises, or that he entertained so lofty an
idea of his own regal poiver, that even his utmost sincerity
could tend but little to the security of the liberties of the
people. _ All the customs, and the greater part of the ex¬
cise, which had been voted to the late king for his life
only, were levied by James without any new act for that
purpose. He went openly to mass with all the ensigns of
his dignity, and even sent one Caryl as his agent to Rome
to make submissions to the pope, and to pave the way for
the re-admission of England into the bosom of the Catho¬
lic church. By the suggestions of these men all his mea¬
sures were undertaken. One day when the Spanish am¬
bassador ventured to advise his majesty against putting
too much confidence in such kind of people, “ Is it not
the custom in Spain,” said James, “ for the king to con¬
sult with his confessor ?” “ Yes,” answered the ambas¬
sador, “ and that is the reason why our affairs succeed so
very ill.”
James s first parliament, which was composed mostly of
zealous tories, was strongly inclined to comply with the
measures of the crown, and passed a unanimous vote,
settling on James during life all the revenue enjoyed by
the late king till the time of his decease. For this favour
James assured them that he would secure them in the full
enjoyment of their laws: but with regard to religion no
answer could be extorted from him, for that he was re¬
solved at all hazards to change. In every thing except re¬
ligion, however, James merited commendation. He ap¬
plied himself to business with unremitting attention; he
managed his revenue with the strictest economy; he re¬
trenched superfluous expenses, and showed himself zeal¬
ous for the glory of the nation ; he endeavoured to expel
from court the vice which had prevailed so much during
the former reign, and to restore decency and morality ; he
presided daily at the council, and at the boards of admi¬
ralty and treasury; he even entered into the whole detail
of the concerns of the great departments of the state.
But his bigoted attachment to the Roman Catholic reli¬
gion sullied all his good qualities, and rendered him feared
for his violence, where he was not despised for his weakness.
But whilst every thing remained in tranquillity at home,
a storm was gathering abroad. For a long time the Prince
of Orange had entertained hopes of ascending the British
throne, and had even used endeavours to exclude James,
Monmouth, who, since his last conspiracy, had been par¬
doned, but ordered to depart the kingdom, had retired to
Holland, where he was received by the Prince of Orange
with the highest marks of distinction, and became his
chief favourite. \\ hen the news of Charles’s death arriv¬
ed, indeed, the prince made a show of changing his tone,
and dismissed Monmouth, but still kept up a close corre¬
spondence with him. The duke retired to Brussels; and,
having resolved to invade England, he was seconded by
the Earl of Argyll, who formed the scheme of exciting
an insurrection in Scotland. But the generosity of the
Prince of Orange did not correspond with the warmth of
his professions. The unfortunate duke derived from his
own plate and jewels his whole supply for the war ; whilst
the enthusiasm of a rich widow supplied Argyll with ten
thousand pounds, with which he purchased three vessels,
and loaded them with arms and ammunition.
355
Reign of
Janies II.
356
BRITAIN.
lieign of Having landed in Scotland, Argyll published his mani-
James II. festoes, put himself at the head of two thousand five hun-
dred men, and strove to influence the people in his favour.
But a formidable body of the king’s forces having marched
against him, his army fell away ; and he himself, after be¬
ing wounded in attempting to escape, was taken pi isoner
by a peasant, carried to Edinburgh, and, after suffering
many indignities, publicly executed. _
By this time Monmouth had landed in Dorsetshire with
scarcely a hundred followers. His name, however, was so
popular, and so great was the hatred of the people to
James on account of his religion, that in foui da^s he had
assembled a body of above two thousand men, and con¬
tinuing to make a rapid progress, in a short time found
himself at the head of six thousand men ; but he was daily
obliged to dismiss great numbers for want of arms. Alarm¬
ed at his invasion, the king recalled six regiments of Bri¬
tish troops from Holland; and a body of regulars, to the
number of three thousand, was sent, under the command
of the Earl of Feversham, and of Lord Churchill, to check
the progress of the rebels. They took post at Sedgemore,
a village in the neighbourhood of Bridgewater, and were
joined by considerable numbers of the country militia.
Here Monmouth resolved to make a stand ; and having
drawn up his followers in the best order he could, he
drove the royal infantry from their ground, and was on
the point of gaining a complete victory, when the coward¬
ice of Gray, who commanded the horse, ruined all. This
nobleman fled at the first onset; and the insurgents being
charged in flank, gave way after a contest of three hours.
About three hundred were killed in the engagement, and
a thousand in the pursuit. Monmouth fled above twenty
miles from the field of battle, till his horse sunk under
him. He then alighted, and, exchanging clothes with a
shepherd, fled on foot, attended by a German count who
had accompanied him from Holland. Being at length
quite exhausted with hunger and fatigue, they both lay
down in a field, and covered themselves with fern. Mean¬
while the shepherd being found in Monmouth’s dress,
increased the diligence of the search; and by means of
bloodhounds he was detected in his miserable situation,
with raw peas in his pocket, on which he had subsisted
for some days. He burst into tears when seized by his
enemies, and petitioned, with abject importunity, for his
life.
He also wrote to the queen dowager; he sent a letter
to the reigning queen, as well as to the king himself; and
he begged his life, when admitted into the presence of
James, with a meanness unsuitable to his pretensions and
high rank. But all his entreaties and submissions were
of no avail. James told him that he was much affected
at his misfortunes, but that his crime was too dangerous
in its example to be left unpunished. In his last moments
Monmouth behaved with a magnanimity worthy of his
‘ former courage. When he came to the scaffold, he con¬
ducted himself with decency and even with dignity. He
spoke little, he made no confession, nor did he accuse
any of his friends. The circumstances attending his death
excited horror among the spectators. The executioner
missed his aim, and struck him slightly on the shoulder.
Monmouth raised his head from the block, and looked
him full in the face, as if reproaching him for his mis¬
take. The man struck twice again, but feebly, and then
threw away the axe. The sheriff forced him to renew his
attempt; and the head of the duke, who seemed already
dead, was at last severed from his body.
Those concerned in the Duke of Monmouth’s conspiracy
were punished with the utmost severity. Immediately
after the battle of Sedgemore, Feversham hanged up above
twenty prisoners, and was proceeding with his executions
when the Bishop of Bath and Wells informed him that Reign
these unhappy men were now bylaw entitled to a trial, James Hi
and that their execution would be deemed murder. Nine-
teen were put to death in the same manner at Bridge-
water by Colonel Kirke, a man of a thoroughly savage and
bloody disposition. This miscreant, practised in the arts
of slaughter at Tangiers, where he had served in garrison,
took pleasure in committing acts of wanton barbarity, and
ravaged the whole country without making any distinc¬
tion between friend and foe; his own regiment being de¬
signated, by way of eminence, “ Kirke’s Lambs.” The na¬
tural brutality of this man’s temper was inflamed by con¬
tinual intoxication. No fewer than eighty were executed
by his orders at Dorchester; and on the whole, at Exe¬
ter, Taunton, and Wells, two hundred and fifty are com¬
puted to have fallen by the hand of justice, as it was call¬
ed, under the auspices of Judge Jefferies, who had been
sent down to try the delinquents. This man, hot satisfied
with the sacrifice of the principals, charged the juries to
search out the aiders and abettors of the rebellion; and
those persons who, in compassion for the wretched fugitives,
had afforded them an asylum, were denounced and punish¬
ed as such. Even women did not escape, and two, Lady
Lisle and Mrs Gaunt, were sentenced to be burned alive
for similar acts of humanity. Jefferies, on his return from
his campaign in the west, was immediately created a peer,
and soon after invested with the dignity of chancellor. In
his Memoirs James complains, with apparent indignation,
of “ the strange havock made by Jefferies and Kirke in the
west,” and attributes the unpopularity which afterwards
deprived him of the crown to the violence and barbarity
of those pretended friends of his authority.
James now began to throw off the mask, and to endea¬
vour openly to establish popery and arbitrary power. He
told the House of Commons that the militia were found
by experience to be of no use; that it was necessary to
augment the standing army; and that he had employed
a great many Catholic officers, in whose favour he had
thought proper to dispense with the test required to be
taken by all who were employed by the crown, ihese
stretches of power naturally led the Lords and Commons
into some degree of opposition ; but they soon acquiesced
in the king’s measures, and then the parliament was dis¬
missed for their tardy compliance.
The parliament being dissolved, James’s next step was
to secure a Catholic interest in the privy council. Ac¬
cordingly four Catholic lords, Powis, Arundel, Bellasis,
and Dover, were admitted as members. Sunderland, who
saw that the only way to gain preferment was by popei))
became a convert. Rochester, the treasurer, was turne
out of his office because he refused to conform. Even m
Ireland, where the Duke of Ormond had long supported
the royal cause, this nobleman wras displaced as being a
Protestant, and the Lord Tyrconnel, a furious Catholic,
was placed in his stead. In his zeal for popery, it is sai
that James stooped so low as even to attempt the convei
sion of Colonel Kirke ; but the daring soldier told ini
that he was pre-engaged, for he had promised the kmg °
Morocco, when he was quartered at langiers, that i over
he changed his religion he would turn Mahommedan.
last the clergy of the church of England began to ta
the alarm, and commenced an opposition to couit roea
sures. The pulpits now thundered out against P0?^’
and it was in vain that James attempted to impose si en
on this topic. Instead of avoiding the controveisy,
Protestant preachers pursued it with greater warmt •
To effect his designs, the king determined to revive
High Commission Court, wdiich had formerly given .
nation so much disgust, and which had been abohs et
ever by act of parliament. An ecclesiastical commission
BRITAIN.
If
.1; es
V«
of accordingly issued/ by which seven commissioners were
II- invested with full and unlimited authority over the whole
^ church of England. The next step was to allow liberty
of conscience to all sectaries. This was done in the be¬
lief that the truth of the Catholic religion would, upon a
fair trial, gain the victory. Besides, the same power that
granted liberty of conscience might restrain it;, and the
Catholic religion alone would thus predominate. He
therefore issued a general indulgence, declaring that non¬
conformity to the established religion was no longer penal;
but in Scotland he ordered his parliament to grant a tole¬
ration only to the Catholics, without interceding in the
least for the other dissenters. In Ireland the Protestants
were totally expelled from all offices of trust and profit,
and Catholics put in their places. These measures suffi¬
ciently disgusted every part of the British empire; but to
complete the work, James publicly sent the Earl of Cas-
tlemaine as ambassador extraordinary to Rome, in order
to express his obedience to the pope, and reconcile his
kingdoms to the Catholic communion. Phis proceeding
was too precipitate to be relished even by the pope him¬
self; and therefore the only return he made to this em¬
bassy was the sending a nuncio into England. Soon after
this the Jesuits were permitted to erect colleges in differ¬
ent parts of the kingdom, and to exercise the Catholic
worship in the most public manner.
In 1686 a second declaration in favour of liberty of con¬
science was published almost in the same terms with the
former, but with this particular injunction, that all divines
should read it after service in their churches. The clergy
resolved to disobey this order. Loyd, bishop of St Asaph,
Kenn of Bath and Wells, Turner of Ely, Lake of Chiches¬
ter, White of Peterborough, and Trelawney of Bristol, to-
gether with Sancroft the primate, concerted an address in
the form of a petition to the king, which, w-ith the warm¬
est expressions of zeal and submission, signified that they
could not read the declaration consistently with their con¬
sciences or the respect they owed the Protestant religion,
the kmg received their petition with marks of surprise
and displeasure. He said he did not expect such an ad¬
dress from the church of England, particularly from some
amongst them; and persisted in his orders for their obey¬
ing his mandate. As the petition had been delivered in
private, the king summoned the bishops before the coun¬
cil, and there questioned them whether they would ac¬
knowledge it. They for some time declined giving an an¬
swer; but being urged by the chancellor, they at last own¬
ed the petition. On their refusal to give bail, an order
was immediately issued for their commitment to the Tower,
and the crown lawyers received directions to prosecute
cllrtmi a se(*ltlous ^bel. The king gave orders that they
uld be conveyed to the Tower by water, as the whole
city was in commotion in their favour. But the people,
ereat °f their danSer’ ran t0 the river side in
g eat multitudes, craving their blessing, and calling upon
thp, en to Protect them; whilst the very soldiers by whom
wT6- gaarded kneeled down before them and im-
for thp fle-ir| °^lveness* The 29th of June 1686 was fixed
numhpi- T of Z116 bmhops. Twenty-nine peers, a great
waited ° £eat emen> an(l an immense crowd of persons,
was leaTu them t0 Westminster Hall. The discussion
jury w,Yhdd 7 !Tianaged by the lawyers on both sides. The
nicht lnt0 a chamber, where they passed the whole
Pronounced^returned into court, and
stantlv r?nl ,.bliShol)S not SU]lty- Westminster Hall in-
nicated tn ?ud acclamations, which were commu-
the camn tr^0 ,6 extent of the city, and even reached
Lord Fevprol oans °'v’ where the king was at dinner in
of thosere ilmS ten,SHis ™jesty demanded the cause
joicings, and being informed that it was nothing
357
but the soldiers shouting for the delivery of the bishops, Reign of
Call you that nothing ?” said he; “ but so much the James II.
worse for them.”
As the king found the clergymen everywhere averse
to his measures, he was willing next to try what he could
do with the army, thinking that if one regiment could
be brought to promise implicit obedience, their example
would soon induce others to comply. He therefore order¬
ed one of the regiments to be drawn up in his presence,
and desired "that such as were against the late declara¬
tion of liberty of conscience should lay down their arms.
He was surprised to see the whole battalion ground their
arms, except two officers and a few Roman Catholic sol¬
diers. A few days before the acquittal of the bishops
the queen was delivered of a son. This, if any thing could
at that time, might have served to establish James on the
throne; but so violent was the animosity against him, that
a story was propagated that the child was supposititious;
and the monarch s pride scorned to take any precautions
to refute the calumny.
Though the enthusiast of James himself was sufficiently
extravagant, the wildest of his religious projects seem t*o
have been suggested by his enemies in order to accomplish
his ruin. The Earl of Sunderland, whom he chiefly trusted,
was a man of abandoned principles, insatiable avarice, and
fitted by nature for stratagem, deception, and intrigue.
The love of money was his ruling passion, and he according¬
ly sold his influence to the highest bidder. To such a de¬
gree was he mercenary, that he became at once the pen¬
sioner of the Prince of Orange and of the king of France.
The former, who had long fixed his eye on the English
thione, watched James s motions, and took every advan¬
tage of his errors. He had laid his schemes so extensively,
that nothing but the birth of a male heir to the crown of
England seemed likely to prevent him from obtaining an
almost immediate possession of the kingdom ; and he had
the address to render two thirds of the powers of Europe
interested in his success. The treaty of Augsburg, formed
to break the power of France, could not accomplish its
object without the accession of England. The house of
Austria, in both its branches, preferred their political views
to their zeal for the Roman Catholic faith, and promoted
the dethronement of James as the only means of humbling
Louis XIV. Odeschalchi, who under the name of Inno¬
cent XI. then filled the papal chair, was also gained to the
measures of the Prince of Orange by other considerations,
as well as through his fixed aversion to France.
Seeing the national discontent now raised to the high¬
est pitch, the Prince of Orange resolved to take advantage
of it. He began by giving one Dykevelt, his envoy, in¬
structions to apply in his name to every religious sect in
the kingdom. To the church party he sent assurances of
favour and regard; protesting that his education in Hol¬
land had no way prejudiced him against Episcopacy. To
the non-conformists he sent exhortations not to be deceiv-
ed by the insidious caresses of their known enemy, but to
wait for a real and sincere protector. In consequence of
these insinuations, the prince soon received invitations
from the most considerable persons in the kingdom. Ad¬
mirals Herbert and Russell assured him in person of their
own and the national attachment. Henry Sidney, brother
to Algernon, and uncle to the Earl of Sunderland, came
over to him with assurances of a universal combination
against the king. Lord Dumblane, son to the Earl of
Danby, being master of a frigate, made several voyages to
Holland, and carried from many of the nobility tenders of
duty, and even considerable sums of money, to the Prince
of Orange. Soon after, the Bishop of London, the Earls of
Danby, Nottingham, Devonshire, Dorset, and several other
lords, gentlemen, and principal citizens, united in their
358
lleign of
James If.
BRITAIN.
addresses to him, and entreated his speedy descent. The
people, though long divided between whig and tory, now
joined against their misguided sovereign as against a com¬
mon enemy. William therefore determined to accept then
invitation ; and this the more readily, as he perceived that
the malcontents had conducted themselves with prudence
and secrecy. Having the principal servants of James in
pay, he was minutely informed of the most secret actions
and designs of that prince. His intelligence came through
Sidney from Sunderland, who betrayed the very measures
which he himself had advised. The prince had a fleet
ready to sail, and troops provided for action, before the
beginning of June 1688.
The king of France was the first who gave James warn-
ino- of his danger, and offered to assist him in repelling it.
But he declined this friendly offer, lest it should be said
that he had entered into a private treaty with that mo¬
narch to the prejudice of the Protestant religion. Being
also deceived and betrayed by Sunderland, he had the
weakness to believe, that the reports of an invasion were
invented in order to frighten him into a strict connection
with France. He gave credit to the repeated assurances
of the States, that the armament preparing in their ports
was not designed against England; nay, he even believ¬
ed the assertions of the prince himself, whose interest it
was to deceive. Sunderland descanted against the possi¬
bility of an invasion, and turned into ridicule all who be¬
lieved the report. Having, with the consent of James,
taken possession of all the foreign correspondence, he sup¬
pressed every kind of intelligence that might alarm ; and
all others whom James trusted, except Dartmouth, affect¬
ed long to place no faith in the reports of an invasion.
Louis finding his first offers rejected, next proposed to
march down his army to the frontiers of the Dutch pro¬
vinces, and thus detain their forces at home for their own
defence. But this proposal met with no better reception
than the former one. Still Louis, unwilling to abandon a
friend and ally whose interest he regarded as closely con¬
nected with his own, ventured to remonstrate with the
Dutch against the preparations they were making to in¬
vade England. But the Dutch treated his remonstrances
as an officious impertinence, and James himself declined
his mediation.
The king of England, having thus rejected the assist¬
ance of his friends, and being left to face the danger alone,
was astonished with an advice from his minister in Hol¬
land, that an invasion was not only projected, but avowed.
When he first read the letter containing this information,
he grew pale, and the letter dropt from his hand. He saw
himself on the brink of destruction, and knew not to whom
to apply for protection. In this emergency, Louis wrote
to James in his own hand, that to divert the Dutch from
their intended invasion of England, he would lay siege to
Maestricht with thirty thousand men. James communi¬
cated this intelligence to Sunderland, and the latter to the
Prince of Orange, by whom six thousand men were thrown
into Maestricht; and the design of Louis being thus ren¬
dered impracticable, it was laid aside.
James had now no resource but in retreating from those
precipitate measures which had plunged him into inextri¬
cable distress. He paid court to the Dutch, and offered
to enter into any alliance with them for their common se¬
curity. He replaced, in all the counties of England, the
deputy lieutenants and justices who had been deprived of
their commissions for their adherence to the test and pe¬
nal law. He restored the charters of such corporations as
he had possessed himself of, annulled the High Commis¬
sion Court, reinstated the expelled president and fellows
of Magdalen College, and even caressed the bishops whom
he had so lately persecuted and insulted. But all these
concessions were now too late, and were regarded as the Reignj
effects of fear, not of repentance. Jam* j
In the mean time, William set sail from Helvoetsluys with '
a fleet of near five hundred sail, and an army of above four¬
teen thousand men. Fortune, however, seemed at first very
unfavourable to his enterprise. He was driven back by a
dreadful storm; but he soon refitted his fleet, and again
set sail for England. It was given out that this invasion
was designed for the coast of France; and many of the
English, who saw the fleet pass along their coast, little
suspected the place of its destination. It happened that
the same wind which sent the Dutch to their place of des¬
tination, detained the English fleet in the river; so that
the Dutch passed the Straits of Dover without molestation,
and, after a voyage of two days, landed at Broxholme in
Torbay, on the 5th of November 1688, the anniversary of
the gunpowder treason.
But although the invitation from the English was gene¬
ral, the prince for some time had the mortification to find
himself joined by very few. He continued for ten days in
expectation of being joined by the malcontents, and at last
was beginning to despair of success, and to deliberate about
re-embarking his forces, when he was joined by several
persons of consequence ; and the whole country soon after¬
wards flocked to his standard. The first person who went
over to the prince was Major Burrington, and he was quickly
followed by the gentry of the counties of Devon and bo-
merset. Sir Edward Seymour made proposals for an as¬
sociation, which was signed by great numbers ; and every
day there appeared some new proof of that universal com¬
bination into which the nation had entered against the
measures of the king. This was followed by the defection
of the army. Lord Colchester, son to the Earl of Fivers,
first deserted to the prince; Lord Cornbury, son to the
Earl of Clarendon, carried off the greatest part of three
regiments of cavalry at once; and several officers of dis¬
tinction informed Feversham their general, that they could
not in honour fight against the Prince of Orange, boon
after this the unhappy monarch found himself deserted by
his own servants and creatures. Lord Churchill had been
raised from the rank of page, and had been invested with
a high command in the army; he had been created a peer,
and owed his whole fortune to the king’s bounty; yet even
he deserted among the rest, and carried with him the Duke
of Grafton, natural son to the late king, besides Colonel
Berkeley and others. .
In this universal defection, James, not knowing where to
turn, began to think of requesting assistance from France,
when it was now too late. He also wrote to Leopolc, em
peror of Germany; but that monarch only returned for an¬
swer, that what he had foreseen had happened. James had
some dependence on his fleet; but in reality they were
entirely disaffected. In a word, his interests were desertea
by all, for he had long deserted them himself. His army,
however, still amounted to twenty thousand men , an ia
he led them immediately to battle, it is possible they nugn
then have fought in his favour. But his misfortunes naa
deprived him of his natural firmness and resdutum 5 an
seeing himself deserted by those in whom he t ioug i
could place most confidence, he became suspicious
all, and was in a manner deprived even of t ie P°.w*\ 0f
deliberation. In this extremity of distress, the rin .
Denmark, and Anne, James’s favourite daughter, per
ing the desperation of his circumstances, resolve ° .
part with the Prince of Orange. Informed of this ^ ’
the king was stung with the most bitter anguish,
help me,” said he; “ my own children have forsaken *
To add to his distress as a parent, he was accused or o
accessory to the death of his own child. ,
On the 30th of November 1688, James dispatche
BRITAIN.
K of noblemen to treat with the Prince of Orange. But though
Ji is II. the latter knew very well that the king’s commissioners
^ ^ were in his interests, his behaviour showed plainly that he
now thought the period for treating was past. For some
time he would not admit them to an audience; and when
he did, he gave no satisfactory answer. James now beo-an to
be alarmed for his personal safety; but what most affected
him was the terror of the queen for herself and her infant
son. He therefore resolved to send them abroad. They
crossed the river in a boat, at Whitehall, on a stormy day,
and were carried to Gravesend in a coach, under the con¬
duct of the Count de Lauzun; a yacht, commanded by
Captain Gray, which lay there ready for the purpose, soon
transported them in safety to Calais.
The king was now so dispirited and distracted, that he
resolved to leave the kingdom at once, and thus plunge
every thing in confusion. He threw the great seal into the
Thames; he left none with any authority to conduct the
government in his absence; and he vainly hoped to derive
advantage to his affairs from anarchy and disorder. About
twelve at night, on the 10th of December, he disguised
himself, took a boat at Whitehall, and crossed the river.
Sir Edward Hales, with another friend, met him at Vaux-
hall with horses. He mounted; and being conducted
through by-ways by a guide, he passed in the night-time
to the Medway, which he crossed by Ailesford-bridge. At
Woolpeck he took fresh horses, sent thither before by
Shelden, one of his equerries, who was in the secret of his
flight. Having arrived at Embyferry near Feversham, he
tound a custom-house hoy, hired by Sir Edward Hales, ly¬
ing ready to receive him on board. But the wind blew
tresh, and the vessel had no ballast. The master, there-
ore, easily persuaded the king to permit him to take in
some ballast at Shilness. It being half ebb when they ran
ashore, they intended to sail as soon as the vessel should
be afloat; but when the vessel was almost afloat, she was
boarded by three fishing boats belonging to Feversham,
containing fifty men, who seized the king and his two
companions, under pretence of their being Papists who
wanted to escape from the kingdom. They turned up
Feversham water with the tide; but still the king remain¬
ed unknown. Sir Edward Hales placed privately fifty
t le hands of t,le caPtain> as an earnest of more
should he permit them to escape. He promised, but so
ar Irom keeping his word, he took what money they had,
under pretence of securing it from the seamen; and hav¬
ing possessed himself of their all, left them to their fate.
eothUr°5UnattfugltlVeS were at lenSth carried in a
21^™'^’ aIT.lidst the .insults> clamours, and
inn n 116 sai.ors* When the king was brought to the
mPn who had served under him knew him, and
me ted into tears ; and James himself was so much moved
fisherm nstanife,°f ,hlS affection’ that he wept. The other
whenTl ’ Wh° lad PreviousIy treated him with indignity,
dass nf \StW h,S tears’ fel1 uP°n their kne^s- The lower
sort flpVf ab',tantS gathered round him; but the better
ed theme ri0rn blS Presence- The seamen, however, form-
his heaTJ68! ^ a guard’ and declared, that “ a hair of
James Ove ^ n0t touched.” In the mean time, Sir
the rabble 0n’ uader Pretence of guarding him from
The kino- ’fCamie Wlt!1 the ™dltia to prevent his escape,
taken on? pUf?d ,a change in his condition when he was
°f the milif f lands the sailors. The commanders
insultedbvtb sbowed him no respect; and he was even
tended ? c°mmon soldiers. A letter which he in-
and some mono ^ London for clothes, a change of linen,
protect his personWere St0pped hy those who Pretended to
own personab h?6/116 Prlnce of Orange exercised in his
the functions of royalty. Fie issued a de¬
claration to the disbanded army to re-assemble themselves.
He ordered the secretary at war to bring him a list of the
king’s troops. He commanded the Lord Churchill to col¬
lect his troop of horse guards. He sent the Duke of Graf¬
ton to take possession in his name of Tilbury Fort. The
assembly of peers adjourned to the council-chamber at
Whitehall, and, to give the appearance of legality to their
meeting, chose the Marquis of Halifax as their president.
Whilst this assembly was sitting, on the 13th of Decem¬
ber, a poor countryman, who had been engaged by James,
brought an open letter from that unfortunate prince to
London. It had no subscription; and it was addressed to
none. It described in one sentence only, his deplorable
condition when in the hands of a desperate rabble. This
poor messenger of a fallen sovereign waited long at the
council door, without being able to attract the notice of
any who passed; but when the Earl of Mulgrave became
apprised of his business, his lordship had the courage
to introduce him to the council. He delivered his open
letter, and told the unhappy state of the king. The as¬
sembly were much moved, and sent the Earl of Fevers¬
ham with two hundred of the guards towards Feversham.
His instructions were first to rescue James from danger,'
and afterwards to attend him to the sea coast, should he
wish to retire. He chose, however, to return to London ;
but the Prince of Orange sent a message to him, desiring
him to approach no nearer the capital than Rochester.
The messenger missed James by the way; and the king
sent Feversham with a letter to the Prince of Orange,
requesting his presence in London to settle the nation,’
while he himself proceeded thither, and arrived on the
16th of December.
, The Prince of Orange received the newrs of his return
with little satisfaction. His aim from the beginning was
to force him by various means to relinquish "the throne.
The Dutch guards were ordered to take possession of
\\ hitehall, and to displace the English ; and the king was
soon after commanded by a message, which he received
in bed at midnight, to leave his palace next morning, and
to depart for Ham, a seat of the Duchess of Lauderdale’s.
But he desired permission to retire to Rochester, which
was readily granted. The harsh measures of the prince
had now taken effect, and the king meditated an escape to
France. Surrounded by the Dutch guards, he arrived at
Rochester on the 19th of December. The restraint put
upon his person, and the manner in which he had been
forced from London, raised the indignation of many, and
excited the compassion of all. The English army, both
officers and soldiers, began to murmur ; and had it not been
for the timidity and precipitation of James himself, the
nation would probably have returned to their allegiance.
He remained three nights at Rochester, in the midst of a
few faithful friends, the Earls of Arran, Dumbarton, Ailes-
bury, Litchfield, and Middleton, and, amongst other officers
of merit, Lord Viscount Dundee. They all argued against
his intended flight; and several bishops, some peers, and
many officers, entreated his stay in some part of England.
They represented that the opinions of men began to
change, and that events would daily rise in favour of his
authority. Dundee added his native ardour to his advice.
“ The question, Sir,” said he, “ is, Whether you shall stay
in England or fly to France ? Whether you shall trust
the returning zeal of your native subjects, or rely on a
foreign power ? Here you ought to stand. Keep posses¬
sion of a part, and the whole will submit by degrees. Re¬
sume the spirit of a king. Summon your subjects to their
allegiance. Your army, though disbanded, is not dispers¬
ed. Give me your commission. I will gather ten thou¬
sand of your troops. I will carry your standard at their
head through England, and drive before you the Dutch
359
Reign of
James II.
CHAP. VIII.
360
BRITAIN.
Reign of and their prince.” The king replied, that he believed
James II. it might be done, but that it would raise a cm war, and
he would not do so much mischief to a nation that would
soon come to their senses again. Middleton urged Ins
stay, though in the remotest part of the kingdom. “ i our
maiesty,” said he, “ may throw things into confusion by
your departure ; but it will be but the anarchy of a month.
A new government will soon be settled, and you and your
family will be ruined.”
These spirited remonstrances had no effect upon James.
He resolved to quit the kingdom; and having communi¬
cated his design to a few of his friends, he left the house
where he had lodged at midnight, accompanied by his son
the Duke of Berwick, and went in a boat to a smack which
lay waitin'* for him without the fort at Sheerness. In the
morning of Tuesday the 25th December, the king landed
at Ambleteuse in France, and taking post, soon joined his
consort at St Germains. #
James having thus abandoned his dominions, the I rince
of Orange remained master of all. By the advice of the
House of Lords, the only member of the legislature re¬
maining, he was desired to summon a parliament by cir¬
cular letters ; but the prince, unwilling to act upon so im¬
perfect an authority, convened all the members who had
sat in the House of Commons during any parliament of
Charles II., to whom were added the mayor, aldermen, and
fifty of the common council of London; and being thus sup¬
ported by an assembly deriving its authority from himself,
he wrote circular letters to the counties and corporations of
England, directing them to return members to this parlia¬
ment or convention. When the house met, thanks were
voted to the Prince of Orange for the deliverance he had
wrought; after which they proceeded to settle the king¬
dom. A vote soon passed both houses, that King James
H. having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the
kingdom,’by breaking the original contract between the
king and the people, and having by the advice of Jesuits
and other wicked persons violated the fundamental laws,
and withdrawn himself out of the kingdom, had abdi¬
cated the government; and that the throne was thereby
vacant.
The king being thus deposed, it was easy for William
to get himself appointed as his successor. Proposals were
indeed made by some for electing a regent; and others
were fbr investing the Princess of Orange with regal power,
and declaring the young prince supposititious. But to
these proposals William opposed the decisive argument,
that he had been called over to defend the liberties of the
British nation, and that he had happily effected his pur¬
pose ; that he had heard of several schemes proposed for
the establishing of the government; that, if they chose a
regent, he thought it incumbent upon him to inform them
that he would not be that regent; that he would not ac¬
cept of the crown under the princess his wife, though he
was convinced of her merits; that therefore, if either of
these schemes was adopted, he could give them no assist- •
ance in the settlement of the nation, but would return
home to his own country, satisfied with his aims to secure
the freedom of theirs. Upon this, after a long debate in
both houses, a new sovereign was preferred to a regent
by a very small majority. It was agreed that the Prince
and Princess of Orange should reign jointly as king and
queen of England; whilst the administration of govern¬
ment should be placed in the hands of the prince only.
The Marquis of Halifax, as Speaker of the House of Lords,
made a solemn tender of the crown to their highnesses, in
the name of the Peers and Commons of England. The
prince accepted the offer; and that very day, the 13th of
February 1689, William and Mary were proclaimed king
and queen of England.
REIGN OF WILLIAM AND MARY.
Reign of
William
and Mary
First measures of William National discontents—Scheme in fa¬
vour of the Dissenters rejected—Precarious condition of Wil¬
liam’s government Proceedings in Scotland—William ac-
knowledged as King Attempts of Viscount Dundee in favour
of James. Battle of Killicrankie, and death of Dundee—State
of Ireland Insurrection in favour of James—The Protestants
take arms in their own defence, and are defeated at Drumore—
Landing of James in Ireland—Subsequent operations—Gal-
lant defence of Londonderry—Odious measures resorted to by
Janies Disembarkation of King William’s army—Its compo-
sition Arrival of William—Battle of the Boyne, and defeat
of James Battle of Aughrim, and defeat of St Ruth, James’s
General Siege of Limerick—Pacification of Ireland—Affairs
of Scotland Massacre of Glenco—Conduct of William re¬
specting this atrocious barbarity—The Dover expedition—
Violent discontents in Scotland, in consequence of the supposed
perfidy of the King Plots in favour of James—France declares
in his favour.—Battle of La Hogue, and total defeat of the
French fleet under Tourville—James offered the crown of Po-
land, which he declined—Offer by William to secure the suc¬
cession to the Prince of Wales, James’s son, also declined by
him Death of James Conduct of Louis on this occasion.—
The Pretender acknowledged bv France as king of Great Bri-
tain and Ireland Death of Queen Mary—National discon¬
tent William forced to disband his troops—Altercations be¬
tween the King and the Parliament—Confederacy against
France Death and Character of William.
William began his reign with issuing a proclamation for
continuing in office all Protestants who had been in place
on the first of the preceding December. On the 17th of
the month he formed his privy council, which consisted
chiefly of those persons who had been most active in rais¬
ing him to the throne. To gratify as many as possible of
his friends, the several boards, and even the chancery,
were put into commission. The benches of the Exchequer
and Common Pleas were filled with persons who had dis¬
tinguished themselves against the measures of the late
king. But the Earl of Nottingham, who had violently op¬
posed the elevation of M illiam, and the Earl of Shrews¬
bury, who had adhered to his views, were made secretaries
of state. The Marquis of Halifax, and the Earl of Dauby,
though rivals in policy, were admitted into the cabine ,
the first as lord privy seal, the second as president of the
council. William’s Dutch friends in the mean time were
not forgotten by the king. Bentinck, his favounte, was
made a privy counsellor, groom of the stole, and pny
purse ; Auverquerque was appointed master of the horse,
Zuylstein received the office of master of the robes; ana
Schomberg was placed at the head of the ordnance.
Though these instances of gratitude were no doubt ne¬
cessary to William, the generality of the nation were dis¬
pleased. The tories were offended at being excluded from
favour, especially as they had departed from their usua
principles in order to serve him. The nation in Sene ,
were much prejudiced against foreigners, and ^nlveL
discontent ensued upon seeing them preferred,
king, who had been bred a Calvinist, was also strong y
dined to favour that sect; and finding the clergy o
church of England but little inclined to take the oatns i
the new government, he began openly to.indulge ns
prejudices in favour of dissenters. Having c0™e , iie
House of Lords to pass some bills, on the 16th Mai >
made a speech, urging the necessity of admitting a
testants indiscriminately into the public service. ^
formed them, that he was employed in filling up
cancies in offices of trust; he expressed his iope
they had become sensible of the necessity of a law ^
the oaths to be taken by such persons as shou . . y
mitted into place; and he doubted not, that w n
BRITAIN.
II# of provided against Papists, they would at the same time
W :am leave room for the admission of all Protestants who were
ami ^7-a5le and willing to serve their country. But this proposi-
^ ^ tion was rejected with vehemence. The adherents of the
church complained that the ruin which they feared from
the Papists in the preceding reign was now to be dreaded
from the Protestant dissenters; and they affirmed, that
if the established religion was to be destroyed, it mat¬
tered little by whose hands it might fall. A bill brought
in by the ministry for abrogating the former oaths of su¬
premacy and allegiance was rejected; and an attempt to
dispense with the sacramental test was made without suc¬
cess in another form. The court party proposed that any
man, by producing a certificate of his having received the
sacrament in any Protestant congregation, should be held
sufficiently qualified for office. But this motion was also
rejected in the House of Lords by a great majority. Wil¬
liam repeated his attempts at a comprehension ; but he
was ultimately unsuccessful, and in the coronation-oath
the church party inserted a clause, that the king should
maintain the Protestant religion “ as established by law.”
I'or these and other reasons the government of Wil¬
liam was for some time in a very tottering condition. The
king, either through want of health or inclination, inter¬
fered but little in the affairs of the nation ; Ireland was
strangely neglected ; whilst Halifax and Danby, who had
in a manner raised the king to the throne, caballed with
his enemies. They perceived that the people, with the
same levity which had induced them to desert their former
sovereign, were beginning to be discontented with their
new prince. Every thing seemed to tend to a change.
Halifax himself declared, that were James to conform
with the Protestants, he could not be kept four months
rom re-ascending his throne ; and Danby averred, that,
were the late king to give satisfaction for the security of
religion, it would be difficult to oppose his restoration,
from these apparent discontents of the nation, the friends
and emissaries of James assumed more boldness in tam¬
pering with the servants of the crown and inflaming the
army. The former they alarmed with the prospect of a
sudden change; the latter they roused into indignation
by the alleged preference shown by William for his coun¬
trymen the Dutch.
Though the kingdom of Scotland did not at first recog¬
nise the authority of William, yet the party of James
never attained sufficient strength to be of any effectual ser¬
vice to him in that kingdom. Thirty Scottish Peers, and
ty gentlemen, then in London, had waited on
e Trmce ot Orange in the beginning of January, and,
ithout any authority from the regency still subsisting in
-Edinburgh, formed themselves into a kind of convention.
e Tnnce of Orange in a formal manner asked their ad¬
vice; and when he withdrew, they adjourned to the coun¬
cil chamber at Whitehall. The Duke of Hamilton being
nosen president, explained the distracted state of Scot-
Z ’ r,ep]reSeilting’ that disorders, anarchy, and confusion
prevailed, and urging the necessity of placing the power
mewhere till a convention of estates should be called to
an™/. .aSting £?nd solid settlement. When the heads of
orrWlTV0 116 Pnnce oP ^ange had been settled, and
„r a engrossed, the Earl of Arran unexpectedly
ose, and proposed to invite back the king. The meet-
ng, however, adhered to the Prince of Orange, and wait-
tm- .ir? a body’ requesting him to take the adminis-
thpv l.0? ° 18 °T" ban.ds' He thanked them for the trust
to mp0fC j8e,d ’ and a convention was ordered
vidpd nA Ldlnburgb on the 14th of March, it being pro-
m-irlp o a n° except*on or limitation whatever should be
This XCept t^at the members should be Protestants.
vol ^0nventl0n> however, was opposed by some of the
361
partisans of James ; and the archbishop of Glasgow, the Helen of
.belli of Balcarras, and the Viscount Dundee, were autho- William
nzed by an instrument signed by him, at that time in Ire-and Mary,
land, to call a convention of the estates at Stirling. But
this measure was disappointed, first by the wavering dis¬
position of the Marquis of Atholl, and afterwards by the
procrastination and folly of the party. At last Viscount
Dundee, pretending alarm on account of a design alleged
to have been formed by the Covenanters to assassinate
him, left Edinburgh at the head of fifty horse. As he
passed under the walls of the castle, the Duke of Gordon,
who then held the command of the fortress, and favoured
the cause of James, called him to a conference. Dundee
scrambled up the precipice, and informed the duke of his
designs in favour of James, at the same time conjuring
him to hold out the castle, under a certainty of being re^
heved. The novelty of the sight collected a multitude of
spectators. The convention took the alarm. The president
ordered the doors to be locked, and the keys to be laid
upon the table. The drums beat to arms in the town;
and a parcel of ill-armed retainers were gathered together
in the street by the Earl of Leven. Dundee in the mean
time rode off with his party. But as soon as they found
themselves secure, the Duke of Hamilton adjourned the
convention, which relieved the adherents of James from
dreadful apprehensions for their own safety. Fifty mem-
bei s retired from Edinburgh; and that circumstance pro¬
duced unanimity in all the succeeding resolutions of the
convention. Soon after this it was determined in a com¬
mittee that James had “forefaulted” his right to the crown
by which was meant that he had perpetually excluded
himself and his whole race from the throne, which was
thereby become vacant. This resolution being approved
by the convention, another was drawn up raising Wil¬
liam and Mary to the vacant throne ; and in consequence
they were publicly proclaimed at Edinburgh on the 11th
of April 1689.
The castle of Edinburgh was still kept in the name of
James by the Duke of Gordon ; but despairing of any re-
icf, and pressed by a siege, his Grace surrendered it on
the 13th of June, upon honourable terms. The adherents
ot James, terrified at this unexpected misfortune, now
turned their eyes to the Viscount Dundee, who having
been m vain urged by the convention to return, was at
length declared a fugitive, an outlaw, and a rebel. Gene¬
ral Mackay had been sent to Scotland by William, with four
regiments of foot and one of dragoons. But Dundee, ap¬
prised of the general’s design to surprise him, retired to
the Grampian Mountains with a few horse, and thence
marched to Gordon Castle, where he was joined by the
Earl of Dunfermline with fifty gentlemen. He next passed
through the county of Moray to Inverness, which Mac¬
donald of Keppoch had invested with seven hundred men
after having ravaged the lands of the clan of Mackintosh
in his way from his own country. Dundee promised to the
magistrates of Inverness to repay, at the king’s return,
t le money extorted from them by Macdonald, and thus
induced the latter to join him with all his men. But as
ic could not prevent the Highlanders from first returning
ionic with their spoil, he accompanied them to Lochaber,
and on the 6th of May arrived in Badenoch, whence he
wiote letters to the chiefs of the different clans, appoint¬
ing them to meet at a general rendezvous in Lochaber on
the 18th of the same month. In the mean time, passing
suddenly through Athole, he surprised the town of Perth,
and hoping to gain over two troops of Scottish dragoons who
lay at Dundee, he marched suddenly to that place; but the
fidelity of Captain Balfour, their commander, disappoint¬
ed his views. Dundee then returned through Athole and
Rannoch to hold the diet of rendezvous at Lochaber; and
2 z
362
Reign of
William
and Mary.
BRITAIN.
there he was reinforced by several Highland chieltains,
so that his little army was increased to about fifteen hun¬
dred men. He now turned against Mackay, who had ad¬
vanced to Inverness, but on the approach of Dundee re¬
treated to Strathbogie, leaving the whole Highlands ex¬
posed to the enemy. ^ , r .
But notwithstanding this partial success, Dundee found
himself surrounded with many difficulties. The officers
of the Scottish dragoons, who maintained a secret corre¬
spondence with him, sent him false intelligence, as an
excuse for their own fears, informing him that a party o
Irish, who had endeavoured to land m Scotland under the
Duke of Berwick, were driven back, and the duke himseii
taken prisoner; and that Mackay had been reinforced
with a regiment of English horse, and another ot foot.
Crediting this information, Dundee retreated to Badenoch ;
the natives of the low country who served m his little
army quitted him without leave; the Highlanders plun¬
dered the country wherever they went; and he himself
at last fell sick, while Mackay hovered on his rear. A slight
skirmish occurred, in which the Highlanders had the at -
vantage; but they nevertheless lost their baggage during
the action. Dundee at length arrived at Ruthven ; but
Mackay, reinforced with a body of twelve hundred men,
advanced against him, and other regiments had arrived at
Perth and Dumblane, on their way to join. The High¬
landers now deserted every night by hundreds, and their
leader was forced to retire to Lochaber, where only two
hundred of his whole force remained with him; whilst,
to complete his misfortunes, he at the same time received
intelligence of the surrender of the castle ot Edinburgh.
Meanwhile, 'letters having arrived from King James
promising immediate succours from Ireland, Dundee or¬
dered the neighbouring clans to assemble round his stand¬
ard. But still he wanted the necessary means for prose¬
cuting the war. The Highlanders were armed only with
their own proper weapons, and he had no more than forty
pounds weight of powder in his whole army. All difficul¬
ties, however, were surmounted by the activity of the
o-eneral, for whom his army entertained an enthusiastic
zeal. Having collected a force of about two thousand five
hundred men, including three hundred Irish recruits, he
resolved to give battle to Mackay, who, with a force con¬
siderably superior in numbers, was advancing against him.
The encounter took place on the 17 th of July 1689, near the
head of the Pass of Killikrankie. The Highlanders took post
on the face of a hill, a little above the house of Urrard, and
to the westward of the great Pass ; whilst the king’s forces
were drawn up on a level piece of ground, in the form of
an amphitheatre, bounded on two sides by the heights,
and on the third by the river Garry. Dundee delayed
his attack until about sunset, when suddenly the High¬
landers rushed down like furies, covering themselves from
the fire of the king’s troops with their targets. “ At last,”
says an eye-witness, “ they cast away their muskets, drew
their broadswords, and advancing furiously on the king’s
troops, broke them, and obliged them to retreat; some
flying to the water, some another way.” The charge was
like a torrent, fierce, rapid, irresistible; and the rout
complete. The 21st or Scotch fusileers was on the left
of General Mackay’s front line, Hastings’ and Leslie’s,
now the 13th and 15th regiments, in the centre, and Lord
Leven’s, now the 25th, on the right; the whole consisting
of two regiments of cavalry and nine battalions of infan¬
try. After the right of the line had given way, the regi¬
ments on the centre and the left, which were covered by
the river Garry and the woody precipice below the house
of Urrard, kept their ground, and for a short time with¬
stood the shock of the Highland charge with the broad¬
sword ; but at length they gave way on all sides, Hast¬
ings’ flying through the Pass on the north side, and the Reign
fusileers dashing across the river, followed by the High- Williai;
landers. But Dundee having fallen early in the attack,and Mar -
the consternation occasioned by his death prevented an
immediate pursuit through the great Pass. Had they
been closely followed, and had a few men been placed at
the southern entrance, not a man of the king’s troops
would have escaped to tell the story of their defeat. As
it was, they lost nearly two thousand men, and the re¬
mainder were completely broken and dispersed. But the
victory, though gallantly achieved, was productive of no¬
thing but barren glory; and with the fall of Dundee end¬
ed all the hopes of James in Scotland. Colonel Cannon,
who succeeded him in the command, possessed neither
his popularity nor his abilities. After some insignificant
actions, in which the valour of the soldiers was moie con¬
spicuous than the conduct of their leader, the Highlanders
dispersed in disgust; and the war soon afterwaids ended
favourably for William, without the trouble of repulsing
liis enemies.
During the troubles in England, which had terminated
in placing William on the throne, the two parties in Ire¬
land were kept in a kind of tranquillity by their mutual
fears. The Protestants were terrified at the prospect of
another massacre; and the Catholics expected eveiy day
to be invaded by the united force of the English and
Dutch. Their terrors, however, were ill founded; for
although Tyrconnel sent several messages to the prince,
stating his readiness to deliver up the kingdom to any
force that might make a surrender decent, his offers were
always rejected. This vs said to have been owing to Ha¬
lifax, who is alleged to have represented to the king, that
if Ireland yielded, no pretence would remain for keeping
an army in pay; that without an army to protect his au¬
thority, he might be as easily turned out as he had been
brought in; that the English nation could never remain
long in a state of contentment; and that they had already
begun to show symptoms of strong disaffection with the
new government. , •
Tyrconnel, disappointed in his views of surrendering re
land to the Prince of Orange, affected to adhere to King
James. The whole military force of the kingdom at that
time amounted only to four thousand men, and of tiese
six hundred were in Dublin; whilst all of them weie so
much disposed to quit the service, that the lord-deputy
was obliged to issue commissions for levying new forces.
The effect of this was, that there suddenly appeared m
various parts of the kingdom a half-armed i abb e, wio,
having no pay from the king, subsisted by depreda ion,
and disregarded all discipline. I he Protestants in
north armed themselves in their own defence; an
city of Londonderry, relying on its situation, and a s ig
wrall, shut its gates against the newly-raised army. 1
testant parties also appeared everywhere, declaring
resolution to unite in self-defence, to preserve t it
testant religion, to continue their dependence on Eng ’
and to promote the meeting of a free parliament.
In these circumstances William sent General Hanu >
an Irishman and a Roman Catholic, to treat wlt .
connel; but instead of persuading that lord to yie ^
William, Hamilton advised him to adhere to
the mean time James himself assured the lor -t P
that he was ready to sail from Brest with a power
mament; upon which Hamilton marched aSalf|s
northern insurgents, who were routed with consi
slaughter at Drumore, whilst Hillsborough, where .
had fixed their head-quarters, was taken wit iou ^
ance. The city of Londonderry, however, reso
hold out to the last extremity. ,, est.
On the 7th of March 1689, James embarked at n
BRITAIN.
Ii ;ii of
A\ !iam
and fary,
The whole force of his expedition consisted of fourteen
ships of war, six frigates, and three fire-ships ; whilst
twelve hundred of his native subjects in the pay of France,
and a hundred French officers, composed his army. He
landed at Kinsale without opposition on the I2th of the
month; and his first care was to secure, in the fort, the
money, arms, and ammunition which he had brought from
France, and to put the town in some posture of defence.
This done, he advanced to Cork, where Tyrconnel arrived
soon after, and brought intelligence of the rout at Drumore.
The king was so much pleased with his attachment and
services, that he created him a duke, and then began his
advance towards Dublin. But the condition of the' rabble
who flocked to his standard was not calculated to raise
his hopes of success. Their very numbers distressed their
sovereign, and ruined the country; insomuch that James
resolved to disband the greatest part of them. More
than one hundred thousand were already on foot in the
different parts of the island. Of these he reserved four¬
teen regiments of horse and dragoons, and thirty-five re¬
giments of foot; the rest he ordered to their respective
homes, and armed those who w^ere retained in the best
manner he could.
On reaching Dublin, James immediately proceeded to
business. He ordered all Protestants who had abandoned
the kingdom to return; he commanded all Papists, ex¬
cept those in his army, to lay aside their arms, and put
an end to the depredations which they had committed in
the excess of their zeal; he raised the value of the cur¬
rency by proclamation ; and he summoned a parliament to
meet on the 7th of May, in order to settle the affairs of the
kingdom. The Protestant clergy represented their griev¬
ances in an address; and the university of Dublin ap¬
peared with complaints and congratulations. He assured
the first of his absolute protection, and a full redress;
and he promised the latter not only to defend, but even
to enlarge, their privileges.
On the 8th of April he left Dublin, resolving to lead
his army against the insurgents in person ; but as they
retired before him, he resolved to lay siege to London¬
derry. The place, however, made a vigorous resistance;
but being reduced to the last extremity, it would have
been obliged to surrender had it not been relieved on the
vi 0 , JuIT by severi ships laden with provisions, upon
which the siege was immediately raised. In the mean
mie, the distressed situation of James, and his absolute
dependence upon France, drove him to the adoption of
measures equally odious and impolitic. His soldiers had
or some time been supported by their officers, or subsist-
f y depredation. But the funds of the officers were at
ength exhausted, and the country itself could no longer
endure the riot and injustice of the soldiers. Pressed by
jese difficulties, he resolved, by the advice of his coun-
’ ^°pC<?ln C0pper pieces, which should be received in
eu ot silver. The inconveniences and iniquity of this
measure were obvious; but all Ireland possessed not the
< ans ot paying the army in current coin till the middle
rnmU-ne'i the French remittances only 200,000 livres
r *lnei; and fcbe king found it absolutely necessary to
j n <:.t.at su™’In order to forward his measures regard-
his U a,ln’ an<^ t0 Procure intelligence of the motions of
Fbe army was satisfied even with this mock
coin ' T6 m°ney.’ and tbe people received the fictitious
of nflv 10Pe® being repaid in a more favourable state
tc-pn \nS’ *.1 ^,tax °f L.20,000 a month, granted for thir-
with ii0n 18 by fbe parliament, furnished government
the k' 1 aPP®arance °f resources; and in the mean time
onenini’a ^ eiaVOl?red t0 suPport the former revenue by
«>erCe with EngW t0 SUppl>' the Want °f COm"
To add to the distress of James, Ireland was now invad¬
ed by ten thousand men under the command of the Duke
of Schomberg. On the 12th of August 1689, they appear¬
ed in ninety transports, on the coast of Donaghadee, in
the county of Down; and next day Schomberg landed
his army, horses, and train of artillery, without opposition.
On the 15th he marched to Belfast, and continued in that
place four days to refresh his troops. He then invested
Carrickfergus, and threw into it a thousand bombs, which
laid the houses in ashes. When the garrison had expend¬
ed their powder to the last barrel, they marched out with
all the honours of war; but Schomberg’s soldiers broke
the capitulation, disarmed and stripped the inhabitants,
without regard to sex or quality, and perpetrated many
disgraceful cruelties by \vay of retaliation on the Papists.
Schomberg ivas an experienced general, who had passed
a life of eighty years almost continually in the field; yet
he found himself at a loss how to carry on the war with
Ireland. Not considering the dangers which threatened
the health of his troops by confining them too long in one
place, he kept them encamped in a low damp situation near
Dundalk, almost without fuel; the consequence of which
was, that the men were seized with fevers and fluxes, and
died in great numbers. Nor were the enemy less afflicted
with similar disorders. In both camps sickness prevailed ;
and as the rainy season was now approaching, the hostile
armies, after remaining for some time in sight of each
other, quitted their camps at the same time, and retired
into winter quarters.
The ill success of this campaign, and the miserable si¬
tuation of the Protestants in Ireland, at length induced
William to attempt their relief in person. Accordingly,
he left London on the 4th of June 1690, and arrived on
the 14th at Carrickfergus; whence he passed to Lisburn,
the head-quarters of the Duke of Schomberg. At Lough-
Britland he reviewed his army, which amounted to thirty-
six thousand men, consisting of Lnghsh, Dutch, Germans,
Danes, and French ; and being supplied with every neces¬
sary, as well as in high health and spirits, they seemed cer¬
tain of victory. The Irish army abandoned Ardee at their
approach, and fell back to the south of the Boyne, where
they were joined by James, who had marched from Dublin
at the head of his French auxiliaries. The banks of the
Boyne were precipitous, and on the south side the ground
was hilly, and intersected with ditches. The river itself was
deep, and it rose to a considerable height in consequence
of the tide. These advantages induced James, contrary
to the opinion of his officers, to maintain possession of this
post. His army was inferior in numbers, in discipline,
and in every other quality, to that of his adversary; but
convinced that a retreat would dispirit his troops, and
tarnish his own reputation, he resolved to put the fate of
Ireland on the issue of a battle. William had no sooner ar¬
rived on the ground than he rode along the river in sight of
both armies, to examine the position of the hostile force,
and make proper dispositions for battle ; but being observ¬
ed by the enemy, a cannon was privately brought out and
pointed against the spot where for the moment he stood.
The shot killed several of his followers, and he himself
was slightly wounded in the shoulder. The report of his
being slain was instantly propagated throughout the Irish
camp, and even transmitted to Paris; but as soon as his
wound was dressed, William rode through the camp, and
quickly undeceived his army. The next day, being the
30th of June, the battle began at six o’clock in the morn¬
ing. William directed the river to be forded in three dif¬
ferent places, and the attack to be simultaneously com¬
menced .from as many points. Schomberg, with the right
wing, consisting of ten thousand men, passed the fords up the
river, traversed a bog on the opposite side, and attacked
363
Reign of
William
and Mary.
364
BRITAIN.
. *1 1 A. Tovnoc wWh nftpr a fered as many of the Irish as chose, to retire to Limerick. Eeign i
Iteign of With great impetuosity the left of Ja . t tl }ast retreat, however, the Irish forces made a brave ^iUia s
Wiliam Short resistance, gave way, and ret.red pi^.pitetely to last^7’ e°comm’enced on the 24th of August"^
an.l Mary. secure the Pass of Dunleck, winch formed the only Ime of defence sleBe com e ^ witfout ^
retreat. The centre next crossed ‘he nver but were gal- The garrison was well supplied with
lantly opposed by the Freirch and r^;j ^ ‘Visions, and provided with all means of defence. On
maintained a doubtful contest, t c ’ „ j Tup other hand the winter was approaching, and Ginckel
river farther down attire h“ tad orders to finSt the war upo/tlny term!. According-
the enemy s flank, and forced t e , around ly he offered conditions to the Irish, which, even had they
been victors, they could scarcely have refused with pru-
their king. 1 he left met wit , h i f * es>,s dence. He agreed that all persons in arms should be par-
the force opposed to them; doned ; that their estates should be restored, their attain,
Kb^rVen“a comparatively small loss, ders annulled, and their outlawries reversed; that none
Wiliam Succeeded in forcing hi, position at all points, should be liable for debts mcurrrf through deeds done ,n
and in establishing his whole army on the opposite bank
of this deep and difficult river. Whilst the armies were
vet engaged, James, who had so often shown the
heroic courage in battle, rode ingloriously off the field.
This dispirited his troops, who fell into irretrievable dis¬
order, and fled in all directions, neglecting his injunction
to defend the Pass of Dunleck, and leaving nearly two
thousand men killed and wounded on the field. The loss
sustained by William’s army was, owing to the difficult
nature of the ground, considerably greater, though much
inferior to what it would have been if James had skilfully
availed himself of the strength of his position, and head- «  7 "Y 7 ™ tho Uf of October
ed the columns of attack as they debouched from the fords, just.ces having arrived from Dublin on the Ut of October,
waakdkd'by’a^lisclmrge fromtamv-n troops^ wlio^nof'know^ ffitopTa ^eri^tTa whid.
him. When James first deserted his troops, O’llegan, an
old Irish captain, was heard to observe, that if the English
would exchange generals, the conquered army would fight
them over again. James withdrew precipitately to Water¬
ford, where he immediately embarked for France.
But the victory at the Boyne was by no means decisive,
and the adherents of James resolved to continue their op¬
position. Sarsfield, a popular and experienced general,
put himself at the head of the army which had been rout¬
ed at the Boyne, and took measures for defending the
banks of the Shannon. But James superseded him in the  tnnk advantage
command, which he conferred on St Ruth, a proceeding as had been in arms for James so<™ ^r t0° g
which gave great dissatisfaction to the Irish. On the of the proclamation. Macd«nald f
other hand, General Ginckel, who had been appointed to vented by ac?;df0f De-
command the English army in the absence of William, submission within the hn . j j the
who had gone over to England, advanced towards the cember he went to Colonel Hill, who eommande q
Shannon to meet the enemy. The only place where the garrison in FortW ilham, JYtprVaHn^fhrn'ished him with
river was fordable was at Athlone, a strong walled town, the government; and the latp of Ar-
situated on both banks of the river, and in the possession a letter to Sir Cohn Campbell, sherift oft y t0
of King James’s party. The English soon made them- gyle, directed him to repmr imi"*d'atfjy t0 maeis-
selves masters of that part which was on the one side of make his submission in a legal manner before that ma^
the river ; but the part on the opposite bank being defend- trate. But the way to Inveiary lay t g and
ed with great vigour, it was resolved in a council of war passable mountains, the season was ex rem > s „ ’ _
that a forlorn hope should ford the stream in the face of the whole country was covered with a deep snow,
the enemy; and this desperate enterprise being perform- however, was Macdonald to take ie oa iaVWith-
ed with great resolution, the enemy were driven from limited time should expire, that, thong i ie ro 6 ^
their works, and the town surrendered at discretion. St in half a mile of his own house, he stoppe no Tnve.
Ruth marched to its relief, but he came too late, and, as family, and, after various obstructions, ai rive ^
he approached, his own guns were turned against him. rary. The time had elapsed, and the sheri
Upon this he instantly counter-marched, and took post at receive his submission; but Macdona functionary
Aughrim, ten miles distant, where he determined to wait importunities, and even tears, in inducing tim
the English army. Ginckel, though he had only eighteen to administer to him the oath of allegiance, an ^
thousand men, whilst the Irish were above twenty-five the cause of his delay.’ At this time birJolm
thousand strong, did not decline the combat. A fierce afterwards Earl of Stair, being in attendance up ^
contest ensued; but St Ruth having fallen, his troops gave as secretary of state for Scotland, took adyan g
way on all sides, and retreated in disorder to Limerick, donald’s neglecting to take the oaths wittnn .j^y
where they determined to make a final stand, after having scribed, and procured from the king a wan an q'jjjg vvas
lost near five thousand of their best men. execution against that chief and his w io e c aI1’ ^ose
Ginckel, wishing to put an end to the war at once, suf- done at the instigation of the Eau of real a >
snouiu Ut? lltlUIC AUl & 111
the course of hostilities ; that all Roman Catholics should
enjoy the same toleration in regard to their religion as in
the reign of Charles II.; that the gentry should be per¬
mitted to retain their arms ; that the inferior class should
be allowed to exercise theirvariouseallingsand professions;
that no oath but that of allegiance should be required of any
one ; and that if the troops, or any number of them, snould
choose to enter into any foreign service, they should be
conveyed to the Continent at the expense ol the king.
Sarsfield, who had obtained the title of Earl of Lucan
from James after his abdication, was permitted to retain
a dignity which the laws could not recognise. The lords
anout lourteen uiuuscum ui wwo --- - 0
James passed over to France in transports provided by
government for conveying them thither; and in this man¬
ner all James’s expectations from Ireland were entirel}
frustrated, and the kingdom submitted quietly to the Eng¬
lish government.
In the beginning of the year 1692 an action of unex¬
ampled barbarity disgraced the government of W illiam m
Scotland. In the August preceding, a proclamation had
been issued, offering an indemnity to such insurgents as
should take the oaths to the king and queen on or before
the last day of December; and the chiefs of such tribes
• r* T   - _ Di. „ ^ i-r-. ^ 1 - /•ItrrjmfCIO'f'
BRITAIN.
Ii rn of lands the Glenco men had plundered, and whose treachery
"VV iam ^ government in negociating with the Highland clans
ant lary-Macdonald had himself exposed. The king was accord-
^ ingly persuaded that Glenco .was the main obstacle to the
pacification of the Highlands ; and the fact of the unfortu¬
nate chief’s submission having been concealed, the sangui¬
nary orders for proceeding to military execution against
his clan were in consequence obtained. The warrant wras
both signed and countersigned by the king’s own hand;
and the secretary urged the officers w ho commanded in
the Highlands to execute their orders with the utmost
rigour. Campbell of Glenlyon, a captain in Argyll’s re¬
giment, and two subalterns, were ordered to repair to
Glenco on the first of February with a hundred and twen¬
ty men. Campbell, being uncle to young Macdonald’s
wife, was received by the father with all manner of friend¬
ship and hospitality. The men were lodged at free quar¬
ters in the houses of his tenants, and received the kindest
entertainment. Till the 13th of the month the troops
lived in the utmost harmony and familiarity with the peo¬
ple ; and on the very night of the massacre the officers
passed the evening at cards in Macdonald’s house. In
the night Lieutenant Lindsay, with a party of soldiers,
called in a friendly manner at his door, and was instantly
admitted. Macdonald, while in the act of rising to re¬
ceive his guest, was shot dead through the back with two
bullets. His wife had already dressed; but she was strip¬
ped naked by the soldiers, who tore the rings oft’her fingers
with their teeth. The slaughter now became general,
and neither age nor infirmity was spared. Some women,
in defending their children, were killed; boys, imploring
mercy, were shot dead by officers on wdiose knees they
hung. In one place nine persons, as they sat enjoying
themselves at table, were butchered by the soldiers. In
Inverriggon, Campbell’s own quarters, nine men were first
bound by the soldiers, and then shot at intervals, one by
one. Nearly forty persons were massacred by the troops;
and several who fled to the mountains perished by famine
and the inclemency of the season. Those who escaped
owed their lives to a tempestuous night. Lieutenant-
colonel Hamilton, who had received the charge of the
execution from Dairymple, was on his march with four
hundred men, to guard all the passes from the valley of
Glenco; but he was obliged to stop by the severity of the
weather, which proved the safety of the unfortunate clan.
Next day he entered the valley, laid the houses in ashes,
and carried away the cattle and spoil, which were divided
among the officers and soldiers.
It can scarcely be imagined that a massacre attended
with circumstances of such unparalleled treachery and
cruelty could pass without some animadversion at the time,
or escape the indignant reprobation of history afterwards.
■However willing we may be to ascribe to the immediate
agents m this horrid business all that is most revolting
avL •11 j ous execution of the sanguinary warrant
o tamed by Secretary Dalrymple at the instigation of
readalbane, and to transfer to them a large share of the
guilt and odium which will ever attach to it, still, after all
allowances are made, it is impossible to exculpate William
Wa-n°Wingly consenting to a proceeding which nothing
out dire necessity could ever justify. That he was beset
nf iun^ilinayj»m*n‘st?rs’ an(^ *n ignorance of the fact
it w'nC i°n i S suknnssi°n> may be readily admitted ; but
m nr i3 ^ observed that he signed and countersigned
inff o 6r °r .^terminating a whole clan without institut-
truthnK Previoas inquiry; and that afterwards, when the
in,,_ecare known, no punishment was inflicted on the
Drepqnt'11'8 °p o16 massacre- Besides, the extraordinary
to rnimt°n ^ Secretary Dalrymple in requiring the king
ersign the order to which he had already affixed
365
his sign-manual, a thing altogether unusual and unprece- Reign of
^onted, might well have excited suspicion in the mind of William
W illiam.; nor, with the knowledge of this fact, coupled an(i Mary.
\yith the neglect of all inquiry in the first instance, and
the impunity of the instigators of the crime afterwards,
is it easy to believe that this otherwise excellent prince
was altogether free of guilty participation in the foul and
bloody tragedy of Glenco.
To efface the remembrance of this massacre, and to
blink the inquiry which had been commenced, the king
now caused his commissioner to declare in the Scottish
pailiainent, “ "I hat if the members found it would tend to
the advancement of trade that an act should be passed for
the encouragement of such as should acquire and establish
a plantation in Africa, America, or any other part of the
world where plantations might be lawfully acquired, that
his majesty was willing to declare he would grant to the
subjects of this kingdom, in favour of these plantations,
such rights and privileges as he granted in like cases to
the subjects of his other dominions.” Relying on this and
other flattering promises, the nobility and gentry of Scot¬
land advanced L.400,000 towards the establishment of a
company for carrying on an East and West India trade;
and twelve hundred veterans who had served in Kbg’
W illiam’s wars were sent to effect a settlement on the
isthmus of Darien or Panama, which, from its situation,
was equally adapted for trading with both the Indies.
The new colony was well received by the natives, and
matters began to wear a promising aspect, when the king,
at the earnest solicitations of the English and Dutch
East India Companies, resolved to gratify the latter at the
expense of his bcottish subjects, and sent orders to the
governor of Jamaica and the English settlements in Ame-
lica to issue pioclamations, prohibiting, under the severest
penalties, all his majesty s subjects from holding any cor-
respondence with the Scottish colony, or assisting it in any
way with arms, ammunition, or provisions. Thus the new
settlers were abandoned to their fate, although many of
them had been covered with w;ounds in fighting the king’s
battles; and thus vanished all the hopes of the Scottish na¬
tion, which had engaged in the design with incredible ala¬
crity, and with sanguine expectations that the misfortunes
of their country would, by this new channel of commerce,
be completely healed. The distresses of the people, upon
receiving authentic accounts of the fortune of their colony,
scarcely admit of any description; and the whole nation
joined in reproaching their sovereign with double dealing,
inhumanity, and base ingratitude, to a people who had
lavished their treasure and best blood in support of his
government, and in the gratification of his ambition.
But the total reduction of Ireland, and the dispersion
and extermination of the Highland chieftains who favour¬
ed his cause, did not entirely put an end to the hopes of
James. His chief expectations were founded on a con¬
spiracy among his English adherents, and in the succours
promised him by the French king. A plot was first form¬
ed in Scotland by Sir James Montgomery, a person who,
from being an adherent of William’s, now turned against
him; but as the project was ill contrived, so it was as
lightly discovered by the instigator. To this succeeded
another, which seemed to threaten more serious conse¬
quences, as it was managed by the Whig party, the most
formidable in the state, a number of whom joined them¬
selves to the Tories, and made advances to the late king.
I hey assembled together ; and, in order to lose no time,
it was resolved to send over to France two trusty persons,
Lord Preston and Mr Ashton, to consult with the exiled
monarch. Both of them, however, were seized by order
of Lord Caermarthen, and condemned. Ashton was ex¬
ecuted without making any confession; but Lord Preston
366
BRITAIN.
Reign of
William
and Mary.
wanted equal virtue or resolution, for on an offer of par¬
don, he discovered a great number of associates, amongst
whom were the Duke of Ormond, Lord Dartmouth, and
Lord Clarendon.
The French having at last become sensible of their bad
policy in not better supporting the cause ot James, re¬
solved to attempt a descent upon England in his favour;
and, in pursuance of this scheme, James was supplied with
an army consisting of a body of French troops, some Eng¬
lish and Scottish refugees, and the Irish regiments which
had been transported into France from Limerick, and by
long discipline and severe duty had become excellent sol¬
diers. This army was assembled between Cherbourg and La
Hogue, and commanded by King James in person. More
than three hundred transports were provided for landing
the expedition on the opposite coast; and Tourville, the
French admiral, at the head of sixty-three ships of the
line, was appointed to favour the descent; his orders be¬
ing at all events to attack the enemy in case they should
oppose him. Every thing therefore promised a change of
fortune to the exiled king, and he might now entertain
hopes of recovei’ing his crown. But these preparations on
the side of France were soon known at the English court,
and measures taken for a vigorous and effective resistance.
The secret machinations of the banished king’s adherents
were discovered to the English ministry by spies ; and it
was thus found that the Tories were more faithful than
even the Whigs, who had placed King William on the
throne. The Duke of Marlborough, Lord Godolphin, and
even the Princess Anne herself, were violently suspected
of disaffection.
Preparations, however, were made with great tranquil¬
lity and resolution, to resist the coming storm. Admiral
Russell was ordered to put to sea with all possible expedi¬
tion ; and he soon appeared with ninety-nine ships of the
line, besides frigates and fire-ships. At the head of this for¬
midable fleet he set sail for the coast of France ; and, near
La Hogue, he discovered the enemy under Tourville, who
prepared to give him battle. The engagement began be¬
tween the two flag ships with the greatest fury, and the
rest of the ships in succession followed their example.
The battle lasted ten hours ; but at length victory de¬
clared in favour of numbers, and the French fled for Con-
quet road, having lost four ships in the action. The pur¬
suit continued for the two days following. Three French
ships of the line were destroyed on the day succeeding the
principal conflict; and eighteen more, which had taken
refuge in the bay of La Hogue, were burnt by Sir George
Rooke. The ships were drawn up in the shallows, and
seemed to be secure against attack; but nothing could
resist the bravery and enterprise of the British seamen,
who, crowding in barges, under cover of such frigates as
could be brought sufficiently near, boarded the enemy’s
ships, overpowered their crews, and then set them on fire.
When James beheld his late subjects thus daringly occu¬
pied in completing the destruction of the French fleet, he
could not restrain his admiration of their gallantry; and,
whilst witnessing the wreck of all his hopes, exclaimed,
“ Ah, none but my brave English could do this.” And
thus were frustrated the preparations of France, which
from this time seemed to relinquish all claims to the em¬
pire of the ocean.
The battle of La Hogue, which took place on the 21st
of May 1692, put a final period to the hopes of James.
No further attempts were made in his favour, except some
plots to assassinate King William, which ended only in the
destruction of those who had formed them. But it was
never thoroughly proved that James countenanced these
designs; and it rather appears that he expressed abhor¬
rence of such attempts. In 1697 the Abbe de Polignac,
ambassador of France to Poland, wrote to his master that Reign ,
thoughts were entertained of the late king of Britain in the Willi; .,
new election which happened on the death of John Sobi-
eski; and that James had already been named by some of
the diet as his successor. Louis was eager to seize an op¬
portunity of ridding himself with honour of a prince whose
pretensions he could no longer support; and the friends of
James were also sanguine as to the project; but he him¬
self refused it. The same year, at an interview between
King William and Louis XIV. it was proposed that the
Prince of Wales, James’s son, should succeed to the throne
of England after the death of William. William with
little hesitation agreed to this request, and even engaged
to procure the repeal of the act of settlement, and the
passing of another declaring the Prince of Wales his suc¬
cessor to the throne. But this proposal was also rejected
by James. He told the king of France, that though he
could endure with patience the usurpation of his nephew,
he would never permit his own son to be guilty of the
same injustice; that should his son reign in his fathers
life-time, that circumstance would amount to a formal re¬
nunciation ; and that the Prince of Wales, by succeeding
to the Prince of Orange, would thereby yield his sole right,
which devolved to him through his father alone.
From this time James lost every hope of being restored
to the throne, and resigned himself entirely to religious
austerities. His constitution, though vigorous and athle¬
tic, had for some time begun to yield to the infirmities of
age, and to that melancholy which superstition, uniting
with misfortune, had impressed on his mind. In the be¬
ginning of September 1701, whilst he was at public pray¬
ers, according to his daily custom, he fell suddenly into a
lethargy; and though he recovered his senses soon alter,
he languished for some days, and expired on the 6th of
September. The French king paid him several visits
during his sickness, and exhibited every symptom of com¬
passion, affection, and even respect.
Embarrassed as to how he ought to proceed upon the
unexpected death of James, Louis called a council to de¬
liberate whether he should acknowledge the Prince of
Wales as king of Great Britain and Ireland. The king
himself had hesitated long in this delicate point; but the
Dauphin, the Duke of Burgundy, and all the princes o
the blood, declared that it would be unbecoming the dig¬
nity of the crown of France not to own that the titles o
the father had devolved immediately on the son. Louis
approved of this view, and determined in person to ac¬
quaint the dying king with his resolution. When he ar¬
rived at St Germains, James lay almost insensible from Ins
disorder; but rousing himself, he began to thank his mo»
Christian majesty for all his favours. Louis, however,
interrupted him: “ Sir,” said he, “ what I have done is
but a small matter; but what I have to say is of the u -
most importance.” The people then began to retire, u
Louis ordered them to remain. “ I come to acquam
you, Sir,” he added, “ that when God shall please to can
your majesty from this world, I shall take your iami y
under my protection, and acknowledge your son as m»
of Great Britain and Ireland.”
Though the defeat of the French fleet at La Hogue
had put an end to all danger of any further attempt ro
that quarter, William by no means possessed his tiron
in any degree of tranquillity. The want of a c01^n^e
enemy produced dissensions amongst the people, an
king began to experience as much trouble from his pa ^
liament at home as from any enemy in the field,
uneasiness he felt on account of the refractory ^1SP0S|] f
of his subjects was not a little heightened by the dea ^
his queen, who was carried off by the small-pox on
28th of December 1694. The grief he felt for ie‘
BRITAIN.
ll« n of
U jam
ami I ary,
was deep and sincere ; but all private concerns were soon
merged in the greatness of his apprehensions for the ba-
, lance of power and the fluctuating interests of Europe.
William’s chief motive for accepting the crown had been
to engage England more deeply in the concerns of Europe;
and as his great object had been to humble the French,
so his politics mainly consisted in forming alliances against
France. But many of the English had no such animosity
against that country; and considering the interest of the
nation as sacrificed to foreign connections, they complained
that the continental war fell most heavily on them, though
they had the least interest in its success. These com¬
plaints were at first heard by William with indifference;
and he continued to bestow all his attention on the balance
of power and the interests of Europe. But in attending
to foreign affairs he overlooked internal polity; and, as
he foimed alliances abroad, he increased the influence of
party at home. In accepting the crown, William had re¬
solved to preserve as much of the px-erogative as could
decently be retained ; and he sometimes exerted a branch
of it, the power of refusing his assent to bills which had
passed both houses, with equal firmness and decision.
Hence perpetual bickerings took place between him and
his parliaments. But William at last became fatigued
with opposition, and admitted every restraint which they
chose to impose on the prerogative in England, upon con¬
dition of being properly supplied with the means neces¬
sary for humbling France.
Ihe war with I ranee continued dui’ing the greatest part
of tins king’s reign; but at length the treaty of Ryswick,
in 1697, put an end to a contest in which England had en¬
gaged without policy, and from which she came off without
advantage. In the general pacification her interests seem¬
ed entirely neglected; and for all the treasures she had
transmitted to the Continent, and all the blood which had
been shed there, the only equivalent received was an ac-
Knowledgment of William’s title by the king of France.
Ihe king being now freed from foreign war, set himself
to strengthen his authority at home; and as he could not
endure the thoughts of a king without an army, he con¬
ceived hopes of keeping up, in time of peace, those forces
which had been granted him during the time of danger.
^ vntp TT if’ ,ho^ever’ t° his great mortification, passed
a vote that all the forces in the pay of England, exceed¬
ing rffh0USand. men’ should be ^thwith disbanded,
and that those retained should be natural-born subjects of
m «„i nAt tllS V,°te the kin£’s mdignation was kindled
i ?1 .a ^egree5 that he actually conceived a design of
abandoning the government. From this, however, his
hennls7 dlVe/tfd1h™’ and Persuaded him to consent to
the passing of the bill.
altw-nt-ionS con^inued during the remainder of
ofr ^n' • ^ flham considered the Commons as a body
hem n™'Tf °f ?°Wer f°r themselves, and consequently
bertieTof abstructlng a]1 bis projects for securing the li-
anv narfin ?Ur°Pe ’ and be seemed but little attached to
aUiml S U1 thG h°USe’ aI1 of whom be found
to Whi^ and Td ^ °PP®sed him* He therefore inclined
immedbL r°nes lndlscnminately, as interest or the
as a nllfp flgfncy demanded. He considered England
ny time for a b°Ur’ ?d alte-ation. If he* had
in HolTanS wh Sement °r relaxation> he retired to Loo
such festiviii lere’ among a few friends, he indulged in
Planned b!1 aS h? Was caPable of relishing. Here he
and laboure f t CCeSSi10n tlle different princes of Europe,
Louis, his redfi0Undrine the schemes and the power of
might be Will; In,Pa ltlcs nnd fame. But however feeble
scarcely ex t ^f. deSlr! °f °ther amusements, he could
Peace had Wn7 !!0Ut hcWg at variance with France.
midly been concluded with that nation when
he began to think of resources for carrying on a new war,
and enlisting his English subjects in a confederacy against
Trance. Several arts were used for inducing the people
to second his aims; and the whole nation seemed at last
to join in desiring a French war. He had been in Hol¬
land concerting with his allies operations for a new cam¬
paign ; and he had entered into a negociation with the
Prince of Hesse, who assured him that if he would be¬
siege and take Cadiz, the admiral of Castile and several
other grandees of Spain would declare for the house of
Austria. The Elector of Hanover had concurred in the
same measures; the king of the Romans, and Prince
Louis of Baden, undertook to invest Landau; and the
emperor piomised to send a powerful reinforcement into
Italy. But death unexpectedly put a period to the pro¬
jects and ambition of this prince, who, with all his defects,
was, in many particulars, a truly great man.
William, was naturally of a very feeble constitution;
and by this time it had become almost quite exhausted
by a series of continual disquietude and action. He had
endeavoured to repair his strength, or at least to conceal
its decay, by exercise on horseback. But on the 21st of
February 1702, whilst riding to Hampton Court from Ken¬
sington, his horse fell under him, and he was thrown with
such violence that his collar-bone was fractured. Plis
attendants conveyed him to the palace at Hampton Court,
where the fracture was reduced; and in the evening he
returned to Kensington in his coach. But the joltimj of
the carriage disunited the fracture; and although the bones
were again replaced by Bidloo his physician, this accident
proved ultimately fatal. For some time indeed he ap¬
peared to be in a fair way of recovery; but falling asleep
in. his couch, ne ivas seized with a shivering, which ter¬
minated in a fever and diarrhoea, that resisted all remedial
means employed to abate them. Perceiving his end ap¬
proaching, he exhibited another example of the ruling pas¬
sion strong in death. The objects of his former care lay
nearest his heart; and the fate of Europe seemed to ren-
der him insensible to his own. Fhe Earl of Albemarle ar¬
riving from Holland, he conferred with him in private on
the posture of affairs abroad ; and having received the sa¬
crament from Archbishop Tennison, he expired on Sunday
the 8th of March, having lived fifty-two years, and reign¬
ed thirteen. William was in his person of the middle sta¬
ture ; his body was slender and his constitution delicate.
He had an aquiline nose, sparkling eyes, a large forehead,
and a grave solemn aspect. He left behind him the cha¬
racter of a great politician, though he had never been po¬
pular ; and of an able general, though he had seldom been
victorious. Flis deportment was grave, phlegmatic, and
sullen ; nor did he ever show any fire or animation except
in the day of battle. On such occasions he was all life,
gaiety, energy, and alacrity. At the last moment, when
his mind was otherwise oppressed, he retained a just sense
of religion, and seemed impressed with anxiety for the wel¬
fare of his subjects. Fie lay quietly and composed, with
his eyes fixed upon heaven; and when his speech failed
him, he appeared so resigned that no man could die either
better prepared or with greater constancy and piety, than
this prince, whose memory will ever be respected by the
lovers of rational liberty.
CFIAP. IX.
REIGN OF QUEEN ANNE.
Accession of Anne—State of parties—War declared against
France—Duke of Marlborough appointed general Flis suc¬
cess in his first Campaign.—losses sustained at sea Gallantry
and death of Admiral Benbow—Continental army increased.—
367
lieign of
Queen
Anne.
368
BRITAIN.
Reign of
Queen
Anne.
Further successes of Marlborough—French defeated at Blen-
helm Gibraltar taken—French defeated at sea.—Ineffectual
attempt of the Spaniards to recover Gibraltar—Charles declar¬
ed king of Spain—War of the Succession—Barcelona taken—
French defeated at Ramillies—The King of France sues for
peace—Change in the councils of Queen Anne—English de¬
feated at Almanza—Shipwreck of Sir Cloudesley Shovel.
Union between Scotland and England—The articles violent y
opposed in Scotland—Effects of this measure—Dissolution ot
the Scottish Privy Council—French defeated at Oudenaide.
—Battle of Malplaquet—Last Campaign of Marlborough-
Forces Villars to quit his lines without striking a blow—Cap¬
ture of Bouchain—Marlborough dismissed from all his employ¬
ments—Peace of Utrecht—Attempt to dissolve the Union-
Intrigues of the Whigs and Tories—Death of Queen Anne.
William was succeeded by the Princess Anne, who had
married George, Prince of Denmark. She ascended the
throne in the thirty-eighth year of her age, to the ge¬
neral satisfaction of all parties. W ilham had died on the
eve of a war with France; and the present queen, who
was generally guided by the advice of her ministry on
every important occasion, was now urged by opposite
councils, one part of the ministry being inclined for war
and another for peace. At the head of those who opposed
a war with France was the Earl of Rochester, lord lieuten¬
ant of Ireland, first cousin to the queen, and the chief of
the Tory faction ; whilst the opposite party was led by the
Earl, afterwards Duke, of Marlborough, and subsequently
so much and justly renowned for his victories over the
French. After both parties had given their opinions, that
of Marlborough preponderated. The queen resolved to
declare war ; and having communicated her intentions to
the House of Commons, by whom it was approved, war
was proclaimed accordingly. In this declaration Louis u as
taxed with having taken possession of a great part of the
Spanish dominions; with a design to invade the libeities
of Europe, and to obstruct the freedom of navigation and
commerce ; with having offered an unpardonable insult to
the queen and her throne, by acknowledging the title of the
pretender ; and with attempting to unite Spain to his own
dominions, by placing his grandson upon the throne of
that kingdom, and thus endeavouring to destroy the ba¬
lance of power that subsisted among the states of Euiope.
This declaration of war on the part of England was second¬
ed by similar manifestoes by the Dutch and Germans.
Louis XIV., whose power had been greatly circumscrib¬
ed by William, expected, on the death ot the latter, to
enter on a field open for new conquests and fame. At the
news of the English monarch’s death, therefore, he could
not suppress his satisfaction; whilst the people of Paris,
and indeed throughout the whole kingdom, testified their
joy in the most public manner. The French monarch
was filled with indignation at seeing such a combination
against him ; but his resentment fell chiefly on the Dutch,
and he declared with great emotion, that as for those gen¬
tlemen pedlars, they should one day repent their insolence
and presumption in declaring war against him, whose power
they had formerly felt and dreaded. By these threats,
however, the affairs of the allies were no way influenced.
Marlborough was appointed general of the British forces,
and by the Dutch he was chosen generalissimo of the al¬
lied army; and indeed his subsequent conduct showed
that no person could possibly have been chosen with
greater propriety. He had learned the rudiments of war
under Turenne, having served as a volunteer in his army;
and that celebrated commander had prognosticated his
future greatness.
The first attempt which Marlborough made to deviate
from the general practice of the army was to advance the
subaltern officers, whose merits had hitherto been neglect¬
ed. Regardless of seniority, wherever he found ability
he was sure to promote it; and thus all the upper ranks Beigr
of command were filled with men rather remarkable for Quew
their skill and talents than for their age and experience. ^nn ;
In his first campaign, in the beginning of July 1702, he ^
repaired to the camp at Nimeguen, where he found him¬
self at the head of sixty thousand men, well provided with
all necessaries, and long disciplined by the best officers of
the age. He was opposed on the part of France by the
Duke° of Burgundy, a youth of very little experience in
the art of war; but the real acting general was Marshal
Boufflers, the second in command, an officer of courage and
activity. But wherever Marlborough advanced, the French
were obliged to retire before him, leaving all Spanish
Guelderland at his discretion. The Duke of Burgundy,
finding himself obliged to retreat before the allied army,
rather than expose himself longer to such a mortifying
indignity, returned to Versailles, leaving Boufflers to com¬
mand alone. The latter then retired to Brabant; and
Marlborough ended the campaign by taking the city of
Liege, in which he found an immense sum of money and
a great number of prisoners.
This good fortune seemed to console the nation for
some unsuccessful expeditions at sea. Sir John Munden
having permitted a French squadron of fourteen ships to
escape him by taking shelter in the harbour of Corunna,
was dismissed the service. An attempt was made upon
Cadiz by sea and land, Sir George Rooke commanding the
navy, and the Duke of Ormond the land forces; but this
also miscarried. At Vigo, however, the British arms were
attended with better success; and the French fleet which
had taken refuge there were burned in order to prevent
their falling into the hands of the English, whilst ten ships
of war were taken, together with eleven galleons, and
above a million of money in silver. In the ^\est Indies,
Admiral Benbow, who had been stationed with ten ships
to distress the enemy’s trade, having received information
that Du Casse the French admiral was in those seas with a
force equal to his own, resolved to attack him ; and having
discovered the enemy’s squadron near St Martha steering
along the shore, he quickly gave the necessary orders to
his captains, and forming the line of battle, began the ac¬
tion. But the rest of the fleet having taken some causeless
disgust at his conduct, permitted the admiral to sustain,
almost alone, the whole fire of the enemy. Nevertheless,
the engagement continued till night, and he determin
to renew it next morning; but he had the mortification to
perceive that all the rest of his ships had fallen bac ex
cept one, who joined him in urging the pursuit of tiie
enemy. During four days this intrepid seaman, assistea
by only one ship, pursued and fought the enemy, w i s
his dastardly officers remained at a secure distance, n
the last day’s battle, which was more furious than any o
the preceding conflicts, the admiral s leg was shattere J
a cannon-ball, and he himself died soon after of his
Two of his associates w^ere shot on their arrival m Eng¬
land ; one died on his passage home; and the remain
were justly disgraced.
The next parliament, which was convened by the que ’
evinced great satisfaction at the success of the rl
arms on the Continent. The House of Commons, co
posed chiefly of Tories, voted forty thousand sean?en’**•.].
the like number of land forces, to act in conjunction '
those of the allies. But soon afterwards the queen in ^
ed her parliament that she was pressed by the a
eu nei puiimmciii/ LiiaL out. — j 1 tint ten
augment her forces; and upon this it was resolvet ‘ taj
thousand more men should be added to the c°ntin .
army; on condition, howTever, that the Dutch ^ho11^ .
mediately break off all commerce with France an 1 ,
In the beginning of April 1703 the Duke o .
borough crossed the sea, and assembling the alhe
BRITAIN.
1) gn of opened the campaign with the siege of Bonn, the residence
( een of the Elector of Cologne, which held out but a short time.
u16- He next retook Huy, the garrison of which, after a vigo-
u ^ rous defence, surrendered prisoners of war. Limburg was
then besieged, and surrendered in two days ; and the cam¬
paign concluded by securing the country of Liege, the elec¬
torate of Cologne, and the Lower Rhine, against the de¬
signs of the enemy.
In the campaign of 1704, the Duke of Marlborough, hav¬
ing informed the Dutch of his intention to march to the
relief of the empire, which had been for some time op¬
pressed by the French forces, the states gave him full
powers to act as he thought proper, with assurances of as¬
sistance in all his efforts. The French king, finding Bouf-
flers no longer capable of opposing Marlborough, appoint¬
ed the Marshal de Villeroi to command in his room. But
Marlborough, having no great fears from Villeroi, immedi¬
ately marched to the assistance of the emperor. Taking
with him about thirteen thousand British troops, he ad¬
vanced by rapid marches to the banks of the Danube, de¬
feated a body of French and Bavarians stationed at Do-
nawerth to oppose him, and, passing the river, laid under
contribution the electorate of Bavaria, which had taken part
with the enemy. Villeroi, who at first had attempted to fol¬
low his motions, soon lost sight of him ; nor w as the French
commander apprised of his route till informed of his suc¬
cesses. But, in the mean time, Marshal Tallard prepared
by another line to obstruct Marlborough's retreat, w ith an
army of thirty thousand men ; and being soon after joined
by the forces of the Elector of Bavaria, the French army
in that part of the Continent amounted to sixty thousand
veterans, commanded by twm generals then reputed the
best in France. To oppose this powerful force the Duke of
Marlborough formed a junction with a body of thirty thou¬
sand men under the celebrated Prince Eugene ; so that,
with this reinforcement, the allied army amounted to about
fifty-two thousand combatants. After various marches and
countermarches, the twm armies met at Blenheim. The
French, under Tallard, were posted upon a hill near the
towii of Hochstet, having their right covered by the Da¬
nube and the village of Blenheim, their left by the village of
Lutzengen, and their front by a rivulet, the sides of which
were steep and the bottom marshy; and in this strong
position they seemed to bid defiance to their adversaries.
But Marlborough and Eugene, having carefully examined
e §rnund, resolved to attack them, and accordingly ad¬
vanced upon the plain in front of their position. The bat¬
tle began by a cannonade on both sides, which lasted from
mne in the morning until halfan hour after mid-day. At
ns moment Marlborough, who had completed all his dis¬
positions, crossed the rivulet at the head of the English,
an attacked the cavalry of Ballard on the right, while that
officer was engaged in reviewing his troops on the left.
An hour elapsed, however, before Prince Eugene could
ring up his forces to attack the other wing of the enemy
commanded by the Elector of Bavaria; but, during this
f i e’ j^orough’s attack had been completely success-
ui; and when Tallard repaired to the scene of action he
und that the French cavalry had been thrice repulsed.
len a.ttempted to lead to the charge a large body of
• r ^hl<rh he had posted in the village ; but these be-
Ig luriously assailed by a strong detachment of English
tbp0^’ We£e scarcely atde to maintain their ground, while
defpa/6! ln flank an(l in reverse, were totally
rntrmW *i j . ?uccess lod to a movement which proved
of thp6 t? ^ c^cis^ve* Penetrating between the two wings
defpat ^ trough the space left open by the
senaraim ^i? cavallT’ the English troops effected a total
dentlv ^ n»^t'V ee,n them’ whilst the large force impru-
vol PyS m t^le v^aSe Blenheim had its commu-
369
nications intercepted by another strong detachment. In Reign of
this situation lallard flew to rally some of his squadrons; Queen
but, being short-sighted, he mistook a Flessian for a French Anne-
corps, and was made prisoner. On the left Prince Eugene
had encountered a vigorous resistance and been thrice re¬
pulsed ; but, having received some reinforcements from
Marlborough, he at last succeeded in dislodging the ene-
my opposed to him. The battle was now won. The French
fled in the utmost confusion, whilst the corps of thirteen
thousand men which occupied Blenheim were surrounded
and made prisoners. About twelve thousand French and
Bavarians were killed on the field or drowned in the
Danube ; whilst one hundred colours, two hundred stand¬
ards, three thousand tents, all the baggage, and the mili¬
tary chest of the French army, formed the trophies of this
glorious day. Of the allies not less than thirteen thou¬
sand were killed, wounded, or missing; but the conquer¬
ors by the victory gained a territory of a hundred leagues
in extent, and inflicted a blow on the power of France
from which it did not soon recover. Having finished the
campaign, the duke repaired to Berlin, where he procured
a reinforcement of eight thousand Prussians to serve un¬
der Prince Eugene in Italy, and then proceeded to nego-
ciate for succours at the court of Hanover ; after which he
returned to England, and was received with every possible
demonstration of joy. The manor of Woodstock was con¬
ferred upon him; and the lord-keeper, in the name of the
Peers, honoured him with the praises which his talents
and conduct had so well merited.
Nor were the arms of Britain less fortunate by sea than
by land. The town of Gibraltar was taken by the Prince
of Hesse and Sir George Rooke; but so little wras the
value of the conquest at that time understood, that it was
for some time debated whether the admiral should be
thanked for making it, and at last it was considered as
unworthy of public gratitude. Soon after, the British
fleet, to the number of fifty-three ships of the line, came
up with that of France, consisting of fifty-two men of war,
commanded by the Count de Toulouse, off the coast of
Malaga. Fhe battle began at ten in the forenoon, and
continued with great fury for six hours, when the van of
the French began to give way. The British admiral for
two days attempted to renew the engagement; but this
was cautiously declined by the French, who at last disap¬
peared totally. Both sides claimed the victory, although
the result showed that it was in favour of the British.
Meanwhile the Spaniards, alarmed at the capture of Gib¬
raltar, sent the Marquis of Villadurias with a large army
to retake it. France also dispatched a fleet of thirteen
ships of the line; but some of them parted company in a
gale, and others were taken by the British. Nor was the
land force more successful. The siege continued for four
months, during which time the Spaniards repeatedly at¬
tempted in vain to scale the rock; and at last, losing all
hopes of taking the place, they were contented to draw off
their men and abandon the enterprise.
\\ hilst the British were thus victorious by land and
sea, a new scene of contention was opened on the side of
Spain. Philip V. grandson of Louis XIV. had been raised
to the throne of that kingdom, having been nominated as
successor to the crown by the late king of Spain’s will.
But in a former treaty among the powers of Europe,
Charles, son of the emperor of Germany, was appointed
heir to that crown; and this treaty had been guaranteed
by France herself, although she now resolved to recal that
consent in favour of a descendant of the house of Bour¬
bon. Charles was still further led to urge his pretensions
to the crown of Spain by the invitation of the Catalonians,
who declared in his favour, and promised, with the assist¬
ance of the British and Portuguese, to arm in his cause.
3 a
370
BRITAIN.
Anne.
lieign of On his way to his new dominions, he landed in England,
Queen where, on his arrival, he was received by the Dukes of
Somerset and Marlborough ; kindly greeted by the queen ;
and furnished with two hundred transports, thirty ships of
war, and nine thousand men, under the command of the
Earl of Peterborough, a man of romantic bravery and
high military genius. The first attempt of this geneial
was on the city of Barcelona, at that time defended by a
garrison of five thousand men. The fort of Monjuic, situ¬
ated on a hill which commanded the city, was attacked;
and the outworks being taken by storm, as well as the
powder-magazine blown up, the fort surrendered, and in a
short time afterwards the city capitulated. The conquest of
all Valencia succeeded the capture of Barcelona; Charles
became master of Aragon, Garthagena, Grenada, and
Madrid ; and the British general having entered the capi¬
tal in triumph, there proclaimed Charles king of Spain,
without opposition.
These successes, however, were soon eclipsed by the
victories of the Duke of Marlborough, which alone en¬
grossed public attention. In 1706 he opened the cam¬
paign with an army of eighty thousand men. The army
of Villeroi, in the vicinity of Tirlemont, was of nearly
equal strength, and he had orders to attack the allies be¬
fore the Danish and Prussian contingents could join. But,
whilst it was his intention to become the assailant, Ville¬
roi was himself attacked, in a position which prevented
his developing the whole of his force. He had the river
Mehaigne on his flank, and his centre occupied the vil¬
lage of Ramillies, while a marsh covered his left. Marl¬
borough skilfully availed himself of the disposition made
by his antagonist; and knowing that Villeroi’s left was
paralysed by reason of the marsh in front, which effectual¬
ly prevented its acting on the offensive, he directed his
principal attack upon the centre, which formed the key of
the position. The issue of the conflict was never for a
moment doubtful; the village was carried in the most
gallant style, and both wings being at once separated and
turned, a complete rout ensued. About six thousand
French were made prisoners, and upwards of eight thou¬
sand killed or wounded. The whole of Brabant became
the reward of the victors. The French troops were now
dispirited ; the city of Paris was in confusion ; and Louis,
who had long been flattered with conquest, was humbled
to such a degree as almost to excite the compassion even
of his enemies. He sued for peace, but in vain; the
allies carried all before them; and his capital began to
dread the approach of the conquerors. But what neither
his armies nor his politics could effect, was brought about
by the intrigues of a party in England. The dissensions
between the Whigs and Tories saved France, which now
seemed tottering on the very brink of ruin.
The councils of the queen had hitherto been governed
by a Whig ministry; for though the Duke of Marlborough
began his career in the interest of the opposite party,
he soon joined the Whigs, whom he found most sincere
in the design of humbling France. The people, however,
were now in fact beginning to change their sentiments, and
to imbibe the slavish spirit of Toryism. The queen’s pex--
sonal virtues, her successes, her deference for the clergy,
and their great veneration for her, all contributed to give
her great influence with the nation. Persons of every
rank were not ashamed to defend the most servile tenets,
when these tended to flatter or increase the power of the
sovereign, and to argue in favour of strict hereditary suc¬
cession, divine right, and non-resistance to the regal power.
The Tories, though joining in vigorous measures against
France, were never very ardent enemies of that country;
but they secretly hated the Dutch, and longed for an op¬
portunity of breaking with that people. With this view
they began to meditate schemes of opposition to the Duke Reign of
of Marlborough, whom they represented as an interested Queen
man, who sacrificed the real interests of the nation, in v Anne,
protracting a ruinous war, for his own private emolument w'r*'
and glory ; and as the country was oppressed with a load
of taxes, which a continuance of the war would inevitably
increase, discontent began to spread, and the Tories wanted
only a few determined leaders to assist them in removing
the present ministry.
In the meanwhile, a succession of losses began to dissi¬
pate the conquering mania which had seized the nation,
and to incline them to wish for peace. The Earl of Gal¬
way, who commanded the English army in Spain, was
completely defeated at Almanza by the Duke of Berwick;
and in consequence of this victory all Spain, except the
province of Catalonia, returned to their duty to Philip as
their lawful sovereign. An attempt was made upon Tou¬
lon by the Duke of Savoy and Prince Eugene by land,
and an English fleet by sea; but to no purpose. The fleet
under Sir Cloudesley Shovel, having set sail for England,
was driven by a violent storm on the rocks of Scilly, where
his own ship was lost, and every person on board perished;
while three more ships met with the same fate, and four
others were saved with the utmost difficulty. In Germany,
Marshal Villars carried all before him, and was upon the
point of restoring the Elector of Bavaria. The only hopes
of the people lay in the activity and conduct of the Duke
of Marlborough, who opened the campaign of 1707, about
the middle of May; but even here they were disappointed.
The duke declined an engagement; and, after a variety
of marches and countermarches, both armies retired into
winter quarters about the end of October. The French
made vigorous preparations- for the next campaign; and
the duke returned to England to meet with a reception
which he did not at all expect, and which he certainly did
not deserve.
The most remarkable transaction of this year, and in¬
deed of this whole reign, was the union between the two
kingdoms of Scotland and England. 1 hough governed
by one sovereign since the time of James I. of England,
yet each nation had continued to be ruled by its respec¬
tive parliament, and often professed to pursue interests
opposite to those of its neighbour. The union had often
been unsuccessfully attempted before, and had indeed
been the cause of the bloody wars in the times of Edward I.
and Edward HI. of England. In all the former proposals
on that head, both nations were supposed to remain free
and independent; each kingdom having its own parlia¬
ment, and being subject only to such taxes and other
commercial regulations as those parliaments judged expe¬
dient for the benefit of their respective states. But alter
the destruction of the Darien colony in the manner al¬
ready related, King \\ illiam had endeavoured to allay t e
national ferment by resuming the affair of a union wit
as much assiduity as his warlike occupations would allow.
The terms proposed were the same with those formeil} ten
dered; namely, a federal union, somewhat like thato t e
states of Flolland. With this view the Scots were prevail¬
ed on to send twenty commissioners to London, who, wi i
twenty-three on the part of England, assembled at > 1 e
hall in the month of October 1702. Here they were o
noured with a visit from the queen, in order to enliven t ei
proceedings and stimulate them to the more speedy 1
patch of business; but the treaty was entirely broken o
this time by the Scottish commissioners insisting that
rights and privileges of their countrymen trading to r1^
and the Indies should be preserved and maintaine •
was, however, resumed in the year 1706, when the co^
missioners again assembled on the 16th of April? m
council chamber of Whitehall. The Scottish commission
BRITAIN.
Reft of still proposed a federal union; but the English were deter-
Q fcn mined on an incorporation, which should not afterwards
be dissolved by a Scottish parliament. Nothing but this,
they said, could settle a perfect and lasting friendship be¬
twixt the two nations. The commissioners from Scotland,
however, continued to resist the article which subjected
their country to the same customs, excises, and regula¬
tions of trade as England; but the queen being persuaded
to pay two visits in person to the commissioners, exerted
herself so vigorously, that a majority was at last gained
over; and all the rest yielded, though with reluctance,
excepting Lockhart of Carnwath, who could not by any
means be persuaded either to sign or seal the treaty.
The articles being fully prepared on the 22d of July,
were presented next day to her majesty by the lord-keeper
in the name of the English commissioners; and at the
same time a sealed copy of the instrument was deliver¬
ed by the lord chancellor of Scotland. The articles were
most graciously received; and the same day the queen
dictated an order of council, threatening with prosecution
such as should be concerned in any discourse or libel, or
in laying wagers, with regard to the union. But notwith¬
standing all this harmony the treaty was received with the
utmost disapprobation in Scotland. The terms had been
carefully concealed, so that nothing transpired till the whole
was at once laid before parliament. The ferment then
became general; and all ranks of people, however divid¬
ed in other respects, united against this detested treaty.
The nobility and gentry were exasperated at the annihi¬
lation of parliament, and the consequent loss of their in¬
fluence and credit. The body of the people cried out,
that the independence of the nation was sacrificed to
treachery and corruption; and insisted, that the obligations
laid on their members to stay so long at London, in their
attendance on the British parliament, would drain the
country of its money, impoverish the members themselves,
and subject them to the temptation of being corrupted.
Aor was the commercial part of the people better satis¬
fied. The dissolution of the India Company; the taxes
laid on the necessaries of life; and the vast number of
duties, customs, and restrictions, laid upon trade, were all
of them matter of complaint. Before this time Scotland
had traded freely to the Levant, the Baltic, France, Spain,
rortugal, Holland, and the Dutch plantations; and it
seemed difficult to conceive how the commerce of the
country could be advanced by laying restrictions upon
it in regard to these places, especially as the compensa¬
tion allowed, namely, the privilege of trading to the Eng¬
lish plantations in America, formed a very trifling advan-
tage, seeing that the amount of the whole exports to these
places did not by any means equal the expense of defend¬
ing them. The most violent disputes took place in the
par lament. Lord Belhaven delivered a most pathetic
*PeecY’ which, enumerating the miseries that would
tend this treaty, he drew tears from the audience, and
tiered many prognostications, which to this day are reck-
ned prophetic by many of the Scottish nation. Almost
'erv article of the treaty was the subject of a protest; and
„ resses against it were presented to parliament by the
1 ventlon of royal burghs, the commissioners of the gene-
Indt?mbly’,fnd the conTany trading to Africa and the
and S5 -ai We .as from shires> stewartries, burghs, towns,
and pansfies, without distinction of Whig, Tory, Presbyte-
mnn °r PlscoPa^an* Nor was the resentment of the com-
mpmK e0P G- 7-lthout doors less violent than that of the
PrpsVivt ^ •Wltdlin* coahtion was formed between the
resentmenfnS/nid Cavaliers j and to such a height did the
officer' f11 ° i PeoPle .rise’ that they actually chose
and amm?™.- th,emselves into regiments, provided horses
unition, burnt the articles of union, justified their
conduct by a public declaration, and resolved to take the
route to Edinburgh and dissolve the parliament.
In the mean time the privy council issued a proclama¬
tion against riots, commanding all persons to retire from
the streets whenever the drum was beat; ordering the
guards to fire on those who disobeyed this command;
and indemnifying them from all prosecution for maiming
or slaying the lieges. But even these precautions were
insufficient. The Duke of Queensberry, the chief pro¬
moter of the union, though guarded by double lines of
horse and foot, was obliged to pass through the streets
at full gallop, amidst the curses and imprecations of the
populace, who pelted his guards, and even wounded some
of the persons who attended him in the coach. In oppo¬
sition to all this fury, the friends of the measure magni¬
fied the advantages that would accrue to the kingdom
from the union ; they abated the resentment of the clergy,
by promoting the insertion in the treaty of an act by which
the Presbyterian discipline was declared to be the only
government of the church of Scotland, unalterable in all
succeeding times, and a fundamental article of the union.
Emissaries were also employed to disunite the Camero-
nians and the Cavaliers, by demonstrating the absurdity,
sinfulness, and danger, of such a proceeding. The India
Company w^as flattered with the prospect of an indemni¬
fication for the losses they had sustained, and individuals
by sharing an equivalent. And the last manoeuvre con¬
sisted in bringing over a party in the Scottish parlia¬
ment, nicknamed the Squadrons Volants, from their fluc¬
tuating between the ministry and the opposition, without
attaching themselves to any party till the critical moment,
which was either to cement both kingdoms by a firm
union, or involve them in the calamities of war. By this
unexpected stroke, the ministry obtained a decisive vic¬
tory, and all opposition was henceforth vain. The articles
of treaty were ratified by parliament, with some trifling
variations, on the 25th of March 1707; when the Duke of
Queensberry finally dissolved that ancient assembly, and
Scotland ceased to be a separate independent kingdom.
On the conclusion of the treaty, the queen informed both
houses of parliament that the treaty of union, with some
additions and alterations, was ratified by an act of the par¬
liament of Scotland; that she had ordered it to be laid
before them, hoping it would meet their approbation ; that
they had now an opportunity of putting the last hand to
a happy union of the two kingdoms; and that she would
look upon it as a particular happiness if this great work, so
often attempted before without success, could be brought
to perfection in her reign. Objections, however, were
started by the Tory party; but they were at that time too
weak to be heard with any attention; and all their argu¬
ments were answered with such success by the opposite
party, that the union w^as unalterably completed on the
first of May 1707, and the island took the name of The
United Kingdom of Great Britain.
In this treaty it must be observed, that the commission¬
ers on the part of England were not only able statesmen,
but, for the most part, well skilled in trade; which gave
them an evident advantage over those of Scotland, who
consisted of lords and gentlemen who had no commercial
knowledge. Hence they were overmatched by the for¬
mer in the great objects which are more immediately con¬
nected with national prosperity; though they were very
careful to preserve all their heritable offices, superiorities,
jurisdictions, and other privileges and trappings of the
feudal aristocracy. Had the English commissioners made
a liberal use of the advantages afforded them at this time,
it would have been in their power to have greatly enrich¬
ed themselves as well as the inhabitants of Scotland; but
instead of this they were influenced by the narrow’ and
371
Reign of
Queen
Anne.
372
BRITAIN.
lleign of short-sighted principle of commercial monopoly; and t m
Queen consequences were such as might, with a small degree ot
Anne, reflection, have been foreseen.
In 1708 there was a warm debate in a grand committee
of the House of Lords, occasioned by a bill passed by t le
Commons for rendering the union of the two kingdoms
more entire and complete, by which it was enacted, that,
from the first of May 1708, there should be but one privy
council in the kingdom of Britain. The arguments for
the dissolution of the privy council of Scotland were, its
enormous stretches of power and acts of cruelty, and the
circumstance that it could now be of no other use in Scot-
land except to enable the court to govern every thing at
pleasure, and procure such members of parliament as it
thought proper. The dissolution, however, was carried by
fifty against forty, after which the nation, deprived of this
last fragment of its ancient government, was thrown into
a ferment by the opponents of the union; but after an in¬
effectual attempt in favour of the pretender, animosities
began to subside.
We must now return to the Duke of Marlborougn, who
had gone over to Flanders to open the campaign. Peace
had been more than once offeredj and treaties entered
upon, but as often frustrated. After the battle of Ramil-
lies, the king of France had employed the Elector of Ba¬
varia to write letters in his name to the Duke of Marlbo¬
rough, containing proposals for opening a congress, and
offering to renounce either Spain and its dominions, or
the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, to Charles of Austiia,
and to concede a barrier to the Dutch in the Netherlands.
But these terms were rejected ; and the two armies once
more met in nearly equal numbers at Oudenarde, on the
Scheldt, where an engagement ensued, in which the french
were defeated with immense loss; and Lisle, the strong¬
est town in Flanders, with Ghent, Bruges, and all the
other towns in that country, soon after fell into the hands
of the victors. In this battle the electoral prince of Ha¬
nover, afterwards George II. of Britain, greatly distin¬
guished himself, and had the merit of conducting the first
attack. His horse was killed under him, and Colonel
Luschki was slain close by his side. The campaign ended
with fixing a barrier to the Dutch provinces, and it now
only remained to force a way into the provinces of the
enemy.
The French king, being now in a manner reduced to
despair, again sued for peace; but the demands of the
allies were so high, that he was obliged to reject them, and
prepare for another campaign, in the year 1709. The first
attempt of the allies was against the city of Tournay, gar¬
risoned by twelve thousand men, and exceedingly strong
both by nature and art. After a terrible siege of twenty-
one days, the town capitulated; and a month afterwards
the citadel, which was still stronger than the town, surren¬
dered. Next followed the bloody battle of Malplaquet,
where the allied army, consisting of a hundi'ed and ten
thousand men, attacked the French, consisting of a hun¬
dred and twenty thousand, strongly posted, and fortified
in such a manner behind the woods of La Merte and Ta-
nieres, with triple entrenchments, that their position seem¬
ed quite impregnable. Nothing, however, could resist the
energy of Marlborough and the bravery of his troops. The
French were driven from all their positions, and totally
defeated. But the victory cost the allies very dear ; for
twenty thousand of their best troops lay dead or wounded
on the field of battle. The consequence of this victory
was the surrender of the city of Mons, which ended the
campaign.
The last campaign of the Duke of Marlborough, which
happened in the year 1711, probably excelled all his for¬
mer exploits. He was opposed by Marshal Villars, who
had commanded the French in the battle of Malplaquet; Reign
but he contrived his measures so, that, by marching and Queei
countermarching, he, without striking a blow, forced the
enemy to quit a strong line of entrenchments, which he
afterwards took possession of. This enterprise was follow¬
ed by the taking of Bouchain, which was the last military
achievement of this great general. By a continuation of
conduct and success almost unparalleled, he had gained
to the allies a prodigious tract of country. From the be¬
ginning of the war, which had now continued nine years,
he had perpetually advanced, and never retreated before
his enemies, nor lost an advantage he had obtained over
them. He frequently gained possession of the enemy’s
posts without fighting ; and where he was obliged to attack,
no fortifications were able to resist him. He had never
besieged a city which he did not take, nor fought a battle
which he did not win. Thus the allies had reduced under
their command Spanish Guelderland, Limburg, Brabant,
Flanders, and Hainault; they were masters of the Scarpe;
the capture of Bouchain had opened for them a way into
the very heart of France ; and another campaign might
have made them masters of Paris. But on the duke’s re¬
turn from this campaign, he was accused of having taken
a bribe of six thousand pounds a year from a Jew who had
contracted to supply the army with bread; and the queen
thought proper to dismiss him from all his employments.
On the removal of this great general, the command of
the British forces was conferred on the Duke of Ormond.
The transactions which followed are by no means credit¬
able to the character of the British nation. The people at
large, blinded by a headstrong and furious clergy, wished
to revive the ceremonies of the Romish religion, and to
unite the English and Gallican churches; the general ot
the army acted a most insidious part, by giving the enemy
intelligence of the designs of the allies before he had de¬
clared that he was not to act in concert with them; and
the queen herself commanded him to pursue this shameful
course, nay even acted in a similar manner herself. Pnnce
Eugene complained much of the inactivity of the English
general, though apparently unacquainted with his treach¬
ery ; whilst the whole army loaded him with execrations,
calling him a stupid tool, and a general of straw. All this,
however, was in vain; the duke continued to prefer the
commands of his sovereign to every other consideration,
and Ormond lost what Marlborough had gained.
The disgrace of the Duke of Marlborough had been
owing to the prevalence of the Tory party, who had now
got the Whig ministry turned out; and the consequence
was, that notwithstanding all the remonstrances and en¬
treaties of the allies, the British army in Flanders was or¬
dered not to act offensively. Hence the operations lan¬
guished; a considerable body of the allies was cut oft a
Denain, and the French retook several towns. A peace,
however, was at last concluded in 1713 between
and Britain. In this treaty it was stipulated that i mnPj
now acknowledged as king of Spain, should renounce
right to the crown of France, the union of two sue po
erful kingdoms being thought dangerous to the hher i
of Europe. It was agreed that the Duke de Bern, 1 P
brother, and next after him in succession, should ^ls0
nounce his right to the crown of Spain in case he ec‘
king of France. And it was stipulated that the Du 6 0 .
voy should possess the island of Sicily with the tit e 0 .
together with Fenestrelles, and other places on t ie
nent; and this increase of dominion was in some me
provided out of the spoils of the French monarchy. ^
Dutch had the barrier granted them which they so
desired; and if the crown of France was deprived o
dominions to enrich the Duke of Savoy, the house o ^
tria was also taxed to supply the wants of the Do
BRITAIN,
373
Ityliof
Qen
who were put in possession of the strongest towns in Flan¬
ders. The fortifications of Dunkirk were demolished.
Spain gave up Gibraltar and the island of Minorca. France
; resigned her pretensions to Hudson’s Bay, Nova Scotia,
and Newfoundland, but was left in possession of Cape Bre¬
ton, with the liberty of drying fish upon the shore. Among
the articles creditable to the British nation, their setting
free the French Protestants confined in the prisons and
galleys for their religion was not the least meritorious.
In behalf of the emperor, it was stipulated that he should
possess the kingdom of Naples, the duchy of Milan, and
the Spanish Netherlands; and the king of Prussia was
to have Upper Guelderland. A period was fixed for the
emperor’s acceding to these articles, as he had for some
time obstinately refused to assist at the negociation. This
famous treaty was signed at Utrecht on the last day of
March 1713.
The same year was also remarkable for an attempt of the
Scottish Peers and Commons to dissolve the union, which,
as already stated, had proved exceedingly disagreeable
and distressful to the nation. During the debates on this
subject the Earl of Peterborough endeavoured to prove
the impossibility of dissolving the treaty; but the Duke of
Argyll, who had originally promoted the union, now de¬
clared against it, and said, that unless it were dissolved
he did not long expect to have either property in Scot¬
land or liberty in England. By some other Peers it was
alleged, that the union had not produced its intended
effect; that it had been designed to promote friendship
between the two nations; that, so far from answering this
purpose, the animosities between them were never so
great as then; and that if separated again they would be
better friends than in a state of nominal union and real
dissension. This motion was however overruled; but the
discontent of the people still continued; addresses were
prepared throughout the kingdom; and matters were in
danger of coming to the worst extremities, when the at¬
tempt of the pretender in 1715 so divided the minds of
the people that no unanimous effort could ever afterwards
be made for the repeal of the union.
The history of the latter portion of this reign consists en¬
tirely of the intrigues of the Whigs and Tories against each
other, which, as they are now of no importance whatever,
it is needless to take up time in relating, further than that
the Tory influence continued to prevail. Whether the
ministry at this time wished to alter the succession from
the Hanoverian line, cannot now be clearly ascertained;
but it is certain that the Whigs firmly believed it, and the
lories but faintly denied the charge. The suspicions of the
former became every day stronger, particularly when they
saw a total removal of the Whigs from all places of trust
and confidence throughout the kingdom, and their employ¬
ments bestowed on professed Tories, supposed to be de¬
voted to the cause of unbroken hereditary succession.
The violent dissensions between these parties, with
t leir cabals and tumults, made the queen’s situation very
disagreeable; her health visibly declined. On the 28th of
July 1714 she fell into a lethargic insensibility; and, not¬
withstanding all the medicines prescribed by the physi-
mans the distemper gained ground so fast, that next day
ier life was despaired of. The members of the privy coun-
ci were now summoned from the different parts of the
ingdom, and began to provide for the security of the con-
s itution. A letter was sent to the Elector of Hanover,
m orming him of the queen’s desperate condition, and de¬
siring him to repair to Holland, where a British squadron
wou a attend to convey him to England ; and instructions
aiTh aut^e same ^me dispatched to the Earl of Strafford
t a 6 ^aSue’ l-0 squire the states-general to be prepared
° guarantee the Protestant succession. Precautions were
also taken to secure all the sea-ports; and the command Reign of
of the fleet was bestowed upon the Earl of Berkeley, a pro- George I.
fessed Whig. These measures answered a double purpose,
as they argued the alacrity of the Whigs in the cause of
their new sovereign, and seemed to imply that the state
was in danger from the disaffection of the opposite party.
On the 30th of July the queen seemed somewhat relieved
by the medicines which had been administered; and hav¬
ing risen from her bed about eight in the morning, she
walked a little ; but she was soon afterwards seized with an
apoplectic fit; and although she recovered somewhat by
the assistance of Dr Mead, she continued all night in a
state of stupefaction, and expired the following morning,
at seven, having lived forty-nine years, and reigned up¬
wards of twelve. This princess was remarkable neither
for learning nor capacity. Like all the rest of her family,
she seemed rather fitted for the duties of private life than
those of a public station, being a pattern of conjugal fide¬
lity? a g°0(i mother, a warm friend, and an indulgent mis¬
tress ; and to her honour it should be recorded, that du¬
ring her reign none suffered for treason on the scaffold.
In her ended the line of the Stuarts, a family who nei¬
ther rewarded their friends nor punished their enemies,
and whose misconduct and misfortunes are scarcely to be
paralleled in history.
CHAP. X.
REIGN OF GEORGE I.
Accession of George I.—His arrival in England.—Favour shown
by him to the Whigs—National Discontents Dissolution of
Parliament—New one assembled—Its violent proceedings 
Rebellion in Scotland—Battle of Sheriffmuir Proceedings of
the Jacobites in England—Expedition of the Earl of Derwent-
water—.Jacobites forced to surrender at Preston Ridiculous
schemes of the Pretender—He lands in Scotland without means,
and quits it -without necessity—Cruel treatment of the rebels.
—Execution of Derwentwater and Kenmuir—Escape of others
by various means.—Duration of Parliaments extended Bri¬
tain threatened with invasion by Charles XII. of Sweden 
Quadruple Alliance—War with Spain—Intended invasion by
the Spaniards defeated—Irish Parliament made dependent on
that of Britain—South Sea Scheme—Origin and nature of this
delusion—The Directors punished—Expedition of Admiral
Hosier.—Death of George I.
The queen had no sooner resigned her breath than the
privy council met, and three instruments wrere produced,
by which the Elector of Hanover appointed several of his
adherents to be added as lords justices to the great offi¬
cers of the kingdom. Orders were also issued out for pro¬
claiming George, son of Ernest Augustus, Elector of Bruns¬
wick, and of Sophia, grand-daughter of James I., king of
England, Scotland, and Ireland ; and the regency appoint¬
ed the Earl of Dorset to carry to him the intimation of his
accession to the crown, and to attend him in his journey
to England.
The king landed at Greenwich, and walked to his house
in the park, accompanied by a great number of the no¬
bility and other persons of distinction. George I. was
fifty-four years of age when he ascended the British
throne; and his mature age, his experience and sagacity,
his numerous alliances, and the general tranquillity of Eu¬
rope, all contributed to establish his interests, and promise
him a peaceable and happy reign. His virtues, though
not shining, wrere solid; and he was of a very different
disposition from the Stuart family whom he succeeded;
for, soon after his arrival in England, he was heard to say,
“ My maxim is, never to abandon my friends, to do justice
to all the world, and to fear no man.” To these qualities
of resolution and perseverance he joined great application
374
BRITAIN.
Reign of to business; but, unfortunately for England, he studied
George 1. the interests of the territory he had left more than those
of the kingdom he came to govern.
The new king early discovered a natural enough incli¬
nation to support those who had raised him to the throne,
or, in other words, the Whig party. Immediately after
his landing, he sent for such of the nobility as had dis¬
tinguished themselves by their zeal for his succession.
He expressed the greatest regard for the Duke of Marl¬
borough, who had just then arrived from the Continent,
whither he had been driven by the violence of the Tories ;
and he professed the same friendship for the other lead¬
ers of the Whigs, while the Tories found themselves ex¬
cluded from the royal favour. The king did not seem
sensible that the monarch of a faction rules but one half
of his subjects; and it was his misfortune to be surround¬
ed by men who, whilst they pretended to secure the crown
for the king, used all their arts to confirm their own inte¬
rests, extend their connections, and give laws to their so¬
vereign. In consequence of these partialities, the great¬
est discontent was excited throughout the whole king¬
dom. The Tories or Jacobites raised terrible outcries;
and had the pretender been a man of judgment or ability,
a fair opportunity now offered him of striking a decisive
blow. Instead of this, he remained a calm spectator on the
Continent, and only sent over his emissaries to disperse
ineffectual manifestoes and delude the unwary. At this
time the Catholic religion was much hated in England;
but the principles of the Dissenters were little, if at all,
more agreeable to the generality. The Tories affirmed
that, under a Whig administration, heresy and impiety
were daily gaining ground; whilst the lower orders of the
clergy joined in these complaints, and pointed out several
tracts published in favour of Arianism and Socinianism.
The ministry, however, not only refused to punish the de¬
linquents, but silenced the clergy themselves, and forbade
their future disputations on these topics.
The parliament having been dissolved, another was now
called by a very extraordinary proclamation, in which the
king complained of the evil designs of men disaffected
to his succession, and of their misrepresentations of his
conduct and principles; expressed his hopes that his sub¬
jects would send up to parliament the fittest persons to
redress the present disorders; and entreated that they
would elect such in particular as had expressed a firm at¬
tachment to the Protestant succession. In the election
of this important parliament, uncommon vigour was ex¬
erted on both sides; but by dint of the monied interest
which prevailed in corporations, and the activity of the
ministry, a great majority of Whigs was returned both in
England and Scotland. Upon the assembling of the new
parliament the most violent measures were resolved on
against the late ministry. A committee was appointed
to inspect all the papers relative to the recent treaty, and
to select such of them as might furnish grounds of accusa¬
tion against the former ministry; and the Earl of Oxford
was impeached of high treason, and sent to the Tower.
Nor was the violence of the Commons answered with less
vehemence without doors. Tumults became every day
more frequent, and each new ebullition served only to in¬
crease the severity of the legislature, which at length
passed an act, declaring, that if any persons to the num¬
ber of twelve, unlawfully assembled, should continue to¬
gether one hour after being required to disperse by a jus¬
tice of peace or other officer, and after hearing the act
against riots read in public, they should be deemed guilty
of felony without benefit of clergy. These proceedings
excited the indignation of the people, who perceived that
the avenues of royal favour were closed against all but a
faction; and a rebellion commenced in the sister kingdom,
where to other grievances was added that of the union, Rei„n {
which all considered as an oppression. The malcontents of George
that country had all along maintained a correspondence
with their friends in England, and some of the Tory party
who were attached to the Protestant religion, and of mo¬
derate principles in government, began to associate with
the Jacobites, and to wish in earnest for a revolution.
Scotland first showed them the example. The Earl of
Mar, assembling three hundred of his vassals in the High¬
lands, proclaimed the pretender at Castleton, and setting
up his standard at Braemar, assumed the title of Lieuten¬
ant-general of his Majesty’s Forces. To second these at¬
tempts, two vessels arrived from France with arms, ammu¬
nition, and a number of officers, together with assurances,
tlmt the pretender himself would shortly come over to
head his own forces. In consequence of this promise, the
earl soon found himself at the head of ten thousand men
well armed and provided; and having secured the pass of
Tay at Perth, where his head-quarters were established,
he made himself master of the province of Fife, and the
whole sea-coast on that side of the Frith of Forth. He
then marched to Dumblane, as if with the intention of
crossing the Forth at Stirling Bridge ; but there he was in¬
formed that the Duke of Argyll, who had been appointed
commander-in-chief of all the forces in North Britain, was
advancing against him from Stirling with his own clan,
assisted by some troops from Ireland. Upon this he at
first judged it proper to retreat; but being soon afterwards
joined by reinforcements under the Earl of Seaforth, and
General Gordon, an experienced officer, who had signalis¬
ed himself in the Russian service, he resolved to face the
enemy, and directed his march towards the south. The
Duke of Argyll, apprised of his intentions, and anxious to
prove his attachment to the present government, resolved
to give him battle in the neighbourhood of Dumblane,
though his forces did not amount to half the number of
the enemy. Accordingly, in the morning he drew up his
army, which did not exceed four thousand men, in order
of battle ; but he soon found himself greatly outflanked by
the insurgents. The duke, therefore, perceiving the earl
making attempts to surround him, was forced to alter his
dispositions ; but, from the scarcity of general officers, this
was not done so expeditiously as to be completed before
the insurgents began the attack. The left wing of the
duke’s army received the centre of the enemy, and sup¬
porting the first charge without shrinking, seemed for
a time victorious. The chief of Clanronald was killed;
but Glengarry, who was second in command, waving his
bonnet and crying out “ Revenge !” animated the rebel
troops to such a degree, that they followed him close to
the points of the enemy’s bayonets, and got within their
guard, when a total rout ensued of that wing of the royal
army. General Witham, their commander, fled full speed
to Stirling, and gave out that the rebels were completely
victorious. But Argyll, who commanded in person on the
right, having in the meanwhile attacked the left of the
enemy, drove them before him for two miles, notwithstan -
ing they often faced about and attempted to rally; an
having entirely broken and driven them over the river
Allan, he returned to the field of battle. Here, however,
to his great mortification, he found the enemy victorious,
and patiently waiting the attack. But instead of renew¬
ing the engagement, both armies continued to observe eac
other, neither caring to recommence the contest; and o
wards evening each drew off. Both sides of course claim^
ed the victory ; but all the advantages of success belong
ed to Argyll. He had arrested the progress of t^ie
and, in their circumstances, delay was defeat. In fact,
Earl of Mar soon found his losses and disapointments |
crease. The Castle of Inverness, of which he had ob at
BRITAIN.
Re:ii of
Gee e I.
ed possession, was delivered up by Lord Lovat, who had
hitherto professed to act in the interest of the pretender ;
^ the Marquis of Tullibardine also forsook the earl, in order
to defend his own part of the country ; and many of the
clans, seeing no likelihood of coming to a second engage¬
ment, returned quietly home.
Nor was the rebellion more successfully prosecuted in
England. From the time the pretender had undertaken
this wild project at Paris, in which the Duke of Ormond
and Lord Bolingbroke were engaged, Lord Stair, the Eng¬
lish ambassador there, had penetrated all his designs, and
sent faithful accounts of all his measures and of all his ad¬
herents to the ministry at home. Upon the first rumour
of an insurrection, therefore, several lords and gentlemen
of whom they had suspicions were imprisoned; and al¬
though these precautions were insufficient to stop the in¬
surrection in the western counties, where it had already
begun, all the preparations of the insurgents were weak
and ill conducted, while every measure was betrayed to
government as soon as projected, and many revolts were
repressed in the very outset.
But the insurrection in the northern counties attained
to greater maturity. In the month of October 1715, the
Earl of Derwentwater and Mr Forster took the field with
a body of horse, and, being joined by some gentlemen
from the borders of Scotland, proclaimed the pretender.
Their first attempt was to seize upon Newcastle, in which
they had many friends ; but finding the gates shut against
them, they retired to Hexham. To oppose them General
Carpenter was detached by government with a body of nine
hundred men; and an engagement was hourly expected,
the rebels had two courses, by pursuing which they might
have conducted themselves with prudence and safety. The
one was, to march directly into the western parts of Scot¬
land, and there join General Gordon, who commanded a
strong body of Highlanders ; and the other was. to cross
the Iweed and boldly attack General Carpenter, whose
torces did not exceed their own. But, from the infatua¬
tion attendant on the measures of the Jacobite party, nei-
ther of these courses was pursued. They took the route to
Jedburgh, by which they hoped to elude Carpenter, and
penetrate into England by the western border. But this
was the most effectual means of cutting themselves off from
either assistance ot retreat. A party of Highlanders, who
nad by this time joined, at first refused to accompany them
in so desperate an incursion, and one half of their num-
ner in consequence returned to their own country. At
rampton Mr lorster opened his commission of general,
which had been sent him by the Earl of Mar, and there
proclaimed the pretender. The insurgents then continu-
m ^arch t0 Penrith> where a body of the militia,
assembled to oppose them, fled at their approach. From
i ennth they proceeded by the way of Kendal and Lan-
aster to Freston, of which they took possession without
Sr n c ? ,r£Ttance- But this the last stage of
r ll:tdtcd advance; for General Wills, at the head of
seven thousand men, came up to attack them, and from
raispd 11?le was no escaping. They now, therefore,
turl nf ipCadeS ab0Ut the town’ Put the PIace in a pos-
tark« pf efence> and repulsed with success the first at-
forSfl i! enemTs.force. But next day Wills, rein-
this a T arpenter, invested the town on all sides. In
with thp °rab 6 iSltUatl0n Forster proposed to capitulate
who 1 Id fneral,; and accordingly sent Colonel Oxburgh,
terms Wn/1 Prisoner’ with a trumpter, to propose
position ’ h°TeVe1r’ refused t0 listen t0 ^ch a pro-
that the g tbat be could not treat with rebels, and
from immerr flvo1ur tbeT llad to expect was to be spared
^ut as no hPtfte s ai!Shter. This was a hard condition;
better could be obtained, they laid down their
arms, and were put under a strong guard. All the noble¬
men and leaders were secured, and a few of their officers
were tried for deserting from the king’s army, and shot by
oi der of a court-martial. The common men were impri¬
soned at Chester and Liverpool; whilst the noblemen and
considerable officers were sent to London, and led through
the streets pinioned and bound together, in order to inti¬
midate their party in the metropolis.
But, however ill the schemes of the pretender may ap¬
pear to have been conducted in Britain, they were still
more so in France. Bolingbroke had been appointed his
secretary at Paris, and Ormond his prime minister. But
these statesmen quickly found that nothing could be done
in favour of his cause. The king of France, who had ever
warmly espoused the interest of the exiled family, was
just dead ; and the Duke of Orleans, who succeeded to
the government of the kingdom, was averse to lend the
pretender any assistance. His party, however, which was
composed of the lowest ami the most ignorant exiles from
the British dominions, affected the utmost confidence, and
boasted of a certainty of success. The deepest secrets of
ns cabinet, and all his intended measures, were bandied
about in coffee-houses by persons of the lowest ra'nk both
in fortune and abilities ; whilst subaltern officers aspired to
be generals, and even prostitutes were intrusted with the
management of his negociations. From such instruments
and such councils nothing could be augured but folly and
The pretender, in fact, might easily have seen that his
affairs were desperate ; yet, with his usual infatuation, he
resolved to hazard his person among his friends in Scotland,
at a time when such a measure was too late to serve any
rational purpose. Accordingly, travelling through France
in disguise, and embarking in a small vessel at Dunkirk,
le arrived, after a short voyage, on the coast of Scotland,
with only six gentlemen in his train. He passed unknown
through Aberdeen to Fetteresso, where he was met by
the Earl of Mar, with about thirty noblemen and gentle-
men of the first quality, and solemnly proclaimed; and
ns declaration, dated at Comerey, was printed and dis¬
persed. He then proceeded to Dundee, where he made
a public entry ; and in two days more he arrived at Scone,
w here he intended to have the ceremony of his corona¬
tion performed. He ordered thanksgivings to be offered
tor his safe arrival; he enjoined the ministers to pray for
him in their churches ; and, without the smallest share of
power, he enacted all the ceremonial of royalty, which
served to throw an air of ridicule upon his pretensions.
Having thus spent valuable time in useless parade, he
next abandoned the enterprise with the same levity with
which it was undertaken. He made a speech to his grand
council, in which he informed them of his want of the
money, arms, and ammunition necessary for undertaking
a campaign; and deploring the necessity he was under of
leaving them, he once more embarked on board a small
Trench ship that lay in the harbour of Montrose, accom¬
panied with several lords, his adherents, and in five days
arrived at Gravelines. J
I he rebellion being thus ended, the law was put in
force in all its rigour; and the prisons of London were
crowded with deluded persons, whom the ministry seem¬
ed resolved not to pardon. The Commons, in their ad¬
dress to the crown, declared they would prosecute, in the
most rigorous manner, the authors of the late rebellion ;
and their measures were as vindictive as their resolutions5
were speedy. The Earls of Derwentwater, Nithsdale,
Carnwath, and Wintoun, the Lords Widrinton, Kenmuh’5
and Nairne, were impeached; and, upon pleading guilty,’
all except Lord Wintoun received sentence of death. No
entreaties could prevail on the ministry to spare these un»
375
Reign of
George I.
376
lieign
George
BRITAIN.
of happy men. The House of Lords even presented an ad-
I. dress to the throne for mercy, but without effect; the king
only answered, that on this, as on all other occasions, he
would act in the manner which he thought most consistent
with the dignity of the crown and the safety of the people.
Orders were accordingly issued for the execution of the
Lords Derwentwater, Nithsdale, and Kenmuir, immediate¬
ly : the rest were respited. Nithsdale, however, had the
good fortune to escape in woman’s clothes, which were
brought him by his mother on the eve of the day fixed for
his execution. Derwentwater and Kenmuir were brought
at the time appointed to the scaffold on lower Hill, where
both underwent the sentence of the law with calm intrepi¬
dity, and apparently less moved than those who witnessed
their execution. . . .1 Q
An act of parliament was next passed for trying the
private persons in London, and not in Lancashire, where
they had been taken in arms. This was considered, by
some of the best lawyers, as an alteration of the ancient
constitution of the kingdom, according to which it used to
be held, that every prisoner should be tried in the place
where the offence charged against him had been commit¬
ted. In the beginning of April, commissioners for trying
the rebels met in the Court of Common Pleas, when true
bills were found against Forster, brigadier Mackintosh,
and twenty of their associates. Forster escaped from New¬
gate, and reached the Continent in safety ; the rest plead¬
ed not guilty to the charge. Pitts, the keeper of Newgate,
having been suspected of conniving at borsters escape,
was tried for his life, but acquitted. Mackintosh and se¬
veral other prisoners subsequently broke from Newgate,
having mastered the keeper and turnkey, and disarmed
the sentinel. The court then proceeded to the trial of
the remainder, and four or five were hanged, drawn, and
quartered, at Tyburn. The judges appointed to try the
• rebels at Liverpool found a considerable number of them
o-uilty of high treason; twenty-two were executed at
Manchester and Preston ; while about a thousand ex¬
perienced the king’s mercy, and were transported to the
plantations. c
The rebellion being thus extinguished, the danger ot
the state was made a pretence for continuing the parlia¬
ment beyond the term fixed for its dissolution. An act
was therefore passed, repealing that which provided for
the triennial dissolution ot parliaments, and the teim of
their duration was extended to seven years. This attempt
in a delegated body to increase their own power by ex¬
tending it, is contrary to the first principles of justice. If
it was right to extend their duration to seven years, they
might also perpetuate their authority, and thus cut off even
the shadow of representation. The bill, however, passed
both houses, and all objections to it were considered as
disaffection. The people might murmur at this encroach¬
ment, but it was too late for redress.
Domestic concerns being thus adjusted, the king re¬
solved upon a voyage to the Continent. He foresaw a
storm gathering from Sweden. Charles XII. highly pro¬
voked at his having entered into a confederacy with the
Russians and Danes during his absence at Bender, and
purchased from the king of Denmark the towns of Bre¬
men and Verden, which constituted part of his dominions,
maintained a close correspondence with the dissatisfied
subjects of Great Britain; and a scheme was formed for
landing a considerable body of Swedish forces, with the
king at their head, in some part of the island, where it
was expected they would be joined by all the malcon¬
tents in the kingdom. Count Gyllenburg, the Swedish
minister in London, was peculiarly active in the affair ; but
having been seized, with all his papers, by order of the
king, the confederacy was for the time broken up. A bill
was, however, passed by the Commons, prohibiting all Reign of
commerce with Sweden, although the trade with that George I.
country was at the time of the utmost consequence to the ^Tv'
English merchants. George having passed through Hol¬
land to Hanover, in order to secure his German dominions,
entered into a new treaty with the Dutch and the Regent
of France, by which they agreed mutually to assist each
other in case of invasion ; and, for his further security,
the Commons granted him L.250,000. But the death of
the Swedish monarch, who was soon afterwards killed at
the siege of Fredericsthal in Norway, put an end to all
disquietude from that quarter.
Among the many treaties for which this reign was re¬
markable, one had been concluded, called the Quadruple
Alliance, in which it v/as agreed between the emperor,
France, Holland, and Britain, that the emperor should re¬
nounce all pretensions to the crown of Spain, and exchange
Sardinia for Sicily with the Duke of Savoy ; and that the
succession to the duchies of luscany, Parma, and Pla¬
centia, should be settled on the queen of Spain’s eldest
son, in case the present possessors should die without male
issue. This treaty, however, was by no means agreeable to
the king of Spain; and it became prejudicial to the Eng¬
lish, as it had the effect of interrupting the commerce with
that kingdom. A war soon afterwards commenced be¬
tween Spain and the emperor, who was considered as the
principal contriver of the treaty ; and a numerous body of
Spanish forces were sent into Italy to support Philip’s pre¬
tensions in that quarter. The regent of France attempt¬
ed in vain to dissuade him, and the king of Britain offered
his mediation with as little success, their interposition being
considered as partial and unjust. A Spanish war was then
resolved on, and a squadron of twenty-two ships equipped
with all expedition. The command was given to Sir George
Byng, who had orders to sail for Naples, which was at
that time threatened by a Spanish army. He was re¬
ceived with the greatest joy by the Neapolitans, who in¬
formed him that the Spaniards, to the amount of thirty
thousand, had then actually landed in Sicily. In this exi¬
gency, and whilst no assistance could be afforded by land,
he resolved to proceed thither by sea, fully' determined to
pursue the Spanish fleet, on board of which the army was
embarked. Upon coming round Cape Faro, he perceived
two small Spanish vessels, and pursuing them closely, came
upon their main fleet, which, before noon, he discovere
in line of battle, amounting in all to twenty-seven sail.
The Spaniards, however, notwithstanding their superiority
of number, attempted to sheer off; but finding it impos
sible to escape, they kept up a running fight, the com¬
manders behaving with great courage and activity, not¬
withstanding which they were all taken except t ree>
which were saved by the conduct of their vice-admira,
native of Ireland. .
The rupture with Spain was thought favourable to
interest of the pretender; and it was hoped that, )
assistance of Cardinal Alberoni, a new insurrection m,g
be excited in England. The Duke of Ormond was
person fixed upon to conduct this expedition ; an e
tained from the Spanish court a fleet of ten ships 0
and transports, having on board six thousand regular r p >
with arms for twelve thousand more. But fortun
still as unfavourable as ever to the cause of l^g1.1
Having set sail, and proceeded as far as Cape kints >
he encountered a violent storm, which disabled ns ’
and frustrated the expedition. This misfortune, og
with the bad success of the Spanish arms m 1C1^ ga.
other parts of Europe, induced Philip to agree to act
tion of arms; and at last he consented to sign 1 e(j
druple alliance, by which means peace was again r
to Europe.
BRITAIN.
Rei^ of Tranquillity being thus established, the ministry pro-
Geor I. ceeded to take measures for securing the dependence of
^ the Irish parliament upon that of England. One Maurice
Annesley having appealed to the House of Peers of Eng¬
land from a judgment of the Irish Peers, the decree of
the latter was reversed, and the British Peers ordered the
Barons of Exchequer in Ireland to put Mr Annesley in pos¬
session of the lands which he had lost by the decree of the
Lords in that kingdom. The Barons obeyed this order;
but the Irish Peers passed a vote against them, as having
attempted to diminish the just privileges of the parliament
of Ireland, and at the same time ordered the barons to be
taken into custody by the usher of the black rod. On the
other hand, the House of Lords in England resolved that
the Barons of Exchequer in Ireland had acted with cou¬
rage and fidelity; and addressed the king to signify his
approbation of their conduct by some marks of his favour ;
while, to complete their object, a bill was prepared by
which the Irish House of Lords was deprived of all right
of final jurisdiction. This bill was opposed in both houses,
but particularly in the Commons, where it was asserted by
Mr Pitt that it would only serve to increase the power of the
English Peers, who were already but too formidable. Mr
Hungerford also demonstrated that the Irish Lords had
always exercised the power of finally deciding causes ; but,
in spite of all opposition, it was carried by a great majori¬
ty, and soon afterwards received the royal assent.
This blow was severely felt by tbe Irish, but it was by
no means so great as that which the English about this
time leceived from the South Sea Scheme, which com¬
menced in the year 1721. To understand the genesis of
this delusion, it is necessary to observe, that ever since the
Revolution, owing either to the insufficiency of the supplies
granted by parliament, or to the time required for collect¬
ing those which were actually granted, the government was
obliged to borrow money from several different companies
of merchants ; and among the rest from that which traded
I to the South Seas. In the year 1716 the government were
indebted to this company upwards of nine millions ster¬
ling, for which interest at the rate of six per cent, was
agreed to be paid. But as this company was not the only
creditor of the government, Sir Robert Walpole formed a
design of lessening the national debt, by giving the several
associations which had advanced funds for the public ser¬
vice an alternative of either accepting a lower rate of in¬
terest, namely five per cent., or of being paid the principal,
m point of fact, the different companies chose rather to
accept of the reduced rate of interest than to be paid the
pnncipal; and the South Sea Company in particular, hav-
mg advanced Joans to the extent of ten millions, were con-
T finnnnn^i6- ^p0’000 annually as interest, instead of
^.wu,uuo, which they previously received. And in the
377
ame manner, the governors and company of the Bank,
• . otlile,!' associations, consented to receive a diminished
merest for their respective loans, which of course lessen¬
ed considerably the burdens of the nation.
nneo 18 ?ituat.io.n ^things, one Blount, a scrivener, pro-
Zv 1 ihe minif,try’ in fche name of the South Sea Com-
m nrd ° UP a 1the debts of the different associations,
sole rZl Z th/ 1South Sea Company might become the
vernm 0t 4 16 State* Tlle terms he offered to go-
Comn, Were extremely advantageous. The South Sea
hanT /.r8 redt:em the debts of 1116 nation out of the
o-overZ le Pnvate individuals who were creditors to the
for tho •e?t’ uPon ®uch terms as could be agreed on ; and
into the r estn°f,the m°ne^ thus adeemed and taken
mem fiv °Wn lands’ they were to be allowed by govern-
ivas to h6 Peri Cent‘ for six years; after which the interest
redeemable6]!110^ f°Ur per cent> and to be at anY time
vol. v ^ parliament. For these purposes, accord-
mgJy, a bill passed both houses of parliament. But now Reign of
came the part of the scheme which was big with fraud George I.
and ruin. As the directors of the South Sea Company
could not of themselves be supposed to possess money
sufficient to buy up the debts of the nation, they were
empowered to raise it by opening a subscription to an
imaginary scheme for trading in the South Seas; and as
immense advantages were promised from this suppositi¬
tious commerce, and still greater expected by the rapa¬
cious credulity of the people, all the creditors of govern¬
ment were invited to come in and exchange their securi¬
ties for that of the South Sea Company. The directors’
books were accordingly no sooner opened for the first sub¬
scription, than crowds came to effect the exchange of go¬
vernment for South Sea stock ; and the delusion was art-
fufly piopagated and continued. In a few days subscrip¬
tions oi shares sold for double the price at which they had
been purchased ; the scheme succeeded beyond even the
projectors hopes; and the whole nation was infected with
a spirit of avaricious enterprise. The infatuation, in fact,
became ejndemic, and the stock rose to a surprising de¬
gree, even to a thousand per cent, premium on the ori¬
ginal value or price of the shares. But after a few months
the people awaked from their dream of riches, and found
that all the advantages which they expected were purely
visionary, whilst thousands of families were involved in ut¬
ter ruin. Many of the directors, by whose arts the people
had been taught to expect such benefits from a traffic to the
South Seas, had indeed amassed enormous fortunes in con¬
sequence of the credulity of the public ; but it was some
consolation to the jieople, to find that the parliament, shar¬
ing in the general indignation, had resolved to strip these
plundereis of their ill-gotten wealth. Accordingly, orders
were first given to remove all the directors of the South
Sea Company from their seats in parliament, and the places
they held under government; and the principal delinquents
were punished by a forfeiture of all such possessions and
estates as they had acquired during the continuance of
the popular frenzy. The next care of parliament was to
afford some relief to the sufferers. Several just and proper
resolutions were in consequence adopted, and a bill was
speedily prepared for alleviating the sufferings of the people
as far as the power of the legislature in such a case could
possibly extend. Out of the profits arising from the South
hea scheme, the sum of seven millions was restored to the
original proprietors ; several additions were also made to
theii dividends out of what was possessed by the company
m their own right; and the remaining capital stock was
also divided among the former proprietors at the rate of
thirty-three per cent. Petitions from all parts of the king¬
dom were in the meanwhile presented to the house, de¬
manding justice ; and the whole nation seemed exasperat¬
ed to the highest degree. Public credit sustained a terri¬
ble shock. Some leading members of the administration
were deeply implicated in these fraudulent transactions.
A run was made upon the bank; and nothing was heard but
the ravings of disappointment and the cries of despair.
By degrees, however, the effects of this terrible calamity
woie off, and matters returned to their former condition.
A new war with Spain, however, commenced in 1726.
Admiral Hosier was sent to South America to intercept
the Spanish galleons; but the Spaniards, apprised of his
design, relanded their treasure, and thus defeated the ob¬
ject of the expedition. Meanwhile the greater part of the
British fleet sent on this service was rendered entirely un¬
fit for service. The seamen were cut off in vast numbers
by the malignity of the climate and the length of the
voyage, whilst the admiral himself died, it is said, of a bro¬
ken heart. By way of retaliation the Spaniards undertook
the siege of Gibraltar; but they soon found that this at-
3 E
BRITAIN.
lleign
George
of tempt was hopeless; and France offering her mediation, a
II-temporary peace ensued, although both sides only watch-
^ ed an opportunity for renewing hostilities with the pro¬
spect of success.
Soon after the dissolution of the parliament m the year
1727, the king, resolving to visit his electoral dominions of
Hanover, appointed a regency to govern in his absence,
and, embarking for Holland, landed at a little town called
Voet. Next day he proceeded on his journey; and in two
days more, betwixt ten and eleven at night, he arrived at
Delden, to all appearance in perfect health. He supped
there very heartily, and continued his journey early the
next morning ; but betwixt eight and nine he ordeied his
coach to stop; and it being perceived that one of his hands
lay motionless, Fabrice, who had formerly been servant to
the king of Sweden, and now attended King George in the
same capacity, attempted to quicken the circulation by
chafing the royal hand between his own. As this had no
effect, however, the surgeon who followed on horseback was
called, and rubbed it with spirits. But the friction was
unavailing; the king’s tongue began to swell, and he had
just strength enough to bid them hasten to Osnaburgh ,
after which he fell insensible into Fabrice’s arms. He
never recovered ; but expired about eleven o clock the
next morning, in the sixty-eighth year of his age and thir¬
teenth of his reign. His body was conveyed to Hanover,
and interred among his electoral ancestors.
CHAP. XL
REIGN OF GEORGE II.
Accession of George II.—Court and Country Parties.—Charita¬
ble Corporation Excise Scheme rejected—Parliament dis¬
solved War with Spain—Capture of Puerto Bello—An¬
son’s Expedition Unsuccessful attempt on Carthagena—Re¬
tirement of Sir Robert Walpole—Army sent into Flanders—
Origin of the Continental War—Desperate situation of the
Queen of Hungary Relieved by the British forces—Battle
of Dettingen Intended invasion of Britain by France—Bat¬
tle of Fontenoy Capture of Louisbourg—Landing of the Pre¬
tender in Scotland—Battle of Gladsmuir—Advance into Eng¬
land Consternation in London—Retreat of the Highland
army from Derby.—Siege of Stirling Castle.—Battle ot Fal¬
kirk Advance of the Duke of Cumberland, and retreat of the
Rebels Battle of Culloden—Cruelty of Cumberland—Sub¬
sequent adventures and escape of Prince Charles Edward—
Execution of Rebels—Policy of the Government in regard to
the Highlands of Scotland—Allies defeated in Flanders.—
Losses sustained by the French in other parts—Peace of Aix-
la-Chapelle—Death of the Prince of Wales—Hostilities re¬
newed Minorca invaded—Execution of Admiral Byng.—
Treaty with Russia—Opposition of the King of Prussia—New
Combination of the European powers—Unsuccessful expedition
against France—Accession of Mr Pitt to office.—Success of
the British arms in both hemispheres—Quebec taken and
Canada reduced—Misconduct of Cumberland in Germany—
Capitulation of Cluster Seven—French defeated at Minden—
German war continued with various success—Death of George
II.
On the accession of George II. who succeeded to his
father in the forty-fourth year of his age, the two great
parties into which the nation had so long been divided
again changed their names, and were now called the Court
and Country Parties. Throughout the greatest part of
this reign there seem to have been two objects of con¬
troversy, which rose up in debate every session, and tried
the strength of the opponents ; namely, the national debt,
and the number of forces to be kept in pay. The govern¬
ment, on the present king’s accession, owed more than
thirty millions of money; and although there was a long
continuance of profound peace, yet this sum went on con¬
stantly increasing. How this could happen was much
wondered at by the country party, and it was as constant Reign t
ly the business of the court to give plausible reasons for George 31
the increase. Hence demands for new supplies were
made every session of parliament, for the purpose of se¬
curing friends upon the Continent, of guarding the king¬
dom from internal conspiracies, or of enabling the minis¬
try to act vigorously in conjunction with the powers in
alliance abroad. It was vainly alleged that these ex-
pences were incurred without foresight or necessity; and
that the increase of the national debt, by multiplying and
increasing taxes, would at last become an intolerable
burden to the poor. These arguments were offered, can¬
vassed, rejected; the court party was constantly victorious,
and every demand was granted with equal cheerfulness
and profusion.
The next thing worthy of notice in the reign of George
II. is the Charitable Corporation. A society of men had
united themselves into a company under this name, with
the professed intention of lending money at legal interest to
the poor upon small pledges, and to persons of higher rank
upon proper security. Their capital was at first limited
to thirty thousand pounds ; but they afterwards increased
it to six hundred thousand. This money was supplied by
subscription, and the care of conducting the capital was
intrusted to a proper number of directors. The company
having continued in existence for more than twenty years,
the cashier, George Robinson, member for Marlow, and
the warehouse-keeper, John Thomson, disappeared in one
day ; and five hundred thousand pounds of capital were
found to be sunk or embezzled by means which the pro¬
prietors could not discover. In a petition to the House,
therefore, they represented the manner in which they had
been defrauded, and the distress to which many of them
had in consequence been reduced; and a secret commit¬
tee having been appointed to examine into this grievance,
a most iniquitous scene of fraud was discovered, which
had been carried on by Thompson and Robinson, in con¬
cert with some of the directors, for embezzling the capi¬
tal and cheating the proprietors. Many persons of rank
and quality were concerned in this infamous confederacy,
and even some of the first characters in the nation did not
escape censure. No less than six members of parliament
were expelled for the most sordid acts of knavery ; Sir Ro¬
bert Sutton, Sir Archibald Grant, and George Robinson,
for their frauds in the management of the Charitable Cor¬
poration scheme ; Dennis Bond and Serjeant Burch, for a
fraudulent sale of the unfortunate Earl of Derwentwater s
estate ; and John Ward of Hackney, for the crime of for¬
gery. It was at this time asserted in the House of Lords
that not one shilling of the forfeited estates had ever been
applied to the service of the public, but had become t e
reward of fraud, venality, and profligacy.
This happened in the year 1731. In 1732 a scheme
was formed by Sir Robert Walpole of fixing a general ex¬
cise ; and he introduced it by enumerating the frauds prac¬
tised by the factors in London employed in selling e
American tobacco. To prevent these frauds, he propose ,
that instead of having the customs levied in the usua man
ner, all the tobacco to be hereafter imported shouki
lodged in warehouses appointed for that purpose by
officers of the crown; and should from thence be sold, up
paying the duty of fourpence a pound, whenever t e P
prietor found a purchaser. This proposal raised a vl° .
ferment, both within and without doors ; and at last
fury of the people was worked up to such a pitch, t a
parliament-house was surrounded by multitudes, ^10.
timidated the ministry, and compelled them to aban
the scheme. The miscarriage of the bill was cele r
with public rejoicings in London and ^,*estm^nsteJ’Tan joB,
minister was burned in effigy by the populace of °
BRITAIN.
jRaji of On this occasion an attempt was made to repeal the sep-
Gefils H-tennial bill, and bring back triennial parliaments, as settled
^ at the Revolution. But notwithstanding the warmth of
the opposition, the ministry, exerting all their strength,
proved victorious, and the motion was defeated. How¬
ever, as on this occasion the country party seemed to
have gained strength, it was thought proper to dissolve
the parliament, and to summon another by the same pro¬
clamation.
But the same disputes were carried on in this as in the
former parliament. New subjects of controversy offered
every day, and both sides were eager to seize them. A
convention agreed on by the ministry with Spain became
an object of warm altercation. By this the court of Spain
had agreed to pay ninety-five thousand pounds to the Eng¬
lish, as a satisfaction for all demands, and to discharge
the whole in four months from the day of ratification ; but
this stipulation was considered as not containing an equi¬
valent for the damages which had been sustained, and
which were said to amount to three hundred and forty
thousand pounds. A violent discussion ensued, in the
course of which the minister was provoked into unusual
vehemence, and branded the opposite party with the ap¬
pellation of traitors. But he was, as usual, victorious ; and
the country party finding themselves out-numbered and
out-voted in every debate, resolved to withdraw for ever;
while Walpole, thus left without opposition, took the op¬
portunity of passing several useful laws in their absence,
in order to render his opponents odious or contemptible to
the country.
In 1739 a new wrar commenced with Spain. Ever since
the treaty of Utrecht, the Spaniards in America had insult¬
ed and distressed the commerce of Great Britain ; whilst
the Biitish merchants, on the other hand, had endeavour¬
ed to carry on an illicit trade with their dominions. As a
right of cutting logwood in the Bay of Campeachy, claim¬
ed by the British, gave them frequent opportunities of in¬
troducing contraband commodities into the continent, the
Spaniards resolved to put a stop to the evil by refusing
liberty to cut logwood in that place. The guarda-costas
exercised great severities, and many British subjects were
sent to the mines of Potosi. One remonstrance followed
another to the court of Madrid; but the only answers
given were promises of inquiry, which produced no refor¬
mation. Accordingly, in 1739 war was declared with all
proper solemnity; and soon after Admiral Vernon, with only
six ships, destroyed all the fortifications of Puerto Bello,
and came away victorious, with scarcely the loss of a man.
>1 if War Was t^lus successfully begun, supplies were
c leer ully granted to prosecute it with all imaginable vig¬
our. Commodore Anson was sent with a squadron of ships
o istress the enemy in the South Seas, and to co-operate
occasionally with Admiral Vernon across the Isthmus of
Darien. This squadron was designed to act a part subor-
mate to a formidable armament which was to be sent
gainst i exmo or New Spain; but through the mismanage-
u o the ministry both these schemes were frustrated,
nson was detained till too late in the season, when he
'inrl°nK Wltr ^Ve S^'PS °f ^le liuCj a frigate, two store-ships,
slrrf0ur,teen hundred men. But having entered the
pn™1 f d ^ t^le .most unfavourable period of the year, he
his e\e(* 1terr^hie storms ; his fleet was dispersed, and
ut adhcted with scurvy, so that with the
utmost difficulty he reached the island of Juan Fernandez.
’ ™ev-> he was joined by one ship and a frigate of
Chili , en &uns> and sailing from thence along the coast of
burnt the town of Paita. He next
rirh (roil le ,cific, in hopes of meeting with one of the
MexEn eiTS ^hich traded from the Philippine Islands to
• Having refreshed his men at the island of Tinian,
379
he set sail for China; and returning by the same route, he Reign of
at last discovered the galleon, which he engaged and took;George II.
and with this prize, valued at upwards of three hundred
thousand pounds, together with other captures to the va¬
lue of about as much more, he returned home, after a voy¬
age of three years. By this expedition the public sustain¬
ed the loss of a fine squadron of ships, but a few indivi¬
duals became possessed of immense fortunes.
Another expedition which was fitted out ended still
more unfortunately. The armament consisted of twenty-
nine sail of the line, anff an almost equal number of fri¬
gates, furnished with all kinds of warlike stores, near fif¬
teen thousand seamen, and as many land forces. The
most sanguine hopes of success were entertained ; but the
ministry detained the fleet without any visible reason till
the season for action in America was nearly past. At last,
however, the squadron arrived before Carthagena, and soon
captured the strong forts which defended the harbour. But
though by this means they were enabled to approach near¬
er the town, they still found great difficulties before them.
iTom an erroneous belief that the ships could not get near
enough to batter the town, and that therefore the remain¬
ing forts must be attempted byescalade, this dangerous ex-
periment was tried ; but the guides were slain by the ene¬
my s fire, and the forces, mistaking their way, instead of at¬
tempting the weakest part of the fort, attacked the strong¬
est, where they were exposed to the fire of the whole town.
Their scaling ladders were also too short; and at last, after
sustaining a dreadful fire with great resolution for some
hours, they retreated, leaving six hundred men dead on
the spot. I he ravages of the climate now began to prove
more dreadful than the casualties of war; and the rainy
season commenced with such violence, that it was found
impossible for the troops to continue in their encampment.
And, as if to aggravate these calamities, dissension arose
between the commanders of the sea and land forces, who
blamed each other, and at last could only be brought to
agree in one mortifying measure, namely, the re-embarka-
tion of the troops.
The miscarriage of this enterprise produced the greatest
discontents, more especially as other causes of complaint
occurred at the same time. Sir John Norris had twice
sailed to the coast of Spain at the head of a powerful squa¬
dron, without effecting any thing of consequence. The
commerce of Britain was greatly annoyed by the Spanish
privateers, who had taken upwards of four hundred ships
since the commencement of the war; whilst the British
fleets remained quite inactive, and suffered one loss after
another, without endeavouring in the least to make proper
reprisals. Ihese discontents burst out all at once against
Sir Robert Walpole ; a majority was formed in the House
of Commons in opposition to the ministry of which he was
the head ; he was created Earl of Orford ; and the parlia¬
ment having adjourned for a few days on purpose, he re¬
signed all his employments.
Ihe removal of this minister gave universal satisfaction.
His antagonists entertained great hopes of seeing him
punished ; but he had laid his schemes too well to be un¬
der any apprehensions on that account; and, in fact, the
new ministry had no sooner got into office than they trode
in the footsteps of those whom they had so much exclaim¬
ed against. The nation had now become disgusted with
naval operations. The people desired a renewal of their
victories in Flanders, and the king ardently joined in the
same wish. An army of sixteen thousand men was there¬
fore shipped and sent to Flanders, to take part in the quar¬
rels that were then beginning to break out on the Conti¬
nent. Immense triumphs were expected from this under¬
taking ; but it was somehow forgotten that the army was
not now commanded by John Duke of Marlborough.
380
BRITAIN.
Reign of In order to give some notion of the origin of these conti-
George II. nental disputes, it is necessary to go back for several years.
'•—-V-w' After the Duke of Orleans, regent of France, died, Cardi¬
nal Fleury undertook to settle the confusion in which the
kingdom was then involved; and under him France repair¬
ed her losses, and enriched herself by means of commerce.
During the long interval of peace which this minister s
counsels had procured for Europe, two powers, hitherto
disregarded, began to attract the notice and the jealousy of
the neighbouring nations. These were Russia and Prussia,
both of which had been gradually rising into power and
consequence. The other states were but little prepared to
renew the war. The empire remained under the govern¬
ment of Charles VI. who had been placed on the throne
by the treaty of Utrecht; Sweden continued to languish,
from the destructive projects of Charles XII.; Denmark
was powerful enough, but inclined to peace; and part of   -- - - - j , , , .
Italy still remained subject to those princes who had been by which they would have outnumbered their enemies;
imposed upon it in consequence of foreign treaties. All and to prevent this the French opposed an army oi sixty
receive pay from Britain for defending their own cause 11^
came to be considered, violent parliamentary debates en-George j
sued ; and although the ministry carried their point by the ''-ys
strength of numbers, they had but little reason to boast of
their victory.
Yet, however prejudicial these continental measures
might be to the true interests of Great Britain, they ef¬
fectually retrieved the queen of Hungary’s affairs, and soon
turned the scale of victory in her favour. The French
were driven out of Bohemia; while her general, Prince
Charles of Lorraine, at the head of a large army, invad¬
ed the dominions of Bavaria. Her rival, the nominal
emperor, was obliged to fly before her; and, abandoned
by his allies, as well as stripped of his hereditary domi¬
nions, he retired to Frankfort, where he lived in obscurity.
Meanwhile the British and Hanoverian army advanced in
order to effect a junction with that under Prince Charles,
these states, however, continued to enjoy profound peace;
until the death of Augustus king of Poland; an event by
which a general flame was once more kindled in Europe.
The emperor, assisted by the arms of Russia, declared for
the elector of Saxony, the son of the deceased king; whilst
France, on the other hand, espoused the cause of Stanislaus,
who had long ago been nominated king of the Poles by
Charles of Sweden, and whose daughter the king of France
had since married. Stanislaus was gladly received at Dant-
zic, and acknowledged as king of Poland ; but having been
besieged there by ten thousand Russians, the city was ta¬
ken, and he himself with difficulty made his escape. France,
however, still resolved to assist him, as the most effectual
method of distressing the house of Austria; and her views
were seconded by Spain and Sardinia, both of which hoped
to be enriched by the spoils of Austria. A French army,
therefore, overran the empire, under the conduct of the
old Marshal Villars; whilst the Duke of Montemar, the
Spanish general, was equally victorious in the kingdom of
Naples. The emperor was soon obliged to sue for. peace,
which was granted ; but Stanislaus was neglected in the
treaty, it having been stipulated that he should renounce
all claim to the kingdom of Poland; while the emperor
gratified France with the duchy of Lorraine, and other
valuable territories, as an indemnification.
The emperor dying in the year 1740, the French thought
the opportunity favourable for their ambition, and, re¬
gardless of treaties, particularly that called the Pragmatic
Sanction, by which the late emperor’s dominions were set¬
tled upon his daughter, caused the Elector of Bavaria to be
crowned emperor. Thus the queen of Hungary, daughter
of Charles VI. was at once stripped of her inheritance,
and left for a whole year without any hopes of succour ;
and at the same time she lost the province of Silesia by
an irruption of the young king of Prussia, who took the op¬
portunity of her defenceless condition to renew his preten¬
sions to that province. France, Saxony, and Bavaria, at¬
tacked the rest of her dominions; and Britain was the only
ally who seemed willing to assist her ; but Sardinia, Hol¬
land, and Russia, soon afterwards concurred in the same
views. It must be owned that the only reason which Bri¬
tain had for interfering in these disputes was, that the se¬
curity of the electorate depended upon nicely balancing the
different interests of the empire ; but the ministry were
nevertheless willing to gratify the king by engaging the
country in a war. His majesty informed the parliament
that he had sent a body of British forces into the Nether¬
lands, which he had augmented by sixteen thousand Hano¬
verians, to operate a diversion on the side of France, in fa¬
vour of the queen of Hungary. But when the supplies by
which this additional number of Planoverian troops was to
thousand men, upon the Maine, under the command of
Marshal de Noailles, who posted his troops on the eastern
side of that river. The British army was commanded by
the Earl of Stair, who, although he had learned the art of
war under Eugene and Marlborough, suffered himself to
be inclosed by the enemy on every side, near a village
called Dettingen ; and in this situation the whole army,
with the king himself, who had by this time arrived in the
camp, must have been taken prisoners, had the French be¬
haved with ordinary prudence. But their impetuosity saved
the combined force from destruction. They passed a de¬
file which they ought to have contented themselves with
guarding, and, under the conduct of the Duke de Gram-
mont, their horse charged the British foot with great fury;
but they were received with unshaken firmness, and at last
obliged to repass the Maine with precipitation, and the loss
of about five thousand men. The British monarch, who
was present in the battle, displayed equal courage and con¬
duct, and in some measure atoned for an error which
might otherwise have proved fatal.
But though the British were victorious in this engage¬
ment, the French were very little disconcerted by it
They opposed Prince Charles, and interrupted his attempts
to pass the Rhine; and in Italy they also gained some
advantages ; but their chief hopes were placed on an in¬
tended invasion of England. From the violence of pai-
liamentary disputes in England, France had been persuad¬
ed that the country was ripe for a revolution, and only
wanted the presence of the pretender to bring about a
change. An invasion was therefore projected ; the troops
destined for the expedition amounted to fifteen thousan ,
and preparations were made for embarking them at Dun¬
kirk and some of the ports nearest to England, under t e
eye of the young pretender. The Duke de Roquefeui e,
with twenty ships of the line, was to see them sate y
landed on the opposite shore; and the famous Count baxe
was to command them w hen disembarked. But the w 0 e
project was disconcerted by the appearance of Sir Jo n
Norris, with a superior fleet, which obliged tlm Irene
squadron to put back ; while a severe gale of wind damage
their transports, and thus entirely frustrated the sc em
of a sudden descent. But the national joy for Sir °
Norris’s success was soon damped by the miscarriage
Admirals Mathews and Lestock, who, through a nll*u
derstanding, suffered a French fleet of thirty-four sai
escape them near Toulon. , j
In the Netherlands the British arms were also at<jen
with ill success. The French had there assemb e
army of a hundred and twenty thousand men, c®n^nl1a j
ed by Count Saxe, natural son of the late king of Fo a >
and an officer of great experience. The English were un
BRITAIN.
r of
G< ige II
the Duke of Cumberland, whose army was much inferior
in number to that of the enemy, whilst in point of know¬
ledge of war the disparity between him and the French
general was still greater. Count Saxe, therefore, carried
all before him. In the year 1743 he besieged Fribourg,
and in the beginning of the campaign of 1744 he invested
the strong city of Tournay. To save the place, if pos¬
sible, the allies resolved to hazard an engagement; and
this brought on the memorable battle of Fontenoy. The
French were posted behind the town of that name, on some
eminences which completely commanded the defile which
formed the only approach to the position. At two in the
morning the assailants quitted their camp, and about nine
the British infantry, formed in a kind of grand square,
attacked the centre of the enemy’s line, which was drawn
up in a sort of avenue to receive them. But from the
confined nature of the ground, the obstinacy of the re¬
sistance in front, and the flanking fire kept up from some
woody heights which domineered over the defile, this
fine body of troops was never able to develope its attack
nor to clear the defile; yet, in spite of every effort of the
enemy, it maintained its ground till three in the afternoon,
preserving its formation unbroken, notwithstanding the
plunging fire of the French artillery, and the concentrated
musketry of their infantry, to which it was without inter¬
mission exposed; and at last it retired in perfect order,
facing round at intervals, and checking the pursuit of the
enemy. The loss of the allies amounted to twelve thou¬
sand men, and that of the French was even greater; but
the victory nevertheless gave them the superiority during
the rest of the campaign, as well as during the remainder
of the war. The capture of Tournay was the first fruit of
this dear-bought success; and though the Elector of Ba¬
varia, whom they had proclaimed emperor, was now dead,
the French were too much elated by success to relax in
their operations against the allies.
To balance the defeat at Fontenoy, however, Admirals
Rowley and Warren retrieved the honour of the British
flag, and made several rich captures at sea. The fortress
of Louisbourg, a place of great consequence to the British
commerce, surrendered to General Pepperel; and a short
time afterwards two French East India ships, and a Spa¬
nish ship from Peru laden with treasure, put into the har¬
bour, supposing it still their own, and were taken.
During this gleam of returning success, Charles Edward,
the son of the old pretender to the British crown, resolved
to make an attempt to recover what he called his right.
Being furnished with some money from France, he em-
arked for Scotland on board of a small frigate, accom¬
panied by the Marquis of Tullibardine, Sir Thomas Sheri-
an, and some others ; and for the conquest of the whole
British empire, he only brought with him seven officers,
and arms for two thousand men. Fortune, however, seem¬
ed nowise more favourable to this attempt than to others
sum ar to it. His convoy, a ship of sixty guns, was so
oisabled in an engagement with an English man of war,
nat it was obliged to return to Brest, whilst he continued
ins course to the western parts of Scotland. On the 27th
o u y 1745 he landed on the coast of Lochaber, and was
t‘rae j°ined by the Highlanders to the number
teen hundred men. The ministry at first could
caicely be induced to credit the story of his arrival; but
ien it could no longer be doubted, they sent Sir John
pe with a small body of forces to oppose his progress.
Cor^V°U^i G °PPortunity offered for striking a blow at
. but Cope, who seems to have been equally
0 c°nduct and of energy, withdrew to Inverness,
Th ncovennS the road to the low country,
dpr ^ adventurer, availing himself of this blun-
> immediately marched to the south, and arrived at
381
Perth, where he performed the ceremony of proclaiming Reism of
his father king of Great Britain. He then proceeded to-George II.
waids Edinburgh, and, his forces continually increasing,'1
entered the capital without opposition ; but he was unable,
from want of cannon, to reduce the castle. Here he again
pi oclaimed his father; and promised to dissolve the union,
which was still considered as one of the national griev¬
ances. In the mean time Sir John Cope, having arrived
from Inverness, and been reinforced by two regiments of
dragoons, resolved to give battle to the enemy. The insur¬
gents, however, attacked him at Gladsmuir, near Preston-
pans, and in a few minutes put him and his troops to flight,
with the loss of five hundred men. This victory gave the in¬
surgents great hopes, from the impression it produced; and
had the pretender marched directly to England, the result
might perhaps have been fatal to the House of Hanover.
But he was amused by the promise of succours which in
fact never arrived, and thus induced to remain in Edin¬
burgh till the season for action was lost. He was joined,
however, by the Earl of Kilmarnock, Lord Balmerino, Lords
Cromarty, Elcho, Ogilvy, Pitsligo, and the eldest son of
Lord Lovat, who with their vassals considerably increased
his army; and Lord Lovat himself, so remarkable for his
treachery, was favourably disposed towards the pretender,
although unwilling to act openly for fear of the govern¬
ment. But whilst Charles was thus trifling away his time
at Edinburgh, the British ministry were taking most effec¬
tual methods to oppose him. Six thousand Dutch troops,
which had come over to assist the government, were dis¬
patched northward under the command of General Wade ;
but this force was then in some measure incapable of act¬
ing, being prisoners of France upon parole, and under en¬
gagements not to oppose that power for a year. Be this
as it may, however, the Duke of Cumberland arrived soon
afterwards from Flanders, and was followed by a detach¬
ment of dragoons and infantry, well disciplined and inured
to action ; whilst volunteers offered their services in every
part of the kingdom.
At last Charles resolved upon an irruption into England.
He entered that country by the western border, and took
the town of Carlisle ; after which he continued his march
southwards, having received assurances that a consider¬
able body of forces would be landed on the southern coasts
to create a diversion in his favour. He established his
head-quarters at Manchester, where he was joined by be¬
tween two and three hundred English formed into a regi¬
ment under the command of Colonel Townley; and thence
he pursued his march to Derby, intending to go by the way
of Chester into Wales, where he hoped to be joined by a
great number of malcontents; but in this he was pre¬
vented by the factions among his followers.
Having now advanced within a hundred miles of London,
that capital was thrown into the utmost consternation ;
and had he proceeded with the same expedition which he
had hitherto used, he might perhaps have made himself
master of it. But he was prevented from pursuing this or
any other rational plan by the discontents which began to
prevail in his army. The young pretender was in fact but
the nominal leader of his forces; and his generals, the
Highland chiefs, were equally averse to subordination and
ignorant of command. They now, however, became unani¬
mous in their resolution to return to their own country ; and
Charles was forced to comply. Accordingly they retreat¬
ed to Carlisle without sustaining any loss; and thence
crossing the Eden and Solway, entered Scotland. They
next marched to Glasgow, which was laid under severe
contributions; and thence proceeding to Stirling, they
were joined by Lord Lewis Gordon at the head of some
forces which had been assembled in his absence. Other
clans likewise came in; while some supplies of money re-
382
BRITAIN.
Heign of ceived from Spain, and some skirmishes with the loyalists,
George II. in which he was victorious, caused the pretender s affairs
to assume a much more promising aspect. Being joined by
Lord Drummond, he invested the castle ot Stirling, in the
siege of which much valuable time was consumed to no
purpose. General Hawley, who commanded a consider¬
able body of forces near Edinburgh, undertook to raise
the siege, and with this view advanced as far as Falkirk
in order to give battle to the Highland army. After some
time spent in mutual observation, an engagement ensued
on the 17th January 1746, in which the king’s troops were
entirely defeated. The Highlanders advanced to the at¬
tack with their usual impetuosity, threw in a volley or two,
and then drawing their claymores, rushed forward, sword
in hand, to close with the enemy. Ihe onset pioved irie-
sistible ; infantry and cavalry were intermingled in one
common rout; and the whole artillery and tents of the
royal army fell into the hands of the conquerors.
But the victory of Falkirk was the last of the triumphs
of the rebel army. The Duke of Cumberland having ar¬
rived, put himself at the head of the troops at Edinburgh,
amounting to about fourteen thousand men ; and with
these he marched to Aberdeen, where he was joined by
several of the nobility attached to the house of Hanover,
the enemy in the mean time retreating before him. He
next advanced to the banks of the Spey, a deep and rapid
river, where the Highlanders might have successfully dis¬
puted his passage ; but their mutual contentions had now
risen to such a height that they could scarce agree in any
thing. At last, however, they resolved to make a stand,
and for this purpose selected Drummossie Muir, near Cul-
loden, nine miles distant from Inverness ; the only ground
in the whole country where cavalry and artillery, the two
arms which they had most reason to dread, could act with
effect against them. Their numbers amounted to about
eight thousand; and after an abortive attempt to surprise
the royal army at Nairn, they returned to their position
and drew out to receive the attack. At one in the after¬
noon of the 15th of April 1746, the cannonading com¬
menced ; and whilst the artillery of the rebels, from being
miserably served, did little or no execution, that of the royal
army, at every discharge, made frightful gaps in the High¬
land ranks. During the continuance of the cannonade,
Cumberland observing that the right of the Highlanders
was covered by a wall, ordered a body of men to advance
and pull it down. The Campbells, to whom this service
was committed, promptly obeyed the order; and the right
wing of the Highlanders being thus uncovered, they be¬
came exposed to a flanking fire as well as to that in front,
which was now kept up with the greatest vivacity. In this
trying situation a body, chiefly Atholemen, about nineteen
hundred strong, unable any longer to sustain the galling
fire which was poured in on their ranks, and conscious that
their real strength lay in close combat, advanced to the
attack sword in hand ; broke through Burrell’s and Monro’s
regiments in an instant; and pressed on, with diminished
numbers but dauntless resolution, against the second line
of the royal army, amidst a concentrated and terrible fire
from every gun that could be brought to bear upon them.
The second line steadily awaited the onset of this forlorn
hope, reserving their fire till it came quite close, when a
destructive volley was thrown in, while Wolfe’s regiment,
formed en potence, opened at the same instant a flanking
fire. The force of the charge was thus completely broken;
a few and but a few of the assailants escaped; and the
bravest, who did not fall by the murderous fire, perished in
a desperate conflict with the English bayonets. Lochiel,
advancing at the head of a small band, who had survived the
encounter with the first line, was wounded in both ancles
by a grape-shot while in the act of charging the second
line ; and in this state he was carried off the field by his Iteign
two brothers, between whom he had advanced. Mac-George]
donald of Keppoch was also rushing on in like manner
to the attack, when, receiving a wound which brought him
to the ground, he was conjured by a friend not to throw
away his life, but to retire and rejoin the main body; but
desiring his friend to provide for his own safety, Macdonald
got upon his legs, and, whilst preparing again to advance,
received another shot, by which he fell to rise no more.
Most of the chiefs who commanded the body that ad¬
vanced to the charge, and almost every man in the front
ranks, were killed. Unfortunately the Highland regiments
on the left did not advance to close combat, or support the
gallant attack which has just been described: had they
done so, the issue might have been very different. After
exchanging a volley or two with the right wing of the
duke’s army, and answering the fire of some dragoons who
hovered near, they retreated, and separating into small
parties, were cut up in detail, losing more men in propor¬
tion than the brave band who had made so gallant and vigo¬
rous an effort to retrieve the fortune of the day. In less
than thirty minutes the battle was lost, and with it a final
period was put to all the hopes of the young adventurer.
The conquerors behaved with the greatest cruelty, refus¬
ing quarter to the wounded, the unarmed, and the de¬
fenceless ; and some were slain who had only been spec¬
tators of the combat; whilst soldiers were seen to anticipate
the base employment of the executioner. The duke, im¬
mediately after the action, ordered thirty-six deserters to
be executed; the conquerors spread terror wherever they
went; and in a short time the whole country around became
one dreadful scene of plunder, slaughter, and desolation.
Immediately after the battle, the pretender fled with
a captain of Fitzjames’s cavalry ; and when their horses
were fatigued, they both alighted, and separately sought
for safety. There is a striking resemblance between the
adventures of Charles II. after the battle of Worcester,
and those of the pretender after the battle of Culloden.
For several days he wandered through the country ; some¬
times he found refuge in caves and cottages, without any
attendants at all; sometimes he lay in forests 'with one or
two companions of his distress, continually pursued by the
troops, there being a reward of L.30,000 offered for taking
him either dead or alive. In the course of his adventures
he had occasion to trust his life to the fidelity of above fifty
individuals, not one of whom could be prevailed on, even by
so great a reward as that which was offered, to betray nm
whom they looked upon as the son of their king, for six
months the unfortunate Charles continued to wander m the
mountains of Glengarry, often hemmed round by his pur¬
suers, but still rescued, by some providential accident, horn
the impending danger. At length a privateer of St i a
loes, hired by his adherents, having arrived in Lochra-
nach, he embarked on board that vessel for France,
this time he was reduced to a state of inexpressi e
wretchedness, being clad in a short coat of black nzc,
threadbare, over which was a common Highland _pal
girt round him by a belt, from which hung a pisto an
dagger. He had not been shifted for many weeks; ms
eyes were hollow, his visage was wan, and his constitution
greatly impaired by famine and fatigue. Accompame
by Sullivan and Sheridan, two Irish adherents, who naa
shared all his calamities, together with Cameron of T°cnie‘’
his brother, and a few other exiles, he set sail for Dane >
and, after having been chased by two English men o w »
arrived in safety at a place called Roseau, near Mor aix,
While the pretender was thus pursued, the scaffolds and
gibbets were preparing for his brave adherents. Seven
officers were hanged, drawm, and quartered, at Kenni s
BRITAIN.
ign of
(■ rge II
0
ton Common, in the neighbourhood of London ; nine were
executed in the same manner at Carlisle, and eleven at
York. A few obtained pardons, and a considerable num¬
ber of the common men were transported to America.
The Earls of Kilmarnock and Cromarty, and Lord Bal-
merino, were tried and found guilty of high treason. Cro¬
marty was pardoned, but Kilmarnock and Balmerino were
executed; as was also Mr Radcliffe, brother to the P^arl
of Uerwentwater, who received sentence upon a former
conviction. Lord Lovat was tried, and suffered some time
afterwards.
Immediately after the suppression of the rebellion, the
legislature undertook to establish regulations in Scotland,
conducive to the happiness of the people and the tran¬
quillity of the united kingdoms. The Highlanders had
till that time continued to wear the military dress of their
ancestors, and never went without arms; in consequence
of which they considered themselves as a body of people
distinct from the rest of the nation, and were ready upon
383
tuallygiven up, and all conquests restored; that the duchies Reign of
of I arrna, Placentia, and Guastalla, should be ceded to Geor|e II.
Don Philip, heir-apparent to the Spanish crown, and after
him return to the house of Austria; that the fortifications
of Dunkirk towards the sea should be demolished; that
the British ship annually sent with slaves to the’ coast of
JNew Spain should have this privilege continued for four
years; that the king of Prussia should be confirmed in
the possession of Silesia; and that the queen of Hungary
should be secured in the possession of her patrimonial
dominions. But the most mortifying clause was, that the
mg or Cajeat Britain should, immediately after the rati¬
fication of this treaty, send two persons of rank to France
as hostages, until restitution should be made of Cape
Breton and all other British conquests during the war.
No mention whatever was made of the searching of British
vessels m the American seas, though this was the original
cause of the quarrel; the limits of their respective posses¬
sions in North America were not ascertained; nor did
the shortest notice to second the projects of their chiefs ZZ J T WfG ?0t ascertainf ^ ; nor did
Their habits were now reformed by an act of legislature,' restored to tEemT ^ ^ ^ had
fashion^ BuTwh^contributedTtd^more0^)^destroy^the pleurif/SV751 FrfdfHck Prin- Wal- ^ied of a
spirit of clanship was the abolition of the hereditary juris- dangerous He^L^uchTe^vn ff ^ ^ ^ ^
ihetinns whiVh ™—:_i  J J r™ , ig ous. Has much legretted, for his good-nature
dictions which their chieftains exercised over them. ’ The
powei of the chiefs was totally destroyed, and every sub¬
ject in that part of the kingdom was liberated from the
state of vassalage in which they had formerly lived.
Soon after the battle of Culloden the Duke of Cumber¬
land proceeded to Handers, where he resumed the com-
au rendered him popular, and those who opposed the
present administration had grounded their hopes of re¬
dress upon his accession to the throne.
Some time before this, in the year 1749, a scheme had
been entered upon, from which the nation in general anti¬
cipated great advantages ; namely, encouraging those who
mand of the army, to which he was by no means equal had WnB igf5 e^ouraging those who
The French carried every thing before them and rednced trrl • discharged from the army or navy to become
under their dominion all the stron" places which hurl been • ?,m ^co!la> a country cold, barren, and almost
taken by the Duke of MarftoS • incapable ot cultivation. Nevertheless, on account of this
to the united provinces. They trained a considcrnl.i^v!01' al len 8pot, the English and French actually renewed the
tory near Rocoux, though at a great sacrifice of men which" f Possesslan °f this country was reckoned necessary
however, they coJild eafiiy spfre asXy were^ fo nreser.LXb°- ‘he Eng'ish .col?ni?1to the."»rth-
numerous than their adversaries- and annthpr v.Vf fit Sc v!^ suPeriontY in t^e fishenes in that part
Which they obtained at LaSServed to deprels stS b cT f"0'’’ Tf"’ Wh° had b™n
further the spirit of the allied armv Bm tliP til-.-nm c 6 1, back Parts’ resolved to use every method to
Bergen-op-Zoom, the strongest fortHraHnn nf Rk ig / ^ISPos®ess.lt.hP new comers, and spirited up the Indians to
was the event which naturafly reduced the Dutch to the hTfhe same part of theworld” Th f F^'b 8lS° SPTS UP
greatest alarm and distress. wl G T rP 1 ? t ° d- ,1,16 French> pretending to
These victories and successes in FHnHprc Wro, ) • first discovered the mouth of the river Mississippi,
were counterbalanced bv almost emml rile* ’ • V?r’ C a™ed t ie wboIe adjacent country towards New Mexico
In Italy, the brother of Marshal Belleisl ^ IT0'0 ‘P61118, on thp east’ an(It0 the Apalachian Mountains on the west;
penetrate into Piedmont at ^ t0 ^ °rder ? fSert their claims’ as they found several
sand men, was defeated and killed A Appi l u ' lsb w 10 ia(^ settled beyond these mountains, they
out for the recovery of Cape Breton but wh ^ dlSP°SSessed them of ^eir new settlements, and built such
and two others°wepe eqHTOed sVCCeS8 ’ as were calculated to command the whole country
upon the British colonies m America and tlf ** !’.01,]ind abaut- Negociations and mutual accusations were
carry on the operations fn the E^st lidips 1 H ’ ^i0^ by bosti,ities ’ aad 1756 four operations were
attacked by L on and Warren aJd ^ undertaken by the British in America at once. Colonel
taken. Soon after this Cnmmid^F of .the.ir sjnPs Monkton had orders to drive the French from the pro¬
of war, took above forty French ships rirhii Dd^ r"06 ofp:^ova ^cotla; General Johnson was sent against
St Domingo, and about ^ ^ ?T P°,nt,; G.eneral Shir1^ aSai"8t Niagara, to secure
was defeated by Admiral Hawke who tnnk spvpp 1 * CCr le^)rts on the river; and General Braddock against Fort
the line and several frigates. ? S UpS c ^ ^aesne’ ln these expeditions Monkton was success-
For a long time Louis had Wn dp^Vp,^ pf i i ’ Jofins°u was also victorious, though he failed in taking
tWs desire h?evei expressed to SR ohi ? fa f°rt aSainst which h* wa« ^nt; Shirley was thought
been taken prisoner at the battle of I IfJdF iTl Wh° ? hiaVe °St the SeaSOn of °Peration bY delay; and Brad-
bad success of bifldf i “ f Laffldt- But now the dock was defeated and killed.
the frequent bankrumcie 'of hTme^hantsT/fi m But’iin retUrn f°r this failure of success’tbe British made
theelectionofastad^holderJn RpTl ? / th°mG’ and rfPr^als at se£G and here they were so successful that
the opposition all these t / .-T ’ whoIfa^ sPirit to the French navy was unable to i recover itself during the
of the war, and to pronOSP termf f ^ continuance of tbe war. The first measure of the French
was what the allied hod 1 f c 1°^ vlhlS was to tbreaten an invasion. Several bodies of their troops
ashamed to demand A pp g W1S ed f ^ f611 were sent down to the coasts opposite Britain, and these
Aix-lfl.PKn„„n_ ,* A congress was therefore held at were instructed in the manner of ernWHnp ^i„„a
A r i i , ^ KAyjyvn tU LUC UUUUMtC X>1 liailJ, tXYUl tlleSi
A congress was therefore hekl at were instructed in the manner of embarking and reland
provided that alfnrRnnerfp conclad!d> bJ wblcb lt was mg from flat-bottomed boats, which were made in great
P soners on each side should be mu- numbers for the purpose. The number of men amounted
384
BRITAIN.
Reign of to fifty thousand, but all discovered the utmost reluctance
George II. to the undertaking. The ministry were greatly alarmed,
' anci applied to the Dutch for six thousand men, which
they were by treaty obliged to furnish in case of invasion.
But this supply was refused, the Dutch alleging that their
treaty was to send the troops in case of an actual, and not
of a threatened, invasion. The king, therefore, finding he
could not reckon upon the Dutch forces till their assistance
would be too late, desisted entirely from his demand ; and
the Dutch with great cordiality returned him thanks for
withdrawing his request. Upon this ten thousand Hes¬
sians and Hanoverians were brought over; a proceeding
which occasioned great discontent. The ministry were
reviled for such disgraceful conduct, as if the nation was
unable to defend itself; whereas the people only demanded
a vigorous exertion of their own internal strength, and
then feared no force that could be led to invade them.
The threatened invasion, however, never took place.
But a French army landed in Minorca, and invested the
citadel of St Philips, which was reckoned the strongest in
Europe, but the garrison was nevertheless weak, and no¬
wise fitted to stand a vigorous siege. To raise this siege,
Admiral Byng was dispatched with a squadron of ten men
of war, with orders to relieve Minorca, or at any rate to
throw a body of troops into the garrison. But this last
he reckoned too hazardous an undertaking, nor did he
even attempt it; and soon afterwards a French fleet ap¬
peared nearly equal in force to his own, when he resolved
to act only on the defensive. The French advanced, and
a slight engagement ensued with part of the English fleet;
after which the enemy slowly withdrew, and no other
opportunity occurred of coming to a close engagement.
Upon this it was resolved in a council of war to return to
Gibraltar to refit, and agreed that the relief of Minorca
was impracticable. For such pusillanimous, if not treache¬
rous conduct, Byng was brought home under arrest, tried,
condemned to death, and shot. He suffered with the
greatest resolution, after delivering a paper filled with pro¬
testations of his innocence as to any treacherous intention.
After the conquest of Minorca, the French declared that
they would revenge all injuries which they might sustain
in their colonies on the king of Britain’s dominions in Ger¬
many. Upon this the court of London, eager to preserve
Hanover, entered into a treaty with the court of Russia,
* by which it was stipulated that a body of fifty thousand
Russians should be ready to act in the British service,, in
case Hanover should be invaded by the French; for which
the Czarina was to receive L. 100,000 annually, to be paid
in advance. But the treaty was opposed by the king of
Prussia, who had long considered himself as guardian of
the interests of Germany, and was therefore alarmed at a
treaty which threatened to deluge the empire with an ar¬
my of barbarians. Besides, he was already apprised of an
agreement between the Austrians and Russians, by which
the latter were to enter the empire and strip him of his
late conquest of Silesia. He therefore declared that he
would not suffer any foreign forces to enter the empire,
either as auxiliaries or principals; so that the king of
Britain found himself obliged to drop his Russian connec¬
tion, and conclude a treaty with the king of Prussia. As
both monarchs wished only to prevent the invasion of Ger¬
many, they soon came to an agreement to assist each other
mutually; and from this alliance a new combination took
place among the European powers, quite opposite to the
former one. Britain opposed France in America, Asia, and
on the ocean. France attacked Hanover, which the king
of Prussia undertook to protect; whilst Britain promised
him troops and money to assist his operations. Austria
having aims on the dominions of Prussia, drew the Elector
of Saxony into the same designs; and in these views the
Austrians were seconded by France, Sweden, and Russia, Reign of
who had hopes of acquiring a settlement in the west of George II.
Europe. .
Thus the king of Prussia launched into the tumult of
war, having only the king of Britain for his ally; whilst the
most powerful states of Europe were his antagonists. He
now performed a series of exploits which, taken as a whole,
are not surpassed in the annals of modern times, and of
which a particular account will be given in the article
Prussia. The British ministry, in order to create a di¬
version in his favour, planned an enterprise against the
coast of France ; but the destination of the fleet equipped
for this purpose was kept a profound secret. At last, how¬
ever, it appeared before Rochefort, where the command¬
ers, having trifled away their time in deliberating how to
proceed, took the little island of Aix, an easy and useless
conquest, and soon afterwards returned home without at¬
tempting any thing else. By this miscarriage the ministry
were so discouraged that they had thoughts of abandoning
the king of Prussia to his fate; and the king was actually
meditating a negociation of this nature, when he was pre¬
vented by the expostulations of his distressed ally. From
motives of generosity, therefore, more than of interest, it
was resolved to continue to assist him; and success, which
had long fled from the British arms, once more began to
return with double splendour. _
It was in the East Indies where this return of good
fortune first manifested itself; but the British conquests
in the western part of the world speedily eclipsed those
in the eastern. These successes must, in part at least, be
ascribed to the vigorous administration of Mr William Pitt,
who about this time came into power. An expedition was
set on foot against Cape Breton, under General Amherst
and Admiral Boscawen; another under General Aber¬
crombie, against Crown Point and Ticonderago; and a
third under Brigadier-General Forbes, against Port cm
Quesne. The fortress of Louisbourg, which defended the
island of Cape Breton, was strong both by nature and art ;
the garrison was numerous, the commander vigilant, and
every precaution had been taken to prevent a landing; bu
the activity of the British surmounted every obstacle; and
the place having been surrendered by capitulation, its tor-
tifications were demolished. The expedition against or
du Quesne was equally successful; but that against Crown
Point once more miscarried. General Abercrombie a -
tacked the French in their intrenchments, but was repulsec
with great slaughter, and obliged to retire to his camp a
Lake George. But though in this respect the British arms
were unsuccessful, yet, upon the whole, the campaign o
1758 ended greatly in their favour. The taking of Port
Quesne served to remove from their colonies the terror
the incursions of the Indians, whilst it interruptec t ie coi
munication along a chain of forts with which the re
had environed the British settlements in America; a
the succeeding campaign promised still greater success-
In 1759 it was resolved to attack the French in seye
parts of their territory at once. General Amherst, wi
body of twelve thousand men, was commanded to a
Crown Point; General Wolfe was to undertake t e
of Quebec; whilst General Prideaux and Sir William J
son were to attempt a French fort near the catarac
Niagara. This last expedition was the first that su ^
ed. The siege was begun with vigour, and P™m's.
easy conquest; but General Prideaux being ki e
trenches by the bursting of a mortar, cornrliat n0ps
volved on General Johnson. A body of French ^
sensible of the importance of the place, attemp e
lieve it, but were utterly defeated and dispersed; ^
afterwards the garrison surrendered prisoners o w •
his arrival at the forts of Crown Point and Ticon ei g>
BRITAIN.
385
Kun of neral Amherst found them deserted and destroyed. There Geome Sackvillp A t
Gecie II. now remained, therefore, but one decisive blow to be beUvSn hhn and PHnro h°wever> arose Reign of
struck in order to reduce the whole of North America glared at the J the efCtS af which George III
under the British dominion; namely, by the capture of Xr lorVrp^i n den’ ^ was fought shortly
Quebec, the capital of Canada. This expedition was com- pretended that he could not umwX^ t/6 Bri1tlsh cavahJ>
manded bv Admiral Saunders and General Wnlfc tu, bv the nrinr-P Irld r unders]?Jnd the orders sent him
by the pnnce, and of consequence did not obey them. The
manded by Admiral Saunders and General Wolfe. The
enterprise was attended with difficulties which appeared
insurmountable; but all these were overcome by the ad¬
mirable conduct of the general, and the great bravery of
his men. He engaged and put to flight the French under
Montcalm ; but, to the great regret of the British, he was
killed in the action nearly at the same instant that his
adversary also fell. The surrender of Quebec was the
consequence of this victory, and it was soon followed by
the cession of all Canada. The next season, indeed, the
French made a vigorous effort to recover the city; but by
the resolution of Governor Murray, and the appearance of
a British fleet under the command of Lord Colvile, they
were obliged to abandon the enterprise. The whole pro-
allies gained the victory, but it would have been more de¬
cisive had the British commander obeyed his orders. He
was soon after recalled, tried by a court-martial, found
guilty of disobedience, and declared incapable of serving;
m any military command for the future. After this vic-
I-t S SeneralIy imagined that one reinforcement more
of British troops would terminate the war in favour of the
allies ; and that reinforcement was accordingly sent. The
British army in Germany was augmented to upwards of
thnty thousand men, and sanguine hopes of conquest were
generally entertained. But these hopes proved to be ill
founded. The allies were defeated at Corbach, but re-
tnved the honour of their arms at Exdorf. A victory at
rince was soon after reduced by the prudence and activity Warbourg followed shortlv A VICt°ry] aJ
of General Amherst, who obliged the French army to ca- bv annthpr if- 7'^ 1 y ^nd was succeeded
nitulate: and it h„» avnr ™ „ .fl. 11 ?? £nothe' “ Z>erenberg. But they suffered a reverse
pitulate; and it has ever since remained as a dependency
of the British empire. About the same time also the island
of Guadaloupe was reduced by a force under Commodore
More and General Hopson.
At the beginning of the war the British affairs in Ger¬
many had worn a very unfavourable aspect. The Hanove¬
rians were commanded by the Duke of Cumberland, who,
greatly outnumbered by the enemy, was obliged to retire
beyond the Weser. The passage of this river by the ene¬
my might have been disputed with success; but the French
were suffered to effect it unmolested. I he Hanoverians
at Compen; after which both sides retired into winter
quarters.
On the 25th of October 1760 died George II. He had
risen at Ins usual hour, and observed to his attendants,
that as the weather was fine, he would take a walk into
the garden of Kensington, where he then resided. But in
a few minutes after his return, being left alone, he was
heard to fall heavily on the floor; and the noise bringing
his attendants into the room, they lifted him into bed,
when he desired in a faint voice that the Princess Amelia
might be sent for; but before she could reach the apart-
were then driven from one part of the country to another ment his m ie tv ^ ^ ^
tiH at length they made a stand near a village called Has- his -me and^thiftv-tlG • 1° ’ im ^ s?ventJ'seventh year or
tenbach, where it was hoped die numbersMdie'enemy °±l™ re,>‘. An was
would not avail them in a general engagement. The Ha¬
noverians, however, left the field of battle to the French,
after a feeble resistance. The latter pursued, and the duke
retired towards Stade; by which means he marched into
a country where he could neither procure provisions nor
attack the enemy with any prospect of success. And
iere, being unable either to escape or advance, he was com¬
pelled to sign a capitulation, by which the whole army laid
down their arms, and were afterwards dispersed into diff¬
erent cantonments. By this disgraceful surrender, which
was called the capitulation of Closter Seven, Hanover was
obliged to submit quietly to the French, and the latter
were thus left at full liberty to turn their arms against the
king of Prussia.
Soon after this capitulation, both sides began to complain
iat the treaty had not been strictly observed. The Ha¬
noverians exclaimed against the rapacity of the French
general and the brutality of his soldiers. The French re-
w e the charge, accusing the Hanoverians of insolence
msurrection ; and being sensible of their own superio-
mfn\reS Ta edLT° ^nd ^iem strictly to their terms of agree-
1 * -rhe Hanoverians, however, only wished fora pre-
mnee to take arms, and for a general to head them ; and
p-aihi61 WaSi long wanting. The oppressions of the tax-
g berers whom the French had appointed were consider-
f]nmSJ04!Se-Vere’ tIiat tile army rose to vindicate the free-
mn hif !ur C0.unV’y ’ and Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick
Britain t6 at ltS \ead* -^s soon as this became known in
the kin’n-arJDSUpPlieS W8re granted, both for the service of
to art ^ ° rnssia, and for enabling the Hanoverian army
of RrJ1f)1c-0US y m exjunction with him. A small body
under tho nT* °Ver t0 j°in Prince Ferdinand
deradiosn > u^e Marlborough ; but after some inconsi-
and tbo CCesSesft the Duke of Marl borough died,
vol. y mmand °f the British forces devolved on Lord
made to bleed him, but without effect; and afterwards
the surgeons, upon opening him, discovered that the right
ventricle of the heart had been ruptured, and a great quan-
tily of blood discharged through the aperture.
CHAP. XII.
ItEIGN OF GEORGE III.
Accession of George III.—Success of the British arms—Propo¬
sals of peace—A war with Spain proposed by Mr Pitt. His
resignation—Created Earl of Chatham War with Spain 
France and Spain declare war on Portugal Invasion of that
country—Spaniards defeated—Taking of Havana Philip.
pine Islands reduced.—JKxtent of the conquests of Britain. 
eace of 1/63—-Discontents.—Cyder tax.—Resignation of Lord
Lute—-INew ministry—Supposed influence of Lord Bute 
1 roceedmgs against John Wilkes—Licentiousness of the time.
—Expedients resorted to in order to increase the revenue 
Renewal of the Charter of the Bank—Taxation of America. 
Act against illicit trade with the Spaniards Stamp Act. 
Violent resistance of the Americans—Conduct of Administra¬
tion—Disturbances in London—Illness of the King, and Re¬
gency Bill—Change of Ministry—Death of the Duke of Cum-
beiland—-Stamp Act repealed—Consequences Return of
Wilkes—Differences with Spain about the Falkland Islands,
—rvegociations—The affair terminated, and the settlement
abandoned—Proceedings of the corporation of London Speech
of Mr Beckford, the Lord Mayor—His death—Ex-officio In¬
formations.—Law of Libel—Debates concerning the conduct of
the Judges—Tumult in the House of Lords Case of New
Shoreham and its Christian Club—Licentiousness of the Press.
j roceedings of the House of Commons against some printers.
—-Ridiculous expedient resorted to in order to avoid a contest
with Wilkes—East India Affairs—Discouragement of the po¬
pular party.—Meeting of Parliament—Augmentation of the
number of Seamen—Subscription of the thirty-nine Articles 
Royal Marriage Bill—Bill for the relief of the Dissenters re¬
jected—East India Affairs—Exportation of tea, and its conse¬
quences—Regulation Bill—Reports of the Select and Secret
Committees—Lord Clive accused.—His acquittal American
3 c
386
BRITAIN.
Iteign of
George III-
nff- ^ Rnslon Port Bill -Repeal of the Tea-dutv refused— it would be looked upon as an affront to the dignity of his Reign 0
KSe Bilk—Quebec Bill-Lord Chat- master! and incompatible with the s.ncen y of the negocia-Georg^n,
Aciminisirauun in , p0f;tmns of various * f.irtlipr mpntmn of such a circumstance,
[UStraiiUll Ui ^  _ . . 0 •
ham’s motion for the recal of the troops—Petitions of various
kinds, and debates thereon—^Chatham s Scheme of Conciliation
rejected Address on the American papers—Violent debates.
—New England Restraining Bill—The An
War resolved on.
l u’  * *  
-The American fisheries—
Kim? George III. ascended the throne amidst the great¬
est successes both by sea and land. At this time> “jdeed,
the efforts of Britain in every quarter of the globe were
truly astonishing. The king of Prussia had received a sub¬
sidy - a large body of English forces commanded the exten¬
sive peninsula of]India ; another army of twenty thousand
men confirmed the conquests in North Amenca, while
thirty thousand were employed in Germany; and a great
many more were dispersed in garrisons in different parts of
the world. But all this was surpassed by the nava force,
which carried every thing before it, and totally annihilated
the French maritime power. The courage and conduct of
the English admirals excelled every thing that had been
heard of before; neither superior force, nor numbers, nor
even the terrors of the tempest, could intimidate them.
Admiral Hawke gained a complete victory over an equal
number of French ships in Quiberon Bay on the coast of
Bretagne, in the midst of a storm, during the darkness of
night, and, what a seaman fears still more, m the neigh¬
bourhood of a rocky shore
IlTtlbLClj clllvl , 0 y
tion, to make any further mention of such a circumstance.
Being now convinced of the sinister designs of Spain, this
minister also proposed immediately to declare war against
that country. But the proposal being rejected, he resigned
his employment of secretary of state ; upon which he was
created Earl of Chatham, and had a pension of L.3000
per annum settled upon him for three lives.
The new administration, however, soon found that Mr
Pitt was in the right; and war wTas accordingly declared
against Spain. As Portugal was the ally of Britain, the
French and Spaniards resolved to attack that kingdom,
which was then in no condition to defend itself. 1 he 1 or-
tuguese monarch was haughtily commanded to accede to
the confederacy against Britain, and threatened with the
vengeance of France and Spain in the event of lefusal.. It
was°in vain that he promised to observe a strict neutrality,
and urged the obligations he was under to the king of Bri¬
tain. This moderate and reasonable representation only
led to more haughty and insulting demands. His Portu¬
guese majesty, however, continued to reject their pioposa s
in the most resolute manner ; and concluded his last decla¬
ration by stating, that it would affect him less to be reduced
to the last extremity, than to sacrifice the honour of his
crown, and all that Portugal held most dear, by submitting
. i i g ~ 4-x-v oil yaor*!tir» nnwprfi.
LAUWii, cm a.     '
to become an unheard-of example to all pacific powers,
urnooa oi <x , |q become an   -  r - *
When his majesty had met his parliament, which was hi h would no longev be able to enjoy the benefit of neu-
l the 18th November 1760, he confirmed the hopes of when{ 6 -   
VV IIIL1I VV w LIJ. V-l llw v » ~ J J ,
on me xom  , -- . . hrnsp trality, whenever a war should be kindled between ot er
his allies, and gave assurances of Ins intention toprose ^ ^ which the former were connected by defen-
cute the war with vigour. By this time, however, ! Thig declaration was issued on the 27th of
people were weary of conquests, especially those April 1762; and soon afterwards France and Spam jointly
many; and the general current of popular opinion seeme d(P lared war a„ajngt Portugal.
adverse to the German war. But for some t^e no chang the degi of the courts 0f France and Spain in mak-
took place in the method of carrying it on. In 1 'bE how- war with Portugal was professedly to deprive Great
ever, proposals of peace were interchanged amo^ B?itain of the mnitary and commercial use of the harbours
ligerent powers of Europe ; but the French, designing kingdom, their principal endeavours were directed
dmw Spain into a confederacy with them, were not smcere »t that t e^ Pf 0porto ^ Lisbon w t|l
Iratcntinns? and in this wav the treaty ca e t]dg vieW) three inroads were to be made; one to the
in their intentions ; and in this way the treaty came to no
thin0-. An enterprise was projected against Belleisle, on
the coast of France, which was conducted by Commodore
Keppel and General Hodgson, and terminated in the cap¬
ture of the island, with the loss of eighteen hundred men
Lins view, mice imuauo ^  7 , . i
north; another more to the south; and the third in e
intermediate provinces, in order to sustain the ot er
bodies, and preserve a communication between t leni.
first body of troops was commanded by the Marquis ot 8av-
on the part of the Bntish ; and how- "^^he ZSfrast if Po^ marched
ever unimportant such a conquest might be, the rejoicing ’ Miranda, which he entered on the 9th of May,
on account of it were great. In Germany however, the o ™ ds ^ianda w accidental explosion of
campaign was unsuccessful on the par of the alhe . At folder From M‘Lnda the invaders marched
first indeed, they drove the French out of the territory of z surrendered ; and Moncorvo
Hesse and aid siege to the city of Cassel; but being de- to Braganza, wlncii speeany s  nearly
SteLTstangerXthey were^orced to raise the siege a"d
rni?ntrllch^“ia|JofeTtdat?achedby everythingbeingclcarbeforethemtothebanksoftheDoaro,
enemy, aucr wuiun ^ thPv Onorto was given
nd attacked by every thing Demgciear nemre mcu. d
the French ] anT.hough the latter were defeated, they
could with difficulty be prevented from making themselves g“sP»«se DouJ the career of this body was stopped to
masters of Munster and Brunswick. , , owri miirlpd bv some British
juiu wim i . . w TRUf on the JJouro tne career 01 ~ i > . .,
lasters of Munster and Brunswick. the neasants who animated and guided by some Bntisj
Durino- all this time appearances of negociation were the peasants, and drove the enemy back
kept upf but at length A Bussy, on the part of France, offi-rs, seized “n"ial,ls e„te/ed the
delivered to Mr Pitt a private memorial, signifying, that, to Monco . - - - - ■  3-^v.Vtmpnts,
ial signifying, that, to Moncorvo. ine seconu uuuy ui , ts
King of Spain might be induced to guarantee the treaty; xhe Spaniards then pushed forward
and to prevent the differences which then subsisted be- t0 the southward aP-
tween Britain and Spain from producing a fresh war in to Castelio Branco, ana mai e g ^ ^ who]e 0f
&&&&&&% ilslrosss
first, the restitution of some captures made upon the "a™ 0.fh“" l’skirmishes,andbysurpn^
ments in the Bay of Honduras. But tins memorial was
returned as wholly inadmissible. Mr Pitt declared that
ClUUI clj VV1L11 ^ - inineQ
Alentejo; and if this body of troops had bee J
the others, they would probably, in spite of a PP
J
BRITAIN.
Rt n
Ge :e
387
^ the country as to enable the other invading forces to ne- able isCds which froil^ B'ltls,h „fouJ,‘.ee“ consider-GeorgellI.
netrate to that city. The Count of La Lipgpe Buckebu?g, ^tr“" 'g^
therefore, having arrived in Portugal, resolved if possible Bv this acauisition im'npd tn th0 V greatest importance,
to prevent their entrance into that kingdom; and with hemisphere, Britain secured every avenTof the Si™
this view he dispatched Brigadier-genera Burgoyne to trade, and interrupted all communicatbn between the dif
s r^rdet,cwaS;ca^oonn ^ bM 4^“
S7tl, of August the town was surprised and the general with the mmost violence rbU'U’lmm^tl rallied unfc
who was to have commanded the invading force taken, Prince Ferdinand had gWen the highest proof "of va our
toge her wuh one colonel, two captains, and seventeen no decisive advantage hid been obtained over the French
subaltern officers, wh, st one of the best regiments in the It was, however, no longer the interest of Britain to cl
Spanish service was also entirely destroyed, and the ene- tinue a destructive contest. There never had bee^a ne'
Caste,1„ Branco having made themselves masters of seve- mense extern! "£'71^ teJritery0 ap~edte ihe'
boi tiers of Asia, and the frontiers of the Russian and Chi¬
ral important passes, the combined army of British and
Portuguese pretended to retire before them, in order to
draw them into the mountainous tracts. They attacked
the rear of the allies, but were repulsed with loss; yet
they still continued masters of the country, and nothing
remained but the passage of the Tagus to enable them to
take up their quarters in the province of Alentejo. But
this the count designed to prevent; and accordingly he
employed General Burgoyne, who having formed a design
of surprising them, committed the execution of it to Co¬
lonel Lee. In the night of the 6th of October this officer
leu upon their rear, dispersed the whole body with consi¬
derable slaughter, destroyed their magazines, and returned
with scarcely any loss. The season was now far advanced ;
immense quantities of rain fell; the roads were destroyed ;
and the Spaniards having obtained possession of no ad¬
vanced post where they could maintain themselves, and
being unprovided with magazines, fell back to the fron¬
tiers of their own country.
Nor were the British arms less successful in America
and the East Indies. From the French were taken the
islands of Martinico, St Lucia, St Vincent, and Grenada;
trom the Spaniards the strong fortress called Havana, in
the island of Cuba. The conquest of the latter cost a
nese dominions. She had conquered twenty-five islands,
all of them distinguishable for their magnitude, their
riches, or the importance of their situation; by sea and
and she had gained twelve battles, and reduced nine forti¬
fied cities, and about forty castles or forts ; she had taken or
destioyed above a hundred ships of war from her enemies,
and acquired at least ten millions in plunder. Conquests
so extensive and ruinous to the French and Spaniards na¬
turally rendered them desirous of a peace, which was at
length concluded at Paris on the 10th of February 1763.
Ihe terms granted, and which many thought too favour¬
able, were, in substance, that the French king should re¬
linquish all claims to Nova Scotia; that he should like¬
wise give up the whole country of Canada; and that for the
future the boundary betwixt the British and French do¬
minions in America should be fixed by a line drawn along
the middle of the river Mississippi from its source to the
river Ibberville, and thence by a line along the middle of
this river, and the Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain,
to the sea. The islands of St Pierre, Miquelon, Marti-
mco, Guadaloupe, Marigalante, Desirade, St Lucia, and
Belleisle, were restored to France; whilst Minorca, Gre¬
nada, and the Grenadines, St Vincent, Dominica, and To-
number of brave men more of whom ,1“ ; Y , u ’ ana Ule Urenachnes, St Vincent, Dominica, and To-
the climate than by the enemy But it was at this nffipp <1 "i were ceded to Great Britain. In Africa, the island
the fleets from the seleraUarts of thYsSS Pw!l Yn • T restrd t0 France t “"t1 ‘he river Senegal,
dies, called the galleons and flota assembled before tl n" 1^!! ^ forts and dependencies, ceded to Great Britain,
finally set out on thdr Yva"e fmE, -y If Y La,St Ind,es> al1 the forts a"d factories taken from
sWon of it, therefore hell ‘he french were restored. In Europe, the fortifications
be acquired in war ’ NineYf the ! "“'f' f Dunk"'k "fe to be destroyed; and all the countries,
with tour frigates were lokY r ,!e! T!l I ? fortressfs, and posts, belonging to the Electorate of Ha-
had been sulk in The hShon’r i,,h„ , • • ' c T "over’,'he ftike of Brunswickfarid the Count of La Lippe
siege; and two more in irrent forward CgmnilJg °[ t.le ^ckeburg, restored. In regard to Spain, the British for-
were destroyed. In moSt and T!hlble I" S’ 8 t,fif',0nc °" tl'C,Ba>'ofHond!lras were to'>0 demolished;
the spoil did not fall short of throo C ‘ir rian 1^s and the Spaniards were to desist from their claim of right
this success in the three mdhons sterling. To to fish on the Newfoundland bank. The Havana was re
tare “tKa^ the T 6t<r!’ » consequence of which Florida, St AugYttoe,
‘he Active aid Favoilite kin<?s slfins t 'V|T er,,l",llt:. by and the Bay of Pensacola, were ceded to Britain ; the
on ‘he 21st of May 1762 iusTas tliT Hermion ,appened SPamards were t0 ““ke peace with Portugal; and all other
‘eimg one of the ports of Old Snain • nod ,l „ ! e"' countries not particularly mentioned were to be restored
valued at little el, °, „f „ and th,e pr“C was to their respective owners at the beginning of the war.
Indies an elpedul IdeZk'0" tha East Tl‘c conclusion of the war did „?t by ally meanT tend
Islands, was lomliitted to cSTnelTY the ,Ph,1,PPlnc ‘? hea| ‘hose divisions which had arise! on the resigna-
The seve ,,lce at, Madras in thc la“c‘ end of June 1762.
could be'lol'ITtLrS“e"t„"'v.-he on!y resuIar c,°rps that views at that time
conducted with the ^ i tllingr^as and disturbance of an administration which they were un-
British forces lauYd^^MnnlnTnYfYim ^’Y’i1* Tl’e a-ble t0 subvert' When ‘he treaty was underlonsidera-
her; on the 6th of October the ’ ’ 0ti ‘10n’ however, only some faint attempts were made to op-
surrender at discretion • and soo/after theWaaSll°b lghd ^ FT lt; 14 S0°n aPPeared’tllat though this opposition
from Manilla to Annn’lr. i i • u’ , g " bound had proved so feeble, the spirit of the party was far from
to the value of mor^Fhnn0!, uFen nch ^chandise being exhausted. The actual state of affairs indeed f^
half a million, was taken by the voured the views of those who delighted in turbulence and
Mr Pitt; on the contrary, it furnished abundant
matter of complaint for the discontented party, whose
views at that time seem to have been the embarrassment
BRITAIN.
lleign of in faction. A long and expensive war had drained the
George III. national treasure, and greatly increased the public debt,
whilst heavy taxes had already been imposed, and it was
still as necessary to keep them up, and even to impose
new ones, as though the war had not ended. ihus the
bulk of the nation, who imagined that conquest and riches
ought to go hand in hand, were easily induced to believe
the administration arbitrary and oppressive, seeing it conti¬
nued to load them with fresh taxes after such great suc¬
cesses as had for some years past attended the British
arms. And indeed it must be owned, that the new admi¬
nistration appear not to have been sufficiently wary m this
respect. Amongst various methods of raising the supplies
for 1763, they had recourse to a duty of four shillings per
hogshead upon cyder, payable by the maker, and to be col¬
lected in the same manner as the rest of the excise duties.
The other articles of supply, as well as the duty in question,
furnished matter of declamation for the members in oppo¬
sition ; but this inflamed the popular fury to a great degree,
and made the people readily receive as truth whatever was
said by the minority in the parliamentary debates. Besides
the usual declamations, the smallness of the sum to be raised
by it was particularly urged. This, it was said, showed that
the supplying of the wants of government could not be the
sole motive for imposing such a duty; and it was further
uro-ed, that now the houses of all orders of people, noble¬
men of the first rank not excepted, were liable to be entered
and searched at the pleasure of excisemen, a proceeding
which was denominated a badge of slavery. This was
the language held throughout all the cyder counties,. by
the city of London, and by most of the incorporations
throughout the kingdom; and in short the whole nation
was thrown into a violent ferment. The friends of admi¬
nistration, indeed, urged plausible arguments in favour of
their scheme ; but the utmost force of reason will go only
a very little way in quieting popular clamour; and whilst
opposition was railing against ministry within doors, every
method was taken to excite the fury of the people with¬
out. Virulent libels, the audacity of which far exceeded
any thing known in former times, now made their appear¬
ance ; and such was the general intemperance in this re¬
spect, that it would be difficult to determine which side
paid least regard to any kind of decency or decorum.
In the midst of this general ferment, the Earl of Bute un¬
expectedly resigned his office of first lord of the treasury ;
and his resignation immediately became an object of ge¬
neral speculation. By some he was highly censured for
leaving his friends at a time when a little perseverance
might have defeated all the designs of his enemies, and
established his own power on the most solid foundation.^
Such conduct, it was said, must discourage the friends of
government, and at the same time give proportional en¬
couragement to its adversaries to insult it. Others con¬
tended that the earl was very little, if at all, influenced
by popular opinion. He had demonstrated his firmness
by taking a lead in the difficult but necessary affair of
concluding peace; and this being accomplished, he had
fully obtained his end, and performed the service to his
country which was required of him. The event, how¬
ever, showed that the former reasoning was nearest the
truth. The popular resentment was not in the least
abated by the resignation of his lordship, who, though
now withdrawn from the ostensible administration of af¬
fairs, was still considered as principal director of the ca¬
binet ; and this opinion gained the more ground that none
of the popular leaders were called into office, nor any
apparent change made in the conduct of the new admi¬
nistration.
No reasonable objection could now be taken to those
who filled the great offices of state. Mr Grenville, who
succeeded the Earl of Bute in the treasury, was a man of lleign >
approved integrity, understanding, and experience. Lord George Jli
Holland was universally considered as a very able man in
office, and had already filled many high employments with
a great degree of reputation. The other secretary, Lord
Egremont, though he had not been long in office, was in
every respect of an unexceptionable character. The rest
of the departments were filled in a similar manner; yet
the discontents and public clamours were not diminished.
It was now alleged that the new ministers were not chosen
on account of any superior gifts of nature or fortune, but
merely because they had the art of insinuating themselves
into favour at court; that the sole reason of their appoint¬
ment was, that they might act as the passive instruments
of the late minister, who, though he had thought proper to
retire from office, had not yet abandoned his ambitious
projects, but continued to direct every thing as if he had
still been in power; that opposition to the new ministers
was therefore opposition to him; and that it became those
who understood the true interest of their country, and had
a real regard to it, not to suffer such a scheme of clandes¬
tine administration.
Whether the party who made these assertions really
believed them or not cannot be known; but the effect
was exactly the same as if they had. The great object of
both parties was power; but their different situations re¬
quired that they should profess different political prin¬
ciples. The friends of Lord Bute, and ol the succeeding
administration, were for preserving to the crown the full
exercise of the power of choosing its own servants. Their
opponents, without denying this power, contended that,
according to the spirit of the constitution, the crown should
be directed in its exercise by motives of national utility,
and not by private friendship. In appointing the officers
of state, therefore, they insisted that respect should be
paid to those who, possessing great talents, had done emi¬
nent services to the nation, who enjoyed the confidence ot
the nobility, and had influence amongst the landed and
mercantile interests. The observance of this rule, they
contended, was the only proper counterpoise against the
enormous influence of the crown arising from the posses¬
sion of so much patronage ; nor could the nation be recon¬
ciled to such a power by any other means than a very po¬
pular use of it. Men might indeed be appointed accord¬
ing to the strict letter of the law; but unless these were
persons in whom the majority of the nation already pui.
confidence, they never would be satisfied, nor think t"®1'
selves secure against attempts on the constitution o t e
kingdom. t .
In the mean time the disposition to libel and invectiv
seemed to proceed beyond all bounds. The peace, tie
Scots, and the administration supposed to be directed y
Scottish influence, afforded such subjects of abuse to
pretended patriots, that ministry resolved at last to maK
an example of one of them by way of deterring tie re
from such licentiousness. For this purpose they mac^
choice of the paper called the North Briton, which,in a
cnoice ul uic p<tpei uaucu me „
guage somewhat superior to most other political pi
tions of the time, had abused the king, the ministiy, a
the Scots, in an extravagant manner. One particular p
per (No. xlv.) was deemed by those in power to be actio-
able ; and John Wilkes, member for Aylesbury, was sup
posed to be the author of it. A warrant was tieie.,
granted for apprehending the author, printer, anc Fk ,
ers, of this performance, but without mentioning 1 g
name ; nevertheless three messengers entered t16 ,
of that person on the night between the 29th anc y ^
April 1763, with an intention to seize him. He
however, to the legality of the warrant, because 18
was not mentioned in it, and likewise to the lateness
BRITAIN.
Ili n of
Gee e III
hour; and on being threatened with violence, the messen¬
gers thought proper to retire for the night. Next morning
he was apprehended without making any resistance, though
some violence was necessary to get him into a hackney-
coach, which carried him before the secretaries of state
for examination. On the first intimation of Wilkes’s being
in custody, application was made for a habeas corpus ; but
as this could not be sued out till four in the afternoon, seve¬
ral of his friends desired admittance to him, which was, how¬
ever, refused on pretence of an order from the secretaries
of state. But the order, though repeatedly demanded,
could not be produced, or at least was not so ; and on this
account the gentlemen, conceiving that they were not oblm-
ed to pay any regard to messengers acting only by a verbal
commission, entered the place where he was without fur¬
ther hesitation.
This illegal step was followed by several others in rapid
succession. Wilkes s house was searched, and bis papers
seized in his absence; and though it was certain that a
habeas corpus had now been obtained, he was nevertheless
committed to the Tower. Here not only bis friends, but
several noblemen and gentlemen of the first distinction,
were denied access to him ; nor was his brother even allow¬
ed to see him. On the third of May he was brought be-
foie the v^oui t of Common Pleas, where he made a speech,
setting forth the great love he had for his majesty, the
bad conduct of ministry, and especially his own grievances,
alleging that he had been treated worse than a Scotch
rebel. His case having been argued by several eminent
lawyers, he was remanded to the Tower for three days;
after which he was ordered to be brought up, that the
affair might be finally settled. Next day Lord Temple re¬
ceived a letter from Secretary Egremont, informing him
that the king judged it improper that Wilkes should con¬
tinue any longer a colonel of the Buckinghamshire militia;
and soon afterwards lemple himself was removed from
the office of lord-lieutenant of that county. Meanwhile
the judges decided that the warrant of a secretary of state
was in no respect superior to that of a common justice
ot peace; that Wilkes’s commitment was illegal; that his
privilege as a member of parliament had been infringed •
that this could not be forfeited except by treason, felony’
or breach of the peace, none of which was imputed to him •
•and that a libel, even though it had been proved, had only a
endency to disturb the peace, without amounting to any
actual breach of it. It was therefore resolved to discharge
aim; and the prisoner was accordingly set at liberty.
Wdkes having thus regained his freedom, resolved to
ioa 'e a 1 the advantage he could of the errors committed by
tne ministry, and to excite as general a ferment as possible,
or tins purpose he wrote an impudent letter to the Earls
kpmontand Halifax, informing them that his house
jiad been robbed, affirming that the “ stolen goods” were
n the possession of one or both of their lordships, and in-
mg upon immediate restitution. This letter was print-
snnrfHft many tIlousand copies of it were dispersed ; and
lkhf>f .er"’cUC‘s an answer by the twTo noblemen was pub-
sek lmctw-nneTsPaPers’ statins the i-cal cause of the
mark ‘f0 s-papers. The North Briton now again
hpvnmi S aPPearan.ce> and the popular party were elated
suL i1?eaSUre Wlth their success ; whilst those who had
common! ,genera! warrants sought redress at law, and
miinp 0 y° tained damages far beyond their most san-
of tho xPe(?tatlons* During the whole summer, the minds
PamnhW°^ 6 Tri6 i^P1 continual agitation by political
«eS?and hbeIs °f various kinds, whilst the affair of
& On il ariant.s eugrossed the general attention,
his snppp|11<tieetln£ °* ParPament his majesty mentioned in
Peonlp • le attempts which had been'made to divide the
1 > ami be.ore the addresses could be moved in re-
389
tuin, a message was sent to the Commons, informing them Reign of
of the supposed offence of Wilkes, and of the proceed-George Til.
mgs against him while the exceptionable paper was also ^  
laid before the house. After warm debates, the North
Briton was voted a false, scandalous, and seditious libel
tending to excite traitorous insurrections; and this was
followed by a declaration that the privilege of parliament
does not extend to the writing and publishing of seditious
libels. The paper in question was therefore condemned and
ordered to be burnt by the hangman ; but this was not done
without great opposition from the mob.
M ilkes, now determined to make the best use of the vic-
tory he had gained, commenced a prosecution in the Court
of Common Pleas against the under secretary of state, for
seizing his papers ; and the cause being determined in his.
favour, the defendant was subjected in L.1000 damages,
wuth full costs of suit. The prosecution tvith which
VV ilkes had been threatened was now carried on with great
vigour ; but in the mean time, having grossly affronted Mr
Mai tin, member for Camelford, by his abusive language
m the North Briton, he was challenged by that gentle¬
man, and dangerously wounded in the belly. Whilst he
lay ill ol his wound, the House of Commons put off his
trial from time to time ; but beginning at last to suspect
that there was some collusion betwixt him and his physi¬
cian, they ordered Dr Heberden, and Mr Hawkins, an
eminent surgeon, to attend him, and report. Wilkes, how-
evei, did not think proper to admit these gentlemen; and
soon afterwards took a journey to France. The Commons
being informed that he had refused to admit the physician
and surgeon sent by them, now lost all patience ; and pro¬
ceeding against him in absence, he was expelled the house.
A prosecution was also commenced against him before the
House of Lords, on account of an obscene and blasphe¬
mous attack on a spiritual peer; and failing to appear and
answer the charges against him, he was outlawed. But
the severity shown to Wilkes did not at all extinguish
the spirit of the party. A general infatuation in favour
of licentious and abusive writings seemed to have taken
place. At the very time that Wilkes was found guilty of
publishing the infamous pamphlet above mentioned, the
common council of London presented their thanks to the
city representatives for their zealous and spirited endea¬
vours to assert the rights and liberties of the subject;
and in gratitude to Lord Chief Justice Pratt for his de¬
cision in Wilkes’s affair, they presented him with the free¬
dom of the city, and desired him to sit for his picture,
which was to be placed in Guildhall.
But these clamours did not prevent administration from
paying attention to the exigencies of the nation. The
practice of franking blank letters had risen to an incre¬
dible height, and greatly prejudiced the revenue. The
hands of members of parliament were counterfeited, and
the covers publicly sold without the least scruple; and
besides, the clerks of the post office claimed a privilege of
franking, which extended even further than that of the
members of the house. An act was accordingly passed for
remedying the evil, by restricting the practice within rea¬
sonable limits. At this time it was proved that the annual
postage of letters sent free amounted to L.70,000, and that
the profits accruing to the clerks of the post office amount¬
ed to between L.800 and L.1700 each. Among the other
plans for augmenting the revenue, were those for settling
the island of St John, and for the sale of the lately ac¬
quired American islands. The former was proposed by
the Earl of Egremont, who presented a memorial to his
majesty on the subject. The sale of the conquered lands,
consisting of the islands of Grenada, the Grenadines, Do¬
minica, St Vincent, and Tobago, took place in March 1764-.
Sixpence an acre was to be paid as a quit-rent for cleared
390
BRITAIN.
Reign of lands, and a penny a foot for ground-rent of tenements in
George III. towns, and sixpence an acre for fields ; but no person was
to purchase more than three hundred acres in Dominica,
or five hundred in the other islands. Amongst the most
remarkable transactions of this year was the renewal of the
charter of the bank, for which the latter paid the sum of
L.l, 100,000 into the exchequer as a present to the public,
besides advancing a million of money to government upon
the security of exchequer bills.
But by far the most momentous affair which, at this
time, occupied the attention of government, was the consi¬
deration of a project for raising a revenue from the Ame¬
rican colonies. This had formerly been proposed to Sir
Robert Walpole; but that prudent minister wisely de¬
clined to enter into such a dangerous scheme; observing,
that he would leave the taxation of the colonies to those
who came after him in office. The reason given for such
four millions sterling; and so ready had the latter been Reign
to give them credit, that some of the American legisla-Georgri j
tures passed acts against incurring such debts for the fa-
ture. A petition on the subject was also presented to the
House of Commons ; but as it denied the parliamentary
right of taxation, it was not allowed to be read. It was
then proposed, on the part of administration, that the
agents should join in a petition to the house that they
might be heard by counsel in behalf of their respective co¬
lonies against the tax ; but the agents not thinking them¬
selves empowered to prefer such a petition, the negociation
was broken off, and matters went on in America as we have
elsewhere related.
In other respects, the ministry took such steps as they
judged necessary for supporting the honour and dignity of
the nation. Some encroachments having been made by the
French and Spaniards, remonstrances were made to their
a proceeding was the necessity of defraying the charge of respective courts, and satisfaction obtained; and though
- - ’• - ’ • -1 ’  1 u1~ every trifle was sufficient to set on the popular party, they
were as yet unable to find any just cause of complaint.
Nevertheless, the disposition to tumult and insurrection
seems to have become general. The silk-weavers residing
in Spitalfields being distressed for want of employment,
arising, it was thought, from the clandestine importation of
French silks, laid their case before his majesty in the year
1764, and the sufferers were relieved by the bounty of the
public ; but this seemed to render matters worse, by con¬
firming them in habits of indolence and idleness. At the
same time a bill, which was believed to be calculated to
conduce to their benefit, having been throwm out, they
began to assemble in great numbers, and several disor¬
ders were committed ; nor was it without the assistance ot
the soldiery, and the utmost vigilance ot the magistrates,
that the riot could be suppressed. During this disturb¬
ance the ferment between the court and popular parties
continued unabated, and ministers were still reviled in
numberless publications, as mere dependents and tools ol
the Earl of Bute.
An event which nowr occurred, however, produced a
considerable revolution at court, though it had but little
effect in calming the minds of the people. This was the
illness which seized the king in the beginning of the year;
and whilst it filled the public mind with apprehensions,
produced a bill for settling the affairs of the kingdom in
case of the crown devolving on a minor. In adjusting this
bill, ministers were said to have acted with but little re¬
defending them; and this, though extremely reasonable
in itself, was effected in such a manner as raised a flame
which could only be extinguished by the total overthrow
of the authority of the parent state. Before this time,
indeed, hints had been thrown out that it was not im¬
possible for the colonists to withdraw their dependence
on Britain; and some disputes had taken place betwixt
the different provinces, which, although quieted by terror
of the French, seemed to augur no good. But now, when
the colonies were not only secured but extended, it was
thought proper to make the experiment whether they
would be obedient or not. They already contained more
than two millions of people, and it was deemed absolutely
necessary to raise a revenue from so numerous a body.
Some thought it might be dangerous to provoke them ; but
to this it was replied by administration, that the danger
must increase by forbearance, and that, as taxation was in¬
dispensable, the sooner the experiment was tried the bet¬
ter. The fatal trial being thus determined on, an act was
accordingly passed for the prevention of smuggling, in
order that the duties laid on the American trade might
come into the hands of government. At this time there
was carried on betwixt the British and Spanish colonies an
illicit traffic, which seemed to bid defiance to all law and
regulation, and which was no less obnoxious to the Spanish
than to the British government. In some respects, how¬
ever, the suppression of this commerce was very incon¬
venient to the colonists; for as the balance of trade with
thought to have in a great measure alienated the confidence
of his majesty, with whom the ministry had hitherto been
in great favour. Nor did their subsequent conduct
that they were at all desirous of regaining the ground which
they had lost. For having contrived to get the Earl o
Bute’s brother turned out of a lucrative office he enjoyed
without recom-
Britain was against them, they found it impossible to pro- spect to the Princess-dowager ot Wales, in excluding her
cure any specie except by trading with the Spaniards, who from a share of the government; and this proceeding was
paid for their goods in gold and silver. This, with another
act requiring them to pay certain duties in cash, was pro¬
bably the cause of the resentment shown by the Americans
to government, and their refusal to submit to the stamp
act, which was also passed in the course of this year, hav¬
ing been carried through the Commons by a great majority.
The disposition to augment the revenue by all possible in Scotland, they offended his majesty, ---
methods seems to have served to keep alive the general mending themselves to the popular party in England, w
opinion as to the oppressive and arbitrary measures pur- manifested a perfect indifference as to all that passed in
sued by government. The ill humour of the British pa- Scotland. On this occasion Lord Chatham is said to have
triots still continued; and the stamp bills were received been solicited to accept the office which he had former y
in America with the utmost indignation. The arguments filled so much to the satisfaction of the nation, and to have
for and against American taxation are at present of little declined it. A new ministry, however, was soon rorme ,
importance, excepting in as far as concerns the constitu- on the recommendation of the Duke of Cumberland. ^
tional question evolved by them, and now almost univer- Duke of Grafton, and Mr Conway, brother to the Ear
sally admitted, that taxation without representation is ty- Hertford, were appointed secretaries of state; the ^
ranny ; and the particulars of the opposition of the colo- of Rockingham, first lord of the treasury; and Mr Dow
nists will be related under another head. We may however swell, chancellor and under treasurer of the exci'e(? ?
observe here, that the resistance of the colonists proved The office of lord privy seal was conferred on the Du
very distressing to the mother country, on account of the Newcastle ; and the other places were filled with nient|it;
immense sums due by the former. To the merchants known integrity, and supposed to be agreeable to ^
of London alone they were indebted to the extent of people. These changes, however, did not give gene
BRITAIN.
_,e i of
Geo III
satisfaction. The opinion that affairs were still managed
by the Earl of Bute continued to prevail, and was industri¬
ously kept up by the political writers of the time ; and the
city of London expressed their discontent on the occasion
of addressing his majesty upon the birth of a third son.
This could not fail to offend both king and ministry; but
before the latter could show any token of resentment,
they lost their friend and patron the Duke of Cumberland
who died on the 31st of October 1765. He had been that
evening assisting at one of the councils, then frequently
held, in order to put matters in a way of being more speedily
dispatched by the privy council; and being seized with a
sudden disorder of which he had shown some symptoms
the evening before, he fell senseless in the arms of the
Earl of Albemarle, and expired almost instantaneously.
In the mean time the discontents which had inflamed
the American colonies continued also to agitate the minds
of the people of Gneat Britain; nor indeed was it reasonable
to expect that they could be satisfied with their present
condition, commerce being nearly annihilated, manufac-
tuies at a stand, and provisions exorbitantly high priced.
The large sums due to British merchants by the Ame¬
ricans also severely affected the trading and manufactur¬
ing pai t of the country; more especially as the colonists
refused to pay unless the obnoxious laws should be re¬
pealed. The administration, therefore, were under the
necessity of either enforcing the stamp act by the sword,
or of procuring its immediate repeal in parliament. The
loss of the Duke of Cumberland was now severely felt, as
he had been accustomed to assist the ministry with his ad¬
vice, and was respected by the nation for his good sense,
but it seems doubtful if at this period human wisdom could
have prevented the consequences which ensued. The
administration endeavoured to avoid the two extremes, of
lushing instantly into a civil war, or sacrificing the dignity
of the crown or nation by irresolution and weakness; and
suspended their decision until certain intelligence should
be received from the American governors as to the state
of affairs in that country. But the opposite party animad¬
verted severely on this conduct, insisting on the most coer¬
cive methods being immediately adopted for enforcing the
Jaws in which they themselves had had so great a share.
1 acific measures, however, prevailed, and the stamp act
was repealed; but at the same time another was passed,
declaring the right of parliament not only to tax the colo¬
nies, but to bind them in all cases whatsoever. The re¬
peal of the stamp act occasioned universal joy throughout
n am and America, though, as parliament insisted upon
ieir light of taxation, which the opposite partv denied,
a ers weie still as far from any real accommodation as
ver, ami the ill humour of the Americans was soon af-
erwar s increased by the duties laid upon glass, painters’
hnmJi an,-tfa imPorted int0 their country; whilst at
sip ® i h‘Sh Price of provisions, and some improper
Zf® taken hy nnnistry to remedy the evil, kept up the
general outcry against them.
itate; °* a^'a^rs administration were once more
tnrnofl r by the appearance of John Wilkes, who had re-
1768 nT t*1 e’ and’ on tbe dissolution of parliament in
(]if, ’V1 st llls outlawry was still unreversed, stood can-
desio-n °c 116 Clty .°* London. Failing, however, in his
declfi-pdl footing the city of London, he instantly
tumnltc ^ ? cand\date f°r ^dd^esex* Innumerable
the nn;man-friutS,ln?med‘ate^y took place; and so great was
ed tn Hp tf1 ^ betwixfc the two parties, that a civil war seem-
actions w„rnt?ned* ^ny particular detail of these trans¬
state tWUW’ 10^ever> be superfluous. It is sufficient to
and L 0U a outiawry of Wilkes was reversed,
L 1000 i coad^mned for his offences to pay a fine of
’ and fc0 be imprisoned for twelve months. Idolized
391
by the people, however, and powerfully supported by mer- Iteign of
chants and persons of property, he was repeatedly chosen George Ilf.
member for Middlesex, and as often rejected by the House
of Commons. Tumults frequently occurred ; and the in¬
terposition of the military was construed by the patriots
as indicative of a design to establish ministerial authority
by the most barbarous methods. J
These dissensions did not pass unnoticed by the other
European powers, particularly the French and Spaniards.
Both had applied themselves with assiduity to the increase
of their marine; and many began to prognosticate an at¬
tack from one or other or both of these nations. The
Spaniards first showed an inclination to come to a rupture
with Britain. The subject in dispute was a settlement
formed on the Lalkland Islands, near the southern extre¬
mity of the American continent. A scheme of this kind
had been thought of as early as the reign of Charles II.,
but it was not till after Lord Anson’s voyage that any
sciious attention had been paid to it. In the printed ac¬
count of this expedition, his lordship pointed out the dan¬
ger incurred by our navigators through the treachery of
the I oi tuguese in Brazil, as well as the importance of dis-
covering some place more to the southward, where ships
might be supplied with necessaries for their voyage round
Cape Horn; and, with this view, he indicated the Falk¬
land Islands as an eligible rendezvous for vessels in these
high southern latitudes. His lordship also, when at the
head of the admiralty, forwarded the scheme, and some
pieparations were made for putting it in execution; but
as it met with opposition at home, and gave offence to the
court of Madrid, it was laid aside till the year 1764, when
it was levived by Lord Lgmont. Commodore Byron be¬
ing then sent out with proper necessaries, took possession
of these islands in the name of his majesty, and represent¬
ed them in a favourable light; but his successor, Captain
Macbride, affirmed that the soil was utterly incapable of
cultivation, and the climate intolerable. Be this as it may,
however, the islands in question had also attracted the
notice of the French ; but as that nation had been greatly
reduced by the late war, no project of the kind could yet
be put in execution at the public expense. Mf Bougain¬
ville, therefore, undertook, with the assistance of his friends,
to form a settlement on the Falkland Islands at their own
risk; and the scheme was put in execution in the begin¬
ning of the year 1764, and a settlement formed on the
eastern part of the same island in which Commodore
Byron had established an English colony on the western
side. But the French adventurers soon became weary of
their new colony; and M. Bougainville, having been re¬
imbursed for his expenses, the French gave up every claim
of discovery or right of possession; while the Spaniards,
landing some troops in 1766, took possession of the fort
built by the french, and changed the name of the harbour
to Port Solidad. In 1769, Captain Hunt of the Tamar
frigate happening to be on a cruize off the Falkland Islands,
fell in with a Spanish schooner which had been at Port
Solidad, and charged the commander to depart from that
coast, which he declared to be the property of his Britan¬
nic majesty. Ihe schooner, however, soon returned, bring¬
ing an officer from the governor of Buenos Ayres, who
gave a similar warning to Captain Hunt; and the latter,
not choosing to push matters to extremities, set sail for
England, where he arrived in June 1770. On the depar¬
ture of Captain Hunt, two frigates were left at the Falk¬
land Islands; but one of these was lost a short time after¬
wards. On the 4th of June 1770, a Spanish frigate arriv¬
ed at the English settlement named Port Egmont, with a
number of guns and other warlike implements for carrying
on a regular siege; and in three days four other frigates
arrived laden in the same manner; so that the English
BRITAIN,
neig„ 0f commander, finding all resistance ™in, was obliged to ca- “^^^ich
fi^tecftime1 can-ym" wlth^ tbem^lia^stores ^Imy could^ nisttion wer? willing to drawl veil. On the part of the ^
and^lw^Spanish commander declared himself answerable
for whatever they mig ) ‘ live seemed to if there had been any correspondence between the two
So audacious an insuU to ^Im Bntish^nag^^seernea ^to which ^ in thcm> it mustIlaTe
render w“ '"®V1^rd’ingly mCntional in the speech from been verbal; and that, at any rate, there were papers suf-
*e throne in Novembfryi770, when an immediate de- ficient to enable the house to determine the propriety or
mand of satSfactTol for the injury was promised; and it impropriety of their conduct throughout the whole transac-
was IrthS nSed that the necessary preparations for tion. But these excuses did not satisfy the opposition, and
wm- which hid been begun, should not be discontinued, a motion was made to address Ins majesty for inforniat.on
The IS of America were also noticed; and, where as to whether any such interference had taken place, and
Jrounds" f comriaint still existed, an assurance of redress of what nature it was, or in what manner it had been con-
giounds ot compia nt esneciallv in regard to ducted. The motion, however, was lost by a great majo-
Sie Mkhmd Mauds, were far from giving satisfaction; rity in both houses. Nevertheless this manner of dead.
l„d a motion wa^now made in both houses for an inquiry ing the question was far from allaying the ferment which
k,to he conduct of the Spaniards, as well as for the pro- prevailed. The transaction was considered as disgraceful
duction of dl papers and letters relative thereto. But the to the British nation; nor were all the arguments which
cV-nnntl was opposed by the ministry, upon the grounds could be used by the ministerial party sufficient to shake
ttat the ntereTof the public service precluded the idea the general opinion. The restitution of the island was
of exposing letters or papers transmitted ip confidence thought to be an inadequate recompense for the affront
while the negociation was depending, and that the king that had been offered; and the objections to it were urged
of Spain half disavowed the conduct of his officer, and on a motion for an address of thanks on account of the
■ 1 entisfartirm communication of the Spanish declaiation, which was not
pr0s“me time before ibis, Mr Harris, the English minister carried without considerable difficulty, and in fact Fodu
at the court of Madrid, had dispatched a letter to Lord ced a protest from nineteen peers. On the part of Spain
Wevmouth informing him that a ship had arrived from however, every article of the agreement was ostensibly
Buenos Ayres with an account of the intended expedi- fulfilled; Port Egmont was restored, and the British once
to against P^ Egmontrthe number of men to be' cm- more took possession of it, though it was in a short t.me
nlnved and the time fixed for its departure; but Prince afterwards evacuated.
Malerans, the Spanish ambassador, had declared his be- _ In other
lief that the governor of Buenos Ayres had employed
force at Port Egmont without any orders, and expressed
a hope that, by disavowing the proceeding, he might pre¬
vent any misunderstanding betwixt the two kingdoms.
To this Lord Weymouth replied by inquiring whether
the kingdom. A fire which happened at Portsmouth in
the year 1770 excited numberless jealousies, and was by
some imputed to our enemies on the Continent. Ihe af¬
fair of the Middlesex election was not forgotten; and not¬
withstanding many repulses, the city of London still ven-
th°e mince to ZfZw t^dtoo^ th^ed^ to^d up new petitions to “the throne. In one
the governor; and, on his answering in the negative, his presented this year by Mr Beckford, the 1°^ niayor th
lordship demanded a formal disavowal. After some time, petitioners lamented having incurred the displeasu ,
it was stated, on the part of Spain, that the prince was au- but renewed a request, frequently preferred before, to
thorized to disavow any particular orders given to M. Buca- dissolution of parliament. 1 his, however met wit a ve y
relli, the governor of Buenos Ayres ; that the island should unfavourable answer. His majesty informed the
he forthwith restored; and that it was expected the king mayor, that his sentiments on the subject c°ntin
of Britain would, on his part, disavow the conduct of Cap- changed; and that he should ill deserve the title of a
tain Hunt, whose menace had induced the governor to act of his people, were he to suffer himself to be P^ai
as he did. But this proposition did not prove satisfactory, to make such a use of his prerogative as he could n ,
Mr Harris was ordered to quit the court of Madrid; and think inconsistent with the interest, and dangerous to tne
the correspondence between Prince Maserans and the constitution, of the kingdom. Mr Beckford, tar Horn
court of England was discontinued. About this time Lord disheartened by this answer, demanded leave to a
Weymouth resigned his office, and was succeeded by the the king; and having obtained it, made a speech ot
Earl of Rochford ; and the affair of the Falkland Islands siderable length, which he concluded by teljinghismajes^
ceased to be spoken of.
But, on the meeting of the parliament in January 1771,
it was again brought before the bouse, when the declara¬
tion of the Spanish ambassador, and Rochford’s accep¬
tance, were announced. Prince Maserans then disavow- iw mo maj^oi,j o —    . . ag
ed, in the name of his master, the violence used at Port peace, and a betrayer of our happy constitution a
Egmont, the restitution of which was agreed to upon an established at the glorious revolution. 11ns e ^
understanding that such restitution should be considered of Mr Beckford was censured by the court par y a ^
as ample satisfaction, but not as affecting the question cent, unprecedented, impudent, and little slior ^
concerning the prior sovereignty of the islands. This pro- treason; whilst, on the other hand, it raise t]on<r
duced a new demand for copies of all papers, letters, and highest pinnacle of popular favour. But he die
declarations, relating to the Falkland Islands; and though enjoy the applause of the people ; for he died a s1 ^
it was now apparently complied with, the opposition affirm- afterwards, and his death was considered as an in P
ed that it was still only in part, since, besides a chasm of loss to the whole party. Several other Petltl0.nsper-
nearly two months, of which there was no account what- sented on the subject of popular grievances; b11
ever, all copies of the claims or representations made by petual neglect with which they were treated at as
the court of Spain since the first settlement of the islands that mode of application into disuse. resented
were kept back, and a suspicion was thus excited that the A new subject of contention, however, now p
siderable lengtn, wnicn ne conciuueu uy ivinug mo,
that “ whoever had already dared, or should herea
endeavour, by false insinuations and suggestions, to a ie-
nate his majesty’s affections from his loyal subjectsin S
neral, and the city of London in particular, was an
to his majesty’s person and family, a violator of the Pu
BRITAIN.
Ei n of itself. The navy was in a bad condition, and the sailors
Geo j III-everywhere avoided the service. Towards the end of
^ ^ August sixteen ships of the line were ready to be put to
sea; but the legality of press warrants being questioned,
the manning of them became a matter of great difficulty.
The new lord mayor, Crosby, refused to back the warrants,
which proved a very vexatious matter to the ministry;
and they were further provoked by the unbounded licen¬
tiousness of the press. But, on the other hand, the mode
of proceeding against some libellers had produced many
complaints regarding the powers of the attorney-general.
He had filed informations and carried on prosecutions ex
officio, without going through the forms observed in all
other cases of the kind; and this was described as incon¬
sistent with the nature of a free government. Examples
were cited of flagrant oppression and injustice occasioned
by the exercise of this very power; the laws, it wras said,
had become changeable at the pleasure of a judge; and
the liberty of the subject was taken from him whenever
he became obnoxious to his superiors. Accordingly a mo¬
tion was made in the House of Commons to bring in a bill
for explaining and amending an act of the 4th and 5th of
William and Mary, to prevent invidious informations, and
for the more easy reversal of outlawries in the Court of
Kings Bench. But this motion was rejected by a great
majority, the ministerial party urging that the power of
the attorney-general was the same as it had ever been, and
founded on the common law; that the abuse of power was
no argument against the legal exercise of it; that it was
dangerous to overthrow established customs; and that the
actions of the attorney-general were cognizable by parlia¬
ment, which control must for ever prevent a licentious ex¬
ercise of his powers. But these arguments did not put an
end to the disputes on this head. The courts of justice were
at the same time held up in a very despicable light, on ac¬
count of some late decisions which had been deemed con¬
trary to law and usual practice. By these the judges had
assumed a power of determining whether a paper was a libel
or not, whilst the business of the jury was confined to the
determination of the fact regarding its publication ; and
thus it was alleged that the judges had it in their power
to punish a man who had been found guilty of publishing a
paper, whether it was seditious or not. Lord Chatham, in a
speech on the Middlesex election, took occasion to mention
tnese abuses ; and was answered by Lord Mansfield, who
ooked upon himself as particularly pointed at. The former,
mweyer, was so little convinced by the answer, that he drew
rom it an additional confirmation of his own arguments,
f-nncA0^ a S^0U^ he appointed for taking into
hp 81 eif^I0n ^ conduct of the judges ; in which proposal
he was ably seconded by the ex-chancellor. A committee
as accordingly moved for on the 6th December 1770, to
w„(h1‘rf 1IJt01 j-he matter ; but after much debate the motion
j-, eJected by a very large majority. The affair, however,
nniir.0 ^eern he terminated. Lord Mansfield gave
oatp i nfiXt tt^’ ^at on an ear]y day he would communi-
anr-t K I6 , °US? 0f> Lords a matter of the utmost import-
„p i ’ u w len ^at day arrived he produced nothing ex-
tripH inParr ^°ntainin^.the case of Woodfall the printer, as
miffiii vp f ^°U^t 0p ^ng’s Bench, that whoever pleased
exceeffini C°pieS of ^ This was looked UP™ a*
tations of g riV1° <?us’ and great)y disappointed the expec-
ther hp 10 e b°use. His lordship was asked whe-
journals ,t lat ^ Paper should be entered on the
such intpnt-416 ,10use ; antl be answered that he had no
of tlm pi > i°n’ but on}y that it should be left in the hands
been alimrLif °n wJbcb the affair would probably have
all alono* i 'er oveidooked> had not the ex-chancellor, who
Mansfipbl V011^ s supported the motion, accused Lord
VOL V.’ r0m le Very paper t0 which he appealed, of
393
a practice repugnant to the law of England, proposed Helen of
to him some queries relative to the power of juries, and George III.
challenged his antagonist to a debate either at that time
or afterwards. But this method of proceeding was com¬
plained of as too precipitate, and an excuse was likewise
made for not assigning a day for the debate at any future
period, so that the matter soon sunk into oblivion. It was
however, loudly talked of without doors ; and the judo-es^
who had already sunk in the estimation of the people’
now became much more obnoxious.
An accident which occurred soon afterwards contribu¬
ted also to lessen in the eyes of the people the character
not only of the ministerial party, but that of both houses
of parliament taken collectively; and indeed it must be
owned that nothing could be more derogatory to the ho¬
nour of the first assembly of the nation, or to that of the
individuals composing it. On the 20th of December 1770
a motion was made by the Duke of Manchester, that an
address be presented to his majesty, praying that he
would be graciously pleased to give orders for quickening
our preparations for defence in the West Indies and in
ed^terranean’.and Particularly for securing the posts
of Gibraltar and Minorca. But whilst his grace was des¬
canting on the negligence of the ministry in leaving posts
of such importance in a defenceless state, he was sudden¬
ly interrupted by Lord Gower, who insisted on having the
house immediately cleared of all except those who had a
right to sit there. His lordship was answered by the
Duke of Richmond, who complained of the interruption
given to the Duke of Manchester as a proceeding both
megular and insidious, ihis produced a considerable de¬
gree of altercation; and the cry of “ Clear the house”
lesounded from all quarters. Several members attempted
to speak, but found it impossible; and, piqued at this
shameful behaviour, eighteen or nineteen peers left the
house in a body. The members of the House of Com¬
mons then present were not only commanded to depart,
but some of the lords went personally to the bar, and in¬
sisted on their leaving the house immediately. The lat¬
ter alleged in excuse, that they attended with a bill, and
were there in the discharge of their duty; but this avail¬
ed nothing ; they were peremptorily ordered to withdraw
till their message should be delivered, and at length turn¬
ed out of doors amidst the greatest tumult and uproar.
In the mean time the lords, who had just left their own
house, repaired to the lower house, where they were lis¬
tening to the debates, when the commoners who had been
turned out of the Lords arrived, full of indignation, and
loud in their complaints of the affront they had received.
This was resented by turning out indiscriminately all the
spectators; amongst whom were the eighteen peers just
mentioned, who were thus excluded from both houses.
This affair issued in a misunderstanding between the two
houses, which continued during the remainder of the ses¬
sion. Sixteen lords joined in a protest, and censured in
the warmest terms the treatment they had met with, as
well as tne unprecedented behaviour of administration,
who had thus attempted to suppress the freedom of de¬
bate, and rendered the conduct of the house an object of
contempt and ridicule to the whole world.
Soon after the discussion on the subject of the Falkland
Islands, an extraordinary instance of corruption in the
borough of New Shoreham, Sussex, was laid before parlia¬
ment. The affair was brought by the returning officer, one
Roberts, declaring a candidate duly elected who had only
thirty-seven votes, whilst his opponent had eighty-seven
suffrages; and when this man was brought to trial for so
strange a proceeding, a scene of unparalleled villany was
disclosed. A great number of the freemen of the borough
had formed themselves into a society called the Christian
3 D
394
BRITAIN.
Reign of Club, which, instead of sustaining the character indicated
George III. by its denomination, was rendeted instrumental in turtnei-
ing the purposes of venality. A select committee of the
members had been appointed to sell the borough to the
highest bidder. The committee-men never appeared at
elections themselves, but issued orders to the lest, dnect-
was carried before Alderman Wilkes, by whom he was dis- Reign i
charged; Thomson was in like manner discharged; and George |
the captors received certificates from the magistrates, in
order to entitle them to the promised reward. Millar,
one of the six who had refused to attend, was taken into
custody at his own house by the messenger of the House
elections themselves, but issued orders to e res , < nee ^ . ^ut he sent for a constable, and was carried
ing them as to how they were to vote; and after the elec- ^"“the messenger before the lord mayor, and Al-
tion terminated, they shared the profits among lemse \t... ^enan(1 Oliver, at the mansion-house. The
All this was clearly proved ; but the ic inning o , r refused to deliver up the printer and messen-
nevertheless dismissed with a repnmand from the Speaker loJrd serjeant at arms; and aftersome
for having trespassed upon the toi ms w te oug ‘ Hisnutes the messenger was committed to prison, as he had
been observed by such a funct.onary A more severe d‘sPu“Sc*“d^SSrrf assault and false imprisonment,
punishment, however, was reserved for the borough pa.- “cus™ hadTefused to find bail; but he was im-
ticularly the wretches who had assumed the name of the ^. ^Sased uponZu being given. The lord mayor
Christian Club. _. A — for .^havmgbe^ ca^md house ne^t day, when he pleaid
unanimously, a bill was brought in to incapacitate eiglity-
one freemen of the borough, whose names were mention¬
ed, from ever voting at parliamentary elections ; and, for
the more effectual prevention of bribery and corruption,
the attorney-general was ordered to prosecute the com¬
mittee belonging to the Christian Club. After some op¬
position the bill for incapacitation at length passed, and
received the royal assent on the last day of the session.
The unbounded licentiousness of the press now attract¬
ed the notice of parliament, though the evil appeared in¬
capable of being effectually checked. At this period neither
rank nor character formed any security against calumny;
and indeed it was difficult to say wffiich side went farthest
in the career of detraction and abuse. The ministry, liow-
was ordered to attend the house next day, when he pleaded
that he had acted in no way inconsistent with the duties
of his office, since by his oath he was bound to preserve the
franchises of the city ; and his conduct was further war¬
ranted by the terms of the city charters, as recognised by
act of parliament. It was then moved that he should be
allowed counsel; but this motion was overruled, upon the
ground that no counsel could be permitted to plead against
the privileges of the house. It was, however, carried that
the lord mayor’s clerk should attend with the book of
minutes; and, notwithstanding all opposition, he was oblig¬
ed to expunge from it the recognisance of Whittam the
messenger. This was followed by a resolution that there
should be no more proceedings at law in the case; upon
it wras retorted by the opposition, that the abuse from one
quarter was as great as that from the other. Some mem¬
bers of the House of Commons complained that their
speeches had been misrepresented in the papers, and en¬
deavoured to put a stop to the practice of reporting them.
It was at this time considered as contrary to the stand¬
ing order of the house to print the speeches of the mem¬
bers of parliament; and a motion for calling twm of the
principal printers to account was carried by a consider¬
able majority. The printers, however, did not attend
the summons of the messenger; and a final order for their
appearance was directed to be left at their houses, and de¬
clared to be sufficient notice when left there. The disobe¬
dience of the printers was undoubtedly occasioned by the
favour which they hoped to obtain with the popular party;
and indeed it w7as only after severe animadversion that
the ministry were able to carry the motion against them
iiiiiiui ii y at icioi' ^   - . y .i ,
it was now one o’clock in the morning, the ministerial party
refused to adjourn, and proceeded to the case of Mr Uli-
ver, who, like the lord mayor, declined to express any re¬
gret for what he had done. Some proposed to censure
his conduct, others were for expulsion ; but when it was
proposed to send him to the Tower, the utmost confu¬
sion took place, some members declaring that they would
accompany him to the place of his confinement, w i s
others left the house. Meanwhile ministry used their
utmost endeavours to persuade him to make some kind o
apology or concession for wffiat he had done; but finding
him immovable, they at last carried the motion °5 '1S
prisonment, and he was committed accoiding y. ^
confusion had been in some measure dispelled, the debates
concerning the lord mayor were resumed, and many ar¬
guments were urged against proceeding further in
matter ; but these being disregarded, the nnnimty left the
the ministry were able to carry the motion against them, matter ; nut uiese uti 0 .. V . offered him of
And this opposition was heightened by its being further house; and his lordship refusing tbe c)^6
moved that they should be taken into custody by the ser- being committed to ^Sg ordered
jeant at arms, for contempt of the orders of the house; a was sent to the lower. ‘ . Sneakerfin which
proceeding which was objected to on account of the tern- - —< —- * ^"or ^dressed to the Speaker, .
per and disposition of the people towards the house, and
the great impropriety of adding to their alai’ms by any un¬
necessary stretch of the executive power. But the majority
urged the necessity of preserving the dignity of the house,
and putting an end to those excessive freedoms which had
been taken with its members. The serjeant at arms next
complained, that not being able to find the printers at
their houses, he had been treated with indignity by their
servants; on which a royal proclamation w^as issued for
apprehending the two obnoxious typographers, Wheble and
Thomson, with a reward annexed. But in the mean time
six other printers, who had rendered themselves equally
obnoxious on a similar account, were ordered to attend
the house, though the motion had not been carried without
was sent to tne i ower. /iiut-i umu iq,.],
to attend, wrote a letter addressed to the Speaker,
he observed, that no mention had been mac e o 18 £
a member ; and that if his seat in parliament, to w i>
had been duly elected, was to be granted, he would att
and justify his conduct. Administration, however, v ^
too wise again to encounter this demagogue; but Dei &
the same time under no little embarrassment how to S
off, they at last had recourse to the miserable shift ot
ing him to attend on the 8th of April 1771, win e y
journed the house to the 9th. , , • pg.
The only other transaction of moment during th
sion related to the East India Company. It was no P
posed to raise two thousand men in England t°r ,.
vice of the Company, by whom the °fficers. jIT01,'1 un.
the king were to be paid. But it was considered
constitutional and dangerous to keep up an anne jt
great opposition. Some of the delinquents were repri- constitutional ami dangerous to Keep up iU* and it
manded at the bar, and one who did not attend was or- the kingdom which was not paid by govel ’^1, to
dered to be taken into custody for contempt. Wheble was likewise urged that it would prove an 0fthe
being apprehended in consequence of the proclamation, the recruiting service of our own army, 011 a
BRITAIN.
He'! of
Geor III
superior advantages of enlisting in the Company’s service.
The session terminated on the 8th of May. In the speech
from the throne it was observed, that the satisfaction ob¬
tained from his Catholic majesty for the injury done this
kingdom, and the proofs of the pacific disposition which
the courts of France and Spain had given, by laying aside
their armaments, enabled his majesty to reduce the forces
both by sea and land.
The many defeats which had been experienced by op¬
position during this and the preceding sessions now began
to cool their ardour in the cause of patriotism. Many of
them also had lost much of their popularity by taking part
against the printers; and as every motion had been car¬
ried in favour of administration by nearly two to one, a
general discouragement and languor ensued. The only
gainers indeed by the late contentions were the city ma¬
gistrates, and printers who had been punished by the
House of Commons. On the rising of parliament, the lord
mayor and aldermen were of course released from the
Tower, and welcomed with every mark of congratulation.
The city was illuminated; and the mob, as usual, took ven¬
geance on the refractory by breaking their windows. A
committee was even appointed to carry on a prosecution
against the Speaker of the House of Commons; but as
this did not seem likely to afford redress, they determined
once more to have recourse to the throne. Accordingly,
on the 10th of July 17 71, another petition and remonstrance
was presented, the subjects of which were the embank¬
ments on the lhames, the proceedings against the magi¬
strates, and a request for a speedy dissolution of parlia¬
ment. But this met with as unfavourable an answer as any
of the preceding appeals to the sovereign.
In the speech from the throne, when the parliament as¬
sembled in January 1772, his majesty observed, that the
performance of the king of Spain’s engagements, and the
behaviour of the other European powers, promised a con¬
tinuance of peace, and that although the necessity of keep-
ingup a respectable naval force was evident, yet no extra¬
ordinary aid for that purpose would be necessary ; and he
concluded with recommending a vigilant and active atten¬
tion to the concerns of the country, with an assurance of
the interposition of the crown to remedy abuses or supply
defects. Little discussion took place on the address in
answer to this speech ; but an ample subject of alterca¬
tion was soon furnished by a motion on the part of the go¬
vernment, the object of which was to recognise the neces-
sity of raising twenty-five thousand seamen for the service
ot the current year. A proposition of this kind, coming
immediately after the assurances of peace that had been
given from the throne, seemed very like a contradiction.
Accordingly it was argued that the peace establishment
wou thus be augmented till we were overburdened by it;
a a aige sum would be added to the national expenses;
and that as the same augmentation might every year be
ma e on similar pretences, the nation would in this way
P 0 , to submit to the hardships of war in a time
pro ound peace. If the assurances of peace from the
throne were well founded, the force in the East Indies
In nr]3 .reac y to° great; if, on the contrary, a war was at
’ 11 woulu be too small, notwithstanding the proposed
S11~°n} and in the same way Jamaica was likely to
er rom this inferiority. But these remonstrances were
the ° me^ns s.ufficient to put a stop to the measure; and
without a^d"1 ^avour t^le augmentation was carried
"km^6 tit eCt came next to be discussed was reli-
for e'rtm !-S Was or*g*nated by the tendency which had
chumli et- Preva^e(l to resist the subscription of the
discnntrf ailj ar^s‘ Meetings had been frequently held bv
u ed members, in order to consider of some mnde
395
of relief ; and in the beginning of February a number of Reign of
them, with several professors of law and physic, joined inGeofgelll.
a petition to the House of Commons, expressing their 's—
dissatisfaction with subscription to any human forms, and
praying for relief. In this petition they asserted that
they held certain rights and privileges from God alone,
without being subject to any other authority; that they
accounted it a blessing to live under a government which
maintained the sufficiency of the Scriptures to instruct in
all things necessary to salvation; and that they had a right
from nature, as well as from the principles of the reform¬
ed religion, to judge for themselves what was or was not
contained in the Scriptures. They prayed therefore to be
relieved from the burden of subscription, and to be restor¬
ed to their undoubted right of interpreting Scripture for
themselves, without being bound by any human explana¬
tion of it, or being required to acknowledge the truth of
any formulary of religious faith and doctrine whatsoever,
excepting the Holy Scripture itself. This petition was
presented by Sir William Meredith, who, along with the
other members favourable to the cause, enforced it by
many arguments drawn from the principles of toleration,
and maintained that nothing but hypocrisy and prevari¬
cation could arise from obliging men to subscribe what
they did not believe; that the repeal of the laws for sub¬
scription would prevent the increase of dissenters, and
incline many of them to return to the church; that the
articles themselves were originally compiled in a hurry;
that they contained doctrines highly controvertible; and
that this restraint on the consciences of men constituted
one of the greatest imaginable hardships. The majority of
parliament, however, were found inimical to the petition,
though some who then opposed it wished for time to con¬
sider it more deliberately, or to refer it to a committee of
the clergy. At last, however, it was thrown out bv a large
majority.
I he rejection of the subscription bill was followed by
that of a bill for guarding the possessions of his majesty’s
subjects against dormant claims of the church. After this
the attention of parliament was called to one of the utmost
importance, which had been introduced by a message from
the king. This was the famous royal marriage bill, occa¬
sioned by the marriage of the Duke of Cumberland with
Mrs Horton, a widow lady, daughter of Lord Irnham, and
sister to Colonel Luttrell, and that of the Duke of Glouces¬
ter with the countess-dowager of Waldegrave. By the
message it was recommended to both houses to take it into
their consideration, whether it might not be expedient to
supply the defects of the laws then in being, and by some
new regulations more effectually to prevent the descend¬
ants of his late majesty,—excepting the issue of the prin¬
cesses who had married, or might hereafter marry, into
foreign families,—from marrying without the consent of his
majesty, his heirs and successors. In consequence of this
a bill was brought in, declaring all such marriages, with¬
out the consent above mentioned, to be null and void. The
descendants of his majesty, however, if above the age of
twenty-five years, might marry without the royal consent,
provided they gave intimation twelve months beforehand
to the privy council, and no opposition to the match was
made by parliament during that interval. But this bill en¬
countered the most violent and powerful opposition. The
principal arguments against it were, that the immediate
tendency of the measure was to create as many preroga¬
tives in the crown as there were matters of importance in
the state, and to extend them in a manner as exception¬
able as had ever been done in the most despotic period;
that the enacting part of the bill had an inconvenient and
impolitic latitude, in extending to all the descendants of
George II.; that the time of nonage for the royal family
390
BRITAIN.
Reign of appeared to be improperly extended beyond the limit of
George III- twenty-one years ; that the deferring their marriage to the
age of twenty-six might also be attended with bad conse¬
quences, by driving them into a disorderly course of life;
that the power given by this bill to a prince to marry after
the age of twenty-six was totally defeated by the proviso
which declared the consent of parliament to be ultimately
necessary; that the right of conferring a discretionary
power of prohibiting all marriages, was beyond the leach
of any legislature whatsoever, being contrary to the in¬
herent rights of human nature, which, as they are not
derived from, or held under, the sanction of any civil laws,
cannot in any case be taken away by them ; that this
bill had a natural tendency to produce a disputed title to
the crown; and that it provided no security against the
improper marriages of princesses into foreign families, and
those of their issue, which might as materially affect the
interest of this nation as the marriages of princes resid¬
ing in the dominions of Great Britain, do these argu¬
ments it was answered, that the inconveniences so much
talked of were merely imaginary; that if the king should
make any improper use of his authority, parliament had it
in their power either to prevent the consequences, or to
punish the minister who advised it; that the crown was
dishonoured by improper connections; that many of the
greatest national calamities had proceeded from improper
alliances between the royal family and subjects ; and that
if experience showed that any material grievances ensued
from this act, it could as easily be repealed hereafter as
thrown out now, and on much better grounds. The result
was, that with great rapidity, and by considerable majo¬
rities, it passed through both houses.
Though the decision concerning the subscription of the
thirty-nine articles did not promise much success to any
proposed innovations in matters of religion, yet the case
of dissenting ministers was introduced soon after the
discussion of the royal marriage act; and a petition was
presented by a great body of dissenters, praying to be re¬
lieved from the hardship of subscribing to the articles of
a church to which they did not belong. This, however,
was most violently opposed, though with very little suc¬
cess, in the House of Commons, where it was carried by a
very great majority. In this branch of the legislature it
was maintained that nothing can advance the true interest
of religion so much as toleration ; and that if articles of
subscription are necessary, it must only be for men des¬
titute of principle, who, in compliance with ambition or
avarice, would as readily subscribe one set of articles as
another. In the Hhuse of Lords, however, the bill was re¬
jected by a majority of seventy. Here the doctrine of uni¬
versal toleration was vehemently scouted, and much was
said of the danger to which the Church of England would
be exposed by departing from the laws which guarded its
privileges. The dissenters, it was alleged, had great cause
to be satisfied with the favour they enjoyed by conniv¬
ance ; and the laws were only kept on record as a necessary
curb, lest, in the degeneracy of auecliningkingdom, religion
should require protection against heresy and blasphemy.
The only other business of this session was an attempt
at inquiry into the affairs of the East India Company, which
were then in a very critical situation. But the subject did
not come under consideration till next session, which com¬
menced in November 1772; the situation of the affairs of
the Company being alleged as a reason why parliament
had been called together sooner than usual. The greater
part of the present session was accordingly occupied with
the concerns of the Company.
It had been projected, as long ago as the year 1667, to
bring them under the inspection of government; but the
design did not succeed at that time, nor would it probably
have been entertained now, had not the affairs of the Com- Reig:
pany been embarrassed by the misconduct of their ser-Georg
vants. During the preceding session a bill had been WY'
brought in for restraining the governor and council from
all kinds of trade, as well as for enlarging the power of the
Company over its servants ; but the bill was thrown out on
the second reading, and indeed had probably been intro¬
duced merely to pave the way for what followed. The de¬
bates on the subject, however, produced a general belief that
the affairs of the East India Company were, owing to the
behaviour of its servants, in a very bad condition; that at
any rate it was insufficient for the government of such ex¬
tensive possessions; and that, in consequence, there was
an evident necessity for giving up the management of it
to the Crown. A motion was accordingly made for a select
committee to inquire into the affairs of the Company; and
although many reasons were urged against the proposition,
it was carried without a division, and the members were
chosen by ballot. But during the recess the affairs of the
Company continued to retrograde, and the treasury at home
was quite exhausted; whilst bills to a vast amount drawn
on Bengal were nearly due, and these, together with the
Company’s debt to the Bank and other public bodies, and
the sum to be paid to government, reduced them almost
to the verge of bankruptcy. They were therefore reduced
to the necessity of asking a loan from administration ; but
their application was received with great indifference, and
the minister desired them to apply to parliament. Mean¬
while the reports of the select committee wrere published,
and gave the public no very favourable opinion of the be¬
haviour of the Company’s servants.
On the meeting of parliament, the minister moved for
a secret committee, to consist of thirteen persons, and the
members of which were to be chosen by ballot, in order
that no objection might apply to them which did not mili¬
tate equally against the whole house. This motion en¬
countered some opposition; but, ultimately, the commit¬
tee of secrecy was carried, as the other had been, with¬
out a division ; and the members, though chosen by ballot,
were almost all of them devoted to administration. The
select committee was likewise revived, that these bodies
might act as checks upon each other, and that between
them the nation might have the requisite information re¬
specting the whole matter.
In a short time after the appointment of the secret
committee, a report was given in, stating that the
pany were in great distress for want of money; and that
a bill ought to be brought in for restraining them from
sending out supervisors to India, a scheme which they at
this time meditated. The minister and his adherentsen-
larged greatly on the utility of this bill, which they describ¬
ed as not only highly expedient, but absolutely necessary,
in order to prevent the Company from engaging in an ex¬
pensive commission, at a time when their affairs were so
much embarrassed that they had no resource but to apply
to government for a loan. But notwithstanding a t e
arguments used by administration in favour of the bd > t e
Company were so far from thinking it for their advantage,
that they used every endeavour to prevent its passing
into a law. They petitioned, and some of their serV^n *
were examined in the House of Commons, in order to s o
the necessity of sending out supervisors, qualified to nng
their affairs into some degree of order, and at the same • ^
capable of curbing the excesses of which the
servants had too frequently been guilty. In spite o a P
position, however, the bill was carried by a large majon y >
and in the House of Lords it met with similar sucC ’
although the minority thought proper to enter a Pr0 ^ t
The select committee now gave in their sec®ncVe?s 0f
containing a statement of the debt, credit, and e ec
BRITAIN.
Re i of the Company in England ; beginning with an account of
Geo, III-the cash in the Company’s treasury on the 1st of De-
^ cember 1772, and containing a statement of all the debts
and claims against them in every part of the world. Thus
it appeared that the cash, credit, and effects of the Com¬
pany, amounted to L.6,397,299. 10s. 6d., and their debts
to L.2,032,306, which being deducted from the above
account of their effects, left a balance in favour of the
Company of L.4,364,993. 10s. 6d., without any valuation
of their fortifications and buildings abroad. The state¬
ment, however, was complained of as being unfair and
partial; but the members protested their innocence, and
administration insisted that, until proof to the contrary
was brought, the house was bound to adhere to it as just.
The business was revived after the holidays by an appli¬
cation from the Company to government for a loan of
L.1,500,000, for four years, at four per cent, interest, with
liberty of repaying the same according to the ability of
the Company, in instalments of not less than L.300,000;
and that they should not make a dividend of more than
six per cent, until the loan was reduced to L.750,000, after
which they might raise their dividend to eight per cent.;
and when the whole loan was discharged, the surplus of
the net profits arising in England, above the said dividend,
was to be appropriated to the payment of the Company’s
bonded debt, until it had been reduced to L.1,500,000, in
which case the surplus profits were to be equally divided
between the public and the Company. This request it was
udged expedient to grant, and it was accordingly resolved
that the affairs of the East India Company are in such a
state as to require the assistance of parliament; that a
loan is necessary to reinstate the Company’s affairs ; that
the supply required be granted; and that care be taken
that the Company be prevented from experiencing the like
exigencies for the future. These restrictions were judged
proper by administration for the security of the public ;
but the Company replied, that they wrere contrary to the
proposals which had been made, and void of foundation, as
being built on the erroneous reports of the secret commit¬
tee. Some time was also demanded for consideration ; but
that being refused, the question wTas put and carried as
ministry desired, by a considerable majority.
The next step was to deprive the Company of their ter¬
ritorial right to the countries which they possessed in the
Last Indies. This had been allowed them in the most
explicit manner, as appears by some of the papers which
passed between the French and English ministers during
the negociations that issued in the treaty of Paris; but
Lord North informed the house that it was the opinion of
several great lawyers, that such territorial possessions as
ie subjects of any state shall acquire by conquest are vir¬
tually the property of that state, and not of those indivi¬
duals who acquire them. He was of opinion, however,
P at jould be more beneficial for the public and the
as India Company, to let the territorial acquisitions re¬
main in the possession of the Company for a limited time ;
ana at the same time it was moved, that no participation
piofits should take place betwixt the public and the
company until after the repayment of L.1,400,000 advan-
K!lrJth1e,Con:1PanF’ and the reduction of the Company’s
tiA6 fel>t to L.1,500,000; that, after the payment of
a ,anced t0 ^e Company, and the reduction of
tlio r bonded debts to the sums specified, three fourths of
tbp net T?lus Profits of the Company at home, above
Hp eight per cent, upon their capital stock, should
thp^r1 1 le exchequer for the use of the public, and
euiairung fourth be set apart either for reducing the
anv i!fn/ S heuded debt, or forming a fund for discharging
exposed ln^ent exPenses to which the Company might be
397
These proceedings proved exceedingly disagreeable to Reign of
the Company, who now presented a petition complainingGeor&eIII.
of the injustice of demanding any further terms on ac-
count of a loan, after that loan had been discharged. But
no regard was paid to this petition, and the motions were
carried in favour of administration. To make some kind
of compensation, however, it was agreed, that as the Com¬
pany had a stock of teas amounting to about seventeen
millions of pounds in their warehouses, they should be al¬
lowed to export as much of it as they thought proper free
of duty, and to employ the money thence arising in the
advancement of their own affairs.
This concession in favour of the East India Company
proved in the event the loss of the American colonies;
nor indeed could these arbitrary proceedings wfith so con¬
siderable a body tend to impress the mind of the nation
with ideas favourable to the views of administration. In
other respects the minister abated nothing of the disposi¬
tion he had from first to last evinced with regard to the
Company. On the 3d of May 1773 certain resolutions
were laid down by him as the foundation of a bill to esta¬
blish certain regulations for the better management of the
East India Company, as well in India as in Europe. These
were, that the court of directors should in future be elect¬
ed for four years; that no person should vote at the elec¬
tion of the directors who had not possessed his or her
stock twelve months ; that the stock qualification for the
future should be L.1000 instead of L.500; that the may¬
or’s court of Calcutta should henceforth be confined to
small mercantile causes ; that, instead of this court, a new
one should be established, consisting of a chief justice and
three puisne judges, appointed by the crown; and that a
superiority should be given to the presidency of Bengal
over the other presidencies in India. Each of these reso¬
lutions was carried by a great majority. By the friends
of the Company, however, the bill was supposed to have
a tendency to effect a total alteration of its constitution
in England, as well as in the administration of all its
presidencies in Asia, and to subject their affairs, both at
home and abroad, to the immediate power of the crown.
By cutting off the L.500 stockholders, the proprietary
would become more manageable by the crown ; nor was
there any security that the directors would be faithful to
the interests of the Company when they were no longer
responsible to them for their actions. This class of pro¬
prietors presented a petition, which gave rise to a motion,
bearing that the petitioners had not been guilty of any
delinquency in the exercise of their chartered rights ac¬
cording to the several acts of parliament made in their
behalf. But the motion was rejected, and the regulating
bill passed both houses by large majorities.
During this time the select and secret committees were
pursuing their inquiries. The affairs of the Company were
investigated from the year 1756, and a report wras at
length presented by General Burgoyne, containing many
charges of cruelty and rapacity, against several persons
concerned in the management of the affairs of the Com-
pany, particularly with regard to the deposition of Surajah
Dowlah in 1756, which was described as the cause of all
the evils which had since happened. The report dwelt
much on the treachery employed in bringing about that re¬
volution, particularly the fictitious treaty with Omichund;
and exposed the conduct of Lord Clive, who had caused
Admiral Watson’s name to be affixed to the treaty, after
the admiral himself had refused to sign it. It concluded
with moving for the restitution of all the money received
in presents or otherwise in India whilst the receivers act¬
ed in public capacities; and recommended the adoption of
resolutions, bearing in substance that all acquisitions made
under the influence of a military force, or by treaty with
398
BRITAIN.
Reign of foreign powers, belong of right to the state ; that to ap-
GtiorgeIII.propriate acquisitions obtained by such means is illegal;
an(j t]iat great sums of money had been obtained by such
means from the sovereign princes in India. The belief
that many of the Company’s servants had acted in an in¬
famous manner, was at this time so general and so strong,
that these resolutions were carried almost unanimously.^
Lord Clive defended himself by general protestations of
innocence, which, however, gained but little credit; and
when he entered into a particular refutation of the charges
against him, he did not succeed in making many converts
to his reasoning. But his friends were not of opinion that
the charges were of a very atrocious nature, and wished
to excuse him on the ground of policy and necessity. The
treaty with Omichund was justified on the plea of neces¬
sity. Some, indeed, observed that as Omichund had the
character of being the most accomplished villain in Asia,
the Englishman merely wished to have a trial of skill with
the Asiatic. This sarcasm, however, was a mere piece of
wit, without any solid foundation; for the crime, if there
was any in the transaction, lay in dethroning a sovereign
prince by means of traitors, and not in cheating the traitors
out of their reward. And, in fact, if treachery be once ad¬
mitted into transactions, whether civil or political, it is in
vain to pretend any subjection to the rules of justice; for
those who call in the aid of such an auxiliary are already
beyond its jurisdiction. General Burgoyne, however, mov¬
ed that Lord Clive had, in consequence of the powers with
which he was vested in India, received at various times pre¬
sents to the amount of L.234,000 sterling, to the dishonour
and detriment of the state. But this being rejected, after
a violent debate, it was moved that Lord Clive, in receiv¬
ing such a sum, had abused the power with which he was
intrusted, to the evil example of the servants of the public.
This motion, however, was also rejected, and it was ulti¬
mately voted that Lord Clive, when he received the sum
above mentioned, at the same time rendered great and
meritorious services to his country. Thus the matter was
concluded, and thus the affairs of the Company were de¬
livered into the hands of administration.
The affairs of the East India Company, which had en¬
grossed so much time and attention, now gave place to
those of America, which by this time had assumed a very
lowering aspect. The discontent occasioned by the taxes
imposed on that country has already been noticed. The
stamp act had excited among them a spirit of industry
and economy, as well as a desire of providing themselves
with manufactures of their own, which had not been fore¬
seen. At the time, as well as afterwards, this was im¬
puted to wilful ness, or to the discontent of a few, which
would afterwards subside, or be suppressed by the voice
of the majority, when things would revert to their former
channels. But the trifling tax on tea, which had not been
repealed, and the permission given to the Company to ex¬
port whatever quantity they pleased, now threw matters
into a ferment not to be quelled by any means whatever.
Of the various proceedings in America, the tumults at
Boston and elsewhere, the accidental circumstances which
added fuel to the flame, and the war which ensued and
ultimately terminated in the recognition of American in¬
dependence, an account will be given under the article
United States. It is only necessary here to give an ac¬
count of the manner in which the legislature and people
of Great Britain were affected by these events.
Ever since the conclusion of peace in 1763, the disposi¬
tion shown by government to augment the revenue had
produced in the popular party of Great Britain a spirit simi¬
lar to that manifested by the Americans, though in an in¬
ferior degree ; and hence the patriots of Britain affected to
consider the Americans as oppressed by government, and
suffering in the same cause with themselves. The wanton Reir-
destruction of the tea at Boston and other places in Ame-Georg, j
rica, however, considerably diminished the number of
their friends, and rendered many of those who still ad¬
hered to them much less sanguine in their cause. The
matter was announced to parliament by a special message
from the throne. Lord North and the other ministers
described the conduct of the colonists, particularly in the
town of Boston, as most atrocious, and concluded that
government was now perfectly justified in resorting to any
measures they might think proper to repress the turbu¬
lent spirit which had been manifested, and inflict such
punishment as the enormity of the offence seemed to de¬
serve. The opposition did not pretend to exculpate,
though it still attempted to excuse, the conduct of the
colonists, by ascribing all the disturbances in that country
to the arbitrary and absurd measures pursued and obsti¬
nately adhered to at home. But the ministry evaded this
charge by drawing the attention of the house to the more
important consideration, whether the Americans were now
to be dependent on, or independent of, Great Britain.
The Boston port bill was then brought in, and carried,
but not without considerable opposition, both within and
without doors. Mr Bollan, agent for the council of Mas¬
sachusetts Bay, founding on an act of Queen Elizabeth,
for securing the liberty of the colonies, drew up a petition,
and caused it to be presented before the bill had actual¬
ly made its appearance: but so little regard was paid to
it, that, during the time it lay on the table, the bill was
brought in by Lord North. After the second reading,
the same gentleman presented another petition, desiring
to be heard in behalf of the town of Boston, and for the
council of Massachusetts Bay; but this was refused, be¬
cause, although Mr Bollan was agent for the colony, he
was not so for the corporation of Boston, and still less for
the council of Massachusetts Bay, as the body which
had appointed him was now no longer in existence, ihis
appeared very inconsistent to many of the members, and
produced a new petition from the lord mayor, in the name
of such natives and inhabitants of North America as at
that time resided in London, in which the petitioners in¬
sisted that the bill was illegal, unprecedented, unjust; and
that, after such a precedent as it went to establish, no
man or body of men in America could have a moments
security. But as little regard was paid to this as to the
former petitions, and the bill passed both houses without
a division. That this obnoxious bill might not be sent to
America without some mitigation, however, the minority,
who had not chosen to divide formally on the first measure
proposed by government for reducing the refractory colo¬
nists, proposed the repeal of the duty on tea laid on in
1767 ; but this was also rejected, probably from an errone¬
ous impression that the opposition of the Americans was
that of a mere tumultuous mob, and that by showing pro¬
per spirit the ministry would at last come off victorious.
The extreme pertinacity shown by ministers, m t |s
instance, undoubtedly proved highly prejudicial to their
cause, both by exasperating the Americans, and by rous
ing the indignation of the minority in parliament, an
rendering opposition more violent and determined.
appeared in every subsequent proceeding relative to
colonies. Even the bill for regulating the government o
Massachusetts Bay did not pass without a protest, an
a similar result ensued on the passing of the act or
impartial administration of justice. rihe 0PP0S1^101?
to the Quebec bill was even more violent, insomuch i
ere it could be carried, the ministers were oblige
lower the high and aspiring tone to which they ha
customed themselves in talking of American affairs,
minority contended, that without any necessity p ea ,
BRITAIN.
399
Rei of or even suggested, an arbitrary influence was extended drew up a paper, in which they denied the distinction es-
Geor III- by act of parliament to that province ; they likewise ar- tablished by ministry, and affirmed that the connection be-
^ ^ gued in favour of the method of trial by jury; and they tween Great Britain and America was chiefly of a corn-
thought that the establishment of the Roman Catholic re- mercial nature, and that the manifold regulations adopted
ligion in that country gave it a preference over the Pro- for the mutual prosperity of the colonies and of the mo-
testant, which was henceforth to be exercised only by to- ther country formed the great political chain which united
leration. ... them to one another. This remonstrance was vigorous^
At the conclusion of the session his majesty declared seconded by the opposition; but the administration had
himself satisfied with what had been done, and expressed already determined on the line of conduct they were to
his hopes that good effects would result from the new re- pursue, and therefore wished to hear as little as possible
gulations. The reception which they met with in Arne- on the subject. War was now the word; and although
rica will be ielated in the proper place; in Britain the no weightier reason could be given for disregarding what
people seemed to await the event with indifference. The the merchants had to say, this was the motive which im-
parliament in the mea.n time was dissolved by proclama- pelled ministers to refuse them a hearing, lest these should
tion, and a very short time allowed for the election of new make it appear that the nation was unwisely precipitated
members; so that if opposition at that time possessed any into such a measure.
strength, they were not allowed sufficient time to exert it. But though there is no reason to doubt that adminis-
The new parliament met on the 30th of November 1774, tration were now fully determined upon a war, and there-
when his majesty informed t;he two houses that a most fore wished to be troubled w ith as few objections as pos-
daiing sphit ot icsistance still prevailed in America, not- sible, they were by no means deficient in arguments in
withstanding the means which had been taken to prevent justification of their own conduct. They alleged that the
the mischiefs thence arising; and assured them that they petitions so strongty pressed on the attention of the house
might depend on his firm resolution to withstand every were principally the work of a factious party; that the
attempt to weaken or impair the supreme authority of the advantages resulting from the trade with America arose
egislatui e ovei all the dominions of the crown. In answer from the dependent condition of the colonies, which now
to the speech fiom the throne, the minority demanded a aimed at shaking off entirely the supremacy which the
communication of all letters, orders, and instructions, re- mother country had hitherto exercised over them without
lating to American affairs; but this w^as overruled, and the smallest complaint; that the advantage of the mer-
the address being carried as a matter of form, the consi- chants themselves was consulted in maintaining that su-
deration of American affairs was delayed until after the premacy; that they would be the first to feel the pernicious
holidays. . _ consequences of its being lost; that war, though no doubt a
In the beginning of 1775 the minority received a con- great evil, was sometimes necessary to prevent a greater ;
I siderable accession of strength by the return of Lord that were the government to yield in the present contest,
atham, who, after a long absence, again made his ap- no advocate of America could pretend to say what would
pearance m parliament. He now testified in the warmest be the last of its demands; that the Americans were not
terms his disapprobation of the measures which had been to be reclaimed by concessions; that the honour and cha-
pursued regarding America; he moved for addressing the racter of the nation were at stake; and that Britain had
mg to recal the troops from Boston ; he predicted, that if often taken up arms for matters of less consequence, and
mmisteis persisted in the course they had for some time should not now hesitate where honour and interest both
pursue , t ley would make the crown not worth the king’s called for the most vigorous and effective exertions,
wearing, and he declared that the kingdom would be un- These arguments prevailed, and the motion in favour
one! measures of undue coercion were employed. But of the merchants’ petitions was rejected by a prodigious
. ^ e oquence of this great man proved ineffectual; ad- majority. This point, however, had no sooner been dis-
inis ra lonwere determined upon reducing the Americans posed of, than a violent debate arose concerning the peti-
J6011®0? and his motion was rejected by a very large tion of congress to the king, which had been referred to
J- ®lc^orth now presented the papers which had parliament. It was argued by administration, that no
G G °r ^ i 6 mmonty ’ ^es*: publication of petition could be received from the continental congress,
particular names should prove detrimental to individuals, which was not a legal body; that it would be admitting
y sue parts as administration thought proper for pub- their legality to receive a petition from them ; and that
1 •insPeCplon were before the house. This was com- the general assemblies and their agents were the only
miit'f a ’ t>Ut t0 n0, PurP0Se 5 and the papers, in their lawful representatives of the colonies, and could alone be
housla e s*-a*:e> were laid before a committee of the whole recognised as such. Opposition disputed these positions,
j . but to no purpose; for, after an ineffectual struggle, the
erri > 16 mean ^ime’ petitions against the adoption of co- petition was rejected by a very large majority.
motsf6 ^1^]asures aSainst America had been received from In the mean time a conciliatory plan, prepared by the
tilp °., le tlading companies in the kingdom; and as Earl of Chatham, was presented on the first day of Fe-
not he ,llghuy ^*sP^eas*ng t° administration, could bruary 1775. The declared object and intent of this bill
pointed f80 U*e-^ tm’uwn overboard, a committee was ap- was to settle the troubles in America, and at the same
until 4 0 90nsit^.r.“lem ; but this was not to take place time to assert the supreme legislative authority and su-
<riven ^ Were a^S° C-0nS^erec^ The reason perintending power of Great Britain over her colonies,
deration f .1S me proceeding was, that the consi- No taxes were to be levied in America, but with the free
those of ° C°i1^®e1rC11. matters ought not to interfere with consent of their assemblies. The right of the crown to
embarrass'^in^’ eac^ them being sufficiently station and maintain a military force established by law
these netir^ w, out the other. I he delay in hearing in any part of its dominions was pointedly asserted; but
absolute i- 1-°nS’ 10w!pver’ was supposed to be in effect an it was also declared, that it could not be legally employed
eommitte L^ectl,0!1 them; and so indeed it proved, the to enforce implicit and unlawful submission. A congress
ty styled th° up1 - T wer? coufigucd being humorous- was also to be held, in order to recognise the supreme
of London T Committee of Oblivion.” The merchants sovereignty of Great Britain over the colonies, and to
point until ’?we'er’being determined not to give up the settle an annual revenue upon the crown, disposable by
iey had exerted themselves to the utmost, parliament, and applicable to the exigencies of the nation.
Reign of
George III.
of And on these conditions being complied with, the acts
HI. complained of by congress were to be suspended, with
^ every other measure pointed out as a grievance, and the
constitution of the different governments to remain as
settled by their charters. This bill, however, was deemed
totally inadmissible, on account of the various concessions
it enacted, and particularly from its empowering the co¬
lonies to assemble in congress; a measure which was at
that time the most offensive, and supposed to be the most
injurious to the interests of Britain. Lord Chatham show¬
ed no deficiency of argument in support of his favourite
scheme; but his reasoning, though enforced with all the
powers of his eloquence, proved unsuccessful, and the pro¬
posal was ultimately rejected.
A petition was next presented to the House of Com¬
mons by the proprietors of estates in the West India
islands, representing their alarm at the association of the
Americans, and the intended stoppage of trade with the
British islands, the situation of which, it was alleged,
would be very calamitous, if the acts in question were not
immediately repealed. To the administration, however,
all petitions now appeared to be the contrivance of fac¬
tion ; but as it was deemed necessary to inform the nation
as to the ultimate views of the government respecting
America, Lord North, in a long speech, enumerated the
most remarkable circumstances relating to the dispute
with that country. He affirmed that the ferment then
prevailing in America proceeded from the unwarrantable
arts and practices used to inflame the people against the
ruling powers in Britain; that, notwithstanding all their
complaints, the public charges borne by individuals in
America were not more than as one to fifty, compared
with what was paid by individuals in England; that no¬
thing but a settled determination to quarrel with the pa¬
rent state could induce the Americans to persist in their
disobedience to the lawful injunctions laid upon them, and
which were neither injudicious nor oppressive ; and that a
spirit of resistance, not discontent at oppression, animat¬
ed America. For these reasons he proposed to the house
to send a greater force to America; and to pass a tempo¬
rary act, suspending all the foreign trade of the different
colonies of New England, and particularly the Newfound¬
land fishery, until they consented to acknowledge the su¬
preme authority of the British legislature. New England
was singled out upon this occasion, as being accounted the
most guilty. The others, it was hoped, would yield with
less compulsion ; but the question now was, whether this
country should at once abandon all claims on the colonies,
and instantly give up the advantages arising from our sove¬
reignty, and the commerce dependent on it, or whether it
should resort to the measures which had become indispen¬
sably necessary to insure both.
An address was now carried, which, by the showing of
opposition, amounted to a declaration of war. The conse¬
quences, therefore, were pointed out with the utmost free¬
dom, and some even denied the charge of rebellion fixed
on the province of Massachusetts Bay. The people there,
they said, had done nothing but what the constitution al¬
lowed ; they had resisted arbitrary measures; and the ex¬
amples so frequently set them at home were sufficient to
justify their conduct. The address, however, was carried
as usual by a large majority. But so important was the
subject of it deemed by the minority, that a motion was
made for recommitting it, on account of the consequences
that might probably result from the prosecution of the
measures recommended. A very long and violent debate
ensued, in the course of which the administration con¬
tended as usual for the necessity of enforcing obedience
by the sword. The Americans, they said, had become
incorrigible through forbearance; lenity was a subject of
derision among them, and was imputed to imbecility and Reig.
fear; they imagined themselves able to abolish the sove-George, j,
reignty of Britain in that country, and were now resolved '--v m
to do it. It was therefore incumbent on every native of
Britain in such a case to stand forth and vindicate the
interest and glory of his country; and it was the duty
of parliament and ministry to call forth the whole spirit
of the nation to a contest in which every thing dear to
them, both in their public and private capacities, was so
deeply concerned. The views and principles of ministers
were attacked in the most violent manner. They were
said to be reviving the old exploded doctrines of here¬
ditary right and passive obedience, and requiring the
Americans to submit unconditionally to the will of Great
Britain, for no other reason but because she was the pa¬
rent state. But if no better reason could be produced,
they could not be justly blamed for their disobedience.
The ties between Great Britain and her colonies, how¬
ever, were of a far more noble as well as more binding
nature than even origin and consanguinity. These ties
were the constitution transmitted from Britain, and the
brotherly assistance hitherto afforded them by English¬
men, and which ought to render the name dear to them.
While these ties remained unviolated, there was no room
to complain of their behaviour; but they would never
submit to despotic authority in Englishmen more than in
any others. Such unwarrantable principles rendered it no
longer a question whether the measures of administration
should be considered, but whether the ministers them¬
selves ought not to be deprived of the power which they
exercised so unconstitutionally. The question was not now
between Great Britain and America, but simply whether
we should give up our colonies or our ministers. . This
kind of language excited the indignation of the ministe¬
rial party, who in return charged minority in plain terms
with the guilt of all that had happened. There had gone
forth, it was said, a factious and republican spirit, by which
every person who wrote or spoke on the American cause was
actuated, and which had not only induced the Americans
to commence a rebellion against the parent state, but had
filled the house with incendiaries. The final issue of the
dispute was, that the recommitment of the address was
lost by a majority of more than two to one. The debates
were the most violent that had ever been known in the Bri¬
tish parliament; and so important was the subject reckon¬
ed, that not only the people of this country, but even t e
foreign ministers in London, watched the motions of a -
ministration with the utmost anxiety.
But all these victories were not sufficient to preven
new enemies from starting up. Petitions had been pie-
paring by the London merchants trading to America, and
by those concerned in the West India trade, in order to
be presented to the House of Lords, dhis task was un
dertaken by the Marquis of Rockingham; but he was pre
vented from executing it by a previous motion in favour
of the address. A long and violent debate, however, en
sued concerning the necessity and propriety of receiving
them ; but it was at length resolved that the Petl
could not be received consistently with the interes
the kingdom. ' . , • ntpW
In the mean time matters became daily worse 1
England; and it was soon perceived, either that the ne
of government in that colony did not exert ^enl1se yei*’en
that they were far from being so numerous as ha
imagined. In order to render their coercive plan tlier”, ^
effectual, therefore, it was judged necessary to ex en
so that every individual of the colony might ^®conae,,
sible of the punishment. This, it was supposed, wou _
done by a bill for restraining the four provinces o
England from commerce with Great Britain, Ire anc >
V
BRIT
Re: of the British West India islands, and prohibiting them from
Gernil Ilf carrying on the fishery at Newfoundland. The reasons
alleged for this proceeding were in substance the same with
those for the others; and indeed both parties had now so
much exhausted their arguments, that very little new mat¬
ter remained for either. Every step taken by ministry, and
every proposal made by them, however, produced a violent
debate; and though they constantly gained the victory, it
was not without the mortification of hearing their princi¬
ples and conduct reprobated in the most opprobrious man¬
ner. In the present instance the bill was carried by a very
large majority; but a petition against it was quickly pre¬
sented by the London merchants concerned in the Ameri¬
can trade, setting forth the danger which would accrue to
the fisheries of Great Britain from such a prohibition. From
the evidence produced in support of this petition, it appear¬
ed that, ten years before, the American fisheries had been
in such a flourishing state, that the four provinces of New
England alone employed nearly forty-six thousand tons of
shipping and six thousand seamen ; and that the produce
of the fisheries in the foreign markets had amounted, in the
year 1764, to upwards of L.320,000. Since that time, how¬
ever, they had greatly increased ; and what rendered them
particularly valuable was, that all the materials used in them,
excepting only the timber for building the vessels, and
the salt for curing the fish, were purchased in Britain, and
the net proceeds of the trade were also remitted thither.
Some other considerations were likewise urged as reasons
against this bill, particularly the commercial concerns of
New England with the city of London, to which alone the
colony stood indebted in nearly a million sterling, and the
bad consequences of it to the people of Nantucket, who,
though inhabiting a barren island olf the coast of New
England, about fifteen miles in length and three in breadth,
containing six thousand inhabitants, kept one hundred and
thirty vessels constantly employed in the whale fishery,
which they carried on in the north seas, to the coasts of
Africa and Brazil, and even as far as the Falkland Islands.
The case of Nantucket, in fact, was so strong that the ad¬
ministration were obliged to relax a little, and, of their
own accord, afforded this industrious people the relief
which they had such just reason to expect. The bill was
debated with great animosity in the House of Peers, and
produced a remarkable protest, in which the measures of
government were spoken of with great severity.
CHAP. XIII.
REIGN OF GEORGE III. AMERICAN WAR.
lorce to be sent to America—Lord North’s conciliatory Bill. 
Ineffectual endeavours of the West India Planters Violence
or Doth parties—Resignation of Lord Effingham and others 
Conduct of London and Dublin.—Distress of the 'Country-
Last petition of Congress rejected—Whigs and Tories Their
mutual recriminations.—Misfortunes of the Newfoundland fleet.
—■Difficulty of procuring succours—France and Holland espouse
he American cause—Hessian auxiliaries—Supplies for the
garrison of Boston destroyed or taken—Party animosities 
Debates in Parliament—Military operations The cause of
America believed to be desperate—Expense of the war Sur¬
render of Burgoyne at Saratoga—Conduct of Ministers The
rench resolve to assist America—Treaty between France and
merica—Charges against administration—Invasion threaten-
ea by the French—Exploits of D’Estaign in the West Indies.
encounter with Admiral Byron State of the Contest in
merica and the West Indies—Condition of the British Navy.
eppel s engagement with the French fleet Subsequent
issensions, and trial of the Admiral—His acquittal—Board of
nnrWi! . attac^e?—Resignations of Admirals Keppei, Howe,
war ° nS—*ncLuiry concerning the conduct of the American
cntifla 6neral ^urS°yne’s affair—Accession of Spain to the
eracy against Britain.—Measures for the defence of the
A I N. 401
nation—Reduction of some British settlements in Africa Reign of
Unsuccessful attempts on Jersey—Threatened invasion of Great George III.
Britain—Appearance of the combined fleets of France and W-y-w'
Spain in the Channel—Unpopularity of the American war  1
Ministry become obnoxious to the people Schemes of econo¬
my rejected—Unconstitutional influence of Ministers Air
Burke’s plan of economy—Defeat of the Ministry on Air Dun¬
ning’s celebrated motion, Gth April 1780 They*recover a ma¬
jority in the House—Catholic Relief Bill—Disturbances con¬
nected with it in Scotland—Conduct of the mob in Edinburgh.
—The Protestant Association—Terrible riots in London" 
Lord George Gordon committed to the Tower.—Power of the
Ministry confirmed—Important debate on the employment of
military force in cases of disturbance—Operations of the war.
—Naval successes.—Armed neutrality Origin of the war with
Holland—Battle off the Doggerbank Efforts of Britain 
Events of the year 1781—Pertinacity of Alinisters King’s
Speech—Debates on the Address—Alotions against the Ame¬
rican war—New plan proposed by Lord North Debates 
Army Estimates—Elevation of Lord George Germaine to the
Peerage, and discussion consequent thereon Protest Alotions
for an Address against the American war rejected.—One at
length carried and presented to the King Alotion against the
Alinislry, who intimate their intention to resign Naval and
ATilitary operations of 1782—Rodney’s victory on the 12th of
April—Results of this glorious achievement Spanish arma¬
ment destroyed before Gibraltar, and the siege raised Change
of Alinistry—Rockingham Administration—Negociations for
Peace—Sudden death of the Afarquis of Rockingham He is
succeeded by Lord Shelburne—Conduct of that Minister 
Provisional treaty with America—Peace concluded with France,
Spain, and Holland—Estimate of the results of the contest. 
Narrative of less important events.
The final resolution to reduce the colonies by force
being now taken, it became necessary to make proper pre¬
parations for the purpose; and in this the conduct of ad¬
ministration was little less censured than in other respects.
As the opinion that the Americans were naturally timid,
and incapable of becoming soldiers, prevailed greatly at
this time, a force of a thousand men was judged sufficient
to reduce the province of New England to obedience. The
project of ministers was vehemently opposed by the mino¬
rity. They insisted that the force w'as totally inadequate,
and only calculated to produce expense to no purpose.
The first impression, they very justly observed, ought, if
possible, to be decisive; and in order to render it so, it
was necessary to send such a fleet and army as might in¬
sure the confidence of the public, and be certainly capa¬
ble of surmounting all obstacles. Many of the friends of
administration were of the same sentiments ; and the only
reason assigned for acting otherwise was founded on a
hope that the Americans would, upon more mature con¬
sideration, desist from their opposition. That they might
the more readily be induced to this submission, Lord
North’s conciliatory proposition was formed, by which it
was enacted, that when the governor, council, and assem¬
bly of any of the colonies, should propose to make a pro¬
vision for the common defence, and when such provision
should be approved of by the king in parliament, the levy¬
ing or imposing of taxes on that colony should then be for¬
borne ; those duties excepted which it might be expedient
to impose for the regulation of commerce^ and the net pro¬
duce of which should be carried to the account of the colony
where it had been raised. But this proposal, though high¬
ly extolled by the friends of administration, was no less
reprobated by the minority than the others had been.
Nevertheless, after a lengthened debate, the question wras
carried in favour of administration by a majority of more
than three to one.
A similar fate attended a petition to the throne from
the island of Jamaica. Instead of relaxing any thing of
their severity, the ministry now included the southern co¬
lonies in the restrictions imposed on New England. Still,
however, the petitioners were indefatigable in their endea-
3 E
402
lleign of
George III
BRITAIN.
vours to be heard. The West India merchants and plant¬
ers seconded their last petition by entering into a length¬
ened detail of circumstances relating to the British islands
in that part of the world. This affair was conducted by
Mr Glover, a gentleman celebrated for his literary talents
and commercial knowledge. From his investigations it
appeared that, exclusive of the intrinsic worth of the
islands themselves, their stock in trade and other property
amounted to no less than sixty millions ; that the exporta¬
tion to Britain had of late been near two hundred thousand
hogsheads and puncheons of sugar and rum, amounting
to no less than four millions in value; and that the direct
revenue arising from this source was seven hundred thou¬
sand pounds, besides that which accrued from the colla¬
teral branches depending upon it. These arguments, how¬
ever, were urged in vain. Conciliatory proposals were
made by Mr Burke and Mr Hartley, but they were reject¬
ed by great majorities, and instead of serving the cause
they were meant to promote, had the very opposite effect.
A dread was entertained of the consequences which might
ensue from the republican opinions now so prevalent in the
colonies; and all partiality towards them was looked upon
in so criminal a light, that their opponents became deaf,
on many occasions, to the voice of reason and humanity
when urged in their behalf. On the other hand, the fa¬
vourers of America, urged on by a furious zeal, if not re¬
sentment, against those whom they looked upon as the
promoters of arbitrary measures, erred equally in their
opposition to ministry. And this violence of party spirit
appeared not only among the people at large, but broke
forth with the utmost fury in parliament, where the de¬
bates often resembled the railings of Billingsgate more
than the deliberations of the representative assembly of a
great and powerful nation.
In this temper of mind the state of affairs was scarcely
ever truly represented by either party. Government con¬
tinued to enact new laws, now in vain, against the Ameri¬
cans ; whilst their antagonists opposed them in a manner
so little different from that which has been already related,
that any further account of the debates would be equally
tedious and unnecessary. Other petitions were also pre¬
sented, and treated with neglect. The union of the colo¬
nists, and their preparations for war, were described by
the ministerial party as the mere commotions of a head¬
strong mob, but represented by the opposition as an asso¬
ciation of an injured and virtuous people, who were about
to found a mighty empire in the west, whilst Britain was
doomed to sink into utter disgrace and contempt by their
secession. In the same way, the event of the skirmish at
Lexington, where the first blood flowed in the contest,
was magnified by the one party into a disgraceful defeat,
and treated by the other as a trifling affair, to which no
regard whatever ought to be paid, far less any inference
drawn as to the fate of the war. The battle of Bunkers’
Hill, and all the transactions of the year 1775, were in like
manner exaggerated by both parties, though in opposite
directions; and the consequence of these misrepresenta¬
tions was to fan the flame of mutual resentment.
Whilst these altercations continued to agitate the minds
of the superior classes of people in Britain, the middle and
lower ranks remained in a kind of indifference, or rather
were opposed to the proceedings of ministry. This oppo¬
sition, indeed, had no influence on the councils of the na¬
tion, but in other respects it proved exceedingly trouble¬
some. The levies were obstructed, and the recruiting ser¬
vice was never known to go on so heavily; numbers of
that description of persons who usually fill the ranks of the
army not only refusing the usual offers, but even repro¬
bating loudly the cause in which they were solicited to
engage. Several officers of high rank also showed a dis¬
inclination to the service. Lord Effingham, who had dis- Reigr.
tinguished himself by his opposition to the ministerial mea- George!;
sures, resigned the command of his regiment rather than ''"'v
fight against the cause which he had so warmly espoused;
and his example was followed by that of several other
officers. For this step Lord Effingham received the thanks
of the cities of London and Dublin, both of which were
extremely averse to hostilities with America; and the
former, indeed, could scarcely restrain itself within any
bounds of moderation. After the skirmish at Lexington,
the city framed a remonstrance and petition, animadvert¬
ing severely on the ministry and parliament; and it was
not without the greatest difficulty that the more moderate
party procured a counter-petition, couched in less repre¬
hensible terms.
In the mean time serious inconveniences, arising from the
stoppage of trade, began to be felt in different parts of the
nation. The suspension of the sale and purchase of negro
slaves in the West Indies and in North America, and the
prohibition against exporting arms and gunpowder, had
seriously impeded the trade of Bristol and Liverpool with
Africa ; in consequence of which a great number of ships
which had formerly sailed from these ports were laid up,
and nearly three thousand sailors belonging to Liverpool
were thrown out of employment. These distresses, how¬
ever, made no impression on administration ; who having
once laid it down as a maxim, that the subjection of Ame¬
rica was the greatest political good that could happen to
Britain, were, in a conformity with their own principles,
obliged to consider every disaster that might occur during
the prosecution of this object as a temporary inconvenience,
which ought not to be put in comparison with the execu¬
tion of so great and necessary a design. But whatever
might be the views of administration in this respect, it was
far otherwise with the generality of the nation. They felt
severely the present inconveniences; whilst the probable
subjugation of America afforded no solid reason to hope
for an equivalent or compensation. It was with the ut¬
most satisfaction, therefore, that they received the news
of Mr Penn’s arrival in 1775, with another petition from
the congress, to be presented to the king in the first in¬
stance, and then given to the public. But their expecta¬
tions were speedily disappointed. The petition was deli¬
vered to Lord Dartmouth on the first of September, and
in three days afterwards it was stated that no answer
would be given to it. This laconic reply excited no small
surprise, more especially as the language of the petition
was respectful, and expressed a strong desire for peace
and reconciliation ; and hence it could only be considered
as a formal and deliberate, if not insulting, renunciation
of all friendly intercourse with the colonies.
The rejection of this petition served to inflame, more than
ever, the mutual resentment of the adverse parties. The
obsolete distinction of Whig and Tory was now revived,
with such animosity, that Britain itself, as well as Ame¬
rica, seemed in danger of becoming the theatre of war and
bloodshed. The Tories were accused of promoting san¬
guinary addresses, misinforming the government, and cir¬
culating false representations, in order to add fuel to the
flame already kindled, and produce civil war. They were
also upbraided with their attachment to the Stuart family ,
their incessant machinations to involve the country in c|v|
war; the dissension at home and disgrace abroad whjc
had invariably attended their councils ; and their inch e-
rence to the honour and interest of the nation, which, no111
the peace of Utrecht to the present time, they had ever
been ready to sacrifice for the advancement of their par y-
On the other hand, the Tories described the Whigs as ®
genuine descendants and representatives of the rePu“|1^f
incendiaries who, in the last century, had overturned i
BRITAIN.
] gn of constitution and desolated the kingdom ; as pretending, in-
I Gf gelll. deed, to uphold the liberty of Britain, but, under this mask,
f ^ ^ as desirous of engrossing all the authority to themselves,
and of exercising arbitrary power under a mock semblance
of freedom. The real question however was, whether the
403
king and parliament, when united, were to be obeyed or
resisted. The Tories insisted that they should be obeyed,
the Whigs that they ought to be resisted ; and hence there
were two parties in Britain, the one of which was of opi¬
nion that the colonies, owing obedience to Great Britain
in all cases whatsoever, ought, in case of refusal, to be com¬
pelled to obey; whilst the other, though it acknowledged
as a general principle the existence of the same obliga¬
tion, deemed it inexpedient and impolitic to enforce it.
The violence of these bickerings, however, was somewhat
allayed by serious commercial misfortunes, which occurred
aboht this time, and added greatly to the difficulties with
which the government had to contend. During the last
session of parliament, it had been affirmed that the bill for
depriving the people of New England of the benefits of
the Newfoundland fishery would redound to the interest
of Great Britain, by throwing into her hands the profits
which were formerly divided with the colonies. But this
prediction was belied by the event. The number of ships
fitted out this year was scarcely greater than usual, and
the congress had prohibited them from being supplied with
provisions; so that not only those on board the ships, but
even the inhabitants on the island of Newfoundland itself,
were in danger of perishing from want. Many of the ships,
therefore, were obliged to go in quest of provisions instead
of prosecuting the employment on which they had been
sent; and, on the whole, instead of any increase, the pro¬
fits of the fishery suffered this year a diminution of near
L.500,000. Nor was this all. A storm of unprecedented
violence occurred in these latitudes during the fishing sea¬
son , the sea rose fully thirty feet above its ordinary level,
and with such rapidity, that no time was allowed for avoid¬
ing its fury: upwards of seven hundred fishing boats perish¬
ed ; and several ships foundered, with their whole crews.
or was the devastation confined to the sea; for the waters
broke in upon the land and occasioned prodigious loss and
estruction. By these misfortunes, the general stagnation
ot commerce, and the little success which had hitherto at¬
tended the British arms, the mercantile portion of the na¬
tion was plunged in despair, and petitions were poured in
irom all quarters.
But ministers had determined on their course ; and the
only question now considered was, how it might be most
eitectually put in execution. For this purpose, application
was made to the petty states of Germany, which were wont
o nre out their forces, and had frequently sent auxiliaries
o Britain in former cases of exigency. But the scheme was
iraugnt with difficulties, owing to the distance of the scene
? C?I?tfst’ aiK* t^e danger of mercenaries deserting a cause
w ich they had no manner of concern. The princes were
p m a armed at the probability of losing for ever so many
imr subjects; whilst the latter were not less startled
ie prospect of being transported across the ocean into
• .?W wor . > dlere to be exposed to all the miseries of war,
cmm7ery 3^ e h°Pe ever again beholding their native
rf,U- ry*. '“'ther res0urces were however devised, such as
frnm It 'n t assistance of the Hessians, and obtaining
so Inn °- an^ ^le b°dy of Scottish troops which had been
tion in-41Gir serv‘ce* But in these views administra-
of a£rGat measure disappointed. All the states
ticularl^Tj0?!^ uPon Bntam with an invidious eye; par-
most rpi 0 aad and France, the two powers who had
Holland S°n t0 10Pe P°r advantage from the quarrel. In
Amerioaif -V?ry stronS Party contended warmly for the
interest; pamphlets were daily published at
Amstei dam in justification of the colonies, whose case was IteGn of
compared to that of the Netherlands in former times ; and George HI.
the colonists were exhorted to persevere in their claims v 
against the pretensions of Britain, which was represented
as insatiably covetous of wealth and power ; as domineer-
in/1an4intolGrable’esPec!al]ysince her successes in the war
of i7o5; and as arrogating if not exercising an absolute
sovereignty over the seas. But although these powers thus
early expiessed their hostile disposition towards Britain
it was otherwise with the Princes of Hesse and Bruns¬
wick, by whom a considerable number of troops was fur¬
nished; and, that as many British forces as possible might
be employed, large draughts were made from the garri¬
sons of Gibraltar and Minorca, which were supplied with
an equal number of men from the electorate of Hanover.
The garrison of Boston was liberally furnished with all
soits of necessaries ; and although the expenditure already
began to occasion considerable alarm, and to raise a sus¬
picion that even the treasures of Britain would not be able
to defray the charges of the war, yet some countervailino-
advantages wer^ derived from this profusion ; for the price
of every thing was augmented, including that of shipping;
and although the profits realized by contractors and their
numeious friends occasioned complaints, great benefit
accrued to multitudes employed in the various branches
of the public service. Misfortune, however, seemed to
attend every scheme in which Britain engaged, although
in the present case it must, in part at least, be ascribed^to
mismanagement. The sailing of the transports for Bos¬
ton was delayed till the proper season was lost. They re¬
mained for a long time wind-bound ; and when at length
they were enabled to weigh anchor, they met with such
stormy weather that they were tossed about in the Chan¬
nel till most of the live stock which they had on board
perished. Nor did the misfortunes of the convoy end
here. After clearing the coast of England, their progress
was retarded by a continuance of foul weather ; they were
driven by the periodical winds from the coast of America ;
and while some made for the West Indies, others were
captured by American privateers, and only a very few
reached Boston, with their cargoes so much damaged as
to be of little or no use whatever.
With respect to the parliamentary proceedings of this
period little can be said, except that every measure of ad¬
ministration, whether right or wrong, was keenly opposed.
Ihe employment of foreign troops, and the admitting of
them into the fortresses of Gibraltar and Minorca, were se¬
verely censured, as being contrary to the bill of rights. But
the administi ation contended that this bill only forbade
the introduction of a foreign military power into the king¬
dom during peace, that the times however were not peace¬
able, and that the introduction of the troops was evidently
with a view to quell a rebellion. Ihe force designed for
the conquest of America was then declared to be inade¬
quate to the purpose; but it was replied, on the part of
ministry, that the design was to conciliate, not to con¬
quer ; that twenty-five thousand men were sufficient to
stiike terror; and that though this should not instantly
be produced, conciliatory offers would still be held out
after every blow that was struck.
In the mean time the Americans, sensible of the dan¬
gerous situation in which they stood, exerted themselves
to the utmost to dislodge the British troops from Boston,
which they at length accomplished in March 1776. They
then proceeded to put their towns in a state of defence, and
repulsed Sir Peter Parker at Charlestown; but they did not
exert themselves with equal spirit in the defence of New
York, where, besides losing the town, they sustained such a
defeat as seemed to threaten their affairs with total ruin.
This in fact was the view taken of their situation by the
404
BRITAIN.
Reign of generality of the people in Britain. The successful cam-
George III. pai<ni of 1776 was looked upon as so decisive, that little
room remained for supposing the Americans capable ot
ever retrieving their affairs. Opposition were much em¬
barrassed, being almost reduced to the single argument
about the interference of foreign powers ; whilst the ob¬
stinacy of the Americans in refusing the offers ot Gord
Howe, even at the moment of their greatest depression,
seemed a very bad omen. The ministry, however, now
became so powerful, that whatever they proposed was im¬
mediately carried. The number of seamen for 1 / / 7 was
augmented to forty-five thousand, and upwards of five
millions were voted for the expense of the navy, and for
discharging its debt. The expenses of the land service
amounted to nearly three millions, besides the extraor¬
dinaries of the former year, which exceeded one million
two hundred thousand pounds ; and though this vast pro¬
vision was the subject of great complaint and animadvei-
sion, the power of ministry silenced all opposition.
But however administration might now triumph, their
exultation was of short continuance. The misfortune of
General Burgoyne at Saratoga threw the whole nation
into a kind of despair, and reduced the ministry to the
utmost perplexity. The great difficulty now was to con¬
trive means for raising a sufficient number of forces to
carry on the war; but from this embarrassment they ex¬
tricated themselves by encouraging levies for government
service by cities and private persons ; and as the design
was kept a profound secret before the Christmas recess,
they were not disturbed by the clamours of opposition.
The recess was purposely extended in order to give time
for the scheme to take effect; and before parliament met
again it was actually accomplished, so that ministers could
once more face their opponents without any fear.
Another and more weighty consideration, however, now
occurred. The European states in general had long be¬
held the grandeur of Britain with an invidious eye. The
news of the disaster at Saratoga was therefore received by
them with the same undisguised exultation as the intelli¬
gence of the defeat of Charles XII. at Pultowa was by the
powers whom he had so long overawed. Ot these the
French, for obvious reasons, were the most active in sup¬
porting the insurgent Americans. In umbers of the young
nobility were eager to signalize themselves in the Ameri¬
can cause ; and among the rest the Marquis de la Fayette,
a young nobleman of high rank and fortune, occupied a
consnicuous place. Impelled by an enthusiastic ardour in
favour of the American cause, he purchased a vessel, load¬
ed her with military stores, and sailed with several of his
friends to America, where he offered his services to con¬
gress ; and meeting with a most gracious reception, he was
invested with a command, in which he lost no opportu¬
nity of distinguishing himself. Besides this nobleman,
several other officers from France and Germany actually
entered the American service, and by their military talents
greatly contributed to the exertions which the colonies
were afterwards enabled to make. This assistance, how¬
ever, would have been but trifling, had not the French
court also interested itself in their behalf; and about the
time when the news of General Burgoyne’s disaster arriv¬
ed in Britain, a treaty was on foot between the French
court and the United States of America. Even before
this time France had shown such a partiality towards the
Americans, as might plainly have indicated a design of
ultimately assisting them in their national capacity. Ihe
encouragement given to the American privateers in all the
ports of France had produced strong remonstrances on the
part of Britain; and an order was at length demanded
that all these privateers with their prizes should depart
the kingdom. With this the French court found it neces¬
sary at that time to comply, lest reprisals should be made Keign (
by capturing their whole Newfoundland fleet then engag-George 11
ed in the fishery. But so many delays were occasioned
on various pretences, that not a single vessel was dismiss¬
ed from any of their ports ; and so far were the French
court from entertaining any design of this kind, that in
the month of July 1777 the whole body of merchants
throughout the kingdom were assured by government that
they might depend on protection for their trade with Ame¬
rica. Meanwhile the greatest preparations for war were
made throughout the whole kingdom of France ; and, in
fact, the most judicious politicians were of opinion that a
rupture with that power would have immediately follow¬
ed the commencement of hostilities with America. But,
whatever might have been the motives of the British mi¬
nistry, it is certain, that in defiance alike of probability,
and of the acrimonious censures of opposition, they con¬
tinued to pretend ignorance of any hostile intentions upon
the part of France, until that country of its own accord
thought proper to announce them. This was done by a
formal notification to the court of Britain in the month of
March 1778, couched in the most insolent terms. In this
declaration it was announced, not only that a treaty of
friendship and commerce had been concluded betwixt
France and America, but Britain was insulted by being ,
told that America was actually in possession of indepen¬
dence, as if the former had already exerted her utmost
efforts without being able to reduce them. A merit was
also made of having entered into no commercial stipula¬
tions in favour of France exclusive of Britain. Nothing,
therefore, could be more offensive than this notification;
and though it could not decently be said, on the part of
the French monarch, that he wished for war, yet his paci¬
fic intentions were conveyed in such haughty terms, that
the whole could only be considered as a declaration ot
that hostility which he pretended a desire to avoid.
Accordingly both parties now united in opinion that a
war with France was unavoidable ; but they were not for
that reason any further advanced towards a reconciliation.
It must be owned, indeed, that the minority had received
great provocation. They had from the beginning repro
bated the American war, and prognosticated its bad suc¬
cess. In this they had been overruled, and the character
of the Americans represented in such a manner as almost
to preclude the notion of their being able to resist. Idey
had resisted, however, and by destroying or taking pri¬
soners a whole army, had verified the predictions which
had so often been treated with ridicule. The same party
had frequently insisted in the most earnest manner to
some kind of concession towards America; but tins nau
constantly been refused with an obstinacy equa y
paralleled and inveterate. They now, however, saw tn
very concessions offered to America after the
Burgoyne, which, if granted in time, would have Pr.ev^
ed Jl the mischief that had happened. Add to this.«
every inquiry into the measures of government ia
frustrated; that a motion on the state of the n^t!on’ j
could not be absolutely rejected, was rendered ,
by delays and evasion ; and that the country v\as m .
in war with a nation well provided for all emerS .
whilst we had supinely suffered them to go on
making the least effort to put ourselves in a proper
of defence. For these reasons opposition insisted t ■
present ministry ought no longer to be intrustc w
management of public affairs. An acknowlet »me j t0
independence of America was now genera y SUPP • jjj.
be the only rational step that could be taken, as
at present be done with a good grace, and we s
avoidably be obliged to take it at last whet ier
or not.
BRITAIN.
Eeii of Notwithstanding the vehemence of these disputes, how-
Geo: HI-ever, great courage and steadiness were manifested bv
' ^ the calm and deliberate portion of the nation. The French
attempted to excite a general panic by threatening an in¬
vasion, which was evidently impracticable, until they had
first obtained the superiority at sea ; yet as multitudes in
the country were apt to be terrified by the bare mention
of a French invasion, orders were issued to call out and
embody the militia, which was then composed of men in
every respect as well exercised and disciplined as any re¬
gular troops. It was complained, however, that a French
squadron of twelve ships of the line had sailed from Tou¬
lon without any obstruction, under the command of the
Count d’Estaing. The most grievous apprehensions were
entertained from the great inferiority of Lord Howe’s na¬
val force; a circumstance which might expose his fleet
to a total defeat, and the whole convoy of transports to
be taken or destroyed. But whatever might have been
the probabilities of the case, the fortune or conduct of
this commander were such, that none of the anticipated
dangers occurred. Addresses were, however, moved for
recalling the fleets and armies from America, in order to
station them in places where they might contribute most
effectually to the defence of the kingdom; but this was
opposed by administration, and even by some of the most
popular members of opposition, including Lord Chatham
and the Earl of Shelburne.
The operations of the French in America, with the vari¬
ous success of the war, will be more fully related under the
head of United States. It is sufficient here to state that
D Estaing having equally failed in his attempt on the Bri¬
tish fleet at New York, and in assisting the allies of France
in their attempt on Rhode Island, sailed for the West In¬
dies, where he attacked the island of St Lucia; but meeting
with a repulse, he proceeded to Grenada, which he reduced,
while a body of troops dispatched by him also took the
island of St \ incent. By this time the French admiral
had been powerfully reinforced, so that his fleet consisted
of twenty-six sail of the line and twelve frigates. Whilst
he was employed at Grenada, Admiral Byron, with the
British squadron, accompanied the homeward-bound West
India fleet till it was out of danger, and then sailed with a
body of troops under General Grant for the recovery of St
Vincent; but before reaching that island, certain intelli¬
gence was received of the descent made on Grenada. By¬
ron then steered directly for that island, where, without he¬
sitation, he encountered the' French fleet, notwithstanding
its great superiority. At this time the French squadron
amounted to twenty-seven sail of the line and seven fri¬
gates ; whilst that of Britain consisted only of twenty-one
ine-of-battle ships and one frigate. The British admirals,
Byron and Barrington, endeavoured to bring the enemy to
a close engagement; but this was as studiously avoided by
Estaing ; and such was the dexterity and circumspection
with which he acted, that it was only during the transient
movements occasioned by the wind and weather that some
o the British ships could close in with their antagonists.
But when these occurred, the encounter became so un¬
equal, that the British ships were terribly shattered. For
some time Captains Collingwood, Edwards, and Cornwal-
is, stood the fire of the whole French fleet; and Captain
ans iaw of the Monmouth, a sixty-four gun ship, singly
rew himself in the way of the enemy’s van to stop them,
e c 16 ships forced their way to the very
in ti 1i° i Ge01'ge’s harbour in Grenada; but finding it
^le French, an end was put to the action ;
shin i J6 atter care t0 renevv it’ although the British
la, suffered much from the greatly superior force to
which they had been exposed.
staing having now received fresh reinforcements,
405
set sail for the continent of America, after convoying the Reign of
homeward-bound fleet of French merchantmen on their George III.
return from the West India islands. He made an attempt 's—
on the town of Savannah, but was repulsed with great loss;
and the result was, that the fears which had been excited
by the superiority of the French in the West Indian seas
were effectually dissipated. The islands of Dominica, St
Vincent, and Grenada, were indeed lost, the first being
taken by the Marquis de Bouille, governor of Martinico,
and the last two by D’Estaing, as already stated ; but these
successes were balanced by the failure of the French com¬
mander in every other enterprise, by his disaster at the
Savannah, and by the acquisition of St Lucia, which was
taken in the year 1778 by Admiral Barrington and Gene¬
rals Prescot and Meadows. In other parts of the West
Indian seas also the honour of the British arms was very
effectually supported by the bravery and vigilance of the
commanders on that station. Admiral Hyde Parker, as¬
sisted by Admiral Rowley, kept the enemy in continual
alarm, and intercepted the trade of the French islands in
such a manner as greatly distressed them. Three large
frigates dispatched by Count d’Estaing after his failure in
America were taken, and a great part of a convoy seized
or destroyed in sight of M. de la Motte-Piquet’s squadron
in the harbour of Fort Royal at Martinico, the admiral
himself having narrowly escaped. He had sailed out of
the harbour in order to favour the escape of the convoy
already mentioned, and, having partly effected his object,
withdrew; but he was so closely pursued, that he had scarce¬
ly time to shelter himself under the batteries on shore.
These successes, which occurred in the years 1778, 1779,
and beginning of 1780, kept the event of the war pretty
much in a state of equipoise on the western seas and con¬
tinent; but in the meanwhile the most unhappy dissen¬
sions prevailed in every department of the British govern¬
ment in Europe, and threatened to involve the nation in
confusion and bloodshed.
Among other charges brought by the opposition against
the ministry, that of neglecting the navy was one of the
most considerable; nor indeed does it appear that the
charge w'as altogether groundless. Without a fleet, how¬
ever, it was now impossible to ward off the danger of an
invasion. At this time, indeed, it was in a very weak
condition; but the valour and experience of the officers
seemed in some measure to compensate every deficiency.
The chief command was conferred on Admiral Keppel,
who had served with great reputation during the last Avar;
whilst Admirals Sir Robert Harland and Sir Hugh Palliser,
both officers of undoubted courage and capacity, acted
under him. On arriving at Portsmouth, towards the end
of March 1778, Admiral Keppel exerted himself so effec¬
tually, that, exclusive of those ships which it was found
necessary to dispatch to the coast of North America under
Admiral Byron, a fleet of twenty sail of the line was got
in readiness by the beginning of June, and ten more in a
very forward state of preparation. At the head of this
fleet Admiral Keppel sailed from Portsmouth on the 13th
of June, in order to protect the commercial shipping ex¬
pected from all parts of the Avorld, and at the same time
to Avatch the motions of the French fleet at Brest.
When the British fleet arrived off the coast of France,
two French frigates approached in order to make observa¬
tions. These proved to be the Licorne of thirty-two, and
the Belle Poule of twenty-six guns. A signal to give chase
was instantly made, and the Milford frigate having come up
with the Licorne tOAvards the close of the day, requested
the French captain to heave to under the British admiral’s
stern. The latter refused ; but a ship of the line coming up,
compelled him to obey. Next morning the Licorne seem¬
ing by her motions to be altering her course, a shot was
406
BRITAIN.
Reign of fired across her bows as a signal to keep it, upon which
George Til. she discharged a broadside and a volley of small arms into
v*-l^Y~w/ the America of sixty-four guns which lay close to her, and
immediately struck. The behaviour of the French captain
was the more extraordinary, as Lord Longford, the cap¬
tain of the America, was at that instant engaged in ami¬
cable conversation with him ; but though such conduct
merited severe chastisement, no return was made for this
most unprovoked and wanton aggression. The Arethusa of
twenty-six guns, commanded by Captain Marshall, with the
Alert cutter, was meanwhile in pursuit of the Belle Poule,
which was also accompanied by a schooner, and the chase
was continued till both were out of sight of the fleet. On
coming up, Captain Marshall informed the French captain
of his orders to bring him to the admiral, and requested his
compliance. The Frenchman refused to obey, upon which
the Arethusa fired a shot across the Belle Poule, which
the latter returned with a discharge of her broadside, and
the engagement thus commenced continued upwards of
two hours with the greatest fury. The Belle Poule was
superior not only in numbers, but also in weight of metal;
her guns being all twelve pounders, while those of the
Arethusa were only six. But notwithstanding this infe¬
riority, the latter maintained so desperate a fight, that the
French frigate suffered a much greater loss of men than
the British, having nearly a hundred killed and wounded,
whilst the Arethusa scarcely lost half that number. Dur¬
ing the engagement between the two frigates, Captain
Fairfax in the Alert attacked the French schooner, which
was of much the same force, and the contest continued
two hours with great bravery on both sides, when the latter
struck to the English cutter. The Arethusa received so
much damage, that she became almost unmanageable ; and
although the captain endeavoured to put her in a condi¬
tion to continue the engagement, he was unable to effect
his object. Being at the same time upon the enemy’s coast,
and close in the shore, the danger of grounding in such a
situation obliged him to act with the more caution, more
especially as by this time it was midnight. Meanwhile the
Belle Poule stood into a small bay surrounded with rocks,
where she was protected from all attacks ; and as soon as
it was day-light, a number of boats came out from the
shore, and towed her into a place of safety. Notwithstand¬
ing the evident superiority of force on the side of the
French, this action was extolled by them as a proof of
singular bravery, and the account of it received with as
much triumph as if it had been a victory.
On the 18th of June, the day following the action with
the Belle Poule, another frigate fell in with the British
fleet, and was seized by the admiral’s orders, on account
of the behaviour of the Licorne. The capture of these
French frigates furnished intelligence which proved of the
utmost importance, at the same time that it was highly
alarming. It was ascertained that the fleet at Brest con¬
sisted of thirty-two sail of the line and twelve frigates ; and
this proved in every respect a most fortunate discovery,
as the admiral had under his orders only twenty ships
of the line and three frigates. As the superiority of the
enemy was so decided, and as the consequences of a de¬
feat would have been fatal to this country, the admiral
thought himself bound in prudence to return to Portsmouth
for reinforcements. He reached Spithead on the 27th of
June, and remained till the arrival of the ships from the
Mediterranean and the Spanish and Portuguese trade;
while the summer fleet from the West Indies brought him
a further supply of seamen, and enabled him to put to sea
again with an addition of ten ships of the line. But still
there was a deficiency of frigates, owing to the great num¬
bers on the American station, and the necessity of manning
the ships of the line in preference to all others.
In the mean time the preparations at Brest being fully Seign
completed, the French fleet put to sea on the 8th of July.George i.
It consisted of thirty-two sail of the line, besides a large ''•’V*
number of frigates ; and Count d’Orvilliers commanded in
chief, while the other principal officers were Counts Du-
chaffault, de Guichen, and de Grasse, M. de Rochechoart
and M. de la Motte-Piquet. A prince of the blood royal
had also been sent to serve on board of this fleet; we mean
the Duke of Chartres, son and heir to the Duke of Or¬
leans, and first prince of the blood royal of France in
the collateral line, who commanded one of the divisions
in the capacity of admiral. On the 9th day of July,
the British fleet sailed out of Portsmouth in three divi¬
sions ; the first commanded by Sir Robert Harland, the
third by Sir Hugh Palliser, and the centre by Admiral
Keppel, accompanied by Admiral Campbell, an officer of
great courage and merit. The French had been inform¬
ed that the British fleet was greatly inferior to their own,
which was true at the time when they received the in¬
formation ; and being yet unapprised of the reinforcement
it had received, Count d’Orvilliers sailed at first in quest
of it, intending to attack it while in the weak condition re¬
presented to him.
As the British admiral was equally intent on coming to
action as soon as possible, they were not long before they
met. The hostile fleets came in sight on the 23d of July;
but the appearance of the British ships soon convinced the
French admiral of his mistake, and he immediately deter¬
mined to avoid an engagement as anxiously as he had
formerly sought it; and in this he was favoured by the
approach of night. All that could be done by the British,
therefore, was to form the line of battle, in expectation that
the enemy would follow the example. During the night the
wind changed, and the French getting the weather-gage,
had the choice of coming to action or of declining it en¬
tirely in their own power, whilst the British admiral was de¬
prived of the opportunity of forcing them to engage as he
had proposed. During the space of four days matters con¬
tinued in this state; the French cautiouslyavoiding a battle,
and the British beating up against the wind with a resolu¬
tion to attack them. But notwithstanding all his efforts, the
British admiral had the mortification to see his endeavours
defeated by the vigilance and precaution of the enemy. The
chase lasted till the 27th of July. But between ten and
eleven in the morning of that day, an alteration of wind
and weather occasioned several movements in both fleets,
which brought them so near each other, that it was no
longer in the power of the enemy to decline an engage¬
ment. Both fleets were now on the same tack, and had
they so remained, the British fleet on coming up with the
French would have had an opportunity of engaging ship
to ship ; but as this was a mode of combating quite con¬
trary to the wishes of the enemy, their admiral, as soon
as he found an action likely to ensue, put his ships hn
contrary tack, by which means a close action was avoide •
As soon as the van of the British fleet, consisting of 8ir
Robert Harland’s division, came up, they directed their
fire upon it, though at too great a distance to make any
impression ; but the fire was not returned by the Bntis
ships till they came close enough to do execution. Intus
manner the hostile fleets passed close to each other on op
posite tacks, keeping up a very heavy and destructive ro-
The centre division of the British line having Pass®,
the rearmost ships of the enemy, the first care 0 ^ ie^ g
miral wras to renew the engagement as soon as the s ip
of the different fleets yet in action had got clear or eac
other respectively. Sir Robert Harland, with some s P
of his division, had already tacked, and stood towarcs
French; but the remaining part of the fleet had no y
tacked, and some had dropped to leewrard, and were rep
BRITAIN.
] *n of ing the damages which they had received in the action.
}, ge III. His own ship the Victory had suffered too much to tack
wabout instantly; and had he done it he would have thrown
the ships astern of him into disorder. As soon as it was
practicable, however, the Victory wore, and steered again
upon the enemy before any other ship of the centre divi¬
sion, not above three or four of which were able to follow
the example. The other ships not having recovered their
407
commanders, proved a source of fatal animosity. The bulk lieign of
ot the nation had so long been accustomed to hear of great George III.
and glorious victories at sea, that it was supposed a kind
of impossibility for a French and British fleet to encounter
without the total ruin of the former. The event of the
last engagement, therefore, became an object of severe
criticism ; and complaints were made, that, through the
bad conduct of the blue division, an opportunity had been
stations near enough to support each other on a renewal of lost of gaining a complete victory over the French fleet
the action, in order to collect them more readily for that These complaints were quickly introduced into the public
rm rnn^p tnp juimiral mnnp thp currm I tnr tho lino   i   _ • i _
purpose the admiral made the signal for the line of battle
ahead. It was now three in the afternoon; but the ships
of the British fleet had not sufficiently regained their sta¬
tions to engage. The Victory lay nearest the enemy,
with the four ships above mentioned, and seven more of
Sir Robert Harland’s division. These twelve were the
only ships in any condition for immediate service ; of the
others belonging to the centre and to Sir Robert Har¬
land’s division, three were a great way astern, and five at
a considerable distance to leeward, much disabled in their
rigging. Sir Hugh Palliser, who commanded the rear di¬
vision during the time of action, in which he had behaved
with signal bravery, came of course last out of it, and, in
consequence of the admiral’s signal for forming the line
of battle ahead, was to have led the van on renewing the
fight; but his division was upon the contrary tack, and was
entirely out of the line. The French, on the other hand,
expecting to be directly re-attacked, had closed together
in tacking, and were now spreading themselves into a line
of battle. But on discovering the position of the Bri¬
tish ships which had fallen to leeward, they immediately
stood towards them in order to cut them off. This obliged
the admiral to wear, and to steer athwart the enemy’s
foremost division, in order to secure them ; directing, at
the same time, Sir Robert Harland to form his division in
aline astern, in order to confront the enemy till Sir Hugh
Palliser should come up, and enable him to act more effec¬
tually. In moving to the protection of the leeward ships
the admiral was now drawing near the enemy. As Sir
Hugh Palliser still continued to windward, he made a sig¬
nal for all the ships in that quarter to come into his wake,
and Sir Hugh repeated this signal; but it was unluckily
mistaken by the ships of his division for an order to come
into his own wake, which they did accordingly; and as he
still remained in his position, they retained theirs of course,
bir Robert Harland was now directed to take his station
ahead, and the signal was repeated for Sir Hugh Palliser’s
division to come into his wake; but this signal was not
complied with, any more than a verbal message to that pur¬
pose, and other subsequent signals for Sir Hugh's division
coming into its station in the line, before it was too late to
recommence any operations against the enemy. In the
nig1t, the French resolved to put it wholly out of the
power of the British fleet to attack them a second time;
10 ? ^*S. Pul’Pose three of their swiftest sailing vessels
''eie hxed in the stations occupied during the day by the
iree nag ships of the respective divisions, with lights at
11 n1^mast heads, to deceive the British fleet into the be-
ifri lat 116 ^re.nch fleet kept its position with an intent to
nV Ilext jnorning. Protected by this stratagem, the re-
thpln • e| A16 French fleet drew off unperceived during
tlmv"^1^ ant^ ret'refl with all speed towards Brest, which
dioJ en^eiefl the following day. Their departure was not
themVeieCi ^ kreak of day; but it was too late to pursue
of the ley were only discernible from the mast heads
mnHp ti*11 ueSt s^ips in the British fleet. The admiral then
— . le hest of his way to Plymouth, as being the nearest
papers; and were carried on with a warmth and vehe¬
mence which threw the whole nation into a ferment. The
friends of Sir Hugh Palliser, the vice-admiral of the blue,
were no less violent in the defence of his conduct than his
opponents were in its condemnation; whilst those who
espoused the cause of the admiral manifested equal deter¬
mination in accusing him of being the real cause of the
escape of the French fleet, through his disobedience of
the signals and orders of his commander, and by remain¬
ing at a distance with his division, instead of coming to
the assistance of the rest of the fleet. An accusation of
so weighty a nature alarmed Sir Hugh Palliser, who in
consequence applied to Admiral Keppel for a justification
of his conduct, and required of him to sign and publish a
paper relative to the engagement of the 27th of July,
stating, that he did not intend by his signals on the even¬
ing of that day to renew the battle then, but only to be
in readiness for the next morning. The admiral rejected
this demand, on which Sir Hugh Palliser published, in one
of the daily papers, a variety of details concerning the en¬
gagement, reflecting severely on the conduct of the ad¬
miral, and prefacing the whole by a letter signed with his
name. An attack so public, and so detrimental to his
character, induced Admiral Keppel to declare to the ad¬
miralty, that unless Sir Hugh Palliser explained this mat¬
ter to his satisfaction, he could not, consistently with his
reputation, ever again act in conjunction with that officer.
This altercation having occurred before the meeting
of parliament, was of course noticed when it assembled.
In the House of Peers an inquiry was demanded into the
conduct of the commanders of the fleet on the 27th of
July; and in the House of Commons it was urged, that as
Admiral Keppel had expressed a public refusal to serve
in conjunction with Sir Hugh Palliser, the cause of such
a declaration ought to be investigated. Admiral Keppel
and Sir Hugh Palliser, who were both present in the
house upon this occasion, spoke severally on the point in
question; and after a keen debate, a motion was made for
an address to the crown to bring Sir Hugh Palliser to a
trial for his behaviour in the late engagement with the
French fleet. To this motion Sir Hugh Palliser replied,
in a speech of great heat and vehemence, that he had al¬
ready demanded and obtained a court-martial on Admiral
Keppel, whom he now charged with having, through his
misconduct, caused the failure of success in that engage¬
ment. This intelligence was received with astonishment
in the house. It had been, and still continued to be, the
general desire of individuals of all parties, to heal the
reach between these officers at a time when the services
of both were so much needed; and it was therefore with
deep concern that the house learned the determination
which had been taken to bring Admiral Keppel to a
trial. The admiral, however, conducted himself on this
occasion with remarkable temper and coolness. He ac¬
quiesced without reluctance in the orders which had been
given him to prepare for a trial of his conduct; and he
port • , - " '■'■j jjrnwuni, an ucmg me ucaicm. expressed £l hope, that, upon inquiry, it would be found to
return0, 01 ^er Put A*s fleet into a proper condition to have been neither dishonourable to his country nor dis-
Thig10 ^•Uest; enemy. creditable to himself.
action, whatever might have been the merit of the But the conduct of the board of admiralty in admitting
408
B R I T A I N.
Ileign of the charges against Admiral Keppel, and appointing a
George III-trial, was strongly censured in the house, upon the giounc
w^]iat it was their duty to labour with the utmost earnest¬
ness, and exert their whole official influence, to stifle an
unhappy disagreement, the consequences of which mig it
be highly detrimental to the public service, instead ot
promoting the dispute, by consenting to bring it to a ju¬
dicial and public hearing. On the other hand, it was
observed, that the admiralty could not, consistently with
the impartiality which they owed to every officer of the
navy, refuse to receive all matters of complaint relating
to subjects in their department; that they .had no right
to decide on the merits of any case laid before them, but
were bound to refer it to a court composed of naval
officers, who were the only proper and competent judges
in professional matters; that, in conformity with these
principles, they left the decision of the present alterca¬
tion to the gentlemen of the navy, whose honour and in-
tegrity in all instances of this kind had never been called
in question, and by whose verdict every officei in that
branch of the service must wish to stand or fall. Ihe ar¬
guments upon this subject being urged with much heat
and vehemence, generated uncommon animosity, and gave
rise to a spirit of contention which diffused itself among
all classes of society. Individuals of every rank and pro¬
fession engaged in it with as much zeal as if they had
been personally concerned in the issue ; and the dissa¬
tisfaction that prevailed among the upper classes in the
navy appeared in a memorial presented to the king by
twelve of'the oldest and most distinguished admirals, at
the head of whom was Lord Hawke, condemning the con¬
duct of Sir Hugh Palliser without reserve, and censuring
that of the admiralty itself, as establishing a precedent
pregnant with the most ruinous consequences to the naval
service. The majority of those who subscribed this me¬
morial were not only officers of the highest rank and im¬
portance in the navy, but unconnected with the opposition,
and attached by various motives to the court and ministry ;
so that their conduct in this instance must have been un¬
influenced by party considerations.
No business of consequence was discussed in either
house of parliament during the trial, which began upon the
7th of January 1779, and lasted till the 11th of February
ensuing. After a lengthened and minute investigation,
the court-martial acquitted Admiral Keppel, in the most
complete and honourable manner, of all the charges which
had been brought against him ; he was declared to have
acted the part of a judicious, brave, and experienced of¬
ficer ; and the accusation was censured in the severest
manner. Both houses of parliament then voted him their
thanks for the eminent services he had performed ; the city
of London conferred on him every mark of honour and
respect it could bestow; and the nation re-echoed with his
praise; whilst the resentment against his accuser was so
strong as to constrain him to retire wholly from public
life, and to resign all his employments. But notwithstand¬
ing the high degree of national favour and esteem in which
Admiral Keppel stood, he thought it prudent to withdraw
from a situation in which he fouTTd himself not acceptable
to those in power, and accordingly resigned his command.
The conduct of those who presided at the admiralty
board now became an object of severe censure; and a
number of facts were cited to prove, that for many years
past they had acted in a manner highly reprehensible.
The debates were uncommonly animated ; and a resolution
for censuring the conduct of the admiralty was lost by
a majority of only thirty-four. Administration, however,
still kept their ground; and although a second attempt
was made to show that the state of the navy was incom¬
mensurate with the vast sums bestowed upon it, the point
was again lost by nearly the same majority as before. But Eeigr.i
however victorious they might be in divisions, the con-George}
duct of the admiralty was far from giving general satis- Wv
faction. Following the example of Admiral Keppel, Lord
Howe declared his resolution to relinquish the service
while it continued under the present system of manage¬
ment ; and his resignation ivas followed by that of Sir Ro¬
bert Harland, Sir John Lindsay, and several others; nay,
so general had the dislike to the service now become, that
no fewer than twenty captains of the first distinction pro¬
posed to go in a body to resign their commissions at once;
and they were prevented doing so only by the urgent oc¬
casion there was at that time for their services.
The same feeling which led to these resignations pro¬
duced a direct attack upon Lord Sandwich, then first
lord of the admiralty. But though in this as in other
cases the ministry were victorious, they could not prevent
an inquiry into the cause of our want of success in the
American war. This was insisted upon by Lord Howe and
General Flowe, whose conduct had been so much reflected
upon, that a vindication became absolutely necessary. The
inquiry was indeed singularly disagreeable to the admi¬
nistration, and consequently evaded as long as possible.
From the evidence of Lord Cornwallis and other officers
of high rank, however, it appeared that the forces sent to
America were at no time sufficient to reduce it; that the
Americans were almost universally unfriendly to the Bri¬
tish cause; and that from the nature of the country, the
conquest of it would be attended with great difficulties. It
was also proved, that, from its great strength, the camp
of the Americans on Long Island could not have been
attacked with any probability of success, after their defeat
in 1776, owing to the want of artillery and other neces¬
saries. In every instance, therefore, the general’s conduct
was shown to have been judicious and proper. But these
facts being directly at variance with the view which the
ministry wished to countenance, counter-evidence was
produced, in order to invalidate the testimony of the re¬
spectable witnesses above mentioned, and Major-genera
Robertson, and Mr Joseph Galloway, an American gentle¬
man, were examined. According to the evidence ot Mr
Galloway especially, the conduct of General Howe had
not been unexceptionable ; the greater part of the Ame¬
ricans were friendly to the cause of Britain; the country
was not so full of obstructions as had been represented;
the woods and forests formed no obstruction to the march¬
ing of armies in as many columns as they pleased; and
soldiers might carry provisions for nineteen days on their
backs. Upon such extravagant assertions, proceeding un¬
doubtedly from ignorance, no stress whatever could he
laid; yet they fully answered the purpose of ministry
this time, namely procrastination, and preventing the dis¬
agreeable truths elicited in the course of the inquiry tro
striking the minds of the public too forcibly. ,
The event of this inquiry, however, encouraged Lre“e
Burgoyne to insist for an examination of his CQnclu
which indeed had been so unmercifully censured,
even the ministers began to think he had. suffere
much, and that he ought to be allowed to vindicate h
self. He was accordingly permitted to bring witnesse
his own behalf, and from the evidence produced, I,
peared that he had acted the part both of a Se.ner g0
a soldier ; that the attachment of his army to him ^
great, that no dangers or difficulties could shake ,
that, even when all their patience and courage we
to be ineffectual, they were still ready to o ey 1 nUII).
mands, and die with arms in their hands. A gr ^
her of other particulars relating to his expedi
also cleared up; several charges against him we
ed; and it appeared that the Americans, far iron
BRITAIN.
t
n of
e III
the contemptible enemy they had been called, were intre¬
pid and resolute antagonists.
J After the resignation of Admiral Keppel, the command
of the Channel fleet was bestowed on Sir Charles Hardy, a
brave and experienced officer, but now advanced in years,
having retired from the service with the design of not re¬
turning to it, and being at that time governor of Greenwich
hospital. The choice of an admiral to command this fleet
was now of the greatest importance, on account of the
accession of Spain to the general confederacy which took
place during the present year. This determination was
formally intimated by the Spanish minister on the 17th
of June 1779, and was attended with new but ineffectual
proposals for an accommodation with America, and the
removal of the ministry. The imminent danger, however,
to which the nation was now exposed, required vigorous
exertion; and various projects for its internal defence were
laid before the parliament. The spirit and magnanimity
displayed on this occasion did the highest honour to the
national character, and fully justified the opinion enter¬
tained of its valour and resources. All parts of the king¬
dom seemed actuated by a desire to concur in every mea-
sure necessary for its defence ; large sums were subscrib-
ed by peisons of rank and affluence ; and companies were
raised, and regiments formed, with an alacrity which quickly
banished all apprehensions for the safety of the country.
On the other hand, the French, thinking themselves
secure of victory by the accession of Spain, began to ex¬
end their schemes of conquest; and a squadron was fitted
out under the command of the Marquis de Vaudreuil, des¬
tined to reinforce the fleet commanded by D’Estaing. But
before proceeding to its destination, this squadron made
an attack on the British settlements on the rivers Senegal
and Gambia, which were easily conquered. On this oc¬
casion the French quitted their own island of Goree, which
was soon afterwards taken possession of by Sir Edward
Hughes, when on his way to the East Indies. But these dis¬
tant conquests being insufficient to produce any serious im¬
pression, it was resolved to strike a blow nearer home, by
ie conquest of Jersey and Guernsey. An attempt was ac¬
cordingly made on these islands, but with so little success
r- a f^gle man could be disembarked on the spot
which they tended to conquer. The enterprise, however,
proved indirectly serviceable to the cause of America. A
fleet of four hundred merchantmen and transports was at
condu^ofV^-P0/1^ f SfiHng f°r NeW York’ under the
of „ f YdmiTral Arbuthnot; but that officer, informed
si 'll att^ °n ^rSey’ thoL,ght ifc his duty to go to the as-
and tR °5 ,hat lsland rather than Proceed on his voyage ;
bid ™ide ay WfS foUowed by another, occasioned by
lihp . at ler’ 1so 11,31 the fleet, which was laden with war-
A.l.r68 a?d necessaries> did not arrive till the end of
Sir lion and sevtral important enterprises projected by
Frpn . / Fhnton were in consequence abandoned. The
on Jersev0T?!i determil?ed to raake a second attempt
under Sir \ Ut th'fir S(luadron> being attacked by another
bay 1 tL me! aCe’ Was driv™ on shore in a small
and pursued0 ha iB0fR0rnTndy’ Under C0Ver of a batter)S
battery m BJltlsh commander, who silenced the
and burned I3 gUn frigate> with two rich prizes,
Thus die °.other frigates and several vessels besides,
of FranppSaPP°lnted m 16 attempt on Jersey, the court
itself- and pr0Ject^d an invasion of Great Britain
serious or unf6 pieParatlons /or the enterprise, whether
considerable ere. 80 formidable, as justly to excite a
best troops In hrpmFln 1 f cou.ntrT- Not only were the
409
troons in fP ‘V r inoi omy were the
coasts of thn R-v w^TCh service marched down to the
ed in great niimp81 Cha“nel>but transports were provid-
ed i the person^ ^ and many Senerai officers promot-
vol. y^ S wbo were to command this important ex¬
pedition were also named by the government. A junction Reign of
was formed between the French and Spanish fleets, in George m.
spite of the endeavours of the British to prevent it; and   
the combined fleets made their appearance in the British
seas with upwards of sixty ships of the line, besides a vast
number of frigates and other armed vessels. But all this
formidable preparation ended in the capture of only a single
ship, the Ardent, of sixty-four guns. The combined fleets
had passed the British fleet under Sir Charles Hardy in
the mouth of the Channel without observing him ; and then
sailing along the coast of England, they came in sight of
1 lymouth, .where they captured the Ardent, as already
mentioned; after which they returned, without making the
least attempt to effect a landing. The British admiral
made good his entrance into the Channel without opposi-
tmn, on the enemy quitting it, which a strong easterly
wind obliged them to do; and he endeavoured to entice
them up the Channel in pursuit of him ; but the great
sickness and mortality on board their ships obliged them
to retire, in order, as they alleged, to recruit the health of
their crews. Thus ended the first, and indeed the greatest
exploit performed by the combined fleets in the British
seas. An annual parade of a similar kind was afterwards
kept up, and as formally opposed on the part of the Bri-
tish ; but no act of hostility was ever committed by either
of the Channel fleets against each other.
Though the pusillanimity manifested by the combined
fleets was such that the French themselves were ashamed
of it, the appearance of them in the Channel furnished
opposition with abundance of matter for declaViation. All
ranks of men, indeed, now began to be wearied of the
American war; and even those who had formerly been the
most zealous in recommending coercive measures were at
length convinced of their utter inutility. The calamitous
effects produced by the continuation of these measures,
indeed, had by this time rendered the greater part of the
people exceedingly averse to the war; and the almost uni¬
versal wish was, that the oppressive burden of the Ame¬
rican contest should be cast off, and the entire national
stiength exerted against those whom we had been accus¬
tomed to consider as our natural enemies. Nevertheless,
the national spirit continued to be exerted with unabated
vigour. Large sums, subscribed in the several counties,
were employed in raising volunteers, and forming them
into independent companies; and associations were also
entered into in the towns, where the inhabitants bestow¬
ed a considerable portion of their time in training them¬
selves to the use of arms. The East India Company, too,
forgot their quarrels with ministry, and not only present-
ed government with a sum sufficient for levying six thou¬
sand seamen, but at its own cost added three seventy-four
gun ships to the navy.
Administration, however, not yet weary of the plans
which they had originally adopted, seemed still inclined
to prosecute schemes of conquest. The virulence of oppo¬
sition continued unabated; and, what was worse, every part
of the kingdom seemed to imbibe the sentiments of the mi¬
nority in parliament. Amongst the charges now brought
against ministers was that of misapplying the national force.
An hundred thousand men were employed for the internal
defence of the kingdom. The army of Great Britain at this
time fell little short of three hundred thousand men; the
navy amounted to three hundred sail, including frigates
and armed vessels ; twenty millions had been expended on
the service of the year 1779; and yet, with all this force
and treasure, the utmost boast that ministers could make
was, that the enemy had hitherto been kept at bay. Nor
were the other charges of a less grave description. Veteran
officers had been passed over to make room for persons of
inferior merit; whilst the discontents and miserable state
3 F
il
410
BRITAIN.
Reign of of Ireland, the loss of the West India islands, and other
George III. disasters, were all put to the account of ministers; and it
was alleged that the universal cry of the nation was for
their dismission. To all this ministry replied by denying
or attempting to refute every allegation, and at last, after
several stormy debates, gained their point of an address
without an amendment, by large majorities in both houses.
But the enormous expense incurred in carrying on the
war occasioned such general alarm, that it was no longer
possible to refuse complying with some scheme of econo¬
my, or at least giving it a patient hearing. Ihe Duke ot
Richmond proposed that the crown should set the example,
and moved for an address to this purpose; but the mo¬
tion was negatived. The Earl ot Shelburne next brought
the subject under the consideration of parliament; and
having, in a very elaborate speech, compared the ex¬
penses of former times with the present, and shown the
immense disparity, he moved that the expenditure ot the
vast sums annually sunk in extraordinaries should be
brought under some control, and that to extend the pub¬
lic expenses beyond the sums granted by parliament, was
an invasion of its peculiar and exclusive rights. But al¬
though the Earl of Shelburne’s motion was rejected, and
some others of a similar tendency shared the same fate,
the minds of the people were far from being conciliated
to the views of ministers. On the contrary, an opinion
began to prevail that they exercised an unconstitutional
influence over the representatives of the nation, and that
as this influence had recently been greatly augmented,
• nothing short of a change in the constitution of parliament
could remedy the evil complained of. Accordingly, on the
30th of December 1779, a petition to this effect was framed
in the city of York, where a number of the most respectable
people in the county had assembled; and sixty-one gen¬
tlemen were appointed as a committee for carrying into
effect the object contemplated by the petitioners. The
York petition was followed by others of a similar descrip¬
tion from twenty-seven of the principal counties and largest
towns in England; while severe and even opprobrious lan¬
guage was used in the county meetings respecting both the
ministry and the parliament.
The emissaries of America and the other enemies of
Great Britain are said to have been active in fomenting
these discords, which at this period rose to a height un¬
known for a century past. But the ministry continued firm,
and, previous to taking any of the petitions into considera¬
tion, insisted on going through the business of the supplies.
At length, in the beginning of February 1780, a plan
was brought forward by Mr Burke, for securing the in¬
dependence of parliament, and introducing economy into
the various departments of government. He proposed the
abolition of the offices of treasurer, comptroller, and cof¬
ferer of the household ; of treasurer of the chamber, mas¬
ter of the household, the board of green cloth, and seve¬
ral other places under the steward of the household; of
the great and removing wardrobe, the jewel office, the
robes, board of works, and the civil branch of the board
of ordnance. Other reformations were also suggested;
but though the temper of the times obliged the minister
to admit the bills, and even to pretend an approbation
of the plan, he had no serious intention of acquiescing
in the scheme to its full extent, or indeed in any part,
if he could possibly help it. When.the plan, therefore,
came to be considered in detail, he was provided with
objections to every part of it. But the general temper
of the people without doors had now affected many of the
members of parliament, and caused them to desert their
old standard. An economical plan proposed in the House
of Lords by the Earl of Shelburne was rejected by a nar¬
row majority, and in the lower house matters went still
worse. The first proposition in Mr Burke’s plan was to Reign of
abolish the office of secretary of state for the colonies;Georgen
and the utmost efforts of administration could preserve
this office only by a majority of seven. The board of
trade, however, was abolished by a majority of nine; but
this was the only defeat sustained by ministry at present,
all the rest of the plan being rejected excepting only one
clause, by which it was enacted that the offices of lieute¬
nant and ensign in the yeomen of the guards should no
longer be sold, but given to officers in the army and navy
on half pay, and of fifteen years’ standing in their re¬
spective departments of service. ,
But the administration were destined to sustain a still
more mortifying defeat than that which they had met with
in the abolition of the board of trade. The 6th of April
being the day appointed for taking into consideration the
numerous petitions already mentioned, the subject of these
was introduced by Mr Dunning, in an elaborate speech,
in which he dwelt on the numerous attempts which had
been made to introduce reformation and economy into the
plans of government, and which had been defeated by
ministerial artifice, or overthrown by mere dint of num¬
bers ; and he concluded by moving the celebrated reso¬
lution, that “ the influence of the crown has increased, is
increasing, and ought to be diminished. After a long
and stormy debate, this motion was carried; upon which
Mr Dunning further moved, that the House of Commons
was as competent to examine into and correct abuses in
the expenditure of the civil list as in any other branch of
the public revenue; and this was followed by a third reso¬
lution, moved by Mr Thomas Pitt, that it was the duty of
the house to provide an immediate and effectual redress
of the abuses complained of in the petitions. The minis¬
try now interposed with a request that nothing further
might be done at that sitting; but such was the temper
of the house, that both these motions were carried with¬
out a division.
Ministry had never experienced such a complete defeat,
nor been treated with so much asperity of language. The
news of the proceedings of the day were received by the
people at large with as much joy as if a complete victory
over a foreign enemy had been announced. Opposition,
however, though masters of the field at present, did not
imagine that they had obtained any permanent victory,
and therefore resolved to make the most of the advantages
they had gained. Accordingly, at the next meeting d
was moved by Mr Dunning, that to ascertain the in e
pendence of parliament, and remove all suspicion of ns
being under undue influence, there should, every session,
seven days after the meeting of parliament, be laid before
the house an account of all the sums issued out of tne
civil list, or any other branch of the revenue, since j-
last recess, in favour of any of its members; and tms
passed with little difficulty. But when he moved that tne
treasurers of the chamber and household, the co ei >
comptroller, and master of the household, with the c e
of the green cloth, and their deputies, should be exc!u ,
from having seats in the house, a warm debate ensrp?ag
the motion was carried only by a majority of two. *s.
the last triumph of the popular party;, their nex m ’
for the exclusion of revenue officers, being thrown by ,
jority of twenty-seven. A final effort was however
by Mr Dunning, who proposed an address to the
against proroguing or dissolving the parliament, un '
sures had been taken to prevent the unprope1 in .
complained of in the petitions; but on a division the
was lost by a very considerable majority. Minis rJ 0f
gladly have screened their friends from the Y^ng , n
opposition, alleging the lateness of the h°urD ^ About
past midnight; but the Speaker perceiving i r
BRITAIN.
Ee
Geor
of to rise, insisted that the house should remain sitting; and
IIL thus the deserters from the popular party were condemned
^ to hear their conduct set forth in terms such as were never
perhaps applied on any other occasion to members of the
British senate.
The last victory of administration confirmed the unfa¬
vourable opinion which the people had conceived of the
majority of their representatives; and in the height of the
ill humour which the conduct of the parliament had cre¬
ated in the multitude, those discontents broke out which
were so near involving the kingdom in a species of civil
war. The hardships under which individuals of the Ro¬
man Catholic persuasion laboured in this country had
lately engaged the consideration of enlightened and libe¬
ral-minded men; whilst the inutility as well as absurdity
of persecuting people from whom no danger was to be ap¬
prehended, and who were not suspected of disaffection to
the civil constitution of this country, had induced several
persons of rank and influence to undertake to procure
them relief from the disabilities under which they la¬
boured. Meanwhile the calamities of the times had afford¬
ed the Catholics a proper occasion for manifesting their
attachment to government; and accordingly they present¬
ed a loyal and dutiful address to the king, containing the
strongest assurances of affection and fidelity to his person
and civil government. They declared that their exclusion
from many of the benefits of that constitution had not
diminished their reverence for it; that they had patiently
submitted to such restrictions and discouragements as the
legislature thought expedient, and had thankfully received
such relaxation of the rigour of the laws as the mildness
of an enlightened age and the benignity of the British o-0-
vernment had gradually produced ; that they submissively
waited, without presuming to suggest either time or mea¬
sure, for such other indulgence as the happy causes al-
luded to could not fail in their own season to effect; that
their dissent from the legal establishment in matters of
religion was purely conscientious; that they held no
opinions adverse to his majesty’s government, or repug¬
nant to the duties of good citizens; that they thought It
their duty to assure his majesty of their unreserved affec¬
tion to his government, of their unalterable attachment
o the cause and welfare of the country, and their detes-
a ion o the designs and views of any foreign power against
the dignity of the crown and the safety "and tranquillity
f the. PeoPle; and that, though they did not presume
o point out the particular means by which they might
e a owed to testify their zeal and their wishes to serve
e country, they would be perfectly ready, on every
occasion to give such proofs of their fidelity, and of the
L ‘ 7 °; , lr Mentions, as his majesty’s wisdom and the
• nse ot the nation should at any time deem expedient.
177ft j688 Wa.S Presented to the king on the 1st of May
*7 and was> s'goed by the Duke of Norfolk, the Earls
ArnnUir?yT^nd Shrewsbu,T> the Lords Stourton, Petre,
bv n h ’ ?Ter’ T.eynham, Clifford, and Linton; and
fortuneUn^re^ s^xt3r‘tbree commoners of rank and
411
J,he fnly obstap]e which stood in the way was the diffi-
whl0l0TC°rm?g th,e Prejudices of the lower classes,
dule-enn i lsPoset to disapprove of and condemn any in-
been t»Lt°7n t0 th,0Se of a persuasion which they had
notwi h? i re^ard Wlth horror and detestation. But
resolved h?dlng thf Possessions of the vulgar, it was
sentiment//eVera ,ndlvlduals of generous and liberal
done cnnc-’ft0 fP°Use tle“’ cause as far as it could be
and the /Stentiy mth the Prineiples of the constitution
stance %gtine-ra) t.emPer of the times. And the circum-
ieaders nf leir Patronized by some of the principal
taaers of ePPosition was greatly in their favouV; for it
showed that those who professed to be the most strenuous Iteign of
mends of freedom and the constitution did not imagine Ceorge III.
that these would be endangered by treating the Roman s—
Catholics with more lenity than they had hitherto expe¬
rienced. Accordingly, about the middle of May, Sir
George Sayille made a motion for the repeal of some of
the disqualifications under which the Catholics laboured.
He grounded his motion on the necessity of vindicating the
honour and asserting the true principles of the Protestant
religion, of which the peculiar merit consisted in an abhor¬
rence of persecution. He represented the address above
quoted as a convincing proof of the loyal disposition of the
Roman Catholics, and as an unfeigned testimony of the
soundness of their political principles; and, to silence the
objections of those who might suspect the Catholics of
duplicity, a test was proposed of so binding and solemn a
nature, that no authority could annul its efficacy.
The pains and penalties of the statutes to be repealed
were laid before the house by Mr Dunning. By these
statutes it was made felony in a foreign clergyman of the
Catholic communion, and high treason in one who was a
native of this kingdom, to teach the doctrines, or perform
divine service according to the rites, of that church; the
estates of persons educated abroad in the Catholic persua¬
sion were forfeited to the next Protestant heir; a son, or
any other nearest relation, being a Protestant, was em¬
powered to take possession of his own father’s, or nearest
kinsman’s estate, during their lives; and a Roman Ca¬
tholic was disabled from acquiring any legal property by
pui chase. The mildness of the British government did
not indeed countenance the enforcement of the severities
enacted by these statutes; but still the prospect of gain
subjected every man of the Roman Catholic persuasion to
the ill usage of informers; and on the evidence of such
miscieants the magistrates were bound, however unwillin0-,
to put these cruel laws in execution.
In consequence of such representations, the motion made
in favour of the Roman Catholics was received without
a dissentient voice; and a bill conformable thereto was
brought into and passed through both houses. The test
oi oath to be taken by the Catholics was conceived in the
strongest terms. They were to swear allegiance to the
king’s person and family, and to abjure especially the pre¬
tensions to the crown assumed by the person called Charles
III. rI hey were to declare their disbelief and detestation
of the doctrines, that it is lawful to put individuals to death
on pretence of their being heretics; that no faith is to be
kept with heretics; that princes excommunicated by the
pope and council, or by the see of Rome, or any other au¬
thority, may be deposed or murdered by their subjects or
by SBy others; and that the pope of Rome, or any other
foreign prelate or sovereign, is entitled to any temporal or
civil jurisdiction or pre-eminence, either directly or indi¬
rectly, in this kingdom. And they were solemnly to pro¬
fess, that they made the aforesaid declarations with the
utmost sincerity, and in the strictest and plainest mean¬
ing of the words and language of the test, without har¬
bouring a secret persuasion that any dispensation from
Rome, or any other authority, could acquit or absolve
them from the obligations contracted by this oath, or de¬
clare it null and void.
The favour shown to the Roman Catholics in England
encouraged those of the same persuasion in Scotland to
hope for a similar relief; and several Scottish gentlemen of
high rank and character, who had seats in the house, not
only expressed their warmest wishes for the extension of the
indulgence to their own country, but declared their inten¬
tion to bring in a bill for the purpose the ensuing session.
The design was approved of by the General Assembly of
the Church of Scotland; and a petition on behalf of the
412
BRITAIN.
Reign of Roman Catholics in Scotland was in consequence prepared.
George III. J3uj; these favourable prospects were for a time obscured
'*^y~**' hy a dense cloud of religious fanaticism, looming large and
high in the political horizon. A pamphlet appeared, in
which the doctrines and professors of the Roman Catho¬
lic religion were represented, the former as damnable,
and the latter as the common foes of mankind and the
disturbers of all states ; and this inflammatory production
being circulated among every class, raised up a great num¬
ber of enemies to the intended petition. The opposition
was at first chiefly conducted by persons at Edinburgh,
who assumed the title of The Committee for the Protest¬
ant Interest, and under that denomination carried on a
correspondence with all those who coincided in their opi¬
nions, being in fact a very large proportion of the common
people in Scotland. This committee, from its residence
in the capital of the kingdom, was naturally supposed to
consist of persons of weight and influence; and hence it
in a manner directed the motions of all the others. The
persons of whom it was composed, however, acted from
honest though mistaken views. They aimed only at the.
preservation of the Protestant religion and the liberties of
their country, which they conceived to be endangered by
the indulgence shown to individuals of the Roman Catho¬
lic persuasion; and, actuated by these ideas, they exerted
themselves so effectually, that the principal gentlemen of
the Catholic persuasion thought it requisite to convey to
the ministry an intimation of their desire to desist for the
present from applying for an indulgence similar to that
which had been extended to their fellow-subjects of the
same communion in England. They published also in the
newspapers the representation which they had made to the
ministry, in hopes of convincing the country that they were
sincerely disposed to remove any cause of dissatisfaction
on their own account, and to submit to any inconvenience
rather than occasion disturbance, even in the prosecution
of a lawful and praiseworthy object. But matters had now
gone too far to be conciliated by any concessions.
On the 2d day of February 1779, the populace met ac¬
cording to appointment, in order to carry into execution the
various projects which they had in contemplation. They
began by an attack upon the house inhabited by the Ro¬
man Catholic bishop, and others of his persuasion, which
they committed to the flames, together with the place of
worship adjoining to it; and having in the same manner de¬
stroyed another house, which also contained a chapel, they
proceeded to vent their resentment on several individuals
of the same persuasion by burning their effects. The next
objects of their vengeance were those who had patronised
the Roman Catholics. They beset the houses of Dr Ro¬
bertson and Mr Crosby ; but the friends of these eminent
persons, on hearing of the intentions of the rioters, came
to their assistance in such numbers, and so well prepared
to repel force by force, that the populace did not dare to
commit the violence they had premeditated. This spirit¬
ed conduct, which was followed by the adoption of the
necessary precautions against their malevolent designs,
put an end to the attempts of the mob at Edinburgh. But
the spirit of dissatisfaction on account of the intended in¬
dulgence remained in full force; and ministry being held
out as harbouring a secret determination to undermine
the Protestant religion, and to introduce popery, were in
consequence loaded with the most outrageous invectives.
Matters, however, did not stop here. The same ungo¬
vernable spirit was soon communicated to a part of the
English nation; the cry against popery became daily
louder among the inferior classes; and that inveteracy
which time appeared to have mitigated began to revive in
as powerful a degree as if the nation were actually under
the impending horrors of persecution. To this were added
the secret fears of others, who still imagined that it was Reign •
not inconsistent with good policy to discourage a religion, George] i
from the professors of which so much danger had accrued wY'*rt
to the constitution of this country in former times, and
who, though averse to acts of violence, thought it neces¬
sary to keep alive the antipathy to the ancient faith, and
by no means to show a willingness to grant any further
indulgence than it had hitherto experienced. On these
grounds they were of opinion, that a suspension of the
laws enacted against it, although tacit and unauthorized,
was sufficient to remove all complaints of harshness and
oppression on the part of the Roman Catholics; and they
looked upon the penal statutes as a requisite bar to con¬
fine the Catholics within the bounds of due submission to
the laws of a Protestant state.
Hence a society was formed in London, under the de¬
signation of the Protestant Association, and Lord George
Gordon, who had rendered himself conspicuous in Scotland
by his opposition to the repeal, was elected its president;
and this body now prepared to act in a decisive manner
against the resolutions of the legislature.
On the 29th of May 1780 the members of the association
held a meeting in order to settle as to the manner in which
they should present a petition to the House of Commons
against the repeal of the penal statutes ; and on this occa¬
sion a long speech was delivered by the president, who re¬
presented the Roman persuasion as gaining ground rapidly
in the country, and affirmed that the only method of stop¬
ping its progress, was to go up with a spirited remonstrance
to their representatives, and to tell them in plain and re¬
solute terms that they'were determined to maintain their
religious freedom against all enemies, and at whatever
sacrifice. This harangue being received with the loudest
applause, Lord George next moved that the whole body
of the association should meet on the second day of June,
in St George’s Fields, at ten in the morning, to accompany
him to the House of Commons for the presentation of the
petition ; which was also assented to unanimously. Lord
George then informed the meeting, that it he found him¬
self attended by fewer than twenty thousand persons he
would not present the petition ; he directed them to form
into four divisions, the first, second, and third consisting
of those who belonged to the city, Westminster, and South¬
wark, and the fourth of the Scottish residents in London ,
and all were requested, by way of distinction, to wear b ue
cockades in their hats. Three days previous to the presen¬
tation of the petition, he gave notice of it in the ordinary
form to the house, and stated the manner in which it was
to be presented ; but this was received with as much in¬
difference and unconcern as all his former intimations.
On the second day of June, according to appointment.
about fifty or sixty7 thousand persons assembled in St
George’s Fields; and drawing up in four divisions, as ha
been arranged, proceeded to the parliament house, wi
Lord George Gordon at their head. An immense roll or
parchment was carried before them, containing the
of those who had signed the petition. On their way to
house they behaved with propriety and decency, u ^
mediately on their arrival disturbances commence •
rioters began by compelling all the rnem^eis, flts
houses whom they met to put blue cockades in their
and call out “ No Popery;” they forced some to ta ®
oath that they would vote for the repeal of P - A
act, as they styled it; and they treated others wi i &
indignity, posting themselves in all the avenues o ^
houses, the doors of which they twice endeavour
break open. But their rage was chiefly directed ag
the members of the House of Lords, several of w io
rowly escaped being murdered. 4
During these disturbances Lord George Gordon
A
BRITAIN.
JRe(ii of
Geoi HI
for leave to bring up the petition, which was readily grant¬
ed; but when he moved that it should be taken into imme¬
diate consideration, his proposal was strenuously opposed
by almost the whole house. Enraged at this opposition,
he came out several times to the people during the de¬
bate, acquainting them how averse the house appeared
to grant their petition, and naming particularly those who
had spoken against it. Several members of the house ex¬
postulated with him in the warmest terms on the unjusti¬
fiableness of his conduct; and one of his relations, Colonel
Gordon, threatened to run him through the moment any
of the rioters should force their entrance into the house.
It was some hours before the house could carry on its de¬
liberations with any regularity, which was not done till
the members were relieved by the arrival of a party of the
guards. As soon as order had been restored, the business
of the petition was resumed, when Lord George Gordon
told the house that it had been signed by nearly a hun¬
dred and twenty thousand British Protestant subjects, and
he therefore insisted that the petition should be consider¬
ed without delay. But notwithstanding the dangers w*ith
which they were menaced, and the proof which the mover
of the petition had given that no means would be left un¬
employed to compel them to grant it, the Commons con¬
tinued immovable in their determination, and of two hun¬
dred members then present in the house, six only voted
for taking the petition into immediate consideration.
In the mean time the mob had dispersed itself into va¬
rious parts of the metropolis, where they demolished two
Roman Catholic chapels belonging to foreign ministers,
and openly vented the most terrible menaces against all
persons of that persuasion. On the 4th of June they as¬
sembled in great numbers in the eastern parts of London,
a.nd attacked the chapels and houses of the Roman Catho¬
lics m that quarter, stripping them of their contents, which
they tnrew into the street, and committed -to the flames,
they renewed their outrages on the following day, destroy-
ing several Romish chapels, and demolished the house of
.lr George Saville, in resentment of his having brought
into parliament the bill in favour of the Roman Catholics.
Un the 6th both houses met as usual; but finding that
no business could be done, they adjourned to the 19th.
During this and the following days the rioters were ab-
solute masters of the metropolis and its environs. Some
of tJlose who had been concerned in the demolition of the
cnapels belonging to foreign ministers having been seized
and sent to Newgate, the mob collected before that pri¬
son, and demanded their immediate release ; and this be¬
ing refused, they proceeded to throw into the keeper’s
ouse nrebrands and all manner of combustibles, which
communicating fire to that and other parts of the build-
g, tiie wh0ie of the immense pile was soon in flames.
i™1 t 18 ®cene °f confusion, the prisoners, amounting to
„7, U 1 !ree hundred, were all released, including several
tfipi W!rc unt er sen^ence °f death. In the same manner
a nnmi r ru0 t le ^ng’s Bench and Fleet pr isons, and to
tPrrp ber of.houses belonging to Roman Catholics. The
mnstrr,°CCfS1uned tllese incendiaries was such that
wli:^Pe°plebun^ out oP t^leir windows pieces of blue silk,
on the C0l1°Ur assumed b7 ^e rioters, and chalked
wov nf . .rs.and shutters the words “ No Popery,” by
Tli S1£?lfy,nS ^ey were friendly to their cause."
Not ^ 9P dune concluded these horrors,
ed at ti, lan tblrty-six different conflagrations were count-
Bank bad been threatened,
413
tempts failed f f/ ed ; b.ut being well guarded, both at-
from all nQ,r i •? eyening large bodies of troops arrived
of the X* hapPl1/ tlrae t0 Put a stop to the progress
feared midtit’ X' uPon them wherever they ap-
> titudes were killed and wounded, whilst num¬
bers perished through intoxication. It was not until the Reign of
afternoon of the 8th, however, that people began to recover George III.
from their consternation. During the greater part of the v—
day, the disorders of the preceding night had created so
terrible an alarm, that the shops were almost universally
shut in every part of London. Nor were the melancholy
effects of misguided zeal confined solely to the capital. The
outrageous disposition of the populace was preparing to
enact the like horrid scenes in other parts of England, and
the mob actually rose in Hull, in Bristol, and in Bath ; but
through the timely interposition of the magistracy, these
places were saved from their fury.
On the subsiding of this violent and unexpected com¬
motion, Lord George Gordon was arrested, and commit¬
ted close prisoner to the Tower after having undergone a
long examination before the principal lords of the council.
On the 19th of June both houses met again pursuant
to adjournment; and on this occasion a speech was.read
from the throne, acquainting them with the measures
which had been taken in consequence of the disturbances,
and assuring them of the readiness of the crown to con¬
cur in any measures that might contribute to the main¬
tenance of the laws and liberties of the people. The
speech was highly approved ; but the conduct of admini¬
stration was severely censured, and charged with unpar¬
donable neglect for not calling forth the civil power, and
employing the military in due time to obviate the mis¬
chiefs which had been committed. Ministry excused itself,
however, on the ground of not having sufficient strength
to answer all the demands of assistance that were made
during the riots, and the absolute impossibility of sup¬
pressing them till the arrival of troops from the country.
The various petitions which had been presented for the
repeal of the act which had occasioned the riots, were
now taken into consideration ; but the house continued in
the same mind as formerly. Nevertheless it was thought
proper to yield somewhat to the prejudices of the people,
by passing a bill for preventing persons of the popish per¬
suasion from teaching or educating the children of Protest¬
ants ; but this was afterwards thrown out by the Lords.
Nothing could have happened more opportunely for
the ministry than the Protestant riots; for such were the
alarm and terror occasioned by them, that the ardour
which had been manifested in favour of popular meetings
and associations, as they were called, for opposing the
measures of government, was in a great degree suppress¬
ed. The county meetings were also represented as hav¬
ing a tendency, like the Protestant association, to bring
on insurrections and rebellions; many began to consider
all popular meetings as extremely dangerous; and among
the commercial and monied classes, some were so panic-
struck by the late riots, that all attention to the principles
of the constitution was overruled by their anxiety about
the preservation of their property. Had it not been for
these events, it is probable that the spirit of opposition
which then prevailed in the different counties would have
compelled administration to make some concessions to the
people.
In the suppression of these riots, however, the interfe¬
rence of the military without the command of the civil
magistrate became a matter of suspicion to the country;
and in the House of Lords the Duke of Richmond ex¬
pressed a desire that some of his majesty’s ministers
would rise and give their lordships assurances, that the
measures taken in order to suppress the riots, which were
defensible only upon the ground of necessity, would be
so stated, and that what had been illegally done, on the
ground of necessity, would be cured by an act of indem¬
nity. Various other observations were thrown out relative
to the king’s prerogative and to military law; upon which
414
BRITAIN.
Lteign of Lord Mansfield observed, that neither the king’s preroga-
George III. tive nor military law had any thing to do with the conduct
of government in their endeavours to quell the late out¬
rages. All men, of all ranks, descriptions, and denomina¬
tions, were bound, by their oath of allegiance, to intei-
pose for the prevention of acts of high treason or felony,
wherever any attempts to perpetrate such crimes weie
made in their presence, and were criminal if they refused
to do so. In the whole of these proceedings, therefore,
the military had not acted in their technical capacity as
military, but had merely exercised their duty as civil
men, which they, in common with other civil men, had
both a right and an obligation to exercise. When a body
of men were convened, without proceeding to the actual
perpetration of treasonable or felonious acts, then the pre¬
sence of the civil magistrate was necessary before the
military could interpose at all; and for this reason, that
as no acts of felony were committed, they could have no
plea in their civil character for meddling at all. But by
the statute law of the country, it became felonious in any
combination of men to persevere in that combination after
the riot act had been read by a justice of the peace ; and
this being done, they had then, and not till then, a consti¬
tutional reason for their interposition, namely, the privilege
and duty of hindering the commission of felony whenever
they had it in their power to do so.
This extraordinary doctrine was far from being agreeable
to the nation in general, and was very freely censured in
publications of all kinds. It was admitted, that if soldiers
came accidentally as individuals to any place where felonies
were committing, they might interfere, as well as others
of the king’s subjects, in the prevention of them. But
this was a different case from that of bodies of armed
troops being sent under officers commissioned by the king,
and with orders to act against riotous and disorderly per¬
sons without any authority from the civil magistrate. I he
constitution of England knew no such character as a mer¬
cenary soldier, at the sole will of the executive power.
Soldiers were held to their duty by laws which affected
no other part of the community; and no soldier, as such,
could be employed in the service of the constitution with¬
out a particular act of parliament in his favour. The idea
that a military man was convertible into a soldier or a ci¬
tizen, as royalty might move its sceptre, was a novelty got
up for the present occasion. Mercenary armies were un¬
derstood to consist of men who had either detached them¬
selves or been forced from civil societies; and on these
suppositions laws were made regarding their liberties and
lives, such as no members of civil society could submit to.
Soldiers were only tolerated by annual bills, and under
repeated pretences; and the very idea of blending them
with the common subjects of the state, and giving persons
of their description a right of judging on its most import¬
ant occurrences, would have filled our ancestors with hor¬
ror. The laws tolerated an army for certain periods, and
under certain restrictions; but there was no existing law
which admitted the interference of the military in any of
the operations of civil government. It was acknowledged
that the late atrocious riots had rendered an extraordina¬
ry exertion of power absolutely necessary; but it was at
the same time contended, that the interposition of the
army in those outrages, without any authority from the
civil magistrate, was an act of prerogative unconstitutional
and illegal, although perfectly seasonable and beneficial.
The public safety and benefit might sometimes excuse
exertions of power, which would be injurious and tyran¬
nical on ordinary occasions ; but the utmost care ought to
be taken that such extraordinary exertions should not be
established as precedents, which might operate fatally to
the constitution. If a large standing army was kept up,
and the king was understood to be invested with a power Rejgn
of ordering the troops to act discretionally whenever he George]
should judge proper, without any authority from the civil
magistrate, the people could have no possible security for
their liberties.
We now proceed to notice the operations of the war,
which, notwithstanding the powerful confederacy against
Great Britain, were rather in her favour than otherwise.
The Spaniards had commenced their military operations
with the siege of Gibraltar, but with very little success;
and the close of the year 1779, and beginning of 1780, were
productive of considerable naval advantages to Great Bri¬
tain. On the 18th of December 1779, the fleet under the
command of Sir Hyde Parker in the West Indies captur¬
ed nine sail of French merchant ships under the convoy of
some ships of war; and two days afterwards he detached
Rear-Admiral Rowley in pursuit of three large French
ships, which were supposed to form part of M. la Motte-
Piquet’s squadron returning from Grenada. About the
same time several other vessels were taken by the same
squadron commanded by Sir Hyde Parker. On the 8th
of January 1780, Sir George Brydges Rodney, who had
been intrusted with the command of a fleet, one object of
the destination of which was the relief of Gibraltar, tell in
with twenty-two sail of Spanish ships, and in a few hours ,
captured the whole fleet. In little more than a week
afterwards the same fortunate admiral met with still mere
signal success. On the 16th of the month he engaged,
near Cape St Vincent, a Spanish fleet, consisting of eleven
sail of the line and two frigates, under the command of Don
Juan de Langara. The Spaniards made a gallant defence;
but four of their largest ships were taken, and carried into
Gibraltar. These were, the Phcenix of eighty guns and
seven hundred men, on board of which was the Admira
Don Juan de Langara; the Monarca, of seventy guns and
six hundred men, Don Antonio Oyarvide commander;
the Princessa, of seventy guns and six hundred men, Don
Manuel de Leon commander; and the Diligente, of seven¬
ty guns and six hundred men, Don Antonio Abornoz com¬
mander. Two other seventy gun ships were also taken;
but one of them was driven on shore on the breakers
and lost, and the other was likewise driven on shore, but
afterwards recovered. Four ships ot the line and t e two
frigates escaped; but two of the former were much da¬
maged in the action, during which one ship, the ban Do¬
mingo, of seventy guns and six hundred men, was b own
up. The five men of war taken were remarkably fine ships,
and being afterwards completely refitted and manned,
were put into the English line of battle. The Spanish a -
miral and his officers applied to Sir George Rodney to od-
tain the liberty of returning to Spain upon their parole o
honour; but this he declined for some time, having receiv
information that a great number of British seamen, w
ought to have been released, were then prisoners in p •
However, having afterwards received assurances tha
captives would be immediately set at liberty, he re e
the Spanish admiral and officers upon their parole, an
prisoners in general were treated with a generosi y
humanity which made a great impression upon t e
of Madrid and the Spanish nation. • nn of
When Admiral Rodney had supplied the garnso
Gibraltar wdth provisions, ammunition, and
proceeded on his voyage to the West Indies; fia'ine ^
home part of his fleet, with the Spanish prizes, un^ , f
command of Rear-Admiral Digby. On the twen
March an action was fought in the West Indies,
some French and English men of war, the lorme
the command of M. de la Motte-Piquet, anc e ^
the command ot ivl. de la iviotte-riquei, ^
forming part of Sir Peter Parkers squadion, ulk j-gd
of Commodore Cornwallis. T.he contest was m
BRITAIN.
Reign of
eorge III
on both sides with great spirit; but the French were at
length forced to sheer off, and make the best of their way
for Cape Francois.
Soon after Admiral Rodney had arrived in the West
Indies, and assumed the command of his majesty’s ships
at the Leeward Islands, an action took place between the
fleet under his orders and that of the French under the
command of Count de Guichen. This occurred on the
17th of April. The British squadron consisted of twenty
415
three millions of dollars were secured by the victors, and Reign of
other valuable commodities, including twenty-five quintals George III.
ot quicksilver, for extracting the precious metals from  '
their ores, and the loss of which consequently rendered
the mines useless.
But whilst the British were making the most vigorous
ettorts, and upon the whole gaining advantages over the
powers who opposed them in the field, enemies were rais¬
ed up throughout all Europe, who, by reason of their act-
ships of the line, besides frigates; and the French fleet of tog iUroctfy, could neithTbe o^d „„res7sted. The
twenty-three ships of the line, and several frigates. The power which most decidedly manifested its hostile intern
action began a little before one, and continued til about a tions was Holland ; but besides this, a most formidaWe
quarter after four m the afternoon. Admira Rodney was confederacy, under the title of the Armed Neutrality, was
on board the Sandwich a ninety gun ship, which beat three formed, evidently with the design of crushing the power
of the French ships out of their line of battle, and entirely of Great Britain. Of this powlrful confederacy the em-
broke it. But the Sandwich and several other ships were
so much crippled that an immediate pursuit was impossible,
without compromising the safety of the disabled ships. The
victory was accordingly claimed by both sides, but no ship
was taken on either, and the French retired to Guada-
loupe. Admiral Rodney’s ship, the Sandwich, had suf¬
fered so much, that for twenty-four hours she was with
press of Russia avowed herself the head; and her resolu¬
tion was intimated on the 26th of February 1780, in a
declaration addressed to the courts of London, Versailles,
and Madrid. In this paper it was alleged, that her impe¬
rial majesty’s subjects had often been molested in their
navigation, and retarded in their operations, by the ships
and privateers of the belligerent powers ; that she found
difficulty kept above water. Of the British upwards of herself under' t'he''nece'ssuf of'remoring The vTxatiZ
three bundled were killed and wounded in this engage- which were offered to the commerce of Russia, as well as
ment. On the 15th of May another action took place to the liberty of commerce in general, by all the means
between the same commanders. But as it did not com- compatible with her dignity and the welfare of her sub-
mence till near seven in the evening, and only a few ships jects ; but that before adopting any serious measures, and
were engaged, nothing decisive took place. The fleets to prevent all new misunderstandings, she thought it just
met again on the 19th of the same month, when a third
action ensued ; but this, like the former, terminated with¬
out any material advantage to either side. On this occa¬
sion the British lost upwards of two hundred men killed
and wounded; while, according to the French accounts,
t.ie total loss sustained by the enemy in the three actions,
amounted to nearly a thousand killed and wounded. The
preceding details show that the French at this time had a
formidable fleet in the West Indies ; and its force was aug¬
mented in June by the junction of a Spanish squadron near
the island of Dominica; so that the French and Spanish
and equitable to expose to the eyes of all Europe the prin¬
ciples which she had adopted as the guides of her conduct.
And these were contained in the following propositions :
First, that neutral ships should enjoy a free navigation, even
from port to port, and on the coasts of the belligerent
powers; secondly, that all effects belonging to the subjects
of the belligerent powers should be looked upon as free
on board such neutral ships, excepting only such goods as
were stipulated contraband; thirdly, that the principles
recognised, and the articles enumerated as contraband,
in the treaties between Great Britain and Russia in 1734
.   ’ ^ Mim u^cunoii in me Lieiiues ueiween urreai ismain anu itussia in 1134)
neets when united, amounted to thirty-six sail of the line, and 1766, should still be adhered to. In the former it was
onmustanding their superiority, however, they did not provided, that “ the subjects of either party may freely
fWfC °i 1 le ^n*'lsh islands, nor even reconnoitre the pass, repass, and trade in all countries which now are, or
whiVIU1fi er 116 command pf George Brydges Rodney, hereafter shall be, at enmity with the other of the said
1 1 1.en anchor in Gros Islet bay. By the vigi- parties, places actually blocked up or besieged only ex-
wp-6 an £00(^ cnnduct of the admiral, indeed, their efforts cepted, provided they do not carry any warlike stores or
thp^ ^ u-£reat measure paralysed; and so sensible were ammunition to the enemy,” whilst, “ as for all other effects,
hous*11 f.ltants t^lese islands of his services, that the their ships, passengers, and goods, shall be free and un¬
sent °1 aSSembly ^ Christophers and Nevis pre- molested; but,” that “ cannons, mortars, or other warlike
seciGt at i'-e^ses kiro* testifying their gratitude for the utensils, in any quantity beyond what may be necessary
and n y W11., they pnj°yed 1° consequence of his spirited for the ship’s provision, and may properly appertain to and
In th 0nat) e. exei tlons' be judged necessary for every man of the ship’s crew, or
ed th 6 mo|ltb *June> Admiral Geary, who command- for each passenger, shall be deemed ammunition of war ;
bound^eet’ t0°-k twe^ve valuable merchant ships and if any such be found, they may seize and confiscate
°f Fra rom FcpGau-Frince to Bourdeaux and other ports the same according to law ; but neither the vessels, pas-
import10^ ’ bUt *n tbe montla July a very unexpected and sengers, nor the rest of the goods, shall be detained for that
cited ^ •^aP,:u^e was made by the Spaniards, which ex- reason, or hindered from pursuing their voyage.” And in
Augu^'r' *ab^6 alarm in Great Britain. On the 8th of the treaty of 1766 the same enumeration was given of the
the Ra ’ ^-Cmtray, who had under his command goods stipulated as contraband, as in the treaty of 1734.
a fleet mif 108 0^. seventy*^our guns, and two frigates, with Her imperial majesty further proposed, fourthly, that in.
Indies ° imerc lantmen bound for the East and West order to determine what characterizes a port blocked up,
the comb' er, (^)nvoy’ llacl the misfortune to fall in with that denomination should not be granted, except to places
e(] froin "eets °f France and Spain, which had sail- before which there were actually a number of enemy’s
twofrin-nf*1 12 1 le Precetling day- The Ramillies and the ships stationed near enough to render its entry danger-
funded flS esfiCal3e^ ’ ^ut t|le rest were so completely sur- ous ; and, lastly, that these principles should serve as
hound for 6^ ^.nc^arnen> and fifty merchant ships rules in judicial proceedings and in sentences as to the
the most 16 ^ es^ ^dies, were taken. This was one of legality of prizes. Her imperial majesty declared, that
a heavy Cte nava^ caPtures ever made, and proved she was firmly resolved to maintain these principles ; that,
prize, howr°ke t0 tbe co.mmerce of Great Britain. The in order to protect the honour of her flag and the security
Spaniards f^b^163^ 38 ^ WaS’ scarcety compensated the of the commerce and navigation of her subjects, she had
01 the capture of Fort Omoa, where upwards of given an order to fit out a considerable naval force ; that
416
BRITAIN.
1 rm infliipnrp on the body to conclude a treaty with Holland. Mr Laurens Keign
Reign of this measure, however, wouk was resolved to himself was instantly committed prisoner to the Tower, George;
George III. Strict and r.gorous neutrahty which she was resolvea to nnnse remJstrance was ^dressed to the states W'l
-W observe, as bng as she should of HolSid, requiring a formal disavowal of the transaction.
her principles of “jd be The states, however, answered evasively, that they would
it was only in such an extrem y necessity take the matter into consideration according to the forms
ordered to act, wherever hono , communicated and usages of the country, and that a reply would be given
should require. This declaration ^ envTextra- as soon Is the nature of their government would admit,
to the States-general by Pri^e , t ’ k common The British government could not possibly mistake this
ordinary of Russia, who invited pit[fJ equivocation; and accordingly the most vigorous
cause with the empress for the protection ot commerce insta’nd resolved ^ 0n the 25th of Ja-
and navigation ; and similar communia^icn^ gtockholm nu 17glj it was announced to the House of Commons
tions were made to the coui ts § ’ • ti tkat Jis majesty had directed letters of marque and reprisal
esmblishfdTd lobe issued a^ins, the Slat—ral and them subjects.
kgaLed, and a sy«em!dopted founded and ^
calculated to serve as a sort ot maritime code for future which had been Jdered to be laid
ases- r a.1 race rtf T?nc«m thnup-horo- before parliament. The charges against the republic were
The memorial of the empress of R“ss‘a’ ‘“oufGP'“t briefly summed up by Lord North in his speech on the
SSSH&Sisa =;S2“ SSS-H
as might have been expected, receded with to greater s of bu( ^ al5o> ^
cordiality. In the answer ol Fiance »as “ “ation 0/the ,aw „fnations,contributed tofumisli France
what her ™F^' wkh warlike stores, and had’now at length thought proper
Ech with to countenance the magistracy of Amsterdam in t e.,n-
an exactness known and applauded by all Europe Sriong suit w“y tad oflered
approbation was expressed f pnnciphis and views ot in.o^ ^ By the treaty of 1678, it
SsSsHlSESSS
SHiSSSaSSSS SSpasSsES
Teen 3 down in the memorial of Russia. treaty. The States-general had
But though the British ministry could not openly en- a Scotsman, and a pirate, acting without J
gage in wartidi all tlm other powers of Europef^; de- from any acknowledged
termined to take signal vengeance on the Dutch, whose into their poits, and to ic ’ „ , . J i St Eu-
bas!ingratitude and perfidy now became a subject of in like manner been fluted at the Dutch island St
generallpeculation. It has already been observed, that statins, after she had been suffered to capture t
ever since the commencement of hostilities with the Arne- tish ships within cannon-shot of thmr forts and c 1 ^
ricans, the Dutch had shown a decided inclination in their A memorial had been presented at the Hague ^
favour; and this partiality continued to be evinced to a 1/79, on the breaking 0 e. j treaty of 1678;
degree beyond what might have been expected from the the aid we were entitled to require by Bie treaty
natural aviditv of a mercantile people. Frequent me- ljut of this not the least notice had been taken on t p
morials and remonstrances had in consequence passed of the states. Two otber ”otlc^s ^e^eceptbn. The
between the two nations, and the breach gradually grew ed, each of wlnch met wi i the sa pt ^
wider and wider, until at last matters came to extremities, British ministry had douealmtheir p b ^
by a discovery that the town of Amsterdam was about states to a true sense of their interest, and when
to7 enter into I commercial treaty with America. This cessity of the case compelRd them to seize on the Dutc^
came to light in the beginning of September 1780, by ships carrying stores to France, they had p dt^ ^
the capture of Mr Laurens, lately president of the Arne- value of the cargoes, and re urned the s Ts ’ . aor the
rican congress, and who had been empowered by that ther the private merchant, the private adventu ,
J This man, who had formerly been a servant in Lord Selkirk’s house, had landed in 1778, and plundered it th° plate,
out doing any further mischief. The action, however, proved very disagreeable to his own party; and, at the aes In
the plate was afterwards restored. After this exploit he attempted to set fire to the town of Whitehaven, bVt ied 0ff some
1779 he made a descent on the coast of Ireland, but without committing any act of hostility : his Pf°P*e d in the frith
sheep and oxen, but their captain paid liberally for what they had taken. In the month of September 1779, he appe deskn was
of Forth with several prizes, and advanced up above the island of Inchkeith, so as to be nearly opposite to Tieici. andsuch
supposed to have been to burn the shipping there; but he was prevented from attempting this by a strong wes.tj;^r, ,e’miscarrie«i
measures were also taken for the defence of the harbour, by erecting batteries and otherwise, that e wou c pio 7 nf which he took
had any attempt been made by him. On leaving the coast of Scotland he fell in with the Serapis and Scaxhoroug a, . jones into
after a desperate engagement, in which these vessels were reduced to almost total wrecks. 1 hese prizes were c not, being
a Dutch harbour ; and it was this transaction to which Lord North now alluded. He was called a pirate, acc.oa ite party,
at that time properly furnished with a commission either from France or America; though this was denied by i PI ^
BRITAIN.
n of states, had suffered any loss. France only had felt the in-
,? IH. convenience, by her being deprived of that assistance which
^ she would have received from those cargoes. The minister
lamented the necessity of a war with Holland; but it ap¬
peared to him to be unavoidable. The difficulties with
which the nation had to struggle were certainly great;
but they were by no means insuperable. He was neither
desirous of concealing their magnitude, nor afraid to meet
them, great as they must be acknowledged; convinced,
that when the force of this country was fully exerted,
it would be found equal to the contest, and that the only
means of obtaining an honourable and a just peace, was to
show ourselves capable of carrying on the war with spirit
and vigour.
But before this resolution could have been communicat¬
ed officially to the naval commanders in the West Indies,
the Dutch were actually attacked. The island of St Eu-
statius was, on the 3d of February 1781, summoned by Ad¬
miral Rodney and General Vaughan to surrender to the
arms of Great Britain, and only one hour was given for con¬
sideration. Submission was inevitable. The island accord¬
ingly surrendered; the property found on it was confiscated,
and a sale instituted, with circumstances of rapacity which
afterwards became the subject of a discussion in parlia¬
ment, and drew upon the nation the ill will of all Europe.
The Dutch in fact seem to have acted with great impru¬
dence, and, notwithstanding their provoking conduct to¬
wards Britain, to have made no preparations for war in the
event of being attacked. But in spite of this inactivity,
they still retained much of their ancient valour, and were
in fact the most formidable naval enemies whom Britain
had to contend with.
I August 1781 they had equipped a considerable squa¬
dron, the command of which was given to Rear-admiral
Zoutman ; and on the 5th of that month this squadron fell
m with the British fleet commanded by Admiral Hyde
Parker. The force under Zoutman consisted, according
to the Dutch account, of one ship of seventy-four guns,
one of sixty-eight, one of sixty-four, three of fifty-four,
and one of forty-four, besides frigates; but the English
account states the hostile fleet to have consisted of eight
two-decked ships. No gun was fired on either side till the
fleets were within half musket-shot distance. The action
began about eight in the morning, and continued with the
utmost fury for three hours and forty minutes. Both sides
tought with equal ardour, and little advantage was gained
by either. When the action ceased, both squadrons lay
ike logs on the water; but after a time the Dutch ships
o war, with their convoy, bore away for the Texel, whilst
tne English were too much disabled to follow them. A
utch seventy-four gun ship sunk soon after the action,
n board the British fleet upwards of four hundred were
killed and wounded; and the loss of the Dutch was pro-
ably greater. Admiral Zoutman, in his account of the
Rrff-gi?mfnt’ s.ta^es Biat his men fought like lions ; and the
is i admiral, in the dispatch transmitted by him to the
aamwaRy observes that his majesty’s officers and men be-
°'allantrylt^ ^reat bravery> nor did the enemy show less
lmP°®sibiIity of crushing the power of Great Bri-
7 y any force whatever was now beginning to be evi-
thp t(LllCr most inveterate enemies. In Europe,
noth, °St e^orts of France and Spain were able to effect
thp Ch m0rie tb® annual parade of a mighty fleet in
Britisl^fl1111^ ’ cabed forth the apparition of a
tack it S° ^orm'dable that the enemy never durst at-
and thE t 6 states of Holland had sent out their force;
cononpr °? was opposed by one which, if insufficient to
thins' dptr;^ ^ !east able t0 Prevent their effecting any
voL v ental t0 0ur P^sessions. In the East Indies
417
the united powers of the French and Indians had been con- Reign of
quered, and the Dutch settlements had suffered severely. George III.
In the year 1781, however, the British naval power in
the West Indies seemed to sink, and some events took
place which threatened serious results. This was owing
to the great superiority of the combined fleets of France
and Spain, by which that of Britain was now so far out¬
numbered, that it could not achieve any thing of conse¬
quence. An ineffectual attempt was made by Admiral
Rodney on the island of St Vincents, and an indecisive
engagement took place on the 28th of April 1781, between
Admiral Hood and the Count de Grasse, the event of
which, however, was certainly honourable to Britain, as the
French had a superiority of six ships of the line. But the
damage done to the British ships having obliged them to
ictiie to Barbadoes to refit, the French availed themselves
of the opportunity to effect a descent on the island of To¬
bago ; and although the governor made a gallant resistance,
he w as at last obliged to surrender. Admiral Rodney had
sent Rear-admiral Drake with six sail of the line, three
frigates, and some troops, to the assistance of the island ;
but they were dispatched too late, as the island had capi¬
tulated before the intended relief could have reached it.
But the great and decisive stroke, which happened this
yeoi, was the capture of Lord Cornwallis, with the division
of the army under his command, at Yofktown. This was
a gi eat calamity ; and other events were sufficiently mor¬
tifying. The province of West FI1 1 1 ’ ’ ’
- w , ^ Florida had been reduced
by the Spaniards; Minorca was besieged by them with
every prospect of success ; the island of St Eustatius had
been surprised by the French ; and in short every circum¬
stance seemed to proclaim the necessity of putting an end
to a war so calamitous and destructive. But all the dis¬
asters which had yet happened were insufficient to induce
the ministry to abandon their favourite scheme of war with
the colonies.
The parliament met on the 27th of November 1781. It
has already been stated, that in the year 1780 the minis¬
try had sustained a defeat so signal as seemed to prognos¬
ticate the ruin of their power. They had indeed afterwards
acquired a majority, and the terror produced by the riots
had contributed not a little to the re-establishment of their
influence. The remembrance of what had passed, how¬
ever, most probably induced them to dissolve parliament;
whilst the successes at Charlestown and in other parts of
America once more gave them a decided majority in both
houses. But the disasters of the year 1781 involved them
in the most serious difficulties. In the speech from the
throne, his majesty observed, that the war was still unhap¬
pily prolonged by the restless ambition which had first ex¬
cited the enemies of his crown and people to commence it.
But he should not discharge the trust committed to the
sovereign of a free people, nor make a suitable return to his
subjects for their zealous and affectionate attachment to
him, if he consented to sacrifice, either to his own desire of
peace, or to their temporary ease and relief, those essential
rights and permanent interests, upon the maintenance and
preservation of which the future strength and security of
Great Britain must depend. The events of war, he said,
had been very unfortunate to his arms in Virginia, having
ended in the loss of his forces in that province ; but the
misfortune in that quarter called loudly for the firm con¬
currence and assistance of parliament, in order to frustrate
the designs of the enemy, which were as prejudicial to
the real interests of America as to those of Great Britain.
His majesty regretted much the additional burdens which a
continuance of the w'ar would unavoidably bring upon his
subjects; but he still declared his perfect conviction of
the justice of his cause, and hoped that, by the concur¬
rence and support of his parliament, by the valour of his
3 g
f
418
BRITAIN.
Reign of fleets and armies, and by a vigorous, animated, and unit-
George III. ed exertion of the powers and resources of his people, he
v—would be enabled to restore to his dominions the blessing
of a safe and honourable peace. .
A motion for an address of thanks, couched in the usual
style, was made in the House of Commons; and it was
urged, that a durable and advantageous peace could result
only from the firm, vigorous, and unremitting prosecution
of the war, and that the present was not the time to re¬
linquish hope, but to resolve upon exertion. The motion,
however, was vehemently opposed by Mr Fox and Mr
Burke. The latter remarked, that if there could be a
greater misfortune than had already been inflicted on this
kingdom in the present disgraceful contest, it was hear¬
ing men rise up in the great assembly of the nation to
vindicate such measures. If the ministry and the parlia¬
ment were not to be taught by experience,—if neither ca¬
lamities could make them feel, nor the voice of God make
them wise,—what had this fallen and undone country to
hope for? A battle might be lost, an enterprise might
miscarry, an island might be captured, an army might be
lost in the best of causes, and even under a system of vi¬
gour and foresight; because the battle, after all the wis¬
dom and bravery of man, was in the hands of heaven;
and if either or all of these calamities had happened in
a good cause, and under the auspices of a vigilant admi¬
nistration, a brave people would not despair. But it was
not so in the present case. Amidst all their sufferings
and their misfortunes, they saw nothing so distressing as
the weakness or wickedness of their ministers. They seem¬
ed still determined to go on, without plan and without
foresight, in this war of calamities; for every thing that
happened in it was a calamity. He considered them all
alike, victories and defeats ; towns taken and towns eva¬
cuated ; new generals appointed, and old generals recall¬
ed ; they were all alike calamities in his eyes, for they
all spurred us on to this fatal business. Victories gave us
hopes, defeats made us desperate, and both instigated us
to go on. In the course of the debate, it was contended
on the part of administration, and particularly by Lord
North, that by the address, as originally proposed, the
house did not pledge themselves to any continuance of
the American war; but this was strongly denied by the
gentlemen in opposition. However, the point was at last
decided in favour of ministry by a large majority ; and the
address was then carried as originally proposed. In the
House of Peers, a motion for an address similar to that of
the House of Commons was made by Lord Southampton,
and seconded by Lord Walsingham ; but it was vigorously
opposed by the Earl of Shelburne and the Duke of Rich¬
mond, whilst Lord Stormont and the lord chancellor de¬
fended the course adopted by ministers; and the address
was ultimately carried by a majority of more than two to
one. A short protest against the address was, however,
entered by the Duke of Richmond, the Marquis of Rock¬
ingham, and Earl Fitzwilliam ; in which they declared
that they dissented, for reasons too often urged in vain
for the last seven years, against the ruinous prosecution
of the unjust war carrying on by his majesty’s ministers
against the people of North America, and too fatally con¬
firmed by repeated experience, and the disgraceful loss of
a second army, to stand in need of repetition.
Though ministers thus succeeded in carrying the ad¬
dresses in the usual form, they did not meet with equal
success in their main design of carrying on the war. After
the debate on the number of seamen, which was fixed at
one hundred thousand for the ensuing year, Sir James
Lowther moved as a resolution of the house, that the war
carried on with America had been ineffectual for the pur¬
poses for which it was undertaken; and that all further
other articles, amounted to tour minions iwu ^
twenty thousand pounds. This military force e
that of the last year by upwards of four thousand
attempts to reduce that continent by force of arms would Reign j
be in vain, and must be injurious to this country, by weak-George; i, (,
ening her power of resisting her ancient and confederated
enemies. This was supported by a number of arguments
interlarded with the most severe reflections on the con¬
duct of ministers. But the motion was opposed by Lord
North, who said that, if agreed to by the house, it would
put an end to the American war in every shape, and even
cripple the hands of government in other respects. It
would point out to the enemies of this country what were
to be the mode and conduct of the war; and thus inform
the enemy in what manner they might best point their
operations against this country during the next campaign.
With respect to the American war in general, his lordship
acknowledged that it had been extremely unfortunate;
but he affirmed that the misfortunes and calamities which
had attended it, though of a most serious and fatal nature,
were matters rather to be deplored and lamented as the
events of war, in themselves perpetually uncertain, than
to be ascribed to any criminality in ministers. He added,
that though he totally disapproved of the motion, yet he
was willing to declare it to be his opinion, that it would
not be wise nor right to go on with the American war as
we had hitherto done ; that is, to send armies to traverse
from south to north the provinces in their interior parts,
as had been done in a late case, and which had failed of
producing the intended and desired effect.
On the other hand, General Burgoyne observed, that
declaring a design of maintaining posts in America, of the
nature of New York, was declaring a design of offensive
war ; and that such a maintenance of posts would prove
an improvident and preposterous mode of warfare. With
regard to the American war, the impracticability of it was
a sufficient justification for supporting the present motion.
But he was now convinced that the principle of the Ame¬
rican war was wrong, though he had not been of that opi¬
nion when he formerly engaged in the service in America.
He had been brought to this conviction by observing the
uniform conduct and behaviour of the people of America.
Passion, prejudice, and interest, might operate suddenly
and partially; but when we saw one principle pervading the
whole continent, and the Americans resolutely encounter¬
ing difficulty and death for a course of years, it must.b^
a strong vanity and presumption in our own minds winch
could lead us to imagine that they were not in the right.
It was reason, and the finger of God alone, which implant¬
ed the same sentiment in three millions of people.
After some further debate, Sir James Lowther s motion
was rejected by a majority of two hundred and twenty to
one hundred and seventy-nine. This, however, was a ma¬
jority in which the ministry had little reason to exu , a
it was sufficiently apparent, from the numbers who vo ea
against administration, that the uninfluenced sense ot me
house was clearly and decisively against any further p
sedition of the American war. f
Other arguments to the same purpose with those
General Burgoyne, just mentioned, were used in the deb
on the army estimates. On the 14th of Decemb ,
secretary at war informed the house, that the whole to ce
of the army, including the militia of this king om,
ed for the service of the year 1782, would amount
hundred and eighty-six thousand two hunch ec an
ty men, and for this force the parliament had to pro
The sum required for these troops for pay, clothing,
nthpr articles, amounted to four millions two hun
tnat or tne last year vy ut,vvai^o   twen-
the expense was consequently greater by upwai
ty-nine thousand pounds. 1 he increase was occas ^
the greater number of troops already sent, or then g &
BRITAIN.
K -n of
Ge< sill
tli6 East Indies. But the expense of those troops was to
be reimbursed by the East India Company. After some
J further statements relative to the military force of the king¬
dom, and its expense, had been made by the secretary at
war, Colonel Barre declared, that the estimates of the army
as then laid before the house were scandalous and evasive.
There was a much greater number of non-effective men
than was stated in the estimates; in fact, they amounted
to a fifth part of the army. The house should also recollect,
that the estimates lying on the table did not compose the
whole expense of the army ; for extraordinaries of several
millions were yet to come. Neither wrere the men under
the several descriptions given by the secretary at w*ar the
whole numbei of military force employed. Other troops
were employed solely at the discretion of the minister, and
paid irregulaily and unconstitutionally, without the consent
or knowledge of the legislature ; particularly the provincial
corps in America, amounting to nine thousand men in ac¬
tual service, the statement of which force, though it had
been called for from year to year, was never brought into
the estimates. Lord George Germaine explained, that
the reason why the provincial corps had not been included
m the estimates was, that some share of the public money
might be spared, by avoiding to vote an establishment for
these troops. They were raised and paid in a manner by
much the most economical for the nation. Sir Georo-e
Saville expressed the strongest disapprobation of any fur¬
ther prosecution of the American war, or of raisino- any
more troops for that purpose. General Conway also dis¬
approved entirely of a continuance of the American war
m any form. He considered an acknowledgment of the
independence of America as a severe misfortune, and a
heavy stroke against Great Britain ; but of the two evils
he would choose the least, and submit to the independence
oi America rather than persist a day longer in the prose¬
cution of a ruinous war. Notwithstanding these and other
arguments, however, the question was carried in favour of
ministry by a considerable majority, and the supplies were
voted accordingly. 11
Besides the grand question of the continuance of the
American war, several other matters of smaller moment
were agitated during this session, particularly the affair
oi bt Lustatius, already mentioned, and an inquiry into
the state of the navy. But on these, as on the greater
rbe mi™try P^vailed, though not without a
strength of opposition which they had seldom encountered
nnlvT’ • motlon for censuring Lord Sandwich was lost
rhZ by ?ln,et<:e?; and 80 general was the desire for a
3e of ^ministration, that it excited surprise how the
in n stl retamed their places. Nothing could place
n a more striking point of view the detestation in which
misLn'nf T the eXtreme rePugnance to thead-
peerrP fn0^-Ge°rge.Germaine t0 the diSnitJ of the
onlvlf' ,G\tlm occasi°n the affair of Minden was not
andywl1°Ug U a,b°ye b,oard; but’ after his actual investiture,
tide ofT hfvad taken his seat in the house> under the
ini Vlscount Sackville, a debate ensued respect-
aimietf dls.honou1r wlllch the peers had sustained by his
thenr„" r;,° !ll-eir house- The °f Caermar!
hiihlv d’t iat Ifc Was reprehensible in any minister, and
th! lw„Tt0ry t0 the h0n°Ur °f the house’ to advise
peer Tn f eXerfSe ltS indisPutable right of creating a
census nff?Ur °f a pe-rS°n labouriug under the heavy
motion tint fn°UTj martiaJ ’ and urged’ in support of his
it behoved tb^ H°Use of ;Peers being a court of honour,
uncontaminatT m(iSt carefuI1y to preserve that honour
possible thfff’ and u° oudeavour to mark, as forcibly as
into their assemh?Pr°batl<!n W£ich tbey Mt at receiving
tized in the ordedv hlk br?ther peer’-a perS-°n Stigma'
oraerly books of every regiment in the ser-
419
vme. The Earl of Abingdon could not help conceiving, lieign of
t tat although there was not a right of election, there must George III.
be a right of exclusion vested in the house, when the ad-
mission of any peer happened to be against the sense of
its members; that he considered the admission of Lord
George Germaine to a peerage as an insufferable indignity
to the house, and as an outrageous insult to the people;
that it was an indignity to that house, inasmuch as it con¬
nected them with one whom every soldier was forbidden
to associate withal; and that it was an insult to the peo¬
ple, as the person now raised to the peerage had done
nothing to merit honours superior to his fellow-citizens.
Lord Sackville defended himself as well as he could
against this attack. He denied that he knew by whose
advice he had been raised to the peerage; he impugned
the justice of the sentence of the court-martial; he re¬
presented himself as the victim of an acrimony and hos¬
tility without example; he adverted to the time which
had elapsed since the sentence of the court-martial was
pronounced, and to the political offices which he had since
been called to fill; and he contended that his elevation
to the dignity of the peerage was virtually a repeal of the
proceedings of the military tribunal in question. The
Duke of Richmond replied with great ability to the vari¬
ous pleas which Lord Sackville had brought forward in
his own justification. In particular, he observed, that
their lordships were not ignorant, that the noble viscount
rested a considerable part of the vindication of his be¬
haviour at the battle of Minden upon the supposed exist-
ence of a striking variation in the orders delivered from
Prince Ferdinand to the commander of the cavalry. It
was understood that the first order was, that the cavalry
should advance; and the second, that the British cavalry
should advance. Yet even under these supposed contra¬
dictory orders, it was evident that the noble lord ought to
have advanced, and, certainly, the distance being short,
he enjoyed a sufficient space of time for obedience to his
instructions. Lord Southampton, who delivered one of
the messages, was now present in the house ; and it would
seem that he had no choice on this occasion but to acknow¬
ledge, either that he did not properly deliver such orders
to the noble viscount, or that the latter, having properly
received them, neglected to obey them. But whatever
difficulties might have arisen during the endeavours to
determine exactly how much time had actually been lost
in consequence of the non-compliance of Lord Sackville
with the orders which he received, he could with much fa¬
cility have solved what all the witnesses examined as to
this point were not able positively to determine. If, sum¬
moned as he was to appear upon the trial, his deposition
had been called for, he could have proved, because he held
all the while his watch in his hand, and seldom ceased to
look at it, that the time lost by the noble viscount delaying
to advance, under pretence of receiving such contradictory
orders as made it impossible for him to discover whether
he ought to advance with the whole cavalry, or only with
the British cavalry, was one hour and a half. It was there¬
fore extremely evident that the noble lord had had it in his
power to bring up the cavalry from the distance of a mile
and a quarter; the consequence of which would have been
that, by joining in the battle, they might have rendered the *
victory more brilliant and decisive. But before the arrival
of this cavalry, the engagement was concluded. Such was
the testimony, said the duke, which, having had the honour
to serve at the battle of Minden under Prince Ferdinand of
Brunswick, he must have borne, if, being summoned, the
members of the court-martial had thought proper to have
examined him on the trial. Under such circumstances,
the noble viscount could have but little reason to complain
of the sentence of the court-martial, of the orders which
420
BRITAIN.
Reign of followed it, or of the loss of his commission. The motion
George III. was powerfully supported by other arguments, both by
'—~Y^ the Duke of Richmond himself and by other peers ; but
it was nevertheless rejected by a large majority. _ A pro¬
test was however entered, signed by nine peers, in which
the sentence and the public orders were particularly stated;
and in which they declared, that they looked upon the lais-
ing to the peerage a person so circumstanced as a measure
fatal to the interests as well as to the glory of the crown,
and to the dignity of the house.
The ruinous tendency of the American war was now
so strikingly apparent, that it became necessary for those
who had a just sense of the dangerous situation of the
country, and wished well to its interests, to exert their
most vigorous efforts to put an end to so fatal a contest.
Accordingly, on the 22d of February, a motion was made
by General Conway, that an humble address should be
presented to his majesty, imploring him to take into his
consideration the many and great calamities which ha.d
attended this unfortunate war, and to listen to the humble
prayer and advice of his faithful Commons, that the war
on the continent of North America might no longer be pur¬
sued for the impracticable purpose of reducing that coun¬
try to obedience by force. The motion was seconded by
Lord John Cavendish, but vigorously opposed by adminis¬
tration, who had still strength sufficient to carry their point,
though only by a single vote, the motion being rejected by
a hundred and ninety-four to a hundred and ninety-three.
The increasing power of the opposition now showed that
the downfal of the ministry was at hand. Ihe decision of
the last question was considered as a victory gained by the
former, and Mr Fox instantly gave notice that the subject
would be resumed in a few days under another form. It
was accordingly revived on the 27th of February, when a
petition from the city of London was presented, solicit¬
ing the house to interpose in such a manner as to prevent
any further prosecution of the American war; after which
General Conway moved, as a resolution, that it was the
opinion of the house that the further prosecution of offen¬
sive war on the continent of North America, for the pui-
pose of reducing the revolted colonies to obedience by
force, would be the means of weakening the efforts of this
country against her European enemies, and would tend
to increase the mutual enmity so fatal to the interests
both of Great Britain and America. It appears from the
journals, said the general, that from the days of Edward
III. down to the present reign, parliament has at all times
given advice to the crown in matters relating to war and
In the reign of Richard II. it was frequently done,
days relish these answers, that they addressed the king to Ueign o i
know who it was who had advised his majesty to return Georgel
such answers to their loyal and constitutional remon-
strances. In the reign of King William, repeated instances
were to be found in the journals, of advice given by par¬
liament relative to the Irish war and the war on the con¬
tinent. The same thing occurred frequently in the reign
of Queen Anne, who, in an address from the parliament,
was advised not to make peace with France until Spain
should be secured to Austria, and also not to consent to
peace until Dunkirk should be demolished. In short, it
was manifest from the whole history of English parlia¬
ments', that it was ever considered as constitutional for
parliament to interfere, whenever it thought proper, in all
matters so important as those of peace and war. Other
arguments were urged in support of the motion, which was
seconded by Lord Althorp ; and petitions from the mayor,
burgesses, and commonalty ot the city of Bristol, andfiom
the merchants, tradesmen, and inhabitants of that city,
against the American war, were also read. But in order
to evade coming to any immediate determination on the
question, a proposition was made by the attorney-general,
that a truce should be entered into with America, and a
bill prepared to enable his majesty s ministers to treat on
this ground ; and under pretence of allowing time for this
measure, he moved that the present debate be adjourned
for a fortnight. This motion, however, was negatived by
a majority of nineteen ; and the original motion of Gene¬
ral Conway was then put and carried without a division.
The general immediately followed up this victory with a
motion for an address to the king, soliciting his majesty
to put a stop to any further prosecution of offensive war
against the colonies; which was agreed to, and presented
to his majesty by the whole house on the 1st of March.
On this occasion his majesty answered, that there were no
objects nearer to his heart than the happiness and prospe¬
rity of his people ; that, in pursuance of the advice of the
Commons, he should take such measures as might appear
conducive to the restoration of harmony between Great
Britain and her revolted colonies; and that his eftorts
should be directed in the most effectual manner against
our European enemies, until a peace could be obtained
consistent with the interests and permanent welfare ot tiie
kingdom. The proceedings of the House of Commons
gave general satisfaction ; but the royal answer was not
thought sufficiently explicit. Accordingly, on the m o
March, General Conway moved that an humble address
be presented to his majesty, to return his majesty tne
thanks of that house for his gracious answer to their ias
address ; the house being convinced that, in the presen
circumstances of this country, nothing could so essentially
peace.    B 
and also in that of Henry IV. One remarkable instance
of this occurred in the reign of Henry VII. when that circumsianeo, ui ux10 n nal care
prince consulted his parliament respecting the propriety promote those great objects of Ins majes y p t
of supporting the Duke of Brittany against France, and for his people as the measu^^^ to
also of declaring war against the latter ; and when he told mons had most humbly but earnestly e
his parliament "that it was for no other purpose than to his majesty; and this motion
hear their advice on these heads that he called them to- The general then moved a resolution, that, after t
gether. In the reign of James I. the parliament interfer- declaration of the opinion of the 0 , . assU.
ed repeatedly with their advice respecting the palatinate, address presented to his majesty, and his maje y
the match with Spain, and a deckration of war against ranee of his gracious intentions the house ^
that power. In the time of Charles I. there were similar as enemies to his majesty and the com t y
interferences ; and in the reign of his son Charles II. the     naternal
parliament made repeated remonstrances, but particular¬
ly in 1674 and 1675, on the subject of the alliance with
France, which, they urged, ought to be renounced, and
at the same time recommended a strict union with the
United Provinces. To some of these remonstrances, in¬
deed, answers were returned not veryr satisfactory; and
the parliament were informed that they were exceeding
the line of their duty, and encroaching upon the preroga¬
tive of the crown. But so little did the Commons of those
as enemies to ms majesty aim me eeuunj — ,
endeavour to frustrate his majesty’s paternal care ro
happiness of his people, by advising the furt lei P
tion of offensive war on the continent of North Ani
After some debate this motion was agreed to wit
division ; and, on the 6th, after a number 0 PaP jer
been read in the House of Peers relative to t ie s ^
of Earl Cornwallis and the army under his commano, ^
Duke of Chandos moved, first, that, m the 01 ^
the house, the immediate cause of the ^PTf ntof
army under Earl Cornwallis in Virginia, was 1
BRITAIN.
Reiiof
Gem HI
a sufficient naval force to cover and protect the same;
and, secondly, that the not covering and protecting of the
army under Earl Cornwallis in a proper manner was high¬
ly blameable in those who advised and planned the expe¬
dition. But after considerable discussion these motions
were rejected.
In spite of all these efforts, however, the ministry still
kept their ground, and with astonishing resolution com¬
bated the force of opposition, which was daily increasing.
On the 8th of March several resolutions were moved by
Lord John Cavendish ; one of which bore that the chief
cause of the national misfortunes was the want of fore¬
sight and ability in his majesty’s ministers; and another
respected the immense sum expended on the war, which
was alleged to be little less than a hundred millions. But
all inquhy was still frustrated, and these motions were
lost by a majority of ten. Meanwhile, as the unpopularity
of Lord North was further increased by the proposal of
some new taxes, particularly on soap, the carriage of
goods, and places of entertainment, opposition determined
if possible to force him to resign ; and on the 15th of
March it was moved by Sir John Rous that the nation
could have no further confidence in the ministers who had
the conduct of public affairs. Lord North endeavoured
to vindicate his own administration. He affirmed that it
could not be declared with truth that the national cala¬
mities oiiginated from the measures of the present admi-
nistiation. The repeal of the American stamp-act, and
the passing of the declaratory law, took place before his
entrance into office. As a private member of parliament
he gave Ins vote in favour of both, but as a minister he
was not responsible for either. When he accepted office
the times were scarcely less violent than the present. He
approached the helm when others had deserted it; and,
standing there, he had used his utmost efforts to assist his
country, lhat the American war was just and requisite,
and prosecuted for the purpose of supporting and main¬
taining the rights of the British legislature, was a position
tor the truth of which he would ever contend, whilst he
enjoyed the power of arguing at all upon the subject. As
o peace, he not only wished most earnestly for it, but
a so for the formation of such a ministry as might at once
prove acceptable to the country, and cordially co-operate
Jpn and honour of the state. The house at
ength divided upon the question, when there appeared a
majority of nine in favour of administration.
notlvi.thstanding this decision, it was well known
cordinllmcniStrJ C0UlP n0t Stand their Srouncl ? and, ac-
hv q; da^S after’ when a motion similar to that
Surrpv T 1 XTUS 7aS about to be made bJ the Earl of
had compTd N^,tb mforn?ed the house that his majesty
and tW -0 r U determination to change his ministers;
condunipr/f'i act’ tbos^Persons who had for some time
ministers ^PubIlc affa,rs were no longer his majesty’s
holdimr tl ^ ^ere not now t0 be considered as men
of S if I61"8 ^evnment and transacting measures
other mi y 38 Performing their official duty till
consenT cTereJapp0inted t0 take their P,aces. In
Surrefa "reed t declar,atio!1 of Lord North, Um Earl of
some further1! 118 intended motion, and, after
end was nut tii tbe.house adjourned. And thus an
noxious £ * ai! adm*nistration which had long been ob-
contributed vfi °f ^ nati°n’ and whose removal
every part of / V3 a.la^ tbose ferments by which
Peace now he the Bntlsh dominions had been agitated.
had been formerly “ C°h f’6 °bjeCt °f mi‘',istry aS W!tr
count of   y.* . ut before we proceed to any ac-
421
count of the ■ ■ ueiure we proceed to any ac¬
he necessarv t g0c'1.atl01?s f°r. that desirable object, it will
the other belli n°tlce tbe military events which disposed
er belligerent powers to an accommodation.
The ill success of Britain in America has already been Rei<ni of
taken notice of. The disaster of Cornwallis had produced Geor|e III.
a sincere desire of peace with America; but this could
not be accomplished without making peace with France
also; and that power was still haughty and elated with
success. Minorca had now fallen into the hands of the
Spaniards; and though the capture of a few miserable
invalids, attended with such extreme difficulty as the
Spaniards had experienced, ought rather to have intimi¬
dated them than otherwise, they now projected the most
important conquests. Nothing less than the entire reduc¬
tion of the British \\est India islands was contemplated
by the allies; and indeed there was too much reason to
suppose that this object was within their reach. In the
beginning of the year 1782 the islands of Nevis and St
Christophers were obliged to surrender to Count de Grasse
the French admiral, and the Marquis de Bouille, who had
already signalized himself by several exploits; and Jamaica
was marked out as the next victim. But the end of all these
aspiring hopes was fast approaching. The advantages hi¬
therto gained by the French in their naval engagements
with the British fleet had proceeded entirely from their
keeping at a great distance during the time of action, and
from their good fortune and dexterity in gaining the wind.
At last the French admiral L)e Grasse, prompted by his
natural courage, or induced by circumstances, determin¬
ed, after an indecisive action on the 9th of April 1782, to
risk a close engagement with his formidable antagonist,
Admiral Rodney. The action was brought on by the
count shortening sail to prevent the loss of a disabled
slop, by parting with which he might have avoided the
disaster that followed. I his memorable engagement took
place off the island of Dominica, three days after the for¬
mer. The British fleet consisted of thirty-seven ships of
the line, and the trench of thirty-four. The engagement
commenced at seven o’clock in the morning, and continu¬
ed with unremitting fury till half past six in the evening.
It is said that no other signal was made by the admiral
but the general one for action, and that for close combat.
Sir George Rodney was on board the Formidable, a ship
of ninety guns ; and the Count de Grasse was on board the
Ville de Paris, a ship of a hundred and ten guns, which had
been presented to the French king by the city of Paris.
In the course of the action, the Formidable fired nearly
eighty broadsides; and for three hours the admiral’s ship
was involved in so thick a cloud of smoke that it was al¬
most invisible to the officers and men of the rest of the
fleet. The van division of the British fleet was command¬
ed by Sir Samuel Hood, and the rear division by Rear-ad¬
miral Drake ; and both these officers greatly distinguished
themselves in the course of the action. But the decisive
turn on this memorable day was given by a bold manoeuvre
of the Formidable, which, taking advantage of a favour¬
able shift in the wind, passed through the French line, and
threw them into irretrievable confusion. The first French
ship that struck was the Caesar, of seventy-four guns, the
captain of which fought nobly, and fell in the action. When
she struck she had scarcely a foot of canvass without a shot
hole. Unfortunately, soon after she was taken possession
of, she took fire by accident, and blew up, when about
two hundred Frenchmen perished in her, together with an
English lieutenant and ten English seamen. The Glorieux
and the Hector, both seventy-four gun ships, were also
taken by the British fleet; together with the Ardent of
sixty-four guns ; and a French seventy-four gun ship was
also sunk in the engagement. It was almost dark when the
Ville de Paris, on board of which the Count de Grasse had
fought gallantly, struck her colours. Five thousand five
hundred troops were on board the French fleet, and the
havoc among them was very great, as well as among the
422
Reign
George
BRITAIN.
of French seamen. The British lost in killed and wounded
HI-about a thousand men. Captain Blair, who commanded
^ the Anson, and several other officers, were killed in the
action; and Lord Robert Manners, who commanded the
Resolution, died of his wounds on his return home. It was
universally allowed that in this engagement the French,
notwithstanding their defeat, behaved with the greatest
valour. De Grasse himself did not surrender till four hun¬
dred of his people were killed, and only the admiral and
two others remained without a wound. The captain of the
Csesar, after his ensign-staft was shot away, and the ship
almost battered to pieces, caused his colours to be nailed
to the mast, and thus continued fighting till he was killed.
The vessel, when taken, was a mere wreck. Other French
officers behaved with equal resolution. The valour of the
British requires no encomium ; it was proved by theii suc¬
cess on this glorious day.1
This victory was a very fortunate circumstance both
for the interest and the reputation of the British admiral.
Before this event the new ministry had appointed Admi¬
ral Pigot to supersede him in the command in the West
Indies ; and it was understood that they meant to set on
foot a rigid inquiry into the transactions at St Eustatius.
But the splendour of this victory put an end to all thoughts
of the kind ; he received the thanks of both houses of par¬
liament for his services; and he was created an English
peer, by the title of Baron Rodney of Rodney Stoke, in the
county of Somerset. Sir Samuel Hood was also created
Baron Hood of Catherington, in the kingdom of Ireland;
and Rear-admiral Drake and Captain Affleck were creat¬
ed baronets of Great Britain. Some attempts were also
made, in the House of Commons, to procure a vote of cen¬
sure against the new ministry for having recalled Lord
Rodney; but the motions for this purpose were rejected
by a large majority.
Though the designs of the French against Jamaica were
now effectually frustrated, the victory was not followed by
those beneficial results which many had expected from it;
and none of the British islands which had been taken by
the French in the West Indies were afterwards recaptur¬
ed. Some of the ships which had been taken by Admiral
Rodney were also lost at sea, particularly the Yille de
Paris, Glorieux, and Hector; and a British man of war,
the Centaur, of seventy-four guns, foundered at sea on
the 24th of September 1782. The Jamaica homeward-
bound fleet was also dispersed by a hurricane off the banks
of Newfoundland, when the Ramillies of seventy-four guns
and several merchantmen foundered. About this time
the British navy sustained a very considerable loss at
home, by the Royal George, of a hundred guns, being
upset and sunk at Portsmouth. This melancholy acci¬
dent, which happened on the 29th of August, was occa¬
sioned by a partial heel given to the ship, in order to
cleanse and sweeten her. The guns on one side being
removed to the other, or at least the greater part of them,
and her lower deck ports not being lashed in, the ship
thwarted on the tide with a squall from the north-west,
filled with water, and sunk in the space of about three
minutes. Admiral Kempenfelt, a number of other of¬
ficers, and upwards of four hundred seamen and two hun¬
dred women, besides children, perished on this occasion. Reign y
The prosecution of the war was thus attended with dis-GeorgeIjI
asters and difficulties to all parties. The signal defeat Wv
above mentioned not only secured the island of Jamaica
against the attempts of the French, but prevented them
from entertaining any other project than that of distress¬
ing commerce.
In the beginning of May an expedition was undertaken
to the remote and inhospitable regions of Hudson’s Bay;
and though no force existed there capable of making any
resistance, a seventy-four gun ship and two thirty-six gun
frigates were employed in the service. All the people
in that part of the world either fled or surrendered at the
first summons. The loss of the Hudson’s Bay Company,
on this occasion, amounted to L.500,000; but the humani¬
ty of the French commander was conspicuous, in leaving
a sufficient quantity of provisions and stores of all kinds
for the use of the British who had fled at his approach.
Another expedition was undertaken by the Spaniards to
the Bahama Islands, where an equally easy conquest was
obtained. The island of Providence, defended only by
three hundred and sixty men, could make no resistance
when attacked by five thousand. An honourable capitula¬
tion was granted by the victors, who likewise treated the
garrison with kindness. Some settlements on the Mos¬
quito shore were also taken by the Spaniards; but the
Bay-men, assisted by their negroes, bravely retook some
of them; and having formed a little army of the Indians in
those parts, headed by Colonel Despard, they attacked and
carried the posts on the Black River, making prisoners of
about eight hundred Spanish troops. The greatest disas¬
ter which befel this power, however, was their failure be¬
fore Gibraltar, which happened in the month of Septem¬
ber 1782, and was accompanied with such circumstances
of horror and destruction as evinced the absurdity of per¬
sisting in the enterprise. Thus all parties felt that it wa® t
high time to put an end to the contest. The affair of
Cornwallis had shown that it was impossible for Britain
to conquer America; the defeat of De Grasse had rendei-
ed the reduction of the British possessions in the West In¬
dies impracticable by the French ; the final repulse before
Gibraltar, and its relief afterwards by the British fleet, put
an end to that favourite enterprise, in which almost the
whole strength of Spain had been employed ; and the en¬
gagement of the Dutch with Admiral Parker showed t em
that nothing could be gained by a naval war with Britain.
The events which led to the removal of Lord North and
the other ministers who had so long directed public mea¬
sures in this kingdom have been already noticed. J1
this occasion it was said that his majesty expressed consi¬
derable agitation of mind at being in a manner compelled
to make an entire change in his councils; for the mem¬
bers in opposition would form no coalition with any ot
old ministry, the lord chancellor only excepted. On tne
30th of March 1782, the Marquis of Rockingham was ap¬
pointed first lord of the treasury; Lord John Cavendis
chancellor of the exchequer ; the Earl of Shelburne a
Mr Fox principal secretaries of state; Lord Camden p
sident of the council; the Duke of Richmond mas ei
the ordnance ; the Duke of Grafton lord privy seal;
1 The Count de Grasse, after his defeat, was received on board the Barfleur man of war, and afterwards landed on i Q(jatei
Jamaica, where he was treated with great respect. After continuing there some time, he was conveyed to England, and ac^° tom? to
with a suite of apartments at the royal hotel in Pall-mall. His sword, which he had delivered up, according to the usua tjie;r
Admiral Rodney, was returned to him by the king. This etiquette enabled him to appear at court, where he was recen , ^ was
majesties and the royal family in a manner suitable to his rank. From the time of his arrival in London to his departure, yjng
on the 12th of August 1782, he was visited by many persons of the first fashion and distinction, and was much employe sumptu-
visits to the great officers of state and some of the principal nobility of the kingdom, by whom he was entertained in a ' > . ^ with
ous and hospitable style. He received, indeed, every mark of civility which the British nation could bestow; and was
much respect even by the common people, from the opinion that was generally entertained of his valour and merit.
Re of
Geot HI
miral Keppel first lord of the admiralty; General Conway
commander in chief of all the forces in Great Britain ; Mr
' Thomas Townshend secretary at war ; Mr Burke paymas¬
ter of the forces; and Colonel Barre treasurer of the navy.
Other offices and honours were likewise conferred on dif¬
ferent members of the opposition; and some were raised
to the peerage, particularly Admiral keppel, Sir Fletcher
Norton, and Mr Dunning.
The first business in which the new ministry engaged
was taking the necessary measures for effecting a general
peace. No time, in fact, was lost in the pursuit of this great
object; and the empress of Russia, having offered her me¬
diation, in order to restore peace between Great Britain
and Holland, Mr Secretary Fox, within two days after his
entrance in office, wrote a letter to Simolin, the Russian
ministei in London, informing him that his majesty was
ready to enter into negociations for peace, on the basis of
the treaty of 1674; and that, in order to facilitate such
negociations, he was willing to give immediate orders for
a suspension of hostilities, if the States-general were dis¬
posed to agree to that measure. But the states of Holland
did not appear inclined to enter into a separate peace ; nor
perhaps would it have been agreeable to the principles of
sound policy if they had consented to any propositions of
this kind. But immediately after the change of ministry,
negociations for a general peace were commenced at Paris ;
and Mr Grenville was invested with full powers to treat
with all the parties at war, and to propose the independence
of the thirteen United Provinces of North America in the
first instance, instead of making it a condition of a gene¬
ral treaty. Admiral Digby and General Carleton were also
directed to acquaint the American congress with the paci¬
fic views of the British court, and with the offer made to
acknowledge the independence of the United States.
But before this work of pacification had made any con¬
siderable progress, the new ministry sustained an irrepar-
17eeo0Swby tbe d,eath of tlle Mai'quis of Rockingham in July
^ ^ven before this event, considerable apprehensions
were entertained of their want of union; but the death of
the nobleman just mentioned occasioned an absolute dis-
solution The Earl of Shelburne, who succeeded him as
nrst lord °f the treasury, proved so disagreeable to some
Jt5 CSlea#ueJs’ that Mr Fox> Lord John Cavendish, Mr
Burke, Mr Frederick Montague, and two or three others,
instandy resigned. Others, however, though little attached
to the earl, continued in their places; and his lordship
tound means to attach to his interest Mr William Pitt
Earl 0fi Chatham- ThouSh then in an early
tage of life, that gentleman had already distinguished him-
arrpnfd!7 m Pariia™ent’ and was now prevailed upon to
twK -he °ffice °f chancellor. The seceding members of
Were, at Pains t0 explain to the house their mo-
that mo*/1 Ung t Vi lteP’ whlch were in general a suspicion
which™ Wrrr,d be raana?ed<differently from the plan
that Ar. ^ ad proposed while in office, and particularly
But tli™encan ^dependence would not be acknowledged,
as anr>pS 'vas P0Sltlvely denied at the time, and with truth,
P icTfn ^ 7 ? CVen> Tbere aPPeared> indeed, a du-
fo be^cn etTcdUCt^f the Earl of Shelburne not easily
Generali"w ^ after ifc had been ^t^ated by
dence of tlm TT011 and Admiral Digby that the indepen-
maiestv^nhtlU2lted-Pr0VInce? wouId be conceded by his
dition of a , 6 —St lnstance, instead of making it a con-
had formprlP1?V1S1°na 1treaty’ bis Iordship said, that “ he
the indon yibeen’ aad still was, of opinion, that whenever
British mrlltnC! °P Ameriea was acknowledged by the
ever.” ^Thio tbe sun of> England’s glory was set for
other ahlo Jaf been the °Pinion of Lord Chatham and
cabinet wero aSmen; never-tlieless, as the majority of the
eie of a contrary way of thinking, he acquiesced
BRITAIN.
423
in the measure, though his ideas were different. He did not Reign of
wish to see England s sun set for ever, but looked for a spark George III.
to be left which might light us up a new day. He wish- v ,  
ed to God that he had been deputed to congress, that he
might plead the cause of America as well as Britain He
was convinced that the liberties of the former were gone
as soon as the independence of the states was allowed •
and he concluded his speech with observing, that he was
not afraid of his expressions being repeated in America,
there being great numbers there who were of the same
opinion with him, and perceived ruin and independence
linked together. r
If his lordship really expected that by a flourish of rhe¬
toric he could persuade the Americans to abandon a sys¬
tem for which they had fought so desperately, he greatly
overrated his own powers, and mistook the men with whom
he had to deal. No obstruction, however, arose to the gene¬
ral pacification. As early as the 30th of November 1782,
the articles of a provisional treaty were settled between
Britain and America. By these it was stipulated, that
the people of the United States should continue to enjoy,
without molestation, the right to take fish of every kind
on the grand bank, and on all the other banks of New-
oundland; and that they should continue to exercise the
same privilege in the Gulf of St Lawrence, and at every
other place in the sea where the inhabitants used here¬
tofore to fish. They were likewise to have the liberty to
take fish of every kind on such parts of the coast of New¬
foundland as British seamen resort to, but not to cure
or dry them on that island. They were to enjoy the pri¬
vilege of fishing on the coasts, bays, and creeks of the
other dominions of his Britannic majesty in America; and
the American fishermen were permitted to cure and dry
fish m any of the unsettled bays, harbours, and creeks of
Nova Scotia, Magdalen Islands, and Labrador. But it
was agreed that, after such places should be settled, this
right could not be legally put in practice without the con¬
sent of the inhabitants and proprietors of the ground. It
was arranged that creditors upon either side should meet
with no impediment in the prosecution of their claims;
that the congress should earnestly recommend it to the*
legislatures of the respective states, to provide for the res¬
titution of all estates and properties which had been con¬
fiscated belonging to real British subjects, and of the es¬
tates and properties of persons resident in districts in the
possession of his majesty’s arms, and who had not borne
arms against the United States; that persons of am? other
description should have free liberty to go to any part what¬
soever of any of the thirteen United States, and remain in
it for twelve months unmolested in their endeavours to
recover such of their estates, rights, and properties, as
might not have been confiscated; that the congress should
earnestly recommend to the several states a revision of all
acts or laws regarding the premises, so as to render them
perfectly consistent, not only with justice and equity, but
with that spirit of conciliation which, on the return of the
blessing of peace, should universally prevail; that no fu-
tuie confiscations should be made, nor prosecutions com¬
menced against any person, or body of men, on account of
the part which he or they had taken in the war; that those
who might be in confinement on account of such a charge
at the time of the ratification of the treaty in America
should be immediately set at liberty; that all hostilities
by sea and land should immediately cease; that prisoners
on both sides should be set at liberty; that his Britannic
majesty should expeditiously, and without committing de¬
struction of any sort, withdraw all his armies, garrisons,
and fleets, from every port, place, and harbour, of the
United States; that the navigation of the river Mississippi,
from its source to the ocean, should remain for ever free
424
BRITAIN.
Reign of and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens
George III. 0f the United States; and, finally, that if any place or
y * territory belonging to Great Britain or to the United States
should be conquered by the arms of either before the ar¬
rival of the provisional articles in America, it should be
restored without compensation or difficulty.
In the treaty between Great Britain and France it was
agreed that Newfoundland should remain with England,
as before the war; and, to prevent disputes about boun¬
daries, it was arranged that the French fishery should com¬
mence at Cape St John on the eastern side, and, sweep-
ino- round by the north, should have for its boundary Cape
Ray on the western side. The islands of St l iene and
Miquelon, which had been taken in September 1778, were
ceded in full right to France. Great Britain was to re¬
store to France the island of St Lucia, and to cede and
guarantee to her that of iobago; and France was to sui-
render to Great Britain the islands of Grenada and the
Grenadines, St Vincent, Dominica, St Christophers, Nevis,
and Montserrat. The river Senegal and its dependen¬
cies were to be given to France; and the island of Goree
was also to be restored. Fort James and the river Gam¬
bia were guaranteed to his Britannic majesty; and the
<mm trade was to remain in the same condition as before
the commencement of hostilities. I he king of Great Bri¬
tain was to restore to his most Christian majesty all the
establishments which belonged to him at the breaking
out of the war on the coast of Orixa and in Bengal; and
became bound to secure to the subjects of France in that
part of India, and on the coasts of Orixa, Coromandel, and
Malabar, a safe, free, and independent trade, either as in¬
dividuals, or under the direction of a company. Pondi¬
cherry, as well as Karical, was to be restored to France ;
the two districts of Valanour and Bahour, round Pondi¬
cherry, and the four contiguous Magans round Karical,
were also to be given up; and the French were again to
enter into the possession of Mahe, and of the comptoir at
Surat. The allies of France and Great Britain were to be
invited to accede to the present pacification; and in the
event of their disinclination, no assistance on either side
was to be given to them. Great Britain renounced all
claims to Dunkirk. Commissioners were to be respec¬
tively appointed by both nations to inquire into the state
of commerce, and to concert new arrangements of trade
on the footing of mutual convenience. And all conquests
on either side, in any part of the world whatsoever, not
mentioned nor alluded to in the treaty, were to be restored
without difficulty, and without requiring compensation.
The prisoners on each side were also to be released with¬
out ransom, upon the ratification of the treaty, and on pay¬
ing the debts which they might have contracted during
their captivity ; and each crown was respectively to reim¬
burse the sums which had been advanced for the mainte¬
nance of their prisoners, by the country where they had
been detained, according to attested and authentic vouch¬
ers. These preliminary articles of peace were concluded
at Versailles on the 20th of January 1783, between Mr
Alleyne Fitzherbert, minister plenipotentiary on the part
of his Britannic majesty, and Charles Gravier, Comte de
Vergennes, the minister plenipotentiary on the part of the
king of France.
At the same time preliminary articles of peace between
Great Britain and Spain were also concluded at Versailles
between Mr Fitzherbert and the Conde d’Aranda, the
minister plenipotentiary of the Spanish monarch. His
Catholic majesty was to continue in possession of the
island of Minorca, and to retain West Florida ; whilst East
Florida was to be ceded to him by the king of Great Bri¬
tain. Eighteen months from the ratification of the defini¬
tive treaty were to be allowed to the subjects of Britain
who had settled in the island of Minorca and in the two Beignc 1
Floridas, to sell their estates, recover their debts, andGeorgel'jj {
transport their persons and effects, without being restrain-v~,rV>t
ed upon account of their religion, or on any other pretence
whatsoever, except that of debts and prosecutions for
crimes. The liberty of cutting logwood, in a district of
which the boundaries were to be ascertained, without mo¬
lestation or disturbance of any kind whatsoever, was grant¬
ed to Great Britain. The king of Spain was to restore
the islands of Providence and the Bahamas, in the condi¬
tion in which they were when conquered by his arms.
And all other conquests of territories and countries upon
either side, not included in the present articles, were also
to be mutually restored without difficulty or compensation.
But no sooner were these articles ratified and laid before
parliament, than they excited the most vehement decla¬
mations against ministry. Never had the administration
of Lord North himself been arraigned with more asperity
of language. The ministry defended themselves with re¬
solution, but found it impossible to avoid the censure of
parliament. An address without any amendment was in¬
deed carried in the House of Lords by a considerable ma¬
jority ; but it was lost in the lower house. On the 21st
of February some resolutions were moved in the House of
Commons by Lord George Cavendish, of which the most
remarkable were, that the concessions made by Britain
were greater than its adversaries had a right to expect;
and that the house would take the case of the_American
loyalists into consideration. The last motion indeed his
lordship consented to waive, but the rest were carried
against ministry.
These proceedings, however, made no alteration with re¬
gard to the treaty, which had already been ratified by all the
contending powers, the Dutch only excepted. The terms
offered the latter were a renewal of the treaty of 1674;
which, though highly advantageous, they at that time po¬
sitively declined. They afterwards, however, made an offer
to accept the terms which they had formerly rejected; but
the compliment was then returned by a refusal on the part
of Britain. When the preliminary articles had been settled
with the courts of France and Spain, a suspension of arms
with Holland ensued; but though the definitive arrange¬
ments with the other powers were finally concluded by the
month of September, it was not till then that the prelimi¬
nary articles were settled with Holland. The terms were
a general restitution of all places taken on both sides du¬
ring the war, excepting only the settlement of Negapat-
nam in the East Indies, which was to remain in the hands
of Britain, unless an equivalent should be given on the
part of Holland. The navigation of the eastern seas was
to remain free and unmolested to all British shipping. Ihe
remaining articles concerned only the exchange of prison¬
ers, and such other matters as are common to all treaties.
Thus an end was put to the most dangerous war in whicn
Britain had ever engaged, and out of which, notwithstan
ing the powerful combination against her, she came supe¬
rior to all her enemies. The politicians who had imagine
that the prosperity of Britain depended in a great measure
on her colonies were singularly mistaken. This was show ^
at the time, and has been completely confirmed by subse¬
quent experience. For a mimber of years she had not on y
been deprived of these colonies, but opposed by
all their force ; yet though attacked at the same time ny
three of the greatest powers in Europe, and looked up
with an invidious eye by all the rest, the damage
her enemies still greatly exceeded that which s'ie,
received. Their trade by sea was almost ruined; ana
comparing the loss of ships on both sides, the ka..anc^ i
favour of Britain was twenty-eight ships of the hne ,
thirty-seven frigates, carrying in all near two thou
i
11 :n of
Ger e III.
guns. Notwithstanding this, however, the state of the
nation appears to have been really such that a much longer
continuance of the war would have been impracticable.
Having thus given as full an account as our limits admit
of the great national events till the conclusion of the peace
in 1783, we shall now advert to some others, which, thouo-h
of sufficient importance to deserve notice, could not be
previously introduced without interrupting the narrative
On the 8th of December 1776 a fire broke out in the rope-
house of the dock-yard at Portsmouth, which totally con¬
sumed it, but without doing any very material damao-e.
For some time the affair passed as an accident; but in clear¬
ing away the rubbish a tin-box was found with a wooden
bottom, containing matches which had been lighted and
underneath was a vessel filled with spirits of wine. ’The
fire, however, not having been properly supplied with air,
had gone out of itself before it touched the spirits of wine •
for if it had caught fire, all the stores in the storehouse,’
sufficient to fit out fifty sail of the line, would have been
destroyed. In the beginning of the year 1777 a fire hap¬
pened at Bristol, which consumed six or seven warehouses-
and by the discovery of machines similar to those already
mentioned it was evident that the fire had not been acci¬
dental The terror of the public was now greatly increas¬
ed, and violent mutual accusations were thrown out by the
ministerial and popular parties. On this point, however,
^eTlr„ef^at^Serrding’by the diSC0Very
pJntrT °,"e W ]Aitken’ otherwise called John the
Painter, a native of Edinburgh. Having from his early
years been accustomed to a vagrant life, to which indeed
s profession naturally led him, he had gone through a
serm f °f^dveJlture?- ,He had enlisted as a soldierfde-
f®. 6/?’ a"d’ when Pinched by want, made no scruple of
H n1^111"861/0 t le h,ghwa^ or of committing thefts,
imbibed mVer^d a/reat Pfrt °f America, he had there
that he at I !81’66 the Preiudices against Britain,
overturffin tl t0i\the extraorthnary resolution of singly
which hp g I6 Wh° 6 P?.Tr °f the nation; an achievement
It Portsmouth , aT°PTPllSh ^ fire t0 the d^kyards
rimd ? T th d ^iytnouth, and afterwards to the prin-
cTrefuTvt? 'mT °! ^ tingdom* With this view he
his atte^int PeCtedf * 16 t 0<iks and °ther places on which
niannerX Were be °rder t0 ascertain in what
negligent asm!61,6 Which he f°Und in general as
deficfencv n tlC eS're-: and had there not ^en some
havednny- ^construction of his machines, he must
wavs detecTTu f mi1schief ^ for a* his attempts were al-
dent th 16 d‘scovery of h's machines, it is evi-
some time the^ff1^ Wltybundance of opportunities. For
mentioned & Port^outh5 as has already been
ed, however^ tn ? f°r an accident. It was soon recollect-
the rone h ’ tbat Per,SOn had been seen loitering about
that he had wnrT^ihad ^ been locked up a nigbt in it 5
portunities of ^ & painter’ and taken frequent op-
in the vard grittWg lat° that house’ and other buildings
that he5 was the Incend-UmStyCeS eXCiti^ a suspicion
Places and f‘ary’ he was traced to different
committed on l^h °U cna P!is°n’to wbich he had been
however he heh arp .°P burglary- On his examination,
sciousness oHnn d Wlth an assurance and apparent con-
who tere al2rdny Wh,cb alm0St di«ooncerted those
deceived intoa c f t0 examine him ; but at last he was
America who nrcT^f !T bj another pamter, a native of
dence was thuf * ded.t0 comPassionate his case. Evi-
tained his char aPlnSt him’ but he sti]I main-
the testimony of hf«t0 rejectmg and invalidating
baseness and^riacherv^ HeUS 1°” acc0unt of his
great fortitude h,o Hi, received his sentence with
vol. v 5 Ut at length confessed his guilt, and left
BRITAIN.
425
some directions for preventing the dock-yards and ma- Reign of
gazines from being exposed to similar danger in future. Georje III
Th.uYs that the whole of the ala™ of treason
and American incendiaries was occasioned by the politi-
cal enthusiasm of a wretched vagabond, who chose to stake
Ins hte on the wild venture we have described.
Still, however, it appeared that the French court were
very we acquainted with many particulars relating to the
state of this kindgom, and the movements of our squadrons,
which ought by all means to have been kept secret. These
treacherous communications were first detected in the
month of June 1780. One Ratcliffe, master of a cutter, dis¬
closed that he had been hired by a fellow called Roger to
carry packets to France, for which he was to be paid L.20
each time, and to have L.100 besides at a certain period •
but apprehending that he might incur some danger by con¬
tinuing this employment, he gave information of what was
going on to one Mr Steward, a merchant at Sandwich, by
whom his last packet was carried to the secretary of state.
After being opened and sealed up again, it was returned,
and he was directed to carry it to France as formerly. Se¬
veral succeeding packets were treated in the same fashion,
though it was some time before Ratcliffe saw the principal
party concerned; but this was at last accomplished by his
complaining to Roger that he had not been paid the L.100
according to promise. A meeting having been procured, it
was found that the person who furnished intelligence to the
enemy was one M. Henri de la Motte, a French gentle¬
man then residing in London. On searching his house
no papers of any consequence were found; but beina- ab¬
sent when the messengers first arrived, he, on his return
threw some out of his pockets, unperceif ed, as he thought,’
by any body. The papers, however, were taken up by
t le messengers, and gave plain indications not only of a
treasonable correspondence with the enemy, but also of his
being connected with one Henry Lutterloch, a German
who then resided at Wickham near Portsmouth. This
person being also apprehended, not only made a full dis¬
closure of the treasonable correspondence with France
but gave abundant proofs of being himself one of the most
depraved of mankind, and lost to every feeling excTt-
iTnw ^ deT i°f accumulatinS wealth. His evidence,
owever, and other strong circumstances, were sufficient
to convict M. de la Motte, who was accordingly execut¬
ed, though the king remitted the more dreadful part of his
sentence. During h,s trial, and on every other occasion,
he behaved in such a manner as showed him to be an ac¬
complished gentleman, and not only excited the compas¬
sion, but the admiration, of every one who saw him. 1
During the whole course of the war, only one other per¬
son was detected in any act of treason ; and he appears to
have been actuated merely by mercenary motives. This
was a man called David Tyrie, a native of Edinburgh.
Having been bred m the mercantile line, and engaged in a
number of speculations with a view to gain money, in all
of which he had discovered considerable abilities, he at last
engaged in the more dangerous one of conveying intelli¬
gence to the French, of the ships of war fitted out in Bri¬
tain, the time of their sailing, and other particulars. For
tins he was apprehended in the month of February 1782
Ihe discovery was made by means of one Mrs Askew, who
passed for lynes Wife. This person having delivered a
bundle of papers in a hurry to a school-mistress, desired
ber not to show them to any one; the latter, however, not
only inspected them herself, but showed them to another
by whom they were sent to the secretary at war. By this’
and another packet discovered by William James, who
had been employed to carry it to France, Tyrie was con¬
victed of treasonable correspondence with the enemy, and
executed in the month of August 1782.
3 h
426 BRIT
lleign of On the whole, it appears that notwithstanding the ex-
George III* cessive virulence of parties, which even proceeded so fai
j.q produce duels between some members of parliament,
neither entertained any designs against what was believed
to be the true interest of the nation. The one seems to
have regarded its honour too much, and to have been in¬
clined to sacrifice even its existence to that favourite no¬
tion ; the other perhaps regarded the national honour too
little; nor indeed could an advantageous idea have been
formed of the spirit of the nation which should have sub¬
mitted to the dismemberment of its empire without a strug¬
gle. The event, however, has shown, that the loss of the
colonies, so far from being a disadvantage, has been the very
reverse. The commerce of Britain, instead of being de¬
pendent on America, has arrived at a much greater height
than ever; whilst the consequent increase of wealth has
enabled the nation to support that enormous debt, part of
which was contracted, first in defending, and then in at¬
tempting to conquer, the colonies.
CHAP. XIV.
REIGN OF GEORGE III. INTERMEDIATE PERIOD.
Nature of the opposition to Lord Shelburne’s administration—
States of Parties Coalition between Lord North and Mr Fox.
—Coalition Ministry—Taxes—Mr Pitt’s Motion for Reform
in Parliament Irish Independence Bill—Mr Dundas’s India
Bill. Mr Pitt’s Office-Reform Bill—Petition of the American
Loyalists Establishment of the Prince of Wales—New In¬
ventions Opinion of the Public respecting the Coalition.—
Mr Fox’s India Bills—Report of the Secret Committee—
Sir T. Rumbold and Mr Hastings accused by Mr Dundas—
Report of the Select Committee—Debates on iVIr Fox’s Bills.
 First Bill carried in the Commons—His Majesty’s disappro¬
bation intimated.—Rejected in the Lords.—Change of Minis¬
try, and accession of Mr Pitt to Office—Contest between the
Crown and the House of Commons—Resolutions of the House
ao-ainst the new Ministry—Mr Pitt’s Bill for regulating India
rejected Further Disputes.—The Public take part with the
Administration.—New Coalition proposed.—Mr Pitt refuses to
resign, and the King also refuses to dismiss the Minister—Dis¬
solution of Parliament—Elections—Total Defeat of the Coali¬
tion Consequences New Parliament—Mr Pitt’s new India
Bill Debates on this Measure—Finance—Restoration of the
Forfeited Estates Westminster Election.—Nabob of Arcot’s
Debts Nature of these.—Exposition of Mr Burke—Mr Pitt’s
Plan of Parliamentary Reform—Rejected in limine—Finances.
 Duke of Richmond’s Fortifications—Regulation ot Public
Offices.—Irish Propositions.—Foreign Affairs—League to pro¬
tect the Germanic Constitution—Commercial Treaties—Bri¬
tain and Hanover Debate on the Duke of Richmond’s Plans.
 Militia Laws Mr Pitt’s Sinking Fund—Discussion there¬
on Fallacy of the Scheme—Wine Duties—Best size and
form of Ships of War.—General State of the Empire.—India.-—
Mr Burke’s Proceedings against Mr Hastings—Mr Pitt’s In¬
dia Bill amended by Mr Dundas’s act—Attempt against the
King’s Life by Margaret Nicholson—Commercial Treaty with
France Debates thereon.—Mr Pitt’s Defence of the Treaty.
—Consolidation of Taxes Corporation and Test Acts—Prince
of Wales’s Debts Accusation of Mr Hastings—Mr Sheridan’s
celebrated Speech on the Begum Charge—Articles of Impeach¬
ment prepared—Impeachment Voted—Reflections on this
Proceeding Affairs of Holland—State of Parties in the Unit¬
ed Provinces.—Interference of the Neighbouring States.—Prus¬
sians invade Plolland—Meeting of Parliament—Conduct of
the Government in regard to Holland approved of by the Op¬
position Naval Promotions, and Debates thereon—Act against
the Exportation of Wool—State of the Revenue—Compensa¬
tion to the American Loyalists—Slave ’Trade—Bill for Regu¬
lating the Transportation of Negroes—Indian Affairs—Decla¬
ratory Bill—Trial of Mr Hastings—Burke’s Oration of Five
Days Mode of Procedure—Accusation of Sir Elijah Impey.
—State of European Politics—Sweden—Wars between Swe¬
den and Russia Danish Invasion of Sweden—Interposition
of the British Envoy, and Recal of the Danish troops—The
King’s Illness Regency Question.—Debates and Proceed¬
ings connected therewith Manoeuvring and Procrastination of
A I N.
the Ministry The Prince’s Correspondence—Regency Bill Rejgn
passed Recovery of the King—Conduct of the Irish Parlia-George 11
ment respecting the Regency—The Slave Trade—Mr Wil-
berforce’s Propositions.—Jesuitical Support of Mr Pitt—Mr
Addington chosen Speaker of the House of Commons—New
Taxes. Extension of the Excise Laws—Proposed Repeal of
Religious Tests and Penal Statutes—Indian Affairs—Trial of
Mr Hastings—Affair of Nundcomar.
It has been already remarked, that in the debates in the
House of Commons upon the treaties concluded under
Lord Shelburne’s administration, by which the American
war was brought to a close, the terms of those treaties
were disapproved of by the majority of the house ; and this
disapprobation was expressed by carrying an amendment
to the ministerial motion for an address of thanks to his
majesty. It does not appear, however, that the nation at
large disapproved of the conditions of the peace. All
ranks of men had long been weary of the war with the
colonies, and desirous to relinquish every claim of sove¬
reignty over them; and this point being decided, other
objects of negociation were of too little importance to ex¬
cite any great degree of public interest. The majority
which now voted against administration consisted of men
brought together by views little connected with the ac¬
complishment of any patriotic object, and in a manner
which well merits the attention of the historian.
The death of the Marquis of Rockingham left in a very
disjointed state the party which had opposed the American
war. Lord Shelburne’s administration appears to have
been formed under the influence of the crown alone, to
the exclusion of Lord North and his friends, as well as
of Mr Fox and the other principal members of the former
opposition. Thus an attempt appears to have been made
to govern the kingdom without supporting the royal pre¬
rogative by the strength of any political party. An event,
however, occurred of a nature undoubtedly not a little
dangerous to the constitution ; but being new in itself, it
seems not to have been foreseen by speculative writers
upon the British government.
The American war had been conducted with a profusion
of expense totally unexampled in former contests. The
service of government became of itself an immense object
of trade, an employment in which thousands of all kinds
of artists, manufacturers, and merchants, engaged; and
hence the patronage enjoyed by the minister for the time
was proportionally extensive. The natural consequence
was, that he and his friends, with a long train of then-
friends and dependents, were enabled to accumulate great
wealth, and rise to the enjoyment of influence in all parts
of the country. The impracticability of accomplishing
the great object of the war at last led to its termination;
and the minister who had been unsuccessful in conduct¬
ing it was dismissed, as had usually been done upon such
occasions in Britain, to make way for his antagonists, vvho
had long recommended, and who could, therefore, wit i a
better grace adopt, measures of pacification. But the dis¬
mission of the minister and his friends from their ofhcia
situations did not at once destroy their political ^P0*".
ance in the state. They constituted a very formidab e
body of men in both houses of parliament; and such was
the influence which the possession of power had conferre
upon Lord North, that to the latest period of his life he was
understood to be able to carry along with him, at all tunes>
upwards of forty votes in the House of Commons; a Pov'e^,
which was evidently too dangerous to belong to a subjec o
a free state, and so indeed it proved by the event to e*
Mr Fox, and the other statesmen who had led t‘ie.°Pn
position to Lord North’s measures during the
war, but who had retired from administration on t ie a
cession of Lord Shelburne to the treasury after the c
BRITAIN.
Kt| 3 Of
Geo HI
'w ^
of the Marquis of Rockingham, appear to have at last be¬
come weary of an unprofitable opposition, and desirous
upon almost any terms of entering into the enjoyment of
power. But their party, though possessing very great ta¬
lents, was too weak in point of numbers to be able to con¬
tend against the minister of the day, supported by the
whole patronage of the crown. On the other hand, though
Lord North and his friends formed in both houses of par¬
liament a very formidable phalanx, still they also were
too few to contend against ministerial influence, and the
party usually called the “ king’s friendswhile from the
natural course of things they might also expect that their
numbers would gradually diminish. They had risen by
attaching themselves to the service of the state ; and the
changes which mortality produces would by degrees en¬
able the existing government to supplant them by a new
race of ambitious men. In this state of matters the two
opposition parties, led by Lord North and Mr Fox, thought
fit to come to an agreement to unite their strength, and
thus, by forming a complete majority in parliament, to im¬
pose themselves upon the sovereign as his ministers. In
this way the majority was produced which opposed Lord
Shelburne’s administration, and it has since been known
under the appellation of the Coalition.
The effect produced upon the public mind by this coali¬
tion was extremely important; and it is probable that even
yet its consequences are not fully understood. In almost
any other country than Britain, and indeed at many for¬
mer periods of our history, such a combination of power¬
ful men, possessing a predominance in the legislature,
could not have failed to prove fatal to the constitution,
and destructive of the internal tranquillity of the state. If
the king gave way to such an aristocratical combination,
and received its leaders into his service, it was to be fear¬
ed that the whole patronage of the crown, together with
the authority of the royal name, and the majority which
they already possessed in the other branches of the legis¬
lature, might enable them to fortify themselves by new
institutions and laws, and render them independent both
of the king and people. No hope appeared from a disso-
ution of parliament, as the public at large were not at
once aware of the critical situation to which the constitu¬
tion had been brought by the Coalition; and a prince of
a rash character would, in such circumstances, perhaps
nave seen no other resource for the protection of his pre¬
rogative, than to attempt to govern without a parliament,
ne majority of which were evidently acting, not the part
ol dutiful subjects or faithful representatives of the people,
out of individuals conspiring to seize, for their own private
advantage, the emoluments and authority of office. This
ju gment will not probably be regarded as too severe,
wien it is considered, that at the period in question there
existed no pretext for opposition to the crown founded
upon any complaint of the nation against the abuse of its
pierogauves ; and that the individuals who now coalesced
r?-0t,lav.e k.een induced to do so upon any pretence
*Ca Pri,nciPle- Lord North, the steady assertor and
tt1«P4rter-0f t le r°yal Prer°gative, and the conductor of
me American wur, now joined Mr Fox, the opponent of
npnn, ar’ an.d eloquent champion of the privileges of the
nr f C i nei,Ler of these men, nor their friends, ever
427
iiui tiicn menus, ever
TIip ded 1 lat t ley la(* relinquished their former opinions,
rin PUr?uSe °f the present coalition was therefore noto-
fm-m ’ iW U St 16 ootrageous abuse with which they had
exarnr.!^ 1treatec^ each other served only to afford a new
ever/rf °r comPletely ambition is capable of subduing
‘oan^nincfntment> ant* t^e ordinary passions of the hu-
supTerLlafy,1!?W called the Coalition had displayed the
y o their numbers in the House of Commons in
the debates upon the treaty of peace in the middle of Reign of
Tebruary. From that period it was considered as obvious George III.
that a new administration must be formed ; and hence
fi om that time public business remained at a stand, and
the nation was kept in suspense. The period was critical,
on account of the termination of the war, at which great
bodies of troops and seamen were to be discharged, and
many pecuniary arrears paid off. The different regiments
of militia were also disembodied, and sailors and soldiers
dismissed in a state of turbulence, natural to men accus¬
tomed to arms, and whose pay had not been regularly paid.
Ihese and other circumstances, joined with the unsettled
state of the government, produced various disorderly pro¬
ceedings at Portsmouth, Plymouth, and other places. In
the mean time, a loan could not be negociated by the mi¬
nistry whilst they wanted the countenance of the House
of Commons. During the whole month of March, however,
they still lingered in their places, and a variety of negocia-
tions were carried on by the court for the purpose of at¬
tempting to form a new ministry, without an unconditional
transfer of the government of the kingdom to the Coalition.
Confident of their own strength, however, this political
combination were desirous of attaining power upon their
own terms, and continued to display their superiority in
the House of Commons, with a view to compel their own
reception at court. On the 24th of March, on the mo¬
tion of Mr T. W. Coke, seconded by Lord Surrey, an
address was agreed to, requesting his majesty to take into
consideration the distracted state of the empire after an
exhausting war, and to comply with the wishes of the
house, by forming an administration entitled to the confi¬
dence of his people. His majesty answered, that it was
his earnest desire to do every thing in his power to com¬
ply with the wishes of his faithful Commons. The delay,
however, continued ; and all descriptions of men were in¬
volved in doubt, suspense, and anxiety. On the 31st of
the same month, a new address, moved by Lord Surrey,
was agreed to, urging in very earnest terms the formation
of what was called an efficient and responsible administra¬
tion, formed upon principles of strength and stability, and
suited to the actual state of his majesty’s affairs both at
home and abroad. And at last, on the 2d of April, his ma¬
jesty, yielding to what appeared as necessity, appointed an
administration consisting of the leaders of the Coalition.
The Duke of Portland was promoted to be first lord of
the treasury; Lord North and Mr Fox were appointed
principal secretaries of state; Lord John Cavendish was
made chancellor of the exchequer; Lord Keppel was
placed at the head of the admiralty; Lord Stormont was
created president of the council; and the Earl of Carlisle
was advanced to be keeper of the privy seal. These con¬
stituted the cabinet; and the other offices of government
vvere filled by the supporters and friends of ministers. The
right honourable Charles Townshend was appointed trea¬
surer of the navy, Mr Burke paymaster general of the
forces, and Lord Viscount Townshend master-general of
the ordnance. The seals were put in commission, at the
head of which was Lord Loughborough. The right honour¬
able Richard Fitzpatrick was appointed secretary at war ;
James Wallace, Esq. was made attorney-general; John Lee,
Esq. became solicitor-general; the Earl of Northington was
appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland; and, in Scotland, the
honourable Henry Erskine was made lord-advocate, in the
room of Mr Henry Dundas. But the new administration
was no sooner installed, than an opposition was formed,
which, in the House of Lords, was led by the Duke of
Richmond and Lord Thurlow ; and in the House of Com¬
mons by Mr Pitt, and Mr Jenkinson, afterwards created
successively Lord Hawkesbury and Earl of Liverpool.
The Coalition administration, on entering into office,
428
BRITAIN.
Reign of were under the necessity of instantly negociating a loan
George III. 0f twelve millions, to supply the necessities of the state;
and to provide for the interest of this loan various taxes
were proposed by Lord John Cavendish, the chancellor of
the exchequer. These were imposed on bills of exchange,
receipts, probates of wills and legacies,^ bonds, and law
proceedings, stage coaches, quack medicines, cainagts,
letters-patent, and other articles ; whilst registers of births,
marriages, and deaths, were also taxed., i hese taxes gave
rise to debates which produced little interest. But the
case was otherwise with regard to-another subject in which
Mr Pitt took the lead. _
Towards the close of the American war, when want of
success had begun to render it unpopular, it had been re¬
peatedly urged, both in parliament and in various publica¬
tions, that the ministerial majorities in favour of the mea¬
sures pursued against the colonies would never have exist¬
ed if the people of this country had been fairly represented
in the House of Commons. By degrees this sentiment at¬
tracted attention ; and to give countenance to parliamen¬
tary reform came to be regarded as a sure step towards
* the attainment of popular favour. Accordingly, Mr Pitt,
then a young man, endeavoured to recommend himself to
notice, by engaging eagerly in the pursuit of this object.
He opened the subject in the House of Commons on the
7th of May, in an eloquent speech, in which, after declar¬
ing his admiration of the general fabric of the British con¬
stitution, and affirming that he wished not to alter but to
restore its true spirit, which time and changes, accident and
events, had enfeebled and diminished, he asserted that the
state of parliamentary representation was partial and in¬
adequate, and the progress of undue influence alarming and
ominous; that the true spirit of liberty had decayed, and
that the powers of control, in different branches of the
government, were greatly debilitated; that wild specula¬
tions of reform were afloat without doors ; but that the mea¬
sures he was about to propose were equally moderate and
necessary. He stated his plan of reform to be, fiist, that
measures ought to be taken to prevent bribery and expense
at elections; secondly, that for the future, when the ma¬
jority of voters of any borough should be convicted of
notorious corruption, the borough should be disfranchised,
and the minority of voters not so convicted should be en¬
titled to vote for the county in which the borough might
be situated; thirdly, that an addition ought to be made to
the representation, to consist of knights of the shire, and
of representatives of the metropolis. Mr Pitt was opposed
with much earnestness by Lords North and Mulgrave, and
also by Mr Powis. He was supported, however, by Mr
Fox and Mr Beaufoy, and also by Mr Thomas Pitt, who
offered, as a testimony of his sincerity, to make a volun¬
tary sacrifice of his borough of Old Sarum. Mr Henry
Dundas, who now attached himself to Mr Pitt, supported
on this occasion the motion of his friend, and asserted, that
to comply with the wishes of the people would be the hap¬
piest means of putting an end to their complaints. Mr
Pitt’s resolutions, however, were lost by a very large ma¬
jority.
During the same session the new administration brought
forward a bill, admitting in express terms the exclusive
rights and absolute supremacy of the parliament and courts
of Ireland in matters of legislation and judicature, and pre¬
venting any writs of error or appeal from the courts of that
country to the courts of Great Britain. Hie bill passed
with little opposition, and tended to gratify the people of
Ireland, though, by increasing the line of separation be¬
tween the countries, it evidently placed them in greater
hazard of disunion. y
During the present session Mr Dundas obtained leave
to bring into parliament a bill for regulating the affairs of
India. The chief feature of his plan consisted in sub- Reign
jecting the presidencies of Madras and Bombay to a con-George ii
trolling jurisdiction, to be conferred on the government of
Bengal, which he wished to vest in the person a of gover¬
nor, entitled to act when he thought fit, in opposition to
the opinion of his council. Another object of this bill was
to secure to the native proprietors their estates in perpe¬
tuity, on payment of a fixed tribute, and to extend these
provisions to the nabob of Arcot and the rajah of Tan-
jore. Mr Dundas contended that such a measure was
rendered necessary in consequence of the improper con¬
duct and tyranny of the servants of the East India Com¬
pany, and especially of their principal servant Mr Hast¬
ings, whom he proposed to recal, and to send out to In¬
dia Lord Cornwallis, as governor-general, in his stead.
The scheme, however, proved abortive; but it led to other
legislative efforts on the same subject.
Though Mr Pitt had been unsuccessful in his proposal
to reform the representation of the people in parliament,
he immediately brought forward a bill containing a pro¬
ject for an inferior species of reform, respecting the fees,
gratuities, and perquisites in the different departments of
the public offices. The object of this bill being economy,
it passed through the House of Commons, but was reject¬
ed in the House of Lords.
Towards the close of the session, a petition from the
American loyalists was, by his majesty’s command, pre¬
sented to the House of Commons by Lord John Caven¬
dish. It stated that the petitioners, some of whom were
persons of the first character, fortune, and consideration,
having adhered to Great Britain during the contest with
the colonies, had been attainted in North America as
traitors, and their effects confiscated by the legislatures
of the different states. Many of the petitioners were
widows and orphans, who had lost husbands and fathers
by their adherence to the British cause; whilst others
were military and civil officers, clergy and other profes¬
sional men, who had lost their means of subsistence in
the same manner. They prayed the House of Commons
to grant them such relief as might seem adequate to their
situation ; and, on the motion of the chancellor of the ex¬
chequer, an act was accordingly passed, appointing com¬
missioners to inquire into the circumstances of such per¬
sons as were reduced to distress by the late dissensions m
On the 23d of June his majesty, by a message, request¬
ed the aid of parliament in making a separate establish¬
ment for the Prince of Wales. Sixty thousand pounds
only were demanded for this purpose; and it was stated
by Lord John Cavendish, that his majesty intended to al¬
low the prince L.50,000 a year out of the civil list, without
requiring from the public any further assistance than tie
above sum of L.60,000, which would be requisite to e
fray the extraordinary expense attending a new estabhsti-
ment. This last sum was the more readily granted, because
rumours had gone abroad, which were alluded
Pitt in the House of Commons, that an intention had ex¬
isted on the part of the administration, particular f 0
Fox, to give the prince a very splendid establishment
the public expense, but that this proposal had not Pl0V
acceptable to his majesty. Mr Fox said, that he un ou
edly considered the proposed establishment as muc , ■
low; and that if it had remained with him to have a
ed an establishment, he would most assuredly have P
posed a sum more adequate to the object, in view,
person, however, most proper to decide in the }1S
had been of an opinion very different, and it was ns
to submit. , tIip nation
Parliament was soon afterwards prorogued, i n„;ety,
was now in a state of perfect tranquillity. Some a
BRITAIN.
ign of
[ rgelll-
however, existed in the minds of men with regard to the
public welfare. The load of public debt which had been
incurred seemed excessive ; and though commerce began
to flow into new and extensive channels, the returns of
trade necessarily required some time to exhibit themselves
429
second bill, which accompanied the first in all its stages, Reign of
was intended to regulate the administration of affairs in George III.
India. It forbade the.exchange, acquisition, or invasion
ot any territory m India, by the general council, or any
presidency there. It abolished all monopolies in India,
in the form ofa flourishing revenue. In the interval, there- and prohibited the acceptance of presents, making them
fore, between the period at which the ministerial expen- recoverable by any person for his sole benefit. bIt se-
diture for the suppoit of the vyar ceased, and that at which cured an estate of inheritance to the native landholders
and piovided against the alteration or increase of rents.
It prohibited the molestation of princes subject to the
Company, and restrained the Company’s servants from col¬
lecting or farming their revenues, or having any pecuni¬
ary transactions with them. It prescribed a mode for ad¬
justing the disputes between the nabob of Arcot and the
rajah of Tanjore, and also between them and their Bri¬
tish creditors. It disqualified the agents of the Company,
or of any protected Indian prince, from sitting in the Bri¬
tish House of Commons ; and directed all offences against
the act to be prosecuted in the courts of India or in the
Court of King’s Bench.
The East India Company’s affairs had hitherto been
governed, in terms of the charter of the Company, by a
court of proprietors, and a court of directors elected by
the proprietors. I he rights of these courts, however, were
to be absolutely taken awray; and their whole powers, or
the sovereignty of British India, was to be vested du¬
ring four years certain in the hands of seven individuals,
nominated by the present administration, through the me¬
dium of their parliamentary majority. It was undoubt¬
edly a bold measure, openly to assault the privileges of
such a body of men as the East India Company; but it
was still more new and singular under the British consti¬
tution, in the form in which it had existed for more than
a century, to vest a large portion of the executive power,
including the command of armies, and an immense pecu¬
niary patronage, in the hands of a few individuals, who
were to hold their places for a fixed period, independent¬
ly of the will of the crown. By taking possession in this
manner of the patronage of Hindustan, the present admi¬
nistration would have found means to render themselves
for a certain time avowedly independent of their sove¬
reign, and they would not have failed to renew their own
powers at the end of that period. It is to be observed,
however, that the administration had in some degree been
led by circumstances which previously occurred, and which
did not originate with them, to adopt some decisive mea¬
sures for reducing India under better management than
that in which it had been placed by the East India Com¬
pany ; and of these it will not be improper here to take a
short review.
The circumstance of a great and wealthy empire having
been vanquished by a company of merchants, was a thing
so new in the history of the world that it could not fail to
be attended with a variety of inconveniences. The Euro¬
pean nations have a near resemblance to each other in
laws, manners, arts, and religion; and the mutual jealousy
which for some centuries they had been accustomed to
entertain of each other had prevented any of them from
making great conquests. When any power, therefore, hap¬
pened to acquire a portion of territory, this addition was
never very great; and the laws of the neighbouring states
being nearly alike, the conquered province scarcely expe¬
rienced any misfortune from a change of masters. Hence
the evils attending upon great conquests had ceased to be
known among the nations of Europe ; and the conquerors
and the conquered being in all cases men of similai charac¬
ters and talents, easily mingled with each other. The nobles
of Alsace were as well received at the court of Trance as
those belonging to the ancient dominions of the french
crown ; and the natives of the Netherlands regarded with
the first profits of foreign trade were received, a consider¬
able shortcoming took place in the public revenue, and in¬
dividuals experienced man}r difficulties. These, however,
gradually passed away; and two inventions were by de¬
grees brought to perfection, which of themselves secured
a profit to the public, almost equivalent to the burdens
which it had incurred in consequence of the American
war. These were the machine for spinning cotton, the in¬
vention of a man, originally of low station, Bichard Ark¬
wright; and the very valuable kinds of pottery contrived
by Mr Wedgewood. The first of these, by producing at
a cheap rate the most beautiful cotton fabrics, in a great
measure put an end to the use of silk, and gave to the
British manufacturers a kind of monopoly of many of the
most useful articles of clothing; whilst the other not only
drew to the nation immense sums from foreign countries,
but, from the bulky nature of the commodity, employed an
immense tonnage of shipping in its exportation.
In the mean time people had leisure to reflect upon the
nature of the coalition of political parties which had re¬
cently taken place. The tendency of that measure, and
the possible evils which might result from it, did not at
once present themselves to the minds of men, because it
was not known to the public at large that the sovereign
had felt his own independence affected by the event.
The general sentiment, however, was that of indignation
against the political parties, who had so far forgotten all
the principles which they had long and loudly professed,
as to be capable of uniting with each other for the sake
of power and emolument. It was universally said that no
honesty was to be found among political men, and that no
profession of patriotism ought henceforth to be trusted.
Thus a severe wound was inflicted upon the public morals
of the nation, by the want of consistency which its most
conspicuous characters had exhibited; and the wound was
only the deeper from the apparent strength of administra¬
tion, which included in itself the men of greatest political
influence in the kingdom, who were considered as likely
to retain long the power which they now possessed.
In this state of affairs parliament assembled on the 11th
of November. In the speech from the throne, the neces-
sity of providing for the security of the revenue, and of at¬
tending to the situation of the East India Company, were
stated to both houses, as apologies for calling them to¬
gether after so short a recess. Some days passed in dis¬
cussions relative to different parts of the revenue, when
Mr Secretary Fox moved for leave to bring in two bills re-
ative to the affairs of the East India Company. By the
ist of these, it was proposed to take from the East India
Company the whole administration of their territorial and
commercial affairs, and to vest it in seven directors, named
in the bill, viz. Earl Fitzwilliam, the Right Honourable Fre-
enck Montague, Lord Viscount Lewisham, the Honour¬
able George Augustus North, Sir Gilbert Elliot, Sir Henry
etcher, and Robert Gregory, Esq. These directors, or
commissioners, were to hold their office during four years,
an not to be removable by his majesty, without an ad-
ress from either house of parliament; and they were to
e aided by a board composed of nine assistant directors,
o were to be removable by five of the principal direc-
rs, and were to have full authority over all the com-
pany s servants and affairs, civil as well as military. The
430
BRITAIN.
Reign of much indifFerence their transition from the dominion of
George III. Spain to that of Austria and of France. But when the Bri-
tish made conquests in Hindustan, all the evils occurred
which naturally attend the loss of national independence,
and that most wretched of all states of human affairs, in
which a race of strangers enjoys permanent dominion, whilst
the natives of a country are subjected to hopeless depres¬
sion and slavery. The British invaders of India undoubted¬
ly possessed, or speedily acquired, the same rapacity with
other conquerors ; and as they were the servants of a com¬
pany of merchants whose only principle of exertion was
profit, it is probable that under them avarice and extortion
assumed more vexatious forms, because accompanied with
greater assiduity, and a more persevering temper, than
were exhibited by the former conquerors of that country,
who issued from the deserts of Tartary and Arabia. The
people of Great Britain, accustomed at home to the mild¬
est government, and to the most equitable administration
of justice that the world ever experienced, heard with hor¬
ror of the crimes, robberies, perfidies, and massacres which
their countrymen had committed, and by which the na¬
tional name and character had been rendered odious in the
East. The British government, also, being no party to these
crimes, wished to see them repressed, and very naturally
supposed that the best remedy would consist in taking
India under its own immediate management. Some pub¬
lic-spirited individuals, indeed, dreaded the accession of in¬
fluence which the crown would thus necessarily acquit e;
but men of humanity were willing to encountei consider¬
able hazard, for the sake of altering the unjustifiable mode
of management which had prevailed in the East.
Early in 1781, two committees were appointed by the
House of Commons, to inquire into the mal-administration
of the East India Company’s affairs both at home and
abroad; and all parties in the house concurred in the ap¬
pointment. The first, or select committee, conducted^ by
some of the most distinguished members of opposition,
was directed to inquire into the state of the administration
of justice in the provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orixa,
and consider how the British possessions in the East In¬
dies might be governed with most advantage to this coun¬
try, and with the greatest happiness to the natives. The
second, or secret committee, under the management of
persons in the confidence of administration, was directed
to inquire into the causes of the war in the Carnatic, and
the condition of the British possessions in those parts.
On the 9th of April 1782, Mr Henry Dundas, lord-ad¬
vocate of Scotland, and chairman of the secret commit¬
tee, moved that the reports of that committee be referred
to a committee of the whole house. Upon this occasion,
Mr Dundas, in a long speech, enumerated the causes of
the calamities of the East, particularly the departure of
the Company’s presidencies from the line of policy pre¬
scribed to them, namely, to avoid military operations with
a view to conquest; the corrupt interference of their ser¬
vants in the domestic and national quarrels of the country
powers ; their breaches of faith and disregard of treaties ;
their peculation and scandalous oppression of the natives ;
and the criminal relaxation on the part of the directors in
the exercise of their controlling power over their servants,
and their ready connivance at the grossest misconduct.
Mr Dundas also brought forward a variety of other reso¬
lutions, which were adopted by the house ; and criminated
in strong terms Sir Thomas Rumbold, formerly governor
of Madras, and Mr Hastings, then governor-general of
Bengal. Among various charges, it was stated that Sir
Thomas Rumbold had remitted to Europe, between the
8th of February 1778, the day of his arrival at Madras,
and the beginning of August in the same year, the sum
of L.41,000; and during the two subsequent years a fur¬
ther sum of L.l 19,000, amounting in all to L.160,000; Reigt
although his salary did not exceed L.13,335 per annum, George:
and he had no other fair means of acquiring wealth. He '"■'V
was charged with having abolished the committees insti¬
tuted to superintend the payment of the revenue due by
the zemindars, or natives holding lands under the Com¬
pany ; with having compelled them to travel many hundred
miles to negociate separately with himself the terms on
which they were to hold their estates ; with having suffer¬
ed his private secretary to receive a bribe of no less than
L.20,000; with having concealed other peculations of the
Company’s servants ; with having given a lease of lands to
the nabob of Arcot, in direct disobedience of the Com¬
pany’s orders; and with having violated the most solemn
treaties entered into with the nizam of the Deccan.
Charges so heavy could not be passed over, and leave was
accordingly given to bring in a bill of pains and penalties
against Sir Thomas Rumbold, and two of his associates,
Peter Perry and John Whitehill, for breaches of public
trust and high crimes and misdemeanours; and at the
same time an act was passed restraining those persons
from leaving the kingdom, and obliging a discovery of their
property, and preventing its alienation.
In other resolutions brought forward on the 15th of
April, Mr Dundas stated a variety of accusations against
Mr Hastings and Mr Hornsby; and a resolution was adopt¬
ed, declaring it to be the duty of the directors of the East
India Company to recal the governor-general, and Mr
Hornsby the president, from their respective offices. Ac¬
cordingly, the court of directors issued orders for this pur¬
pose ; but these were appealed from to a court of proprie¬
tors, who, on the 31st of October 1782, prohibited the
court of directors from complying with the resolution of
the House of Commons. The result was, that Mr Hast¬
ings retained his office, and Mr Dundas, in the following
session of parliament, brought forward the bill which we
have already mentioned, but which was not passed into
a law. ,
At the same time that Mr Dundas, as chairman of trie
secret committee, brought forward the resolutions already
mentioned, the select committee presented their report,
and on the 18th of April, General Smith, their chairman,
proposed various resolutions, in some of which Mr Hast¬
ings was criminated along w'ith Sir Elijah Impey, clue -
justice of the supreme court of Bengal. By means o
investigations carried on by this committee, the lea mg
members of opposition, particularly Mr Fox and Mr Burke,
qualified themselves for directing at a future period tne
attention of the legislature and of the public to the s a
of Indian affairs. Mr Fox made use of his knowledge to
bring forward the two remarkable bills already
ed ; and to justify so strong a measure, it was alleged tha ,
by the mismanagement of the courts of directois an P
prietors, the affairs of the Company had been broug i i
such a state of extreme embarrassment as rendereu
absolutely necessary to vest the administration m ou
These abuses were arranged under three heads, as thej
affected, first, the independent powers of India; seeon y.
the states in alliance with us; and, thirdly, our ow ,
ritorial possessions. Under the head w ere c .^o
the extravagant projects and expensive wars en ere
by the Company to extend their dominions ; ie ^
tions of treaty; the sale of their assistance m SUPP,
the ambition, rapacity, and cruelty of others 5J* ^
betraying in turn almost every prince, without exv e
with whom they had formed any connection ^ d
The second class of abuses comprehended the eor F
ruinous interference .of the Company in the m e . {
vernment of the princes dependent on them,
il
BRITAIN.
Rei of
Geor III
exaction of exorbitant aids and tribute; the enormous
peculations of the Company’s civil servants ; and the rapa¬
city of the military. The third included the management
of the countries under the immediate dominion of the
Company, with respect to which it was affirmed, that the
general system of their conduct in India was directed to a
single end, the transmission of wealth from that country
to this. With this view, monopolies had been established,
not only of every article of trade, but even of the neces¬
saries of life; the privilege of pre-emption had been se¬
cured to the Company; and a variety of no less ruinous and
arbitrary preferences followed. By this oppressive con¬
duct the merchants and bankers ot India, many of whom
in extent of trade and credit were scarcely equalled by
those of the first class in Europe, fell gradually into de¬
cay; whilst the native cultivators and manufacturers were
obliged to accept of a bare sufficiency for their mainte¬
nance, measured out to them by the judgment of those
who alone were to profit by their labour. The case of the
zemindars, and of the cultivators under them, was, if pos¬
sible, still more deplorable. At the time we obtained
the dewannee or stewardship from the Mogul, the pro¬
vinces of Bengal and Bahar had been laid waste by a fa¬
mine, which carried off upwards of one third of the popu¬
lation. But the first thing done for their relief was to
exact from the remainder the same tribute which had
before been paid by the whole. Nor was this all. The
Company’s government in India had set up to public auc¬
tion the whole landed interest of Bengal, without the least
regard to the rights of private property, or even giving
a preference to the ancient possessors; and the zemin¬
dars, most of them persons of ancient families and respect¬
able fortunes, were under the necessity of bidding against
every desperate adventurer and schemer, or of seein"
their estates delivered up to the management of strangers.
he sufferings of the natives under our dominion in India
were further aggravated by their being almost wholly ex¬
cluded from any share in the expenditure of the Com¬
pany s government; all the principal collections of the
revenue, all the honourable, all the lucrative situations in
ie army, all the supplies and contracts of every kind,
were in the hands of the English; so that the natives,
wi ew exceptions, were only employed as the servants
or agents of Europeans, in subordinate stations in the
army, and in the inferior department of collection, where
it was impossible to proceed a step without their assist¬
ance. It was therefore urged, that the present govern-
njent ot India was not in its nature capable of reform.
o ing could be expected from the court of proprietors,
oecause the members, as individuals, derived more profit
nom supporting Indian delinquents, than they could ever
nope to receive from the fair dividends of the Company;
not n coult directors, being a representative body,
CPai^0°k of the imperfections of its constituents,
p” ,se views Mr Fox was powerfully supported by
tpnrl? e?idld e}0^uence of Mr Burke. But Mr Pitt con-
tL . ’ although India undoubtedly wanted reform,
and nnfratl<?n t0. b? adoPte.d ought to be constitutional,
evpw i SUC 1 a? ?n ltS Principle endangered the safety of
nan Jc Lartered lncorPoration in the kingdom. The com-
of/pif ,arter was not th6 result of the mad prodigality
deliberaipf^6116^ a Judor’ or.a Stuart, but a fair purchase
violatpd y,made from parliament, which could not be
vesting 7ltlout a gross disregard to public faith. By
nominallv16 W^° e Peonage of India in commissioners
by admin;Cf5*vmtedi Pardament, but actually selected
augmentpd I.atl0n1’ 116 influence of the crown would be
resLihll ? t0 a de§ree which would enable it, like
resistihlo t vviucii wouiu enaoie it, like an ir-
the remainn!’ u.tterIT t0 overpower and sweep away
g iberties of the country. On the other hand,
Mr Dundas did not object to the measure under consi¬
deration because it increased the influence of the crown
but because it did what was much worse, by placing a
new and unexampled influence in the hands of the minis¬
ter and his party for five years, which would be indepen¬
dent both of the crown and the parliament. The bills
were fur ther attacked, not merely by those persons who
might be supposed to aspire to supplant ministers in their
offices, but also by several country gentlemen of independ¬
ent character and high reputation for integrity; whilst the
ordinary members of opposition impugned the motives of
their author in very pointed terms.
Ihe principal supporters of the bills were the two se¬
cretaries of state, Mr Burke, Mr Sheridan, Mr Erskine, Mr
Lee, Mr Adam, Sir Grey Coupar, Mr Anstruther, Mr
Courteney, Mr Rigby, Lord Maitland, and Sir Henry
rletcher ; and they were opposed by Mr William Pitt, Mr
Thoirms Pitt, Mr Jenkinson, Mr Powis, Mr Dundas, Mr
Macdonald, Sir James Lowther, Mr Duncombe, Mr Mar¬
tin, the Marquis of Graham, Mr Arden, Mr William Gren-
ydle’ Beaufoy, Mr Wilberforce, Lord Mulgrave, and
Mr W likes. The first bill, however, was carried by a con¬
siderable majority; and on the 9th of December it was
presented to the House of Lords by Mr Fox, attended by
a great number of members. On the first reading, Earl
lemple, Lord Thurlow, and the Duke of Richmond, re¬
probated the measure in the most unqualified terms, but
without calling for a vote of the house; and Lord Thur¬
low, at the same time, pronounced a panegyric upon the
character and services of Mr Hastings.
Meanwhile an alarm seems to have been excited in the
mind of the sovereign. He had reluctantly given way to
the strength of the coalition, and conferred upon its lead¬
ers the first offices of the state; and he now heard it alleg¬
ed, with some plausibility, that this combination of ambi¬
tious men, not satisfied with the ordinary influence attend¬
ing their situation, were about to fortify themselves in the
possession of power in such a way as gradually to enable
them to become independent both of him and his people.
The moment seemed therefore to have arrived when tern-
porizing measures could no longer be pursued, and a stand
must be made for the support of the royal prerogative
Accordingly, on the 11th of December his majesty had a
conference with Earl I emple, in which he confessed him¬
self completely convinced of the correctness of the views
entertained by opposition ; and although it was now some¬
what late to oppose a measure which had been brought
forward by the ministers of the crown, and carried through
the House of Commons under the apparent sanction of
the royal authority, a resolution was nevertheless adopt¬
ed to endeavour to prevent its further progress by means
of the House of Lords. A card was accordingly circulat¬
ed, understood to be sent by Earl Temple, in consequence
of written authority from his majesty, in which it was
stated, that his majesty allowed Earl Temple to say, that
whoever voted for the India bill was not only not his friend,
but would be considered by him as his enemy; and that
if these words were not strong enough, Earl Temple might
use whatever words he should deem stronger or more to
the purpose. T.he consequence of this interposition was,
that, on the 15th of December, upon a question of adjourn¬
ment in the House of Lords, the ministers were left in a
minority of eight. On the same day Mr Baker brought
forward a motion in the House of Commons, to declare,
that, to report any opinion of his majesty, upon proceed¬
ings depending in parliament, with a view to influence the
votes of the members, is a high crime and misdemeanour,
and a breach of the fundamental privileges of parliament.
This motion was seconded by Lord Maitland, and support¬
ed by references to the journals, and by the principle, that
431
Reign of
George III.
432
BRITAIN.
Reign of advice ought only to be given to the king by his ministers,
George III. who are responsible for all the measures of government.
Mr Pitt, however, opposed it, as proceeding upon unau-
thenticated rumours, and asserted that the precedents a -
luded to in the journals were not applicable to the present
case. But the motion was nevertheless carried by a laige
majority; and as it was feared that a dissolution wou d
instantly take place, the house resolved that they would
consider any person as an enemy to his country who
should advise his majesty to interrupt their discharging
the important duty of providing a remedy for the abuses
which prevailed in the East Indies, and that they would
resolve themselves into a committee on the state of the na¬
tion on the 22d December. But on the 17th Mr box s In-
diabill was rejected in the House of Lords; and at twelve
o’clock on the night of the 18th a message was delivered
to the secretaries of state, requiring them to transmit to
his majesty the seals of their offices, by the under secre¬
taries, as a personal interview wrould be disagreeable to the
king. Early next morning, letters of dismission, signed
by Earl Temple, were sent to the other members of the
cabinet, and a general resignation of offices followed.
A new administration was immediately formed, in which
Mr Pitt was appointed first lord of the treasury and
chancellor of the exchequer; the Marquis of Caermarthen
and Mr Townshend, who had been created Lord Sidney,
were made secretaries of state; Lord Thurlow became
lord high chancellor; the privy-seal was transferred to
the Duke of Rutland; Earl Gower became president of
the council; the Duke of Richmond was made master of
the ordnance, and Lord Howe first lord of the admiralty;
Mr Grenville and Lord Mulgrave were appointed joint
paymasters of the forces, and Mr Henry Dundas treasu¬
rer of the navy; the office of lord advocate of Scotland,
which this gentleman had formerly held, being transferred
from the Honourable Henry Erskine to Mr Hay Campbell.
A spectacle was now' about to be exhibited which had
long been unknown in Britain,—that of an administration
appointed by the crown, in direct opposition to the House
of Commons. This, however, was no longer the House of
Commons which had subdued the royal prerogative, and
contended with success against our ablest and most ambi¬
tious monarchs. The late coalition had produced through¬
out the nation a general distrust of the character of those
who formed the majority of its members ; and it was soon
found that a representative body possesses little power or
influence, and may be safely disregarded, when it ceases
to be the organ of the public sentiments. It was expected
that an immediate dissolution of parliament would take
place ; but the change of the highest officers of the crown
having been hastily made, it is probable that the new mi¬
nistry dreaded entering instantly upon the business of an
election against the powerful parties coalesced in opposi¬
tion to them. The majority of the House of Commons also
dreaded a dissolution, and, on Monday the 22d of Decem¬
ber, they voted an address to the king, stating the present
inconveniencies which would attend a prorogation or dis¬
solution of parliament. His majesty returned an answer
on the 24th, acquiescing, in general terms, in the senti¬
ments contained in the address, and assuring the house
that, after a short adjournment, their meeting would not be
interrupted by any prorogation or dissolution.
When the house met on the 12th of January, Mr Fox
attempted to introduce, previous to any other business,
the discussion of certain resolutions which had been pre¬
pared by the opposition; whilst the new ministers endea¬
voured, by means of a stratagem, to be heard first, Mr
Pitt declaring that he had a message to deliver from the
king. But after some tumult, Mr Fox being allowed to
proceed, called upon Mr Pitt to give the house an assu¬
rance that no dissolution would take place; and the latter Reign
having declined to comply with this requisition, Mr FoxGeoige
moved that the house should resolve itself into a com-
mittee on the state of the nation, and the motion was car¬
ried by a large majority. It was then resolved, that to is¬
sue public money after a prorogation or dissolution of par¬
liament, unless an act had previously passed, appropriat¬
ing the supplies to specific services, would be a high crime
and misdemeanour ; that, in the present state of his ma¬
jesty’s dominions, it was necessary to have an administra¬
tion possessing the confidence of the house and the pub¬
lic ; that the recent appointments did not enjoy the con¬
fidence of the house ; and that the second reading of the
mutiny bill should be deferred till the 23d of February.
Warm debates ensued upon these resolutions. The Coa¬
lition was branded as a corrupt confederacy of two despe¬
rate factions to seize upon the government of the country;
and the India bill was represented as an experiment made
by the late secretary of state, with a view to raise himself
to a degree of power superior to that of the sovereign.
On the other hand, the new administration was described
as a coalition, not indeed of parties, but of the shreds and
remnants, of the dregs and outcasts, of parties ; as a body
collected for the purpose of fighting the battles of secret
and unconstitutional influence, of trampling on the power
and dignity of the House of Commons, of establishing a
government of cabal, intrigue, and favouritism, and of de¬
stroying the very principles of laudable ambition and ho¬
nourable service in the state.
On the 14th of January Mr Pitt obtained leave to bring
in a bill for the better government and management of the
affairs of the East India Company. By this bill, commis¬
sioners were appointed by his majesty, authorized t°
perintend and control all operations of the courts of di¬
rectors and proprietors of the East India Company, rela¬
tive to the civil and military government or revenues ot
the territories and possessions of the Company. Hus
board of control was to have access to all papers belong¬
ing to the Company; and the court of directors was on
no pretence to send out orders to India, without the pre¬
vious approbation of the board, which was also authorized
to alter and amend the orders of the directors. Fhs ma¬
jesty was authorized to name the commanders-in-chiet m
India, and to remove any governor, general, or member
of the councils, of any British settlement in India; and
all nominations by the court of directors to these ottces
were declared to be subject to the approbation of his ma¬
jesty ; nor was the court of proprietors allowed, for t e
future, to revoke any proceeding of the court of director
which had been approved of by his majesty. It was od-
jected to this bill, that it disfranchised the East In
Company, or violated their charter, no less than i r
bill had done ; and although a meeting of the court ot p •
prietors had passed a vote in favour of the regulations
tained in it, yet at the second reading, on the 2:2a
nuarv, it was negatived by a small majority. f
The discussion of this bill did not prevent the
Commons from endeavouring to shake the deternn ^
of the court, and to intimidate the new adm.inist.rat‘° •'ted
resolution was moved and carried, declaring in P
terms the disapprobation of the house, or t ie aPP
ment and continuance in office of the Presea p. was
which they considered as unconstitutional. 1 ! ventur-
also called upon to explain upon what princip e ' _ ^
ed to remain in office after the House of swer.
declared him unworthy of their confidence. , . waS
ed, that though novel and extraordinary, ‘ns19° point-
by no means unconstitutional; that the mime m ^se;
ment or removal of a minister did not rest v i 1 ^ a
Illt ll L X V. ill W v Cli x*      . 1
that he neither could or ought to remain on&
Eei
BRITAIN.
of situation; but that he was bound to use his own discre- Portland and Mr Pitt.
433
< —   - > - -  — ~ ^ xiio w ii C*
Geor^ Ill.tion to prevent the consequences which might attend an
Jnetani' rpsurnatinn. frnm tVio f^.r  l„r<.  .
instant resignation, from the country being left without
an executive government. The public at large now began
to be greatly interested in the dispute which had occur¬
red between the king and the House of Commons. The
common council of London voted an address of thanks to
his majesty for the dismission of his late ministers; and
this address was followed by similar addresses from the
merchants and trades of the city of London, from the city
of Norwich, and other parts of the kingdom. The Coali¬
tion made some attempts in the county of Middlesex, in
Westminster, and in the county of York, to turn the tide
of addresses in their own favour; but in these instances,
if they avoided a defeat, they gained no victory.
In the meanwhile, a number of independent members
of the House ot Commons attempted to heal the present
breach by proposing a new coalition of parties, and the
formation of an administration upon a still broader basis
than formerly. On the 26th of January, about seventy
members of the House of Commons met at the St Albans
tavern, and signed an address, to be presented, by a com¬
mittee of their body, to the Duke of Portland and Mr Pitt,
requesting them to communicate with each other on the
arduous state of public affairs, and expressing a hope that,
by a liberal intercourse, every impediment to a cordial co¬
operation of men of character, acting on the same public
principles, might be removed. In answer to this address,
both pai ties expressed themselves desirous to comply with
the wishpc nP cr\   j.:  i . 1
Po^tland^echned^anv^rUerview^vk^Mr Phr f" 1° ^ own aithorfty V'eSg^voTe die
Portland declined any interview with Mr Pitt, for the pur¬
pose of union, while that gentleman continued prime minis¬
ter m defiance of the resolutions of the House of Commons ;
and, on the other hand, Mr Pitt refused to resign as a pre-
iminary to negociation. To co-operate with the St Albans
meeting, one of its members moved and carried unani-
mously a resolution, that the present critical state of pub¬
lic affairs required an efficient, extended, and united admi¬
nistration, entitled to the confidence of the people ; and it
was also resolved that the continuance of the present mi¬
nisters in office was an obstacle to forming an efficient, ex-
tended, and united administration ; resolutions which were
ordered to be laid before his majesty. The meeting at the
6t Albans tavern next declared that an administration
rormed on the total exclusion of the members of the last
or present administration would be inadequate to the exi¬
gencies of public affairs. Mr Fox expressed his wishes
loi a union, but insisted on the resignation of the chan¬
cellor of tip ; 1: & -.i
, . . . -A messnge was accordingly sent Iteign of
by Mi I itt, acquainting the duke that he was command-^eorge HI*
ed to signify to him his majesty’s earnest desire that his v—
grace should have a personal conference with Mr Pitt for
the purpose of forming a new administration, on a wide
basis, and on fair and equal terms. The duke requested
an explanation of the message with regard to the words
equal terms; but Mr Pitt declined any preliminary discus¬
sion. I he Duke of Portland likewise proposed that he
should be permitted to understand that the message im¬
plied a virtual resignation by Mr Pitt, or that he himself
should receive his majesty’s commands personally relative
to the conference. But both of these propositions were
refused, and here terminated the efforts of the St Albans
association.
On the 18th of February the chancellor of the exche¬
quer, in his place in the House of Commons, being re-
quired to say, previous to the consideration of the ques¬
tion of supply for the ordnance department, whether any
communication was to be expected relative to the resolu¬
tions of the house which had recently been laid before the
king, replied, that his majesty, after considering all the
circumstances of the country, had not thought fit to dis¬
miss his ministers, and that his ministers had not resign¬
ed. I his produced a warm debate, in which it was ob-
seived by Mr box, that it was the first instance since the
revolution of a direct denial on the part of the crown to
comply with the wishes of the House of Commons ; and
he threw out a hint that it might be necessary for the
supplies. But to allow his majesty’s ministers'5time to con-
sidei well their situation, he proposed to defer the report
of the ordnance estimate for two days. The refusal of
the supplies was treated by the friends of the new adminis¬
tration as a threat which the utmost madness of faction
would not seriously attempt to execute, and which could
nevei be justified by his majesty’s refusal to dismiss minis¬
ters who had been condemned without a trial. On a di¬
vision, however, there appeared a majority of twelve for
postponing the supplies. On the 20th of February a new
address to the throne for the removal of the ministers was
carried by a majority of twenty-one ; and on the 27th his
majesty’s answer was reported by the speaker, in which it
was stated that no charge or complaint had been suggest¬
ed against the ministers, nor was any one of them speci¬
fically objected to; and that, on the other hand, numbers
of his subjects had expressed to his majesty the utmost
satisfaction with the change of his councils. This answer
cellor of the excheouer in S Tw, , satisfaction with the change of his councils. This answer
of the House of C^mmnn^ T? ' th1 ,reSOlu;!°nS ^as abundantly artful, as it tended to alienate the people
nary.6 Mr I^dton^d^contrarv 6 ^ the House of Commons, and, at the same time, to
dared that the’house mi°ht fC" P?rplex the Coalition> who could not accuse the prime mi-
mission ; but till the k?n£ ^hm n S • hlf Cr°Wn f.°r US dlS‘ ?1S5er °f any P°litical crime, as he was a young man, who
r , ■ • tne kln& should think proper to remove hnrl nnv«r A- - ’ . .
mm from his situation, he held it to be neither illegal nor
ituhonal to retain it, and would not recede from his
that ^ C eterr™nati°n. He at the same time suggested,
hmicn nil£lt; be persons on the opposite side of the
stanffinW J-WhT he Could not act- Lord North, under-
torplm^ • t0 ke aPuded to, declared his readiness
shnn iT'T hlS Pretensions to an official situation, if these
denvinA dle™d ^ obstade to a union ; and this self-
denvm™ i any onstacle to a union ; and this self-
MarshJm Was received witb great applause. Mr
association H 1 ^ n’ °ther members of the St Albans
£ eSen’- enAa-lled Upon Mr Pitt t0 yield t0 the Press-
men E^168 0f,^1S C0VntrL’ hut.in vain- These gentle-
the diffin, ifVei’ continued their efforts ; and, to remove
save the h ^ arislag,from Mr Pitt’s refusal to resign, or to
^ the rovaMnf tHe h°USe Up°n that P°mt’they Procur“
i neo-oH J; nJerfb^ence to the extent of requesting that
vobL. v! Sh°U d be set on foot between the Duke of
had never enjoyed the chief direction of any important
affaii. A second address to the throne, however, was
moved in the House of Commons on the 1st of March, and
agreed to by a majority of twelve, remonstrating against
the answer to the former address. His majesty replied in
civil terms ; but persevering in his resolution to retain his
ministers, the opposition resolved to make a last effort to
overcome the royal determination. Mr Fox declared that
he would not propose an address to the throne, because
he wished for no answer, but a humble representation, to
which it was not customary to make any reply. And this
representation consisted of a long remonstrance against the
alleged unconstitutional appointment of an administration
in opposition to the wishes of the House of Commons; and
concluded by stating, that the house had done its duty in
pointing out the evil, and that the blame and responsibi¬
lity must henceforth lie wholly upon those who had pre¬
sumed to advise his majesty to act in contradiction to the
3 i
434
BRITAIN.
Reign of uniform maxims which had hitherto governed his own con-
George III. duct, as well as that of every other prince of his illustri-
house. This representation was carried by a majori¬
ty of only one vote, which the Coalition appear to have
considered as a defeat; for they finally yielded to then
destiny, and suffered the mutiny bill, which had been their
last security against a premature dissolution, to pass in the
usua| t0mis«
Soon after the partial cessation of this struggle, parlia¬
ment was dissolved; and in the elections which ensued, the
new administration were extremely successful. Upwards
of a hundred and sixty members of the former House of
Commons lost their seats; and of these, nearly the whole
were the friends of the previous administration. Thus the
defeat of a powerful combination was completely accom¬
plished, and its leaders were rendered of little importance
in the legislature of the empire; and thus terminated the
strength of the celebrated Coalition, the fate and effects of
which ought never to be forgotten. That unfortunate mea¬
sure may be said to have ruined the political fortunes of
Mr Fox, undoubtedly one of the most accomplished states¬
men whom Britain ever produced. From that period he
was generally regarded as unfit to be intrusted with power;
his eloquence ceased to persuade, and his counsels, even
when full of wisdom, were regarded with distrust, because
his coalition with Lord North constantly rose up against
him, and suggested suspicions of his integrity, or at least
of his wisdom. This coalition also had a tendency to
diminish the attachment of the nation to the House of
Commons, and its confidence in that branch of the legisla¬
ture which, in fact, might be nothing more than a com¬
bination of factious men aiming at personal aggrandize¬
ment, and in certain circumstances rendering it necessary
for the people to arrange themselves behind the throne,
in order to obtain protection against one of the worst and
most oppressive of all governments, that of a corrupt aris¬
tocracy.
On "the 18th of May the new parliament assembled;
and in the speech from the throne his majesty assured
both houses of his satisfaction in meeting them, after re¬
curring, in so important a moment, to the sense of his
people, and of his reliance on their being animated by the
same sentiments of loyalty and attachment to the consti¬
tution which had been so fully manifested throughout the
kingdom. He directed their attention to the affairs of
the^East India Company, but warned them against adopt¬
ing any measures which might affect the constitution ; and
concluded with expressing his inclination to maintain, in
their just balance, the rights and privileges of every branch
in the legislature.
The affairs of the East India Company were speedily
brought before parliament. On the 24th of June a bill
was introduced by the chancellor of the exchequer to al¬
low the Company to divide four per cent, on their capital
for the half year concluding at midsummer 1784. The ne¬
cessity of the case was urged in justification of this bill for
supporting the credit of the Company; and it was alleged,
that notwithstanding their present distresses, which were
admitted to be great, there existed a sufficient probability
that their affairs upon the whole might warrant such a di¬
vidend. The bill passed through both houses, and receiv¬
ed the royal assent. On the 2d of July, Mr Pitt brought
forward another bill, which had for its object to allow the
Company a respite of duties due to the exchequer, to ena¬
ble them to accept of bills beyond the amount prescribed
by former statutes, and to establish the regularity of their
future dividends. This act gave rise to various debates,
particularly in consequence of a question put by Mr Phi¬
lip Francis, how far the honour of parliament would be
pledged by it to enable the East India Company to make
payment of the bills accepted by them, in case the funds Beige
of the Company should prove deficient. But it neverthe-Georg :
less passed into a law; and Mr Pitt, still further to sup-
port the East India Company, brought forward a bill to
diminish the duty upon tea, for the sake of preventing
smuggling, and in lieu thereof to substitute a commuta¬
tion tax upon windows. The amount of the revenue raised
from tea was between L.700,000 and L.800,000; and the
object of the new act was to proportion it in such a way as
to raise upon that article in future no more than L.169,000,
which it was supposed would enable the Company to sell
thirteen millions of pounds of tea, instead of five millions
and a half.
But these, which all passed and received the royal as¬
sent, were subordinate to the bill for regulating the gene¬
ral management of the affairs of the Company, which,
though framed upon the same model with that proposed by
Mr Pitt in the last parliament, yet differed from it in seve¬
ral particulars. The powers of the board of control were
enlarged; in cases of urgency and secrecy, it was autho¬
rized to transmit its own orders to India without these
being subject to the revision of the court of directors; in
the governor-general and council of Bengal was vested an
absolute power over the other presidencies in transactions
with the country powers, and in all applications of the re¬
venues and forces in time of war; the receiving of presents
was declared to be extortion and disobedience of orders;
the Company’s servants were required, on their return to
England, to lodge in the exchequer a statement upon oath
of their whole property ; and for the effectual punishment
of crimes committed in the East Indies, a new court ot
justice was instituted. _ ,
Mr Francis opposed in strong terms the general princi¬
ple of this bill, as tending to create an incongruous power,
nominal on the part of the directors, real on the part ot
administration ; and Mr Fox affirmed that the proposed
board of control violated the privileges of the India Com¬
pany no less than the enactment of his bills had done,
whilst it increased in a greater degree the dangerous in¬
fluence of the crown. He treated with great contempt
the new court of judicature, which he said might fairly be
called a bed of justice, as justice would sleep upon it, and
thereby embitter the calamities of India, by removing all
fear of punishment. When the bill came to be discusse
in the committee, Mr Pitt acted in a manner which a -
terwards on many occasions distinguished his mode o
transacting the national business. Instead of coming or-
ward, like the leader of a party, with a measure complete
in all its parts, and prepared to receive the firm support
of his adherents, he not only of himself proposed some es¬
sential alterations, but adopted those suggested by others,
whether friends or antagonists, ihe consequence was,
that, in the committee, it underwent important modihca-
tions. The power of issuing orders, in the first instance,
was limited to the case of the court of directors neg ec
ing to transmit dispatches to the board, after
days’ notice, upon any subject which the board might t m
it necessary to take up. The directors were also empowe
ed to elect a secret committee of three members, to com¬
municate with the board concerning such orders as
board might of its own authority transmit to India,
appointment of the commander in chief of the ,
withdrawn from his majesty, and left with the Comp )>
together with the negative upon nominations m Sel1^ .g
Mr Pitt himself also brought forward some amencime
respecting the constitution of the new tribunal. u ^
rity was now given to any person or persons to mov^ffag
Court of King’s Bench for an information. Ihe coUI,
also authorized to issue commissions to the c<?u!t;S j'reC.
dia, for the purpose of taking depositions ; and tae
BRITAIN.
Eel of tors of the Company, and persons returning from India,
Geor III-were excluded from the judicature that was to be erected!
The bill, thus amended, passed the House of Commons on"
the 28th of July, and the House of Lords on the 9th of
August.
Early in July the chancellor of the exchequer informed
the House of Commons that Sir Elijah Impey, chief judge
of the supreme court of justice of Bengal, had arrived in
England, in consequence of being recalled by his majesty,
pursuant to an address of the house. The acute sensibi¬
lity or powerful imagination of Mr Burke having induced
him to interest himself greatly in the sufferings of the
natives of India under the British government, he now
called on the ministry to enforce the resolutions of the
house respecting Sir Elijah Impey, by bringing him to
trial; and he repeatedly endeavoured to introduce as the
subject of deliberation the reports of the committees of
the former parliament respecting Indian affairs; but he
was eithei defeated, with little reply, by a motion for the
order of the day, or overpowered and silenced by the loud
and continual clamour of the house.
Duiing the present session it was found necessary to
have recourse to a loan of six millions, to settle the re¬
maining expenses of the American war. The naval esta¬
blishment was at the same time fixed on a higher scale
than in former years of peace. The number of seamen and
marines voted was twenty-six thousand ; but the military
force was not large, as it did not exceed seventeen thou¬
sand five hundred men for guards and garrisons. Several
new taxes were imposed upon linen and cotton manufac¬
tures, hats, paper, candles, bricks, postage of letters, horses,
hackney-coaches, persons dealing in exciseable commo-
! ditxes, and persons engaging in the amusement of shoot¬
ing game or hunting, none of which met with almost any
opposition. J
se.ss*on cl°sed with a motion, brought forward by
Hr Uundas, for the restoration of the estates forfeited in
Scotland in the rebellion of 1745, to the descendants or
other heirs of the rebels. As this measure had for its
o ject the relief of individuals whose unequivocal attach¬
ment to his present majesty and his family could not be
supposed to be tainted or affected by the crimes of their
ancestors, it met with the approbation of the Commons;
ru m ii Kouse of Lords 14 w«s opposed by the Lord
Uiancenor lluiriow, on the ground both of its impolicy
d its partiality; impolicy, as rendering nugatory the set-
tled maxim of the British constitution, that treason was a
n.. • 1-,° S°, C!eep c? dTe tllat n°thing was adequate to its
Lmp meiit total eradication of the person, the
J™’ ?n,cl th{; family, out of the society which he had
forfp.i • ta j"Jure; and partiality, because the estates
p-rnim i ln.i ant^ which were forfeited upon the same
in and Pfinciples as those in 1745, were passed over
wa„ f Ce’.whilst a person who had been forfeited in 1690
passed tLlnTC U^d inithe Fusion. The bill, however,
*. . .Lords, and received the royal assent.
and G-J1S tl^1-e dle British nation enjoyed profound peace ;
tional 1C attenti°n being no longer excited by na-
en.terPr'ses of aiiy political fa£io„,
was PncU,. a- ui any political raction,
which ml greeted to objects of less importance, among
which hnAvr mentl°ned the discoveries in aerostation,
Pnrllnm lerto Proved of more curiosity than utility.
1784 in^ti assemhled again on the 25th of January
cularlv rQ le sPe?ch from the throne, the object parti-
the final f^mended to the attention of both houses was
tween Cvn 1iUn™en.t of t,he commercial intercourse be¬
taken un i-p^ ,ritai1? and Ire^and. The first business
^ent for wJlf6 •t0 t le ch°ice of two members of parlia-
«ood, Mr Foxthf late general electioa- Lord
’and ®ir Cecil Wray, had offered themselves
as candidates. Lord Hood easily carried his election ; but
between the other candidates the contest was carried on
with unexampled obstinacy. The engaging manners of
Mr Fox, who had for some time represented the city of
Westminster in parliament, enabled him, however, not¬
withstanding the general unpopularity of the Coalition, to
engage with success in the contest. After the election
had continued upwards of six weeks, it was concluded
on the 17th May 1784, leaving a considerable majority in
favour of Mr Pox. At this time, being the very day pre¬
vious to the return of the writ for the election, the high
bailiff, at the request of Sir Cecil Wray, granted a scru¬
tiny into the votes which he had taken. This was pro¬
tested against by Mr Fox and several of the electors; and
immediately on the meeting of parliament, the conduct of
the high bailiff was vehemently attacked by opposition,
and no less vigorously defended by administration. On a
motion of Lord Mulgrave, however, it was resolved that
the high bailiff of Westminster should proceed in the
scrutiny with all practicable dispatch. In the beginning
of Pebruary the business was resumed in the House of
Commons. The scrutiny had continued eight months,
and only two parishes out of seven had been scrutinized ;
so that it was admitted that probably more than two years
longer would be necessary to finish the scrutiny. On the
8th of February, however, Mr Welbore Ellis moved that
a return of the election be immediately made by the high
bailiff' of Westminster; and, after a variety of debates, it
was at length carried, and Lord Hood and Mr Fox were
returned as members for Westminster.
On the 18th of February, the attention of the House of
Commons was called to the payment of the debts of the
nabob of Arcot. The statute which Mr Pitt had got
passed during the preceding summer authorized in ge¬
neral terms the court of directors to establish, in concert
with the nabob, funds for the payment of such of his debts
as should appear to be justly due. The court of directors
accordingly ordered the council at Madras to investigate
these debts; but the board of control, with some trifling
limitation, ordered the whole debts to be paid out of the
revenues of the Carnatic. Mr Dundas undertook the
defence of the board of control, and treated with ridi¬
cule a declaration made by Mr Francis, that rumours were
abioad of a collusion between the board of control and
the creditors^ of 1777. He justified the whole of the na¬
bob of Arcot s debts. One set of debts incurred in 1767
consisted of money borrowed by the nabob at the rate of
from thirty to thirty-six per cent, interest, to pay off’ a
sum due by the nabob to the Company, which was at that
time in the utmost distress, and the interest had after¬
wards been reduced to ten per cent. The second branch
of the nabob s debts had arisen from sums borrowed to
pay off his own cavalry, which the Company had ordered
him to reduce, but which he was unable to dismiss from
want of money to pay their arrears. Pie had borrowed this
money, and the Company had engaged its credit for the
loan. A third class of debts, incurred or consolidated in
1777, were acknowledged by the nabob to be valid, and
were only approved of by the board of control, subject to
his objections, or to objections by the Company or the rest
of the creditors.
Mr Burke stated a variety of objections to the nabob’s
debts. It appeared that the nabob had contracted a debt
with the Company’s servants to the amount of L.888,000
sterling, which, in the year 1767, was settled at an inte¬
rest of ten per cent. In the year 1777 a second debt of
the nabob of Arcot, amounting to L.2,400,000, was settled
at twelve per cent, interest; and to this was added another
debt, called the cavalry debt, of L.160,000, at the same
interest. The whole of these four capitals, amounting to
435
Reign of
George III.
436
BRITAIN.
Reign of L.4,440,000, produced at their several rates annuities
George III. amounting to L.623,000 a year, more than half of which
stood chargeable on the public revenues of the Carnatic.
These annuities, equal to the revenues of a kingdom, were
possessed by a small number of individuals ot no conse¬
quence, situation, or profession. Mr Burke admitted that
the loan of 1787 was the fairest, as it could be convicted
of nothing worse than the most enormous usury. The in¬
terest at thirty-six per cent, was first paid, then twenty-
five, then twenty, and, lastly, the interest was reduced to
ten per cent.; but all along the interest had been added to
the principal, so that of K888,000 Mr Burke doubted whe¬
ther the nabob ever saw L.100,000 in real money. With
regard to the cavalry debt, Mr Burke stated, that instead
ofready money, the English money jobbers engaged to pay
the nabob’s cavalry in bills payable in four months, for
which they were to receive immediately at least one per
cent, per month, but probably two, such being the rate ge¬
nerally paid by the nabob, and that a territorial revenue
was assigned to them for that purpose ; but it was upwaids
of twm years before the arrears of the cavalry were dis¬
charged ; and these jobbers being all this time in receipt
of the assigned revenue, they paid off the nabob’s troops
with his own money. As to the debt of 1 / / 7, Mr Buike
observed, that in different accounts the principal sum
rose from L. 1,300,000 to L.2,400,000, and the creditors
had never appeared the same in any two lists. In the
year 1781 they were satisfied to have twenty-five per cent,
at once struck off from the capital, yet they were now to
obtain payment of the whole. It appeared, therefoie, that
the nabob and his creditors were not adversaries, but col¬
lusive parties; and that when the nabob gave an acknow¬
ledgment of debt to a European, he received no money,
antf only endeavoured to support his own influence by re¬
ceiving the servants of the Company into his pay. The
motion for an inquiry into the conduct of the board of
control on this occasion was however negatived on a divi-
When Mr Pitt came into office, he had the singular good
fortune of being highly popular with the nation, while he
was selected to support the royal prerogative and autho¬
rity against the majority of the House of Commons, then
possessed by the Coalition. Accordingly, it became one
of the features of his conduct to attempt, if possible, to
reconcile the services expected from him by the crown
with the apparent pursuit of whatever measure happened
for the time to be an object of popular favour. Ihe at¬
tempt to procure a reform in the representation of the
people in the House of Commons was one of these objects.
He had formerly engaged in it while acting in opposition ;
and now, after he had become the first minister of the
crown, he still undertook to stand forward as its advocate.
Every writer of history must be sensible of the defective
nature of the details which he is able to give as to the
causes which produce or regulate the most important
events, and which often lie hidden in a region far beyond
the limits of his penetration or research. In what way, or
by what means, Mr Pitt contrived to retain the confidence
of his master, whilst he at the same time stood forward as
the champion of a reform which every body knew to be
hateful at court, it is impossible to conjecture. Certain it
is, however, that after he had attained to the chief place
in the present administration, he still continued to corre¬
spond with the leading advocates of parliamentary reform,
whose meetings he had been accustomed to attend. In a
circular letter to Mr Wyvil, president of a committee of
Yorkshire gentlemen, it was stated that Mr Pitt had given
authority to declare, that he would bring forward the
subject of a parliamentary reform as early as possible in
the session; that he would support his intended proposi¬
tions to the utmost of his strength; and that he would ex- keign
ert his whole power and credit, as a man and as a minis-George j j
ter, honestly and boldly, to carry such a system as should '-'Y*
place the constitution on a footing of permanent security.
And at the commencement of the session, when the sub¬
ject was alluded to, Mr Pitt took the opportunity to de¬
clare, that on this business he laboured incessantly; that
it was that which of all others was nearest his heart, but
at so early a period of the session it was impossible to
state his plan specifically; that much remained to be done,
but his ideas were not matured; that a reform in parlia¬
ment comprehended a great variety of considerations,
relating to the essentials of the constitution ; that in this
path he was determined to tread, but he knew with what
tenderness and circumspection it became him to proceed;
and he requested the house to come to the subject unin¬
fluenced by any of those schemes and hypotheses which
had hitherto been suggested.
It was not till the 18th of April, however, that he called
the attention of the house to this important subject. He
declared himself aware of the difficulties he must expect
to encounter in proposing a plan of reform ; but he enter¬
tained more sanguine hopes of success than formerly, be¬
cause there never was a moment when the minds ot men
were more enlightened on this interesting topic, or more
prepared for its discussion. He was particularly anxious
to remove the objection of innovation. Anciently great
fluctuations had taken place in the franchise. The number
of members had varied, and even the representation of
the counties was not uniform. As one borough decayed
and another flourished, the first was abolished and the
second enfranchised. rlhis arose from a maxim the ap¬
plication of which was intrusted to the crowm, that the
principal places, and not the decayed boroughs, should be
called upon to exercise the right of election. He was no
advocate for a revival of this discretionary power, but the
maxim upon which it was founded ought now to be car¬
ried into effect. The outline of his plan was this : lo
transfer the right of choosing representatives from thirty-
six of such boroughs as had already fallen, or were fall¬
ing into decay, to the counties, and such chief towns and
cities as were still unrepresented; to provide a fun or
the purpose of giving to the owners and holders of sucn
boroughs disfranchised, an appreciated compensation tor
their property ; and to make the receiving of this compen¬
sation a voluntary act of the proprietor, and if not received
when tendered, to place it out at compound interest, until
it became an irresistible bait to such proprietors. He als
proposed to extend the right of voting for knights ot tne
shire, to copyholders as well as freeholders. Besides
thirty-six boroughs already mentioned, he proposed
purchase the franchise of other boroughs, and to f[anS
the right of returning members to unrepresented a g
towns, which should petition parliament for the pnvi eg
Thus a hundred members would be given to the P0P
interest of the kingdom, and the right of election ex
ed to a hundred thousand additional persons. Mr o
approved of purchasing from a majority of the e ^ t
a borough the property of the whole, and ot holding
pecuniary temptations to an Englishman to 16 in^, e.
franchise, though he declared himself a fnen to
neral principle of a more equitable representa 10”‘
Wilberforce supported Mr Pitt’s proposal, because, o> F
ting an end to the representation of the decayed o o
, & • n future be Pre
ung an enu lU U1C icpicacm-anv,..   _ J , re,
dangerous aristocratical coalitions would in future £
vented. But it was warmly opposed by Mr tow , ^
alleged that the people of England had not cahea
form, and that the business in which Mr Pitt ha u ^ ^
tunately engaged himself was a voluntoe^cr^fa1jwvise
piece of political knight-errantry. Lord North like*
BRITAIN.
Re:;! of
Geoi III
opposed all change, alleging that the people were actually
contented, happy, and in full possession of their liberties.
And, finally, leave to bring in the bill was refused by a
large majority; which was probably the very result Mr
Pitt not only anticipated, but also desired.
As the sole object for which the English monarchs an¬
ciently assembled their parliaments was to obtain money
from their subjects, so the adjustment of the public ex¬
penses, and levying adequate supplies, always continue to
occupy a large portion of the time of every session of par¬
liament. The prodigal expenditure which had taken place
during the war still required additional taxes. For this
purpose new demands were made. Hawkers and pedlars,
and attornies, were taxed; and the duties on male servants
and post horses were enlarged. An impost laid upon retail
shops, however, encountered persevering opposition in par¬
liament, as well as much unpopularity in the nation. It was
represented as unfair, because it fell upon a small number
of industrious persons; and it was observed, that, unlike
other taxes, those who imposed it were in no hazard them¬
selves of paying any part of it. But of all the taxes pro¬
posed by the minister, none encountered such sarcastic
animadversion as that upon maid-servants; and Mr Pitt,
who was undei stood to be something of a misogynist, was
accused by Mr Sheridan of holding out a bounty to celi¬
bacy. But the subject which excited most attention was
that of the ordnance. As early as the year 1782, the
Duke of Richmond had planned an expensive system of
fortifications, for protecting the different dock-yards of
the kingdom; the idea having originated in the alarm oc¬
casioned by the appearance of the combined fleet in the
Uiannel. The works had for some time been carried on,
and the sum of L.50,000 annually voted, without much
attention being given to the subject. But during this ses¬
sion it was moved that an account should be laid before
the house, of the expenses already incurred on fortifica-
tions, at Plymouth, Portsmouth, Gosport, Chatham, Do¬
ver, and bheerness, with a report of the probable expense
of completing the fortifications of Portsmouth and Ply-
mouth; and afterwards the annual grant was opposed.
ilr Pltt defended the Duke of Richmond, but agreed to
a proposal which had been made to take the opinion of a
C0TCwn°c0fficerS; and this Put an end t0 the debate.
A bill for better regulating the office of the treasurer
tbe navy passed without any sort of opposition ; and an-
wbfrfo tle better examining of the public accounts met
with little opposition; but a third brought in by Mr Pitt,
01 ie general reform of public offices, encountered stre-
ous opposition. Mr Sheridan contended that it was un-
cessa^, as the treasury possessed ample power to make
f aece1ssary ^f°rms ; and Mr Burke contrasted, in strong
th® t”fling economy here proposed, with the pro-
thn ^ ° ^ le ministers in their proceedings respecting1
tliPm6!611!!68 °f the Carnatic> and the sanction given by
lem to the pretended debts of the nabob of Arcot. The
o n, however, passed through both houses, and received
me royal assent.
co°shWthe ™ost important subjects brought under the
temnt hv AT1 Paidiarnent during the session, was an at-
betwep/r r ^ ij1 .t0 .establish a plan of commercial union
Posed to and Ireland- This plan was pro-
bruarv hi Z^01186 of' Commons on the 7th of Fe-
stvledthlr- i v!’d’ and.consisted of ten articles, usually
debafp nn ^positions, which were passed with little
On ffip 99diancad,dreSS of aPProbation voted to his majesty,
subject to ti ° n — same month Mr Pitt introduced the
on the fids 1G [ltls i ^ouse of Commons. He expatiated
Pursued hf and °PPres?ive Pobcy which had long been
render hp/r>^°Veirnnient regard to Ireland, in order to
completely subservient to the interest and opu-
eice of this country ; and concluded by proposing to al- Reign of
low the produce of the colonies to be imported into Bri-George III.
tain through Ireland, and to equalize the duties on the
produce and manufactures of both countries; in return
for which concession it was stipulated, that the parliament
of Ireland should irrevocably secure some provision for
defraying the expense of protecting the commerce of the
empire in time of peace. After some debates upon the
subject, petitions from Liverpool, Paisley, Glasgow, Man¬
chester, and other places, to the number of sixty, were
presented against the measure; and from the 16th of
March to the 12th of May the House of Commons were
almost incessantly employed in hearing counsel and exa¬
mining witnesses. Certain exceptions were now intro¬
duced to the general rule of admitting an equal commerce
between the countries; corn, meal, flour, and beer, were
excluded in favour of British agriculture; and various
regulations were made to secure an effectual equality of
duties upon every particular object of trade in both coun¬
tries. The plan thus amended produced a variety of de¬
bates, in the course of which Lord North expressed his
wish for a complete incorporative union of the two king¬
doms, in preference to a partial settlement, which might
prove the source of perpetual discord. The resolutions,
however, were warmly opposed ; and being carried by only
a small majority, administration did not think proper to
press the adoption of the scheme.
The American war had in somemeasure alienated the Bri¬
tish nation from ideas of conquest and military splendour.
Commercial pursuits were now chiefly valued, and formed
the principal object of encouragement to the government,
and of pursuit by the people; but to prosecute these with
success, it was necessary to preserve a good understand¬
ing with the neighbouring powers; and this was effected,
though with some difficulty, in consequence of certain
foreign occurrences not unworthy of attention.
Joseph II. was at this time at the head of the house of
Austria and of the Germanic body; and among the various
piojects which marked his restless career, there was one
which, had it been attended with success, could scarcely
have failed to affect the future condition of the Germanic
body. He had entered secretly into a negociation with the
elector of Bavaria, then an infirm old man, for an exchange
of the electorate of Bavaria in lieu of the provinces of the
Austiian Netherlands, which were to be converted into a
kingdom for the elector. Count Romanzof, the Russian mi¬
nister to the diet of Frankfort, informed the Duke of Deux-
ponts, nephew and heir to the elector, of the substance of
this treaty; and at the same time assured him that it
would be carried into execution, whether he consented
to the exchange or not. In the month of January of this
year the duke gave notice of the intended measure to
hrederick II. king of Prussia, who regarded it as a pro¬
ject dangerous to his own independence, as well as to that
of the other German states, and endeavoured instantly to
spread an alarm through Europe. He alleged, that the pro¬
posed exchange was in the highest degree iniquitous and
unfair; that though the population on both sides was near¬
ly equal, the extent of territory on the side of Bavaria
more than doubled that of the Low Countries, while their
respective revenues were equally disproportioned ; that in
Bavaria, agriculture, commerce, and finance, were notori¬
ously neglected,whereas in the Austrian Netherlands these
resources had been extended to their utmost pitch ; that,
whilst the territory which the emperor hoped to acquire
was capable of considerable improvement, that which he
gave away might be expected to retrograde rather than
to advance; that these circumstances, however, were of
little importance, compared with the political consequences
which must result from such a measure ; that the Nether-
438
BRITAIN.
Reign of lands being situated at a distance from the other Austrian
George III. dominions, had always proved a source of weakness, rather
than of strength, to that power ; that, although a consider¬
able revenue was derived from these provinces, it was often
dearly bought, in consequence of the wars occasioned by
the vicinity of France ; that great political elfoi ts
recently been made by the court of Vienna to avoid all
future grounds of quarrel with the French monarchy, and
this had been accomplished by the marriage of an Aus¬
trian princess to the king of ki’ance ; that the possession
of Bavaria, from its vicinity to the rest of the Austrian
dominions, would secure to the emperor a chain of terri¬
tory from the banks of the Rhine along a great pait of the
course of the Danube, and give him such a preponderance
as would overturn all power in Germany capable of resist¬
ing the head of the empire ; and that this mighty country
might, at no remote period, be consolidated into one mass,
and Austria would then probably rank in every sense as
the first power in Europe.
Thus reasoned Frederick the Great. Succeeding events
seem to warrant a belief that such an acquisition of strength
by the house of Austria might have proved of considerable
utility to Europe; but at the time when the scheme was
proposed it excited general apprehensions. The treaty
for the exchange had been concluded under the auspices^
of Russia and France, and to them accordingly the king of
Prussia addressed his remonstrances. But the emperor of
Germany and the elector of Bavaria soon found their pro¬
ject so strongly disapproved of by other powers, that they
absolutely disavowed it; whilst the court of France content¬
ed itself with replying to the remonstrance of the king of
Prussia, that the exchange had been proposed, as depend¬
ing upon the voluntary arrangement of the parties, but
that, as the Duke of Deuxponts had refused his consent,
the proposition of course became fruitless.
Frederick, in the mean time, exerted himself with great
assiduity in negociating a league with the electors of Han¬
over and Saxony, for the preservation of the Germanic con¬
stitution, and for preventing such cessions and exchanges
of territory as might afterwards prove injurious to the ba¬
lance of power in the empire. A treaty to this purpose was
therefore concluded on the 23d of July, and several German
princes acceded to it, among whom were the elector of
Mentz, the landgrave of Hesse Cassel, the dukes of Bruns¬
wick, Namur, and Saxe-Gotha, and the prince of Anhalt.
The elector of Hanover also entered readily into the trans¬
action, and from that period an intimate connection com¬
menced between the courts of London and Berlin. Some
British politicians, however, supposed that the opposition
made to the imperial project was unwise, as tending to
excite a spirit of hostility against us on the part of Aus¬
tria, which, of all the powers of the Continent, was consi-
. dered as our most natural ally; and it was probably ow¬
ing to the part taken by Britain in this transaction that
the emperor published an edict prohibiting the importa¬
tion of British manufactures into any part of the Austrian
dominions. In the course of the summer also the French
issued an edict restricting the sale of various articles of
British manufacture, particularly saddlery, hosiery, woollen
cloths, and hardware, unless upon payment of duties the
amount of which was equivalent to a prohibition. To
counteract these proceedings commercial treaties were
negociated with the courts of Petersburg!! and Versailles;
that with the latter having been undertaken in pursuance
of a provision in the definitive treaty of peace.
Parliament met on the 24th of January 1786. In the
speech from the throne some notice was taken of the con¬
tinental dispute above mentioned, which was said to have
terminated in such a way as to threaten no interruption
to the tranquillity of Europe. This excited some discus¬
sion ; but Mr Pitt declined entering into any defence of Reign,
the Germanic league, as he and his colleagues in office had George!
not interfered in the formation of it; observing that acci-
dent alone had placed the sovereignty of Hanover and
of this country in the same hands, and desiring to have
it understood that Great Britain was by no means bound
by any leagues entered into by the elector of Hanover.
Mr Fox, however, denied that the affairs of Flanover could
be really separated from those of Britain. Supposing that
it should hereafter appear necessary for Great Britain to
join the court of Vienna against the league of the Germa¬
nic princes, and that the elector of Hanover should appear
as one of those princes at the head of his own troops, he
put the question, Whether a British army could be direct¬
ed to act in a hostile manner against troops led by their
sovereign in his character of elector of Hanover? When
George I. purchased Bremen and Verden from Denmark,
the minister of that day, General Stanhope, used precise¬
ly the same language, and told the House of Commons
that they had nothing to do with his majesty’s conduct
respecting his electoral dominions. But the consequence
was, that the resentment of the Swedish monarch Charles
XII. on account of this transaction, threatened Great Bri¬
tain with a most dangerous invasion; and the very next
year General Stanhope was under the necessity of demand¬
ing additional supplies, to enable his majesty to defray the
expenses to which he was exposed in consequence of his
purchase.
The attention of parliament was again directed to the
Duke of Richmond’s plan of fortification. In consequence
of the former debate on the subject, the project had been
remitted to the consideration of a board of officers, of which
the Duke of Richmond was appointed president; and which
consisted, besides the president, of Lieutenant-generals
Earl Percy, Earl Cornwallis, Sir Guy Carleton, Sir W’illiam
Howe, Sir David Lindsay, Sir Charles Grey, Lord George
Lennox, and John Burgoyne, and six major-generals, to¬
gether with Vice-admirals Barrington and Milbank, Rear-
admirals Graves and Lord Hood, and Captains Hotham,
Macbride, Bowyer, Luttrell, Sir John Jervis, and Sir An¬
drew Snape Hammond. On the 10th of February Mr Pitt
stated to the House of Commons that the board had re¬
ported to his majesty their approbation of the plan, as per¬
fectly adequate to the defence intended, and as being at
the same time the least expensive in the construction, and
requiring a smaller force to defend the works, than any
other that could be proposed. He also presented an es¬
timate, which had been prepared by the board of engi¬
neers, of the expense necessary to construct the fortifica¬
tions. The decision of the House of Commons, however,
was delayed till the end of February, when the subject was
again brought forward by Mr Pitt, who proposed a reso
lution, bearing, that to provide effectually for securing the
dock-yards of Portsmouth and Plymouth by a permanent
system of fortification, was an essential object for the safe¬
ty of the state, intimately connected with the general de¬
fence of the kingdom, and necessary to enable the fleet to
act with vigour and effect whenever its services were re¬
quired. This led to a long and not very interesting e
bate, the result of which was, that upon a vote the house
divided equally, when the speaker gave his casting vo ^
in opposition to the measure. On the 17th of May, off
ever, the question was revived by Mr Pitt, who ProP0S|e
that the fortifications should still be carried on at; "or,
mouth and Plymouth, though upon a more limited ’
but the motion was opposed with much severity o
guage, and at length withdrawn. # j
The attention of parliament was for some time °£cuP.]j,
with a proposal for reducing the laws relative to t e i ^
tia into a general act, and providing for their being
BRITAIN.
eien of
trgelll
439
railing out of the militia annually; but afte Sds^find- havlftfecorflde""^^ comet the hoSe tpe^’to
ing that a different opinion prevailed, he consented, on mand the repeal of so necessary a law G FeSSly t0 ^^eorgelll.
condition that, though the whole number of men were bal- Mr Fox approved in mmem! of r- • , ^
loted for and enrolled, only two thirtls should be actually ing fund, bufthotght tle"hty^f"0wt^pe' '
employed. The measure, however, did not pass without riod to look forward to for the elect of the protect Be-
oppositio • , foie that term had arrived, it was not improbable that
But the subject which occupied most attention during we might have another war; and a variety of circum
the session was the proposal of a sinking-fund to be applied stances might occur, which would operate as a temZ.
towards discharging the public debt. Mr Pitt had*occa¬
sionally mentioned it, during the preceding session, as a
great and important national measure which he intended
to bring forward; and early in the present session he moved
that certain papers should be laid upon the table of the
House of Commons, to enable them to form an estimate of
the annual amount of the national revenue and expendi¬
ture, from which a judgment might be formed of the ex¬
isting disposable surplus, and of the sum it would be fur¬
ther necessary to provide to raise the total to the amount
requisite to form the basis of the intended sinking fund.
On the 7th of March he proposed the appointment by bal¬
lot of a select committee of nine persons to examine these
papers, and to report the result to the house; He stated
it as his intention to take every possible step to give com¬
plete satisfaction to the nation in a matter of such general
concern; and he conceived that the solemnity of a com¬
mittee, and the formality of a report, would answer the
purpose better than a set of unconnected papers or the
affirmation of a minister. The committee as balloted con¬
sisted of the Marquis of Graham, Mr William Grenville,
Mr Edward Elliot, Mr Rose, Mr Wilberforce, Mr Beau-
tion to a future chancellor of the exchequer, and a future
House of Commons, to repeal the act, annul the institu¬
tion, and divert the appropriation of its stock to the im¬
mediate services of the year. He stated two specific ob¬
jections to the plan. Ihe first was, that the sum appro¬
priated ought not to have been made unalienable in time
of war; and the second, that, by the institution, parlia¬
ment being bound to nobody but itself, the whole plan
was liable to be annihilated by a future parliament. Mr
Fox lepeated his objections at a future stage, and at
last, in consequence of the acquiescence of Mr Pitt, in¬
troduced an amendment, that whenever a new loan should
heieafter be made, the minister should not only propose
taxes sufficient to pay the interest of the loan, but also to
make good whatever it should be found expedient to take
from the sinking fund to supply the necessities of the na¬
tion ; meaning, that if, when a new loan of six millions was
proposed, there should be one million in the hands of the
commissioners, then the commissioners should take a mil¬
lion of the loan, and the bonus of that million should be re¬
ceived by them for the public, who would thus have only
five millions to borrow. In the House of Lords, the other
ri 11 n/r cf • Y , f \ “**"“"*3 LU uunuw. XU me nouse or j_.oras, me otner
y, John Call, Mr Smith, and Mr Addington. When objection stated by Mr Fox was urged with some variation
tins committee had made its rennrt. Mr Pirf. OTI 9Qth 1avr Tcarl ~     1 *
tlus committee had made its report, Mr Pitt, on the 29th
March, proposed his plan to the Commons in a committee
of the whole house. He congratulated parliament upon
the prospects of the nation in a style of animated eloquence.
Ee stated the revenue for the current year, as reported
by the committee, to amount to L.15,397,000. The inte¬
rest of the national debt was L.9,275,769, and the civil list
by Earl Stanhope, who expatiated on the danger which
might occur, in future wars, of diverting the fund from its
proper destination. But the bill nevertheless passed into
a law without any alteration.
The establishment of a sinking fund appears to have
been one of Mr Pitt’s favourite schemes of finance ; and, in
fact, it was that which produced him the greatest degree
T Qnnnoo — Y auu me eivu u&l lact, il vvuh mab which prouuceu mm me greatest degree
• ,uuu, which, together with the whole other expen- of popularity; while, from his remaining in power during
1 Ule ^ t l(i army and navy, and other establishments, the long and expensive war which succeeded its establish-
amounted to L.14.,478,000; consequently there remained ment, it continued to be regularly and fully carried into
L^nn non n ann.U£^ Income, above the expenditure, of effect. When a new loan was made, the minister not only
• ,000. One million he stated to be the sum annually proposed taxes sufficient to pay the annual interest of the
o e contributed to the sinking fund; and to make up new debt, but also to afford a surplus or sinking fund
e sum of L.100,000 wanted to complete this amount, he of one per cent, per annum, to be applied by the corn-
proposed small additional taxes upon spirits, timber, and missioners towards the extinction of the debt. It is al-
air Pa^Mar and perfumery. The sum of L.1,000,000 thus most superfluous to observe, that this scheme, from which
provi ed he proposed to place in the hands of commis- such mighty results were anticipated, both by the politi-
oOners appointed for that purpose, in quarterly payments cal friends and opponents of the ministry, and which was
^ • o0,000 each, to begin on the 5th of the following loudly vaunted of as a monument raised to perpetuate his
sis/ f ^ WaS commissioners should con- fame, is now known to every tyro in political science to
o persons of rank and distinction, the speaker of the have been bottomed on principles wholly fallacious ; and
ase M Commons, the chancellor of the exchequer, the the consequence has been, that some of its firmest sup-
tlleS,er the rolls, the governor and deputy-governor of porters, having abjured the opinions which they originally
1 • , ank °f England, and the accomptant-general of the entertained respecting it, afterwards united with those who
the •C?ar^‘ chancery. He alleged, that by laying out had all along entertained sounder views, in putting an end
lionf)11^ regularty at comPountl interest, the mil- to this expensive and cumbrous delusion, which had for a
that ° 6 appPec^ woul(l rise t0 a great amount in a period time imposed on the arithmetic as well as on the sense of
an h W3S 'n0t very J011!? 'n ^l16 PPe op an individual, and but the nation. The only effect of such a fund, when well con-
the d Tt ^le- ex's^ence op a nation. It would diminish trived and steadily adhered to, seems to be, that it ena-
genc'6 f country 80 niuch as to prevent the exi- bles a nation to maintain its credit in difficult circum-
which tl° W]ar fro!n ever ralslng if t° the enormous height stances, and thus to carry on the accumulation of public
eight ^ ^herto done. In the period of twenty- debt to the highest possible amount, as well as to make
Wou,d^ ^le sum of a million, annually appropriated, trial in the completest manner of all the moral and politi-
placin income of four millions annually. By cal consequences of the funding system. W e may add,
phed b ^ SUm ^le ^an(is oP commissioners, to be ap- that the project was not of Mr Pitt’s contrivance; it formed
would ^ qVai^erly t0 fhe purchase of stock, no sum only one, and that too not the most plausible, of three plans
to temntelr• *e vv*^1'n tile grasp of a minister great enough presented to him by Dr Price.
Pt nrni to infringe upon this national revenue. It When the estimates for the navy were voted this year,
440
BRITAIN.
Reign of some observations were suggested by Captain Macbi ide,
Geor|e III.which are worthy of being recorded, on account of their
relation to the progressive improvement of the chiet de¬
fence of the British islands. He censured extremely the
voting of large sums of money for the repair of sixty and
sixty-four gun ships; and observed that our haying so many
vessels of this sort was a principal reason of the many de¬
feats we had suffered in the last war. Ihe French had
now not more than three or four sixty-four gun ships, and
they took care not to build any new ones upon that con¬
struction. Another thing against our navy was, that the
French seventy-four gun ships were of two thousand tons
burden, while our seventy-fours had been reduced to six¬
teen hundred tons. Captain Macbride expressed his be¬
lief that if the number of our ships were reduced one
third the navy of England would prove one third stionger.
He condemned the system of suffering the ships to remain
in their copper bottoms during time of peace; and con¬
tended, that if we persisted in this practice there would
be no occasion to argue whether ships of one size or ano¬
ther should be built, for we should soon have no navy in
our possession. The French had discovered the folly of
the practice, and had for some time left oft the mode of
sheathing their ships. We ought therefore to do the same,
or at least to take off the copper when the ships were to
remain long in still water. The copper corroded and de¬
stroyed their bolts more than either worms or time; and
^ .1 • . m. A.T Bari Boon Irmo* lain nn
the empire. The remaining foreign possessions, such as keigi
Ireland and the West India islands, might be supposed toGe°rg<i(
remain in union with the metropolitan country chiefly in
consequence of their weakness, which rendered its protec¬
tion necessary to their safety, or made them incapable of
erecting themselves into separate governments in opposi¬
tion to its will. But the territories which had been ac¬
quired by the British in India were, in this respect, in a very
peculiar situation. It might perhaps have been possible,
by an incorporating union, and an extension of the privi¬
lege of representation, to combine into one firm and con¬
solidated government the whole British islands, together
with the American colonies; but with regard to the ter¬
ritory of Hindustan, any thing of this kind was altogether
impracticable. That great and fertile country, inhabited
by men of a feebler race, and of different language, cha¬
racter, and religion, is incapable of being united to the
British nation upon principles of equal political freedom.
It had been originally acquired, not by a conquest made
under the direct authority of the executive government
of Britain, but by a company of merchants, who, by unit¬
ing the military superiority of Europeans with the arts of
commercial men, contrived gradually to subjugate one of
the fairest portions of the globe, containing a population
many times greater than that of their native country. The
progress of such a power towards empire was necessaiily
attended with the most cruel hardships to the natives of
the subjugated country. When the mercantile invaders
tnem in maiung uucui.    - -p•
when these troops were exhausted by war or by the cli¬
mate, or, having enriched themselves, had returned to Eu¬
rope loaded with the spoils of the East, and left their for¬
mer employers in that quarter in a state of considerable
weakness, the servants of the Company then exerted their
ino-enuity to foment divisions among the native princes; an
when they could no longer act as principals, they appeared
as seconds in every quarrel, and obtained new territories as
the reward of their insidious aid. W ith such views they
formed and broke alliances without scruple; and, on re¬
ceiving supplies of troops from Europe, they were never
at a loss for pretences upon which to extend their domi-
All this was the natural result of the situation o
mon.
The ideas of Captain Macbride were confirmed by Sir
John Jervis, and, as far as related to the sheathing with
conper, by Captain Luttrell.
At this time the British nation, recovered from the
effects of the war, was enjoying considerable prosperity.
The administration of justice, proceeding in the ordinary
course sanctioned by the constitution, produced its usual
and natural effects of tranquillity and general satisfaction.
The sovereign, in consequence of his domestic viitues and
regular life, was personally popular. The members of
administration had obtained their offices undei ciicum-
stances which originally secured the good will of the na¬
tion ; and no public events had occurred to expose their
characters to any severe trial, or to produce an alteration
in the public opinion regarding them. Still, however, the
most distinguished members of the late coalition, continu¬
ing to hold seats in parliament, naturally wished to attract in me art 01 mu, ^ --g i— ““imoderation in the
the public notice, and to rescue themselves from the ne- conquests, and pro^
gleet into which they had of late fallen. Fortins purpose transactions of f tl0fn^ had
they appear to have looked towards our Indian empire for tain learned with astonishment that rywhich in
materials upon which to exert their talents and to demon- rmM.mted themselves in Hindustan in a ma
strate their public spirit; and accordingly, during the pre¬
sent session, an attempt was commenced by Mr Burke to
bring to trial and punishment Warren Hastings, late gover¬
nor-general of Bengal, for crimes alleged to have been
committed in that country.
There is something in the nature of the British consti¬
tution, or rather, perhaps, in that of every free state, which
renders conquest, or even the acquisition of foieign ter¬
ritories, in any form, not a little inconvenient. In the
case of the British American territories, a constitution
less or more resembling that of Great Britain had been sition. Mr mime, in parucumi, “““ ."'the calaini-
established in every colony or province ; and these sepa- dent imagination to interest himself deep y ]icy of
rate constitutions had produced abundance of internal ties suffered by the natives of India, . . „ i;„„c
•. . -i  . Vvnf fBzx a Iiw nt. tlllS IlITlG COinCiClCCi 0ntir01\
the British East India Company with regard to the na¬
tives of Hindustan. But as the jealousy of the neighbour¬
ing states of Europe, together with their equal progress
in the art of war, had long put an end to the extension
« I i  i  in l it
tain learned with astonisnment tnai tneu ouuuuj*
conducted themselves in Hindustan in a manner w ic
Europe would have been regarded with abhorrence,
forts, however, had been made to ameliorate as inu
possible the government of India, by subjecting 1 >
considerable degree, to the direct authority of the ex
tive government of this country, instead of sutten^g ^
remain
Clllliiciit WJ.   r, (e . and
totally vested in a company of merchants ,an
here it appears to have been wished that the a ai ^
be suffered to rest, and that whatever was past shou
overlooked and forgotten. . ^ nnD0.
This, however, did not suit the present views or
sition. Mr Burke, in particular, had been )ed by a
. .• . • Z i. u: in tlie Cclldi"
rate constitutions had produced abundance of internal ties suffered by tbe natives oi mma, ^ feelingS<
prosperity to the colonies; but the whole formed a dis- his party at this time coincided y <ness to
jointed empire, slightly bound together by a limited exe- Accordingly he endeavoured with 1 ■ *ishedper-
cutive power, and destitute of a common legislature; and bring to trial and punishment the moA J theatre of
an attempt, made by the legislature of the parent state, to son who had recently figured upon tne g ^ ^ of
make laws for the whole of the subordinate communities, Indian affairs. But great obstacles st jiameI)tary
gav0 rise to a war which end0d in the dismemborment of Mr Burko s proposod attompt to procur
BRITAIN. 441
Ge series'of^npopularfty^fh'e p^rsJnal tSeTce wWch other Suh?; th<! Britisl' «0ve™“cnt- Upon the Reign of
H ^ had been ahSI to hL by tL House of anl cence, bTt the meltoriZrrtuTrfr n0' ^ ^ ^Geo^m.
their indisposition so much as to give him a hearing, to- his defence rhieflv „nnn j1 e ot ll,s conduct, resting
gether with the coldness of the nation at large regarding nrinees n<snill f •SUC-!- artouments as conquering
complaints of East India delinquency. A^heTS leZr nethL^
ever, he surmounted by efforts of the most obstinate per- On the fst of Tune Mr Unrl-Q u i a. r
severance, and of consummate eloquence, upon the fertile House of Commnn« n P .ke brougJlt forward in the
subject of cruelty, oppression, and treachery, commi ed ^xpulLn of Sohd L ^ ^ t0 the
under the authority of the British government in the East of s^xt v thn.S their CTntry’t0 the number
the public attention was gradualfy attracted to the sub- caslMrTrke e^rUnT^’hl^, C,’i,dre"- °n this
ject, and at last it formed the chief subject of converse- ed the prosecution as nit fnereh elo1u<;nce> ^present-
tion and of political discussion in all parts of the island. the character of an indiv.A.i d n f ^P011 ^P/cting
Mr Hastings had arrived in England on the 16th of nurviost of bdfli^ir. l i i ’ hvouSht forward fbr tb^
June 1785, and on the 20th of that month Mr Burke had sure necessary fo/the ’esfablkl UPOnfhl?1\bUt a-S & ?ea“
given notice of his intention to move for an inquiry into responsibility with regard °f he PrinciPle of
the conduct of the ex-governor-general On the dnv of Sn, 7 ■ regaid to the future governors of our
the meeting of parliament, in J^y this year Mamf neS n^e BnS10?S’^Tfore aS a .nationa] aad im-
Scott, the particular friend of Mr Hastings, publicly re- millions yet unborn^^He f00^ -0r ■11 S0vernment of
n..„i   , , . 1 J . minions yet unborn. He described, in interesting terms
the character of the Rohillas, the simplicity of their man¬
ners, the prosperity of their country, and their zeal for
agriculture and commerce; and he denied that there exist¬
ed any plausible ground to justify the assistance which Mr
Hastings had given to one of their rapacious neighbours
to expel them from their territory. After a debate, how¬
ever, the house decided that this charge did not contain
sufficient matter of impeachment against Mr Hastings.
1 he next article of crimination against Mr Hastings was
founded upon his alleged oppressive conduct towards Cheit
king, the rajah of Benares. From this prince he had first
arbitrarily demanded payment of a sum of money, in ad¬
dition to the ordinary tribute, and, on the rajah delaying
payment, imposed upon him a fine of half a million ster-
ing; then he insulted him by an ignominious arrest, and
thereafter expelled him from his dominions. This charo-e
was opened with great ability by Mr Fox, and opposed
by Major Scott and Mr Grenville, who inveighed against
the rajah for his alleged unwillingness to support the Bri¬
tish power m a dangerous crisis, and for the favour he
had shown the schemes of its enemies. By this time the
repeated discussion of the subject had begun to interest
the public; and pamphlets were published, in which Mr
Hastings’ character was violently attacked, and as eager¬
ly defended. His conduct as a governor-general of India,
however, appeared to the majority of the people so totally
inconsistent with those ideas of equity which regulate the
them and theirVervan “"P-isoning opinions of men in this country, that a violent degree of po-
enterbfinto “r with8!0; MrfET"""! ef0rt‘0n of P^lar indignation was excited against him. Hitherto, how-
and treacherously delU^L^fe Moo,,7 in^th™0?8 J’ T*' he, ’al1 bef" sllPPortetl >» House of Commons by
°n the conclusiorfnf noartn 7 hi ^0t? , int0 .tbeir baads tbose wbo usually adhered to administration; though Mr
offences^/minor ^mimrta'nce^Chi the^SGtlTo^ADril^Mr had on ali occasions dec'ared his wiK
Hastings presented a netiHnn 26th of April Mr candidly as a judge, and to avoid treating the matter as a
with a cony of the nrlll ? t0 f"m'shed, question to be supported by a particular party. But up-
in his defence against them before ^ lme”/ and t0 36 h®ard on thls article of charge concerning the rajah of Benares
examined Th? 1 th 7 b * J Wltnesses sll°uld be he entered into the views of Mr Fox; and having declared
Hastings havTio appeared ” the bar'stf teddm nr , “f hil?“l.f« Safisfi.ed that Mr Ha.ting, had in this ?asc Led
forts which he^had made for bebf’ r ! 7- 1*' unJus.tlfiabIy> was determined by a majority that the ac-
British power in the East and entered^rfi-n 1S<jn]-Cn ° -e cusatl0n contained matter of impeachment against the late
«»Won fte g»ver„„r-ge„eral of Bengal
JJunng this session some further provisions were enact-
• j   —— ~ * iiciociwgo, jjuuiiuiy re¬
minded Mr Burke of the menace he had thrown out, and
requested Mr Burke speedily to decide upon the course he
was to pursue. Accordingly, about the middle of February,
this gentleman having resolved to proceed against Mr
Hastings, by moving the House of Commons to impeach
him at the bar of the House of Lords, endeavoured to
prepare for substantiating the charges which were to be
brought, by proposing that the house should order produc¬
tion of various papers ; and motions to this effect were re¬
newed by him at different periods. These motions gave
rise to a variety of debates, in which Mr Dundas, who, as
president of the board of control, now acted as minister
for India affairs, together with Sir Lloyd Kenyon, master
., fuc r°lls, chiefly opposed Mr Burke, and threw con¬
siderable difficulties in his way. Mr Pitt appeared also
to be favourable to Mr Hastings; but, upon the whole,
be preferred assuming the character of a candid and im¬
partial judge upon the occasion, affording neither protec¬
tion to the accused nor favour to the accuser. At last, in
the month of April, Mr Burke presented to the house his
c arges against Mr Hastings, twenty-one in number; and
to these an additional article was afterwards added. The
charges were of various degrees of importance ; and some
ot them had sufficient weight to excite a considerable de¬
gree of public interest. Mr Hastings was accused of driv¬
ing a whole people, the Rohillas, from their territory, with-
out any show of cause for so doing; of arbitrarily confis-
ca mg t ic property of the native princes, and imprisoning
onnrliiy>t- i “““ milieu mio a ueience or nis
accused 6 Partacu]ari points upon which he had been
accused. He asserted tW tho pLv.;ii * -u e j-/unrig mis session some turther provisions were enact-
adventurers in dHv n. / ° lllaS We[e & .tribe1°f ed for the better regulation of the government of India,
had only assisted in S rf fr°m & usurPed territor^ he On the 7th of March a motion was made by Mr Francis,
‘ice; that the princes or nrinreSoA?Ct °f "ec“sa,r-v and seconded by Mr Windham, for leave to bring in a bill
accused of havmgs^zed for’the^ito of fp6 pr0Perty waf explain and amend the act, formerly brought in and
deserved their S it ,Mr -guiating Indian affair.
lion * fllf n1611 misfbrtuncs by their treachery and rebeF
men’red h m War, Wlth the Mahrattas had not been corn-
most uni tbat.tbe terms of the pacification were al-
Momil i,Je-lSa ‘J considered as advantageous ; and that the
voL. v g thr°Wn himseIf int0 their hands, was entitled
carried through by Mr Pitt, for regulating Indian affairs.
Mr Francis censured strongly three different parts of Mr
Pitt’s act; first, that which establishes a double government
of India at home, by the court of directors and the board
of control; secondly, the excessive power, by means of a
constant casting voice in the council, which was bestowed
3 K
442
BRITAIN.
Reign of upon the governor-general of Bengal; and, thirdly, the in-
George III. stitution of a special court of justice for the trial of Indian
delinquents, which deprived such persons of the privilege
of trial by jury. On the authority of Lord Macartney, Mr
Dundas defended the powers conferred upon the governor-
general of Bengal; and declared the necessity of a new
court of judicature, from the voluminous nature of the
evidence in the cases of Sir Thomas liumbold and Mr
Hastings, which could not be gone through by the ordinary
form of jury trial. At the same time he stated it as his
intention to bring forward a bill for amending, in certain
respects, the regulating act of 1784. Mr Francis’s motion
was accordingly rejected; and on the 16th of March Mr
Dundas brought forward his new bill for the regulation ot
India, which conferred still further powers upon the go¬
vernor-general, authorizing him to act in opposition to the
sense of his council when he thought fit to take the respon¬
sibility upon himself; united the offices of commander-in-
chief and governor-general; authorized the board of con¬
trol to inquire into the fortunes of persons serving in India;
and divided the service there into different branches, de¬
claring that the servants of the Company should rise by
gradation- only in those branches of service for which they
had been prepared by their former habits. Aftei a vaiiety
of debates in both houses, the bill was passed.
The session of parliament terminated on the 11th of July,
and during the remainder of the year the British empire
enjoyed profound tranquillity. An incident, however, oc¬
curred, which called forth demonstrations of attachment to
the person of the king from all orders of men in the king¬
dom. On alighting from his carriage on the 2d of August,^
a woman approached his majesty, under the pretence of
offering a petition, and at the same time aimed a thrust at
him with a knife, which, however, did no harm. Being
instantly seized, and examined by some members of the
privy council, with the assistance of several medical gentle¬
men, this woman, whose name was Margaret Nicholson,
proved to be insane, and was ordered to be confined for
life in Bethlehem Hospital. A public thanksgiving was
ordered for his majesty’s safety, and addresses of congra¬
tulation poured in from all parts of the country.
One of the most important measures of Mr Pitt s ad¬
ministration was carried into effect in the autumn of this
year. It consisted of a commercial treaty, which, as we
have already stated, Mr Eden was sent to negociate with
France, and which was concluded on the 26th of September.
This treaty stipulated, in general terms, that there should
be a perfect liberty of navigation and commerce between
the subjects of the two sovereigns in all their European do¬
minions, with the view of giving fair encouragement to the
produce and manufactures of both countries ; and a parti¬
cular tariff was adjusted with regard to a great number of
commodities, while all articles which it did not include
were to be reciprocally imported on the terms allowed to
the most favoured nations. Each of the monarchs reserv¬
ed the right of countervailing, by additional taxes on cer¬
tain commodities, the internal duties imposed on the ma¬
nufactures, or the import charges paid on the raw mate¬
rial ; and it was also declared, that if either of the sove¬
reigns should be at war, every thing should be deemed free
which might be found in the ships of the respective na¬
tions, with the exception of goods usually deemed contra¬
band, even though the whole or a part of the lading should
belong to the enemies of the other state.
This treaty appears to have been acceptable to a con¬
siderable majority of the nation. When parliament as¬
sembled on the 23d of January 1787, it was announced in
the speech from the throne, and formed the first subject
of deliberation. When the usual address to the throne
was moved, Mr Fox remarked that the treaty in question
ought to be examined with much jealousy, on account of
its introducing an innovation into the established system GeorgeH
of our policy ; that all the wars of Crreat Britain had been
wars of necessity ; and that the jealousy of the power of
France has been founded upon the fullest experience of
her ambitious character. If this was a mere commercial
treaty, the framers of it had only to prove that the new
channel of trade which it opened would not obstruct, or
would be more beneficial than, the other ancient channels
which this kingdom had long been in possession of, and
which had been found to be the sources of her commercial
wealth and prosperity. But if, on the other hand, the
treaty was intended as a political measure, and if minis¬
ters had in view such a close and intimate connection
with France as would in future render it difficult for the
two countries to go to war, strong and satisfactory rea¬
sons would be required for having pursued and concluded
a measure so new in the history of this kingdom, and of
such vast magnitude and importance. Mr Pitt reprobat¬
ed the principles stated by Mr Fox, in as far as they went
to sanction the policy of a constant animosity with trance.
Such a doctrine militated in the most direct manner possi¬
ble both against humanity and common sense; for if war is
the greatest of all evils, and commerce the chief blessing
which a country can enjoy, it must be the duty of those to
whom public affairs are intrusted, to endeavour as much
as possible to render the one permanent, and to remove
the prospect and danger of the other. This was the ob¬
ject of the present treaty; and the advantages likely to
arise from it would operate upon succeeding administra¬
tions in both countries, so as to induce them to avoid a wai
as long as it could be done with honour and prudence,
and would also strengthen the resources of this nation
for carrying on hostilities whenever these should become
indispensably necessary. This was the true method ot
making peace a blessing. The quarrels between 1 ranee
and Britain had not only continued to harass those great
nations themselves, but had frequently embroiled the
rest of Europe, and had disturbed the tranquillity of the
most remote parts of the world. In time past they haa
acted as if they were intended by nature for the destruc¬
tion of each other ; but he hoped the period had now ar¬
rived when they would justify the order ot the universe,
and show that they were better calculated for the purposes
of friendly intercourse and mutual benevolence.
On the 12th of February the house resolved itsell into
a committee for the purpose ot considering the commer
cial treaty with France, when Mr Pitt entered into a u
explanation and defence of the measure. He considered
it in three points of view; as affecting our manufactures,
our revenues, and our political situation. W ith respec
to the first, he showed, that though the treaty had bee
formed upon principles of strict reciprocity, yet that u *
country must, from the very nature of the case, una™
ably have the advantage. With regard to the effect ot
treaty upon the revenue, he remarked, that aitll0US ,
considerable reduction must undoubtedly take place o
duties upon French wines, and even upon Portuguese^ ’
should the provisions of the Methuen treaty be stdl K F
in force, yet this would be balanced by the increased con¬
sumption, and by putting an end to the fraudulen
facture of home-made wine, which was broughtt0
as foreign wine, a practice which no regulations o
had hitherto been able to suppress. And with rete
to the political tendency of the treaty, re.c“rre eceS.
former observations on that subject, which it is u
On the part of the manufacturers, it had been objected
to this treaty, that the proposed intimate p°.nnec our
France would afford opportunities of enticing a j
A
BRITAIN.
R ;n of
Get elll
workmen, and conveying the tools and raw materials of our
manufactures out of the kingdom. But to this it was an¬
swered, that the law in regard to these matters would re¬
main as formerly, and afford to our manufactures the same
protection as at present, by restraining the interference of
foreigners in regard to the matters alluded to. It was also
objected in general, that the commodities in which France
traded, being the produce of her soil, which could not
suffer in their quantity or quality by lapse of time, where¬
as our commodities being principally manufactures, which
owe all their value to skilful and ingenious labour, the
French might by degrees become as industrious and skil¬
ful as ourselves, and thereby enter into a successful com¬
petition with us in every branch of our present trade,
whilst our soil and climate rendered it impossible for us
to equal them in the articles of their produce. To this
it was answered, that the different nature of the objects of
British and French commerce was favourable to Britain,
on account of the superior population employed in bring¬
ing our manufactures to market; and, at all events, that
the threatened change could not occur in twelve years,
which was the whole duration of the treaty. The mem¬
bers of opposition objected to the treaty chiefly upon po¬
litical considerations. Mr Fox contended that the only
situation in which Great Britain could stand, in the gene¬
ral system of Europe, with honour, dignity, or safety, was
as a counterpoise to the power of France. IVIr Francis re¬
proached Mr Pitt with a desertion of the principles of his
lather Lord Chatham, the most prominent feature of whose
political character was Antigallicanism. Mr Flood, Mr
bheridan, and others, expressed the same sentiments;
whilst Mr Powis and Mr Alderman Watson opposed the
treaty, as bringing the British commerce unnecessarily
into hazard at a time when it was extremely prosperous.
On the other hand, the treaty was defended by Mr Gren¬
ville, Mr "Wilberforce, and Mr Dundas, and the resolution
proposed by Mr Pitt was carried, on a division, by a large
majority. In the House of Lords the treaty was warmly
opposed by Dr Watson, bishop of Llandaff, and by Lords
Loughborough, Stormont, and Porchester; but this oppo¬
sition proved as unavailing as that in the lower house.
During the present session a plan for consolidating into
one act ot parliament the whole of the duties imposed by
the statutes of customs and excise, was brought forward
y Mr Pitt, and received the universal approbation of the
House or Commons. The duties imposed upon French
mere andise, in pursuance of the late commercial treaty,
were also included in the same act, although that part of
ie measure was resisted by opposition.
On the 28th of March Mr Beaufoy, at the request of
je eputies of the dissenting congregations about London,
loved tor the repeal of the corporation and test acts. He
o served that the test act was originally levelled against
e Roman Catholics, and the corporation act against those
ectanes who had agitated the kingdom in the times of
e , during the usurpation, but with whose cha-
C er tle dissenters of the present age had nothing in
’ -ar^ contended that, as every man had an un-
hp e] ri£ ^ to jndge for himself in matters of religion,
j * n°t> on account of the exercise of that right, to
1 ai?y punishment, or to be branded with what is un-
«prv- 6t "V f °t infamy, an exclusion from military
SrnHCe trust* He referred to the examples of
the e ^ . ant*> Russia, Prussia, and the dominions of
ln n°ne of which religious opinions were now
HHl disqualification. Lord North spoke
hazard , Proposed repeal, chiefly on the footing of the
subippf3! ent in£ innovation. He denied that a man was
recpivo^i t0 an^ Punishment because he did not choose to
ie sacrament of the Lord’s Supper according to
443
the usage of the church of England. He only deprived Reign of
himself of a privilege which he might otherwise enjoy, George Ilf.
and which the law, for the safety of the church, had limit-
ed to persons of particular opinions. Mx Pitt supported
the same view of the question, upon the ground of the
danger to the established church which would result from
intrusting official situations to dissenters. Mr Fox support¬
ed the motion in favour of the dissenters; remarking, how¬
ever, upon this occasion, that, from their conduct in a late
political revolution, he could not be suspected of being
biassed by an improper partiality towards them. The mo¬
tion was lost on a division by a majority of seventy-eight.
On the 20th of April Mr Alderman Newnham brought
under the view of the House of Commons the pecuniary
situation of the Prince of Wales, whose affairs had at this
time fallen into a state of embarrassment. In 1783, when
the prince came of age, Mr Fox and his colleagues, who
were then in office, wished to grant him an annual income
of L.100,000 ; but his majesty insisted that he should only
be allowed one half of that amount. In the year 1786 the
prince, having contracted a debt of L.100,000, exclusive
of L.50,000 expended upon Carlton House, applied to his
majesty to obtain relief from this incumbrance; and on
receiving a refusal, he instantly dismissed the officers of
his court, ordered his horses to be sold and the works
at Carleton House to be stopped, and reduced his house¬
hold to the scale of that of a private gentleman. By these
savings an annual sum of L.40,000 was vested in trustees
for the payment of his debts. But this decisive and spi¬
rited conduct was represented at court as disrespectful to
the king; and from the period in question his majesty’s dis¬
satisfaction with the prince appears to have been no longer
concealed. On the occasion of the assault made upon the
king’s person by Margaret Nicholson, no notice of the ac¬
cident was sent by the court to the Prince of Wales; and
when, on receiving the intelligence, he instantly repaired
to Windsor, he was received there by the queen, but the
king did not see him. In these circumstances the prince
permitted his situation to be brought before the House of
Commons, with a view of submitting his conduct to the
judgment of the public. Accordingly, on the day already
mentioned, Mr Newnham demanded of the chancellor of
the exchequer whether ministers intended to bring for¬
ward any proposition for the relief of the Prince of Wales ;
at the same time alleging, that it would be disgraceful
to the nation to suffer him to remain longer in his present
reduced circumstances. Mr Pitt replied, that he had re¬
ceived no commands from his majesty upon the subject,
and that without such it was not his duty to bring forward
an affair of this nature. Mr Newnham then intimated his
intention of bringing forward a motion on the subject upon
the 4th of May. But on the 24th of April Mr Pitt request¬
ed to know the precise nature of the intended motion;
stating his wish to avoid a discussion of the subject, and
adding, that if it was persisted in, he would be under the
necessity of bringing before the public some circumstances
of extreme delicacy. At the same time Mr Rolle, an ad¬
herent of the ministry, declared that the question involved
matter by which the constitution both in church and state
might be essentially affected. This menace was believed
to allude to an intimate connection supposed to subsist be¬
tween the prince and Mrs Fitzherbert, a lady of a Roman
Catholic family, with whom it was alleged that the prince
had been married both by Catholic and Protestant clergy¬
men, although such a proceeding, even if it had taken place,
could be productive of no legal effects, in consequence of
the provisions of the royal marriage-act. Mr Newnham re¬
plied, that his intended motion would be for an address to
his majesty to relieve the Prince of Wales from his present
difficulties; and when some members expressed a wish that
444
BRITAIN.
Reign of the affair might be privately accommodated, Mr Sheridan
George III. declared, that after the insinuations and threats which had
been made, the prince could not possibly recede with ho¬
nour. Accordingly, on the 30th of April, when the subject
was again mentioned, Mr Fox, who had been absent during
the former debate, stated, that he had authority from the
prince to say, that there was no part of his conduct which
he would not willingly submit to public investigation. The
allusions made to something full of danger to the church
and state he treated as a tale fit to be imposed only on the
lowest of the vulgar; and added, that his royal highness
was ready, in the other house, as a peer of parliament, to
give his majesty, or his ministers, any assurances or satis¬
faction on the subject which they might require. Mr Fox,
at the same time, directly assured the house that the whole
story alluded to was untrue. The result therefore was, that
an accommodation took place. The prince was allowed an
annual addition to his income of L.10,000, and a sum of
L.180,000 was granted by parliament for the payment of
his debts.
But the subject which chiefly occupied the attention of
parliament during the present session was the accusation
of Mr Hastings. After examining Mr Middleton and Sir
Elijah Impey as witnesses in the beginning of February,
Mr Sheridan, on the 7th of that month, opened the third
charge against Mr Hastings, which set forth, that without
justice, or any excuse of political necessity, he had seized
the lands, and confiscated the treasures, of the begums or
princesses of Oude, the mother and grand-daughter of the
reigning nabob, and that he had even compelled the latter
to become the instrument of this robbery. Mr Sheridan’s
speech lasted five hours and a half. The subject of the
charge was well fitted for a display of all the powers of
pathetic eloquence, owing to the rank and sex of the par¬
ties whom, on this occasion, Mr Hastings was accused of
having treated with the most barbarous rapacity, treachery,
and cruelty. Every advantage was taken of these circum¬
stances by the eloquent accuser; and Mr Sheridan’s dis¬
course was considered as a model of splendid and impres¬
sive oratory. When he sat down, the whole house, which
was filled with members, peers, and strangers, instantly
joined in a loud and long-continued tumult of applause,
expressing their approbation in the irregular mode of re¬
peatedly clapping with their hands. Mr Burke declared
it to be the most astonishing effort of eloquence, argument,
and wit united, of which there was any record or tradi¬
tion ; Mr Fox said, that all that he had ever heard or
read, when compared with it, vanished like vapour before
the sun; and Mr Pitt asserted, that it surpassed all the
eloquence of ancient or modern times, and possessed every
resource which genius or art could furnish to control and
agitate the human mind. After a short suspension of the
debate, some of Mr Hastings’ friends attempted to speak
in reply, but found it impossible to procure a hearing.
At last some members proposed, that for the sake of de¬
corum, the debate should be adjourned ; and this proposal
was carried. On the following day Mr Francis resumed
the charge, which wras opposed by Mr Burgess, Major
Scott, Mr Nichols, Mr Vansittart, and Mr Alderman le
Mesurier. After having heard the arguments on both
sides, Mr Pitt rose, and having stated the sense he enter¬
tained of the high importance of the procedure against
Mr Hastings, and his endeavours to give to every fact
stated in each particular charge the fullest investigation,
declared himself fully satisfied that criminality was brought
home to Mr Hastings, though not perhaps to the full ex¬
tent alleged by the accusers. The motion for accusation
was accordingly carried, upon a division, by a very large
majority.
At a future period of the session other charges were
brought forward, and opened by Mr Thomas Pelham, Sir Reign
James Erskine, Mr Windham, and Mr Francis. Mr PittGeorge J
adopted the cause of the accusers, and on some occasions, ''■'V*
though in a very mild tone, Mr Dundas did the same.
At one period Lord Hood stood forward, and, in a very
solemn manner, requested the attention of the house to the
consequences of proceeding, with too scrupulous a nicety,
to canvass the conduct of those who had filled stations
abroad of high difficulty and important trust. Certain ac¬
tions, which appeared to those at a distance in a very cri¬
minal light, were yet, he alleged, on a nearer investiga¬
tion, perfectly justifiable on the grounds of absolute and
indispensable necessity; and if the dread of an impeach¬
ment by parliament were to be hung over every com¬
mander in whose hands was placed the defence of our na¬
tional possessions, it must necessarily operate as a danger¬
ous restraint on their exertions, when it was considered
that no general nor admiral had scarcely ever been fortu¬
nate enough to conduct himself in the performance of his
duty, so as not occasionally to fall into circumstances in
which the public service compelled him to do things in
themselves neither pleasing to his feelings, nor strictly
legal, but, from the indispensable necessities of their situa¬
tion, perfectly justifiable. But Mr Pitt denied that these
sentiments had any application to the case of Mr Hastings,
since no adequate political necessity had been pointed out
which could justify his conduct. In the course of the
proceedings, also, it appeared that several members were
disposed to consider the merits of Mr Hastings as in some
measure compensating his crimes; and thus, although they
voted his conduct criminal on particular occasions, they
had an intention of voting in his favour when the general
question should come to be proposed about the propriety
of proceeding to impeachment. But Major Scott took an
opportunity to declare that Mr Hastings and his friends
wished to decline such a mode of defence; and he read
to the house as a part of his own speech, a paper signed
by Mr Hastings, in which he requested, if a general vote
of criminality should pass against him, that they would
further proceed instantly to an impeachment, and thus af¬
ford him an opportunity of defending himself judicially.
A committee was at length appointed to prepare arti¬
cles of impeachment against Mr blastings. It consisted
of Mr Burke, Mr Fox, Mr Sheridan, Sir James Erskine,
the Right Honourable Thomas Pelham, the Right Ho¬
nourable William Wyndham, the Honourable St Andrew
St John, John Anstruther, Esq. William Adam, Esq. M.
A. Taylor, Esq. Welbore Ellis, Esq. the Right Honour¬
able Frederick Montague, Sir Grey Cooper, Sir Gil¬
bert Elliot, Dudley Long, Esq. Lord Maitland, the Ho¬
nourable George Augustus North, General Burgoyne, and
Mr Grey. An attempt was made by Mr Burke to pro¬
cure the appointment of Mr Philip hrancis as a member
of this committee, but w'ithout success. On the 25th o
April Mr Burke presented the articles of impeachmen,
which were read, and ordered to be printed, and consider¬
ed on the 9th of May. Upon that day Lord Hood re¬
peated his former arguments, and was supported by ^ r
Smith and the notorious John Wilkes. 'Ihis last person
insisted strongly on the silence of the natives of India re
specting the dreadful oppression said to have been prac¬
tised against them, and attributed the greater part of w a
appeared criminal in the conduct of Mr Hastings to
craving and avaricious policy of this country, whose ^
mands had in some instances driven Mr Hastings to
use of means not strictly justifiable. The amount o
charges, supposing the facts to be true, was, in p18 P
nion, this, that Mr Hastings, by oppression, by ^J11® ’
and by corruption, had obtained for the East India
pany nine millions and a half sterling. Mr Wilkes tog
BRITAIN.
] an of
ilfeelll
the acts complained of politic and just, and declared that
he could not vote for the impeachment of Mr Hastings,
while he benefited by his misdeeds. He added, that it
appeared incomprehensible to him how gentlemen who
445
?°Uld bear without Accordingly, Reign of
stronnlv of the^ '"r8’ ^ ®.ne ,of letters, complained George III.
strongly of the cruelty of his situation, and of the expen-
sive establishments and offices which he was under the ne-
condemned his actions suffered a day to pass without pro- cessitv of constituting ; ° I C<v -1 dl ihe WaS Under the ne‘
posing retribution to the sufferers. The lord advocate of Hce of HU S g 5 ^,a’m ?rder to the ava-
Scotland, Mr Hay Campbell, also supported thTs view^
considering the necessities of the Company, and the dan- sons of the fW 1fUnd[.ed .an^ ^ft7 Persons5 the younger
of justification for for patronage, Ind^xprc^ng loTe’ "putt pLTss^on^
sudden riches. But these riches, it is evident, could not
be drawn from the natives of Hindustan without much
oppression ; and when this oppression produced rebellion,
or combinations of the native princes against the British
power, it became necessary to be guilty of further op¬
pression, or more grievous extortion, to collect means by
w nch to overcome the resistance of an oppressed people.
It is admitted on all hands that Mr Hastings was almost
unboundedly successful in the service of his employers.
whatever6 ^ countr^ C0U^ ad'nit'of any compromise «■,:
lactei of such a man as Mr Hastings may be tried. The
one is founded upon the principle of obedience to his em¬
ployers, and fidelity to the trust reposed in him; and the
otliei upon the eternal law of humanity. According to
the first of these, that conduct is most worthy of applause
which tends in the highest degree to promote the interest
of those whom we serve; and, considered in this point of
view, the meiits of Warren Hastings have seldom been
surpassed. It is true that he plundered the provinces of
the East; but it was to aggrandise and enrich his country
delavs if ■'n.-ac j7ur'~ ;   turn uy various that he did so. He accounted their persons and fortunes
length. tlmately protracted to an extraordinary as of little consideration; but he did so because he was
The imneachmenf nf Mr it r i • th,e devoted servant of Britain. Accordingly, the French,
which it Sed Tnd rhl^ ^ i"gn’ °m the T^1011 wh°S(r Public enemT he ^ been, regarded him with ad-
rying it through undnnhfp f]0 f W HC WC1 e exerted m car- miration, and uniformly extolled his actions as more than
aLlmpoS f0rms an eJe^ of consider- human. But if, in opposition to all this, we are to weigh
tal of the party accused h^f 1 ende^ ln 1 le ac<loit- the conduct of Mr Hastings by those maxims of morality
he incurred and the ^ 1™m1eiise exPense which which assume the immutable law of humanity as the rule
fered from the odio- exit T*8 ^ he mUSt have Suf“ bT which human actions ouSht t0 be regulated, there can
amounted to a ve,^ excited aSainst him, unquestionably be no doubt that he must be condemned. He can only be
of Commons hel/1 ^V6ie P^^b^cnt. A British House regarded as one of those robbers of nations, to whose crimes
perfidy and t™ . gU ,y °f lnhumamty> rapacity, historians and poets have given a too fatal celebrity. He
people who hJd 07ards ,a naiPerous and civilised was guilty of plundering and oppressing a pacific race of
sentiments wer?sn “/,;bj!^d ? blS P°Wer; and thes.e men’ at the extremities of the earth, in wlmse affairs nei-
tain that the n • wld^T diffused throughout Great Bn- ther he nor his country had any right to interfere. But
laritv thnuah* I*61* 0t the da7’ always studious of popu- the principal criminals in this case were the British East
opinion nec®ssai7 to J0”1 ln the Seneral current of Intlia Company, the British legislature, and the British
the merits of M H r the t0 aPPreciate correctly nation, who sent him upon such a service. Mr Hastings
—isafinne, la ,gs’ or. tbe reasonableness of the was only the guilty tool of a guilty people; and surely it
ill became the British House of Commons, which had au¬
thorized the acquisition of conquests, or, in other words,
sanctioned rapine and oppression, in the East, and whose
constituents had become rich by the plunder or the pro-
o     > wi juatinuaLiUIl lOr
the strong measures pursued by Mr Hastings, in order to
extiicate them; and declaring that, as the Company had
actually reaped the benefit of them, and so far approved
of them as never to signify any intention of restitution, he
could not conceive with what propriety Mr Hastings could
be impeached. Mr Pitt acknowledged that many measures
during the administration of Mr Hastings were uncom-
monly brilliant, and that in these his merits were unques¬
tionable ; but he tiusted that no man who seriously regard¬
ed the honour of the House of Commons would think that
c r   .1, tue i mine or me House
of the Commons of Great Britain, impeached Warren
Hastings, Esq. late governor-general of Bengal, of high
crimes and misdemeanors; and informed the" Lords that
the Commons would, with all convenient speed, exhibit
and make good articles against him. On the 21st of the
same month, upon the motion of Mr Burke, Mr Hastings
was taken into the custody of the serjeant at arms of the
nouse; but he was immediately admitted to bail by the
House of Lords, himself in the sum of L.20,000, and two
sureties in L.10,000 each. But as the session of parlia¬
ment was prorogued on the 30th of May, the trial was
necessarily postponed to another session, and by various
amiaaf;^ i • , di'un&s> or tJle reasonableness of the
sarvto rnS vi11C1 Were brought against him, it is neces-
tleL" ^ons‘der correctly the situation in which that gen-
- ‘ tood- Ide was invested by the British East India
Cornnnm Ti rc ras investea by the British E;
dustan IWIt]1 absolute power over a large portion
anH 0.1ider t0 g°vern for the profit of the G
of Hin-
and if possihrV" ^0ve.rn b31* the profit of the Company, fits of such enterprises, to accuse as a criminal the most
terriinn-^ m o acqune for them still more extensive successful servant of the state. John Wilkes and the lord
°u the purposes for which he was em- advocate for Scotland appear, therefore, to have rested Mr
IS necessarv fnr    I    tt .• , i r- rr i
territories.
Ployed
Ployed, it was n ^ we was eui- auvueaie lor ocouanu appear, mererore, to nave resteu ivir
nue for the Co ecessarT f°r bim to procure a large reve- Hastings’ defence upon an unanswerable footing, when
young men 0f m^an7’ ?nd at die same time to enable the they considered his crimes as services, which he was em-
to return sne H0 * vv!l°!n fbey sent out in their service, ployed by his country to perform for its aggrandisement,
being the onlv 1^ t0 ^rita^n loatletl with wealth; these and for the moral rectitude of which he could --■t 1
Company nr'ii0 ^C.^S. ?n account of which the East India sponsible to that power from which he derived hi
not be re¬
ds commis-
'-'Ompany or tl n • • Y . WJU|oii uie r^asr intua sponsime to tnat power trom wincn ne aeriveti nis commis-
oonquest of ^ lej<rutls l)nation, had made efforts for the sion, and which scrupled not to reap the fruit of his labours.
no,; that Hind6t ^ut sucb.°bjects evidently imply, During the year 1787, the amity subsisting between
Verned, but thata> WaS t0 be mdd^ and generously go- Britain and France seemed likely to be disturbed, in con-
a it was to be plundered to the utmost sequence of the affairs of Holland. The grounds of dif-
446
BRITAIN.
lleign of ference, indeed, were speedily adjusted; but the events
George III. out of which they arose are worthy of notice, on account
^—V'"-' of their tendency to explain some future occurrences in
the history of Europe. The state of the Dutch republic
always had been regarded as of much importance by Great
Britain. That country, being situated upon the mouths
of the navigable rivers which communicate with some of
the most important parts of the European continent, holds
as it were the keys of the different passages by which our
manufactures reach their places of ultimate sale and con¬
sumption ; and in the most important efforts for reducing
the power of France, the Dutch had acted along with the
British nation. In the history of the United Provinces,
during a couple of centuries, two parties were always found
struggling for superiority. The one was that of the house
of Orange, which had been originally raised to power in
consequence of the talents of its chiefs, united with their
rank and property, which had induced the states to intrust
to them the direction of their armies, first against the
Spanish monarchy, from which the united provinces had
originally revolted, and afterwards against the power of
France. By their great public services, the princes of
the house of Orange had established in their own favour
a kind of hereditary claim to the offices which they held
in the republic, of stadtholder, captain-general of the
forces, and admiral; and thus there existed in their persons,
in succession, a kind of limited monarchy, by which the
Dutch republic was influenced and led, rather than for¬
mally governed. The second party in the Dutch republic
consisted of a kind of aristocracy, composed of the senates
or town-councils of different cities, which possessed the
power of nominating to the vacancies in their own order,
that is, of electing their own successors in office. This
party was usually denominated the Party of the States, or
the Republican Party. Its members were, in point of form,
the sovereigns of the country, as well as the wealthiest in¬
dividuals in it; and the chief constitutional control which
the stadtholder possessed over them, was founded on a
regulation established by William III. prince of Orange,
in 1674, by which he enjoyed a negative in the elections
of town governments, and a power, in certain cases, of in¬
troducing members into them. But it is to be observed,
that the mass of the people, who always find greater safe¬
ty under the dominion of one superior than under that of
a multitude of petty local chiefs, were decidedly attached
to the house of Orange, or to the power of the stadtholder,
in opposition to that of the town senates or republican par¬
ty ; and the ancient nobles also, together with the clergy
of the established church, and the officers of the army and
navy, adhered to the same family, and thereby enabled it
on ordinary occasions to support its power against the par¬
ty of the states.
During the participation of the United Provinces in the
late war against Great Britain, a proposal had been made
to enrol bodies of volunteers in the different towns, for the
purpose of internal defence. The senates of the towns,
that is, the aristocratical, or, as they called themselves, the
republican party, encouraged the formation of these arm¬
ed bodies of burghers, over whom at their first enrolment
they had complete influence, as affording them a kind of
counterpoise against the military power, which, although
paid by them, was commanded by the stadtholder. But
these bodies of citizens, as soon as they had been trained to
the use of arms, began to be sensible of their importance.
The opinions propagated in North America during the
war were known over all Europe, and being received with
considerable avidity by the Dutch volunteers, produced
in that country a kind of third or democratic party, the ob¬
ject of which was to procure for the citizens of the towns
a share in the nomination of the magistrates. But as the
volunteer associations w’ere originally the creatures of the Rei -
senates or aristocracy, for the purpose of counteracting Geor->
the power of the stadtholder, so they appear, in their first
movements, to have been directed by that faction. One
of these movements took place at Utrecht. The armed
burghers, amounting to upwards of two thousand, present¬
ed a petition to the states of the province of Utrecht, re¬
questing them to abolish the regulation of 1674, by which
the stadtholder was enabled to influence the nomination
of the magistracy; and they presented an address of a si¬
milar nature to the town senate of Utrecht, and to the
prince of Orange. As might have been expected, the an¬
swer of the prince was unfavourable ; but the magistrates
of Utrecht, in compliance with the wishes of the armed
burghers, proceeded to fill up a vacancy in their own num¬
ber without consulting the prince. This event occurred
in January 1784 ; but it appears that, in the course of the
same year, either from the intrigues of the stadtholder’s
court, or a dread of betaking themselves to the assistance
of the new and dangerous democratic party, the states
of the province and town senate of Utrecht deserted
the cause of the armed burghers, whom they themselves
had instigated to action, and recalled or annulled the
steps towards innovation which they had previously taken.
Meanwhile the senate and the armed burghers continued
alternately to menace each other. But, by degrees, a spi¬
rit of political reform diffused itself from Utrecht to the
different towns in the provinces where bodies of volunteers
or armed burghers had been established. The armed
burghers of Utrecht elected a representative body to
watch over the management of public affairs, and various
other towns followed the example; but these representa¬
tive bodies soon quarrelled with the old senates; and the
prince of Orange appears to have had it in his power to se¬
lect either of the parties he might think fit as his adherents.
His ancient enemies w'ere the aristocracy or town senates ;
but as he could not, without a total alteration of the consti¬
tution of the United Provinces, derive a regular and legal
support from the bodies of armed burghers, he resolved to
support the ancient magistracies, and to rest his power
upon its former footing of influence over these magistra¬
cies, though he knew them to be his rivals in political im¬
portance. It would seem, however, that the aristocracy ot
the province of Holland, who had always been the mos
decided enemies of the family of Orange, were not satis¬
fied with the disposition of the prince to support the an¬
cient constitution, and resolved to undermine or overthrow
his power, even at the hazard of a revolution, which roust
be equally fatal to their own. But this aristocratical hotly
was not of an enterprising character, and rather wai e
than attempted to direct the course of political even »
while, in consequence of the support afforded by the stat -
holder to the senates of Utrecht and other places,
armed burghers throughout the whole United Provinc
became disposed to act in opposition to him. Meaf\ t
the populace of the Hague retained their usual attach
to his person and family. On the 4th of September >
twelve volunteers of the corps of the town of Leyden ^
peared at the Hague in uniform. Offended by this app
rent defiance, the populace attacked and drove tliem \ i.
neighbouring house, the windows of which they sma >
but a part of the garrison, without interfering wi
populace, took the volunteers into custody, and sen ^
home privately by nigbt. This riot, however, . e
pretext to the states of Holland for superseding the p
of Orange in the command of the garrison at the
which they intrusted to the deputies of , er f^h^ider;
long noted for its zeal in opposition to the stad tr0.
and as the prince had been engaged ^e, .trength
versies with the states of Holland, in which the
BRITAIN.
Reii of of the aristocratical party was concentrated, this affront tion, and a variety of attacks, it admitted a foreign garri- Reian of
Georc II. drove him to the resolution of leaving the Hague, which son to take possession of its gates. The influence of France Geome III.
^ ^ he did on the 14th September 1785. He applied for pro- was thus totally annihilated in Holland, and the authority
tection to Great Britain, whose cause he had uniformly sup- of the stadtholder restored ; but it was restored by the
ported, and to the king of Prussia, who was the uncle of his power of Prussia and Britain alone ; and the consequence
wife. The aristocratical party, on the contrary, made ap- was, that a decided enmity to these two countries from
plication to the court of Versailles, which it had support- that period, took possession of the minds of a great por¬
ed by entering into the confederacy against Great Britain, tion of the inhabitants of the Dutch territories &
and from which it had always received encouragement; When the British parliament met on the 27th of No-
and at the same time it endeavoured to effect a union with vember 1787, the most remarkable circumstance alluded
the armed burghers. to in the king’s speech was the state of Holland. It was
In the mean time hrederick II. of Prussia died, and was there mentioned, that the disputes in the republic of the
succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William, the brother- United Provinces had become so critical as to endanger
in-law of the stadtholder. The French court appeared their constitution and independence ; that his majesty had
to espouse with vigour the combined aristocratical and endeavoured by good offices to maintain the lawful o-overn-
democratical parties in the United Provinces; but the ment of those countries, and judged it necessary&to ex-
new king of Prussia hesitated to engage in a dispute with plain his intention of counteracting forcible interference
France; and there is little doubt that, had the French on on the part of France; that, accordingly, when his most
this occasion shown themselves ready to act with vigour Christian majesty, in consequence of an application for as-
in support of their party m Holland, the stadtholder must sistance by the party which had usurped the government
have fallen before his enemies. But the French monarchy, of Holland, had notified his intention of granting their re-
under a benevolent and well-meaning though weak prince, quest, his majesty had declared that Britain could not re-
was at this period rapidly sinking into a state of great feeble- main an unconcerned spectator, and immediate orders had
ness, owing to the extreme embarrassment of its finances, been issued for augmenting the forces both by sea and
A negociation was indeed proposed between the courts of land ; that the rapid success of the Prussian troops having
Dance and Berlin, for the purpose of adjusting, in some soon after enabled the provinces to re-establish their lawful
friendly manner, the differences between the stadtholder government, an amicable explanation had ensued between
and his enemies. But the weakness of France becoming him and the most Christian king; and that both parties had
gradually more apparent, Prussia and Great Britain were engaged to disarm, and to place their naval establishments
induced to take a more decisive part in the affairs of Hoi- on the same footing as at the beginning of the year. When
land, chiefly in consequence of the suggestions of the Bri- the address was moved, Mr Fox took an opportunity of
tish ambassador at the Hague, Sir James Harris. The expressing the fullest approbation of the measures which
I stadtholder, who had now established himself at Nimeguen, had been lately pursued, and took credit to himself as
was a man of little activity or enterprise; but his prin- one of those who had invariably been of opinion that this
cess being ol a different character, ventured to undertake country is at all times deeply interested in the situation
I a ^ Hague, unaccompanied by her husband, of affairs upon the Continent, and ought, whenever occa-
probably with a view to what actually happened. On the sion required, to take an active and vigorous part in pre-
U1 June 1787 fhe .was. arrested by some troops of the serving the balance of power in Europe. In the House of
opposie party, and this circumstance afforded an excuse Lords the Bishop of Llandaff also expressed his satisfac-
to the kmg Of Prussia for interfering in the internal affairs tion at seeing the republic of the United Provinces again
or tne Umted I rovipces, in order to demand reparation for united in its views with Great Britain.
ie insu t offered to his sister. During the interference of Great Britain and Prussia
A Prussian army, commanded by the Duke of Bruns- in the affairs of Holland, and whilst a dread was enter-
y ic , the brother-in-law of the king of Great Britain, im- tained that the discontented party in the provinces might
mately prepared to invade Holland; and to secure ad- receive assistance from France, and preparations were on
uonai aid to the Pnnce of Orange, a treaty was conclud- that account made for fitting out a fleet, the lords of the
letween Great Britain and the landgrave of Hesse-Cas- admiralty had promoted sixteen captains of the navy to
me °^le assi®tance of twelve thousand troops. In the the rank of admirals. In this promotion a selection had
r1”16 dm United Provinces remained in a state of been made, by which upwards of forty senior captains were
cnnVf10*- i Thedefects of their political passed over; a circumstance which gave rise to various de-
a st* Ubu lad ori8inally occasioned the appointment of bates in parliament. To understand the subject, it is ne-
stpfld - i aiK* t*lere *vet ke?n substituted in its cessary to remark, that in 1718 an order of council direct-
i tions !lmp e system).wllich, by doing away the distinc- ed the lords of the admiralty, in promoting officers to the
count anCl Provinces> might unite the force of the rank of admirals in the navy, to prefer the senior captains,
ful aJJ’ •116 Purpose .of enahhng it to resist such power- providing only that they were duly qualified for the rank
ggression as that with which it was now threatened, to which they were to be promoted. And by a subsequent
trnntfJTau ^ France not arrive; and although order of 1747 the lords of the admiralty were authorized
commanH evied tIie states of Holland, the chief to place such captains as should be found incapable, by
a man h was intrusted to the rhingrave of Salm, reason of age or infirmity, of serving as admirals, upon the
fidence M6 C lar.a.<rter aPPears to have inspired little con- list of superannuated admirals, usually called the list of the
of a nnw c <Tanw il e Duke of Brunswick, at the head yellow admirals. In the promotion above mentioned the
oftheP^ ^ army’.en.tered the country. Ihe reputation board of admiralty had offered to place upon the list of
ly greatr,USS1^n ?rm*es Pm1-0?6 was at this time extreme- yellow or superannuated admirals most of the captains who
capable * • -e Pront'er towns of Holland, which were were passed over; but these, from their capacity for future
°ut a st ° Tl(jSlstln£ yeguIar sieges, were now taken with- service, conceiving themselves entitled to the rank of act-
ofthe pU^-e‘ ^ unnpcessary to detail the progress ing admirals, had refused the retreat which was offered
jn lu&*lan troops, which was extremely rapid, since them ; and a general disgust prevailed among the officers in
•tself coTV^ a P^tmght the republican party found the navy, on finding that their hopes of employment in ac-
besieaerl1 tocdle c^y 0* Amsterdam. This city was tive service must at all times depend on their interest with
g on the first of October; and after much negocia- the first lord of the admiralty. On the 20th of February
448
BRITAIN.
Iteign of 1788 Lord Rawdon, in the House of Lords, stated their
George III. case, and proposed an address to his majesty upon the sub-
ject. But the first lord of the admiralty, Lord Howe, jus*
tified the exercise of a discretionary power by the board
in promoting navy captains to the rank of acting admirals,
upon the ground that a man might be fit to command a sin¬
gle ship who ought not to be intrusted with the care of a
fleet; and Lord Sandwich admitted the impropriety of in¬
terfering with the executive government in an affair of this
nature ; upon which Lord Rawdon’s proposal was rejected.
The same subject was also brought before the House of
Commons in various forms, and supported by almost all
the naval officers who had seats in the house. But Mr
Pitt defended the admiralty, by declaring that no degree
of misconduct had been stated sufficient to authorize the
interference of parliament with the exercise of its powers;
and the board was protected from censure by a small ma¬
jority.
At this time a bill was brought into parliament for sub¬
jecting to higher penalties than formerly all persons who
should export wool from the country, the object of it
being to confirm the monopoly enjoyed by our own manu¬
facturers in that article. The manufacturers asserted, that
thirteen thousand packs of British wool were annually
smuggled into France, which tended to raise the price of
the commodity against our own manufacturers. Several
country gentlemen, however, opposed the bill, as an unjust
hardship upon the profits of land in this country, which
ought to have the world open as a market for its produc¬
tions ; but the minister, who was aware of the importance
of enjoying popularity with the commercial part of the na¬
tion, gave full countenance to the bill, wdiich accordingly
passed into a law.
In his financial exposition of the revenue, Mr Pitt made
some remarks as to the improving state of the country,
which are not unworthy of being noticed. He stated that
the receipt of the permanent taxes, in the year 1787, ex¬
clusive of the land and malt tax, had been L. 13,000,000,
whereas the receipt of the taxes in the year 1783 had only
been L.10,184,000. Thus there was an increase of revenue
amounting to three millions, of which not more than one
million and a half accrued from new taxes. In trade, navi¬
gation, and fisheries, the progressive improvement had kept
pace with the increase of revenue. In the year 1772 the
imports were L.14,500,000, and the exports L.16,000,000;
in 1787 the imports were about L.15,800,000, and the ex¬
ports amounted to L.16,600,000. Navigation had in like
manner increased. The Newfoundland fishery in 1773 pro¬
duced 516,000 quintals; but in 1786 it produced 732,000.
In 1773 the Greenland fishery gave employment to 27,000
tons of shipping; but in 1786 the amount employed was
53,000. The southern whale fishery, a new and valuable
branch of trade, which only commenced at the beginning
of the last war, had also prospered equally. In this fishery,
in 1785, there were employed eighteen ships, producing
L.20,000, whereas in 1787 there were employed thirty-
eight ships, producing L.107,000. The general result,
therefore, showed that the commerce and industry of the
country were in a prosperous condition, and extending
themselves in every direction.
On the 8th of June Mr Pitt called the attention of the
house to the compensation which was intended to be made
to the American loyalists, on account of the losses sus¬
tained by them from their adherence to this country dur¬
ing the American war. He divided the loyalists who had
made claims of compensation into four classes. In the
first class he ranked those who had resided in America
at the commencement of the war, and who had been ob¬
liged to abandon their estates and property, which were
seized and confiscated by the Americans, and he proposed
that loyalists of this class who had not lost more than R(
L.10,000 should receive full compensation; for losses aboveGeo;
that sum, and below L.35,000, ninety per cent, on the ex- w-'
cess above L.10,000; for losses above L.35,000 and under
L.50,000 eighty-five per cent, on the excess above L.10,000;
and for losses above L.50,000 eighty per cent, on all above
L.10,000. The next class of claimants, consisting of those
who had lost property in America, but who had resided in
England during the war, Mr Pitt proposed to indemnify
also in full to the amount of L.10,000; but that all whose
claimsamounted to from L.10,000 to L.30,000 should suffer
a deduction of twenty per cent., and a further additional de¬
duction of twenty per cent, in progression upon every addi¬
tional L.50,000 claimed. Of the third class of claimants,
consisting of loyalists who had enjoyed places and exer¬
cised professions in America, which, by adhering to this
country, they had lost or been forced to abandon, he pro¬
posed to put upon half pay those whose incomes amounted
to no more than L.400 per annum, and to grant forty per
cent, upon any excess of income above L.400 per annum,
unless the income exceeded L.1500 per annum, in which
case thirty per cent, only was to be allowed upon the ex¬
cess of income above L.400 per annum. Lastly, it was
proposed to pay the full amount of their claims to persons
connected with West Florida, because, by the treaty of
peace, that country had been ceded by Britain to a foreign
power. Mr Pitt concluded by moving, that, in order to
satisfy these claims, L.1,228,239 should be voted to the
several American claimants, and L.l 13,952 14s. |d. to the
Florida claimants ; and the motion was unanimously agreed
to. The liberality with which the British nation acted
upon this occasion merits high approbation, as an instance
of the wisest policy, from its tendency, in future discontents
or insurrections in the subordinate parts of the empire, to
secure the attachment of persons of property to the cause
of the mother country. As the claims of the American
loyalists were stated by themselves, and not scrutinized
with extreme severity, it was generally understood that
these persons were in very few instances ultimate losers
by the part which they had taken; a circumstance of which
the public did not disapprove. . »
The trade carried on by Great Britain and other Euro¬
pean nations upon the coast of Africa, for the purchase of
negro slaves to be employed in the cultivation of the West
India islands, and certain parts of the continent of Ame¬
rica, does not appear to have been at this time considered
with that general attention which a practice so abhorrent
in its nature to the mild principles of modern policy and
manners might have been expected to excite. This may
probably have been owing, partly to the distance of the ob¬
ject, which tended both to conceal the sufferings, and to
lessen the sympathy of the public for the unfortunate su -
ferers ; and partly to the connivance of politicians, unwi -
ling to examine too severely into the nature of the means
by which distant colonies were enabled to pour luxury an
wealth into the bosom of the mother country. The nrs
public attempt made to put a stop to this traffic was y
the Quakers of the southern provinces of America, w o,
soon after the establishment of their independence, no
only presented a strong and pathetic address to their se
veral legislative assemblies on this subject, but
proceeded in many instances to emancipate the slaves n
their own possession. In Great Britain the same sec ap
pears also to have taken the lead; and, after
of their American brethren, they presented, in 1787, a p
tition to the parliament of this kingdom. The cause s
afterwards became extremely popular, and was ta^e" ^
with great zeal and earnestness by various description ^
people. A society was formed; a considerable
money was subscribed for the purpose of collecting i
BRITAIN.
Re i
Geo
449
nl-™tliaLnt1 agrea^nL^er ofPpam%0lLrwere p^lShed Mssed'u/undue i°ffl.C0mn'01Jf’ "',m!,il’stration Pos- Keignof
upon the subject; several eminent divines recommended m fuied as it wnnlfb“ ! K 6 meaSUre ^aS in i^lfGeorgem
the abolition from the pulpit and in printed discourses mitthfcomDanvSitS •m°re. eT.0™icaI t0 Per-
and, in the present session, petitions against the slave-trade enabled them to nrovido f”1 ,egimcni.s’ Jvh.lch woul£have
were presented from the two English universities, and from 0i^ve“;7istti,7iruroffinrr5
several of the most considerable towns and corporations in consequence of having been reduce, at the neaee and
the kingdom. By a sort of general consent, Mr Wilber- that thP n-mrl0 „ a- f . 11 e Peace > and
force had been intrusted wi!h the care of bringing the king's ieohnents ot ^‘I"? complete the
business before the House of Commons ; but he being nre- adonted with momi 1 me.111 , !l,!la miS,lt llave been
vented by ill health, Mr Pitt, on the 9th of May moSosed have enable advantage to the Company, as it would
that the house should come to a resolution to take into con- the officers of four netTreAments ‘Tut 'th^noim
sideration the circumstances of the slave-trade earlv in tho wluVh tho rimd * . efeiments. l>ut the point on
next session. He added, that the privy-eouncU had an- i tetdenev t d 7 aC ,'Vtltcllle?y,res “ted referrcd
pointed a committee to inquire into the matter, and that management of its mff6- l'1 ,‘ni. 'a, <-omPany of the
next session the result w„L probably bo laid beforete1 S ^ i^SK^
house to facilitate their investigations. Mr Fox and Mr bill was passed, had never b^en unde Sood to be the in
Burke expressed their regret on account of the proposed tention of the legislature or of government Mr Pnl/l
delay; lamenting that the privy-council, who had received and some other members who usually voted ^ith M^ Piu
no petitions from the people, should have instituted an in- now declared that thev sunnorted ;n 1701," 1 ,Ut’
qmry and that the House of Commons, whose table was cause it appeared to p^eseTe i lidure tl eVigtS dt
loaded with them from every part of the kino-dom chmiRl PoCf i^a;,, n  1 r f unnijurcu tne ngnts ot the
not have instituted an inquiry at all. Sir William Dolben ed to be nut nnmWi C0nstructI0n attempt-
called the attention of t,?e hLe to the condition of f,%°as oCl” as ihe cdebrtdS ^0^^
slaves m that intermediate state of misery which they suf- Lords in 1783 ; with this difference only that what tho n ^
iilSSIliPils
annrnhntirm . ^ suggestion met with general In support of the declaratory act, Mr Pitt contended that
passed into a law w1as .acc^'dmg1y brought m and the express object of the institution of the board of con-
"thfHCa t0-the possessions ltd tt poht^T^vernmen^oflnd^outof
taoe^.h^S^dm^^aSVr^ ^h„fl;rclemCrKnirr»
board the rnmnl >C1 ?dddl0nal regiments to India, on therefore to be invested with the powers necessary ft
sessions in tlnf qtartt^ln^l?6 P1'0^,10,11 °f1°ur P08- ^ duP discharge of its important duties; and that admi-
ceived whi, * q if i ’ and.the proposal had been re- mstration in 1784 had not held any other lanffuaee with re
even after lmdParn°ba ^ ^ C°Urt °f dlr^tors 5 but gard to its nature, or the authority which it was to possess
to Their 4ltfongn7JnrPaSt’ flernment Stl11 adhe^ed °n the 5th of MarcI> the bill /as passed by a coSer-’
vi„w. f 0 utlon ot sending out these regiments, with a able majority. In the House of Lords the Moroni* of
that quarter ofSe wold/^Henc1™611' ^ tr0°PS ^ TLansdown ,°PPosed ^ on ^arly the same grounds as had
the court ofdirectm-slfthp “'T ^ mged in the Commo^, but with as little success,
expense of seidill / C°™Pan^ about the ^nd upon the whole, if the augmentation of the power of
Cyan act passed In t/fo/lTsT/p pa7in£’these trooPs- the crown was at this period a misfortune, it was a mis-
clared liab e fo/v.f h 7 /f1’the Cor«Pany were de- fortune which the conquest of India appears to have ren-
sbouTd besen SUCh °n 7 38 dered inevitab1^ The East India Company, by /mm
nistration no/contSd t^iTp ZVt t f lhe™n<l?est had be^ made, was admitted to7have shown
Mr Pittin 17q/t i • i ^ tliat the act brought forward by itself unfit to govern that great country. The mana°-e-
of counteracting^11 gfVe b°ard of„co11?tro1 a Power ment of it, therefore, naturally devolved upon the execu-
of directing thf Ip/icatio/oVthp0?1^ °f dl,reCt0rS’ and tlvf S^emmcnt, unless the constitution iSelf was to be
ought to be undp/L i fi • G- ^°mPaii|y s revenues, endangered, by intrusting the exercise of new and unusual
into effect the nrono*/ m aUthonZiaf tbat board,to carry Pp^rs to some branch of the legislature ; or, unless a new
however, havim* obtained6 ft/6* ’ • iec(lultof directors, kind of authority or power was to be created, like that
lawyers in theT^ opinion of some eminent attempted by Mr Fox’s India bill, the result of which, as
the ships which were ahnnt / totake thetioopson board a political experiment upon the constitution, or mode of
reason ,on the /tHf Fe/ni M % f/a ? i u* adlPini8tering Pai’t of the affairs of the empire, wasneces-
House of Common* th u a/’ i l- ^ PIPPJ086^ in tb® sarily hazardous, because heretofore entirely without ex-
by a derl/f ’ U t P11 dlftculties should be removed ample in our history.
ture, in the act o/wKi/^T tbe intentl°o of the legisla- _ The attention of the nation still continued to be occu-
construction nut P m'[e been conformable to the pied in no small degree by the prosecution of Mr Hast-
Uiode of proceeding-was 7 110 board of cont’'°b This ings. The members of the committee which during the
that the claim* lfg °ng 7 0PPOSe,d,UPonthegrounds preceding session had prepared the articles of impeach-
to be tried in a ?men-t Up01? 9ornPanF ougbt ment, were now appointed to act as managers for the
vol. v. °P aW’instead °f being brought be- House of Commons in conducting the trial; and on the
3 L
450
Reign
George
BRITAIN.
of 13th of February the trial commenced with extraordinary
HI* solemnity in Westminster Hall, which had been fitted
up for the purpose. At an early hour the Commons,
preceded by the managers, issued from their own house
into the hall, Mr Burke leading the procession ; and there¬
after came the Peers in procession, preceded by the clerks
of Parliament, the masters of chancery, the serjeants at
law, and the judges. That and the following day were
consumed in reading the articles of impeachment, and in
receiving the answers of Mr Hastings. On the 15th ot
February, Mr Burke began an oration, which he continued
during that and the four following days, and in which his
talents were exerted with great splendour, and his elo¬
quence listened to with admiration. After an appeal to the
justice of the court on the part of the people of India, he
entered into a detail of the history of Hindustan from the
earliest times; sketched a luminous outline of the revolu¬
tions which had occurred in it, of the civil and religious in¬
stitutions, with the arts, customs, and manners of the vari¬
ous classes of its inhabitants; traced the progress of British
intrusion, and minutely described the establishments effect¬
ed by our countrymen ; gave an animated account of the
blessings which India might have derived from commu¬
nication with the most enlightened nation in Europe;
lamented that, instead of acting as friends or instructors
of the natives, our countrymen had marked their way by
treachery and rapine, and taught vice rather than vir¬
tue ; expatiated on their usurpations of power, and their
frequent enormities; specified the acts of Mr Hastings,
representing them as beyond all bounds arbitiaiy and la-
pacious, and endeavoured to hold him up to execration as
a monster of tyranny. The governor-general had attempt¬
ed to justify his oppressions, by asserting that the Asiatic
governments were all despotic; that he did not make the
people slaves, but found them such ; that the sovereignty
he was called to exercise was an arbitrary soveieignty;
and that he had exercised it in no other way than was
done by the other sovereigns of Asia, and the native princes
of the country. Mr Burke reprobated this geographical
morality, and "these claims to absolute power; denied that
either the East India Company or the British government
had it to bestow; asserted that no such arbitrary govern¬
ment wras attempted to be justified in the East, eveiy
Mahommedan government being regulated by the laws
of the Koran, while those of the Gentoos proscribed the
idea of arbitrary will in magistrates; and contended that
the conduct of tyrants, or the corrupt practices of man¬
kind, were no principles upon which to regulate the duty
of a British governor, bound to act, and liable to be
judged by his country, upon British principles. Mr Burke
concluded by declaring, that he impeached Mr Hastings
in the name of the Commons of Great Britain, whose par¬
liamentary trust he had betrayed, and whose national
character he had dishonoured; in the name of the people
of India, whose laws, rights, and liberties he had subvert¬
ed, whose properties he had destroyed, and whose coun¬
try he had rendered desolate; and in the name of human
nature, which he had cruelly outraged in both sexes, in
every age, rank, and condition of life.
The managers of the impeachment next proposed that
they should come to a conclusion on both sides, upon each
article separately before they opened another; but^ the
counsel for Mr Hastings insisted that the House of Com¬
mons ought first to proceed to a conclusion upon the whole
charges, before any part of the defence was demand¬
ed ; and the House of Lords having deliberated on the
point, decided it in their favour. The managers for the
Commons acquiesced in the decision, and entered upon
the particular charges, two of which employed the House
of Lords during the remainder of the session.
During the investigations occasioned by the trial of Mr Reigi ,
Hastings, and the discussion of India affairs, the opposi-George!
tion were led to bring forward a series of charges, im-
porting high crimes and misdemeanours, against Sir Elijah
Impey, formerly chief justice of the supreme court of
Bengal. The substance of these charges, six in number,
and which were presented to the House of Commons by
Sir Gilbert Elliot, was, that the chief justice had in a va¬
riety of instances rendered himself the agent and tool of
Mr Hastings, particularly in the decision of a considerable
number of important causes. Sir Gilbext stated that Sir
Elijah Impey had been declared criminal by parliament,
before the parties into which it was at present divided
had any existence ; and that the proceedings out of which
this accusation arose had been carried on by persons of all
connections, and countenanced by the different adminis¬
trations which had succeeded each other during the last
six years. He contended that the only means left of le-
forming Indian abuses, was the punishment, in some great
and signal instances, of Indian delinquency; and this pro¬
position he endeavoured to establish by comparing the
different force and efficacy of laws, arising from their penal
sanctions, when applied in our own internal administra¬
tion, and in the government of distant possessions. Of the
particular charges brought against Sir Elijah Impey, that
respecting the fate ot Nundcomar, a Hindu piince of
the sacred caste of the Brahmins, was the most remark-
able. This man having had the weakness or imprudence
to lodge an information, or rather accusation, with the
East India Company, against their principal servant, Mr
Hastings, the governor-general, it was alleged, had pro¬
cured an accusation to be brought against him, in the
court where Sir Elijah Impey presided; and Nundcomar
having been tried for forgery on an English statute, was
condemned and executed. In the course of the session,
witnesses were examined against Sir Elijah Impey; and
his defence was undertaken by the chancellor of the ex¬
chequer, and the solicitor and attorney-general. On the
9th of May the first charge was rejected by a small ma¬
jority ; and on the 27th the house voted a delay of proce¬
dure during three months. This saved the accused, and
no impeachment resulted from the inquiry.
During the interval which followed the prorogation ot
parliament, the only occurrence worthy of notice arose
out of the contests of the northern nations. At this pe¬
riod the relative condition of the European powers had
undergone a very important change. During a cen ary
and a half the power of the monarchy of France had been
formidable to all Europe; and, at different periods, tne
most extensive combinations had been found necessary o
resist its ambition. But since the termination of the Ame¬
rican war, that monarchy had evidently lost much o
importance among the neighbouring nations. Its
over Holland had ever been one of its favourite objeci
of pursuit; but during the preceding year it had suiter
that influence to be overturned without a stiugge , >
as far as regarded any external effort, France appeared
this time to have fallen into a state of complete lplbeC;‘‘^
inis unit; iu nave    i , n^proUS
The powers whose ambition had now become dang
to the repose of Europe, were Austria and Russia,
latter, in particular, proved extremely restless and
prising. The empress Catherine II. had contrived to ^
gage in her views the emperor Joseph II. and hat p n
with him to engage in a sanguinary contest on the
frontiers of Europe, with a view to the partition ot 1
vinces of Turkey; whilst France, the ancient a y
power, was unable to afford it any countenance or a •
In the mean time Catherine held in a state o P ^
ence approaching to subjection the kingdoms o ^
and Denmark. After the reign of Charles Ail-
lien
Gee
of extravagant military enterprises had exhausted the re-
HI. sources of the country, Sweden sunk into a state of politi-
^ cal weakness. The nobles had resumed the independence
of the feudal times; the anarchy to which that form of
government is so remarkably subject had returned; the
crown and the people were equally insignificant; and the
mutual animosities of the nobles exposed the state to the
intrigues of neighbouring nations. In their diet there
was a French party and a Russian party, but there was
not an individual among them who supported the party of
Sweden. Gustavus III., however, was now in the vigour
of his age, and a man of an enthusiastic and enterprisin0-
character. By attaching to himself the peasantry of the
country and their deputies in the diet, he had, in 1772,
re-established absolute power ; but the nobles having °Ta-
dually recovered a portion of their authority, and bavin0-
been aided by the intrigues of Russia, had now become
dangerous to the throne. This rendered the situation of the
Swedish monarch extremely uncomfortable, and, exciting
in his mind a desire of shaking off all dependence upon
Russia, he resolved to take advantage of the war, in which
she was actually engaged with the Turks, in order to make
an attack on her north-western frontier. To accomplish
this object, however, it was necessary that Sweden should
be safe on the side of Denmark. But that power had
already contracted engagements with Russia; and Gusta¬
vus having, it is said, afforded countenance and encourage¬
ment to the malcontents of Norway in 1772, this circum¬
stance has. been alleged by the Danes as an excuse for
the treaty into which their government secretly entered,
and by which it was agreed that, if Russia were attacked,
Denmark would assist her with twelve thousand auxiliary
troops and six ships of the line. But whatever may have
been the conduct of the king of Sweden in 1772, he now
endeavoured in the most anxious manner to conciliate the
good will of Denmark, and at the close of the year 1787
paid an unexpected visit to the Danish court at Copen¬
hagen, where he endeavoured by every argument to pre-
vai wit t e piince regent and his council to enter into
ms views regarding Russia. But the court of Denmark
ould not be induced to countenance his schemes, and
appears to have concealed its secret engagements with
ussia, as well as the part which it meant to take in the
event of a war between Russia and Sweden.
offhn^16 mont,1.°* Jul7 tlie king of Sweden commenced
conS TT1 ^ ^ the skle of Finland. But the dis-
Swedisl W nC 1 iaC^ ^een P°stered by Russia among the
thllthl b-°b e,S T°n b.r°ke 0ut; several officers declared
sent iad n° ngIlt t0 make war without the con-
to advanee statf of the kiHgdom ; and the troops refused
atinn ' tV .^kdst the king was in this embarrassed situ-
undersuddenly advanced against Sweden
prince nf n6 ^ lar. es Hesse-Cassel, accompanied by the
the anno emnayk as a volunteer ; and to give this force
had been f of aa auxiliary army, the prince of Hesse
The iff ' Cr ^ beld-marshal in the Russian service,
the GW t fevveden were n°w all but desperate. During
extra or dl! absence the senate of Stockholm had assumed
states of tiai^^0WierS’ and summoned a meeting of the
ed at St n klnSd°ni; but Gustavus unexpectedly arriv-
ceedinf0lmifr0m Finland’ Put an ead to their pro-
the canitiinSta?t 7 S?nt °ff the whoIe regular troops from
that he S tarn Jr1.1!* ;.aS|?n;!lled,th,J. c„iti2enst.
BRITAIN.
tafanej 'ijlpasted to their fidelity the defence of Ids eapi-
His audien Plotectloa °f the queen and the royal family,
citizens al ^ -With a militar^ eathusias,n ; the
the whole dot and embodied themselves, and performed
as had ren,,- f 16 San'ison ; while such of the officers
as traitors Ti fr0In ‘I16 armT in Finland were insulted
mrs, and compelled to conceal themselves. The
king next hastened to the province of Dalecarlia, inhabit¬
ed by a fierce and ignorant but honest people, celebrated
for the share which they had in the revolution by which
Gustavus Vasa rescued his country from the despotism
and cruelty of Denmark, which had massacred the citi-
zens of Stockholm, and almost exterminated the nobility
of the kingdom ; and the loyalty of these people beino-
kindled to enthusiasm by this visit of the king to their
mines and forests, four thousand of them instantly came
forth as volunteers. In the mean time the Danish army
proceeding along the sea coast, which had been left un¬
defended, took a body of Swedes prisoners, and advanced
towards Gottenburg, which being mostly built of timber,
was liable to instant destruction by bombardment. The
place had actually been summoned, when the king, by un¬
usual personal exertion, passed at the critical period un¬
noticed through the enemy’s parties, and entered the city.
His presence had the effect of restoring the confidence of
the inhabitants, who resolved to encounter every hazard
in defence of the city ; but the place was thus saved only
for a moment, and its situation, as well as that of the kin£
himself, was still extremely perilous. On this occasion,
however, the city, the king, and perhaps the monarchy of
oweden, ow'eti their safety to the interference of a British
subject, Mr Hugh Elliot, the British envoy at Copenhagen.
From the first notice of hostilities, this gentleman, dis¬
cerning the interests of his country and of Europe, passed
over into Sweden, and offered his mediation to the king
at the same time that he threatened the Danes with an
immediate invasion by a Prussian army, supported by a
British and Dutch fleet. The Danish commander became
intimidated, and delayed his threatened hostilities ; a Prus-
sian envoy soon arrived, and confirmed all the menaces of
Mr Elliot; and the consequence was, that after much ne-
gociation, a suspension of hostilities was concluded, and
in the month of November the Danish troops evacuated
the territory of Sweden.
At the close of autumn this year a domestic event of a
singular nature, and new in the British history, occurred.
Ihe health of the sovereign had suffered, not from free-
ctom of indulgence and excess of luxury, but from too
severe a regimen, too laborious exercise, too rigid abste¬
miousness, and too short intervals of rest. As a remedy
for the symptoms which manifested themselves, he was ad¬
vised to resort to the medicinal waters of Cheltenham, and
accordingly repaired thither immediately after the proro-
gation of parliament, and did not return to the metropolis
tnl the 18th of August. But no material benefit had re¬
sulted from this excursion. His health continued in a pre¬
carious state ; and on the 22d of October symptoms were
observed by one of the royal physicians, of that alienation
ot mind which was afterwards the occasion of so many
important and interesting transactions. For some time it
was thought proper to observe the utmost secrecy respect¬
ing ^the nature of the king’s indisposition ; and the retreat
ot the sovereign at Windsor was favourable for this pur-
pose. For several days an opinion was entertained that
ins indisposition arose from fever, and that it had attained
so alarming a height as to threaten speedy dissolution ;
but the real nature of the malady could not long be sup¬
pressed. By the law and practice of the English consti¬
tution, almost every species of public business is, in some
manner, connected with the exercise of the royal prero¬
gative. The administration of the general government,
in particular, was by this event virtually suspended; and
notwithstanding the critical situation of Europe, and the
very active share which we had taken in its concerns, it
was now deemed impracticable to return any sort of an-
svyer to the dispatches of foreign courts, or even to those
of our own ambassadors. In this situation the most natu-
451
Iteign of
George III.
BRITAIN.
lleign of ral expedient was to suffer the two houses of parliament,
George III. which stood prorogued to the 20th of November, to assem-
ble at that time, and either to adjourn for a short interval,
or proceed immediately to discuss the measures which it
would be proper to adopt at such a juncture. Circular
letters were accordingly addressed to the members of the
legislature on the 14th, signifying that the indisposition
of the sovereign rendered it doubtful whether there would
be a possibility of receiving his commands for the further
prorogation of parliament; that in such a case the two
houses must of necessity assemble; and that a numerous
attendance of the members was extremely desirable.
When parliament assembled, the lord chancellor observ¬
ed in the House of Lords, that the reason of their being thus
unusually called together without the ordinary notice, for
the dispatch of business, arose from the severity of the
king’s indisposition, which had rendered it impossible for
him to approach the royal person in order to receive his
commands. Lord Camden remarked, that the customaiy
practice of giving forty days’ notice previous to the meet¬
ing of parliament, was'not in his opinion absolutely neces¬
sary ; that there was an express act of parliament, which
limited the notice, in case of treason or rebellion, to four¬
teen days; that he would therefore recommend an ad¬
journment for that term; and that the chancellor should,
by order of the house, address an official letter to every
individual peer. In the House of Commons IMr 1 itt stated
that every authority had been consulted respecting the
present singular situation of affairs ; that none pointed out
either the possibility of directing a new prorogation, or of
enabling ministers to open the session of parliament in
any regular way; that, under these circumstances, it would
be improper for the house to proceed to the discussion of
any public business; and that it was absolutely necessary
to adjourn. He therefore recommended the interval of a
fortnight, when, if the king’s illness should unhappily con¬
tinue, it would be indispensably incumbent upon them to
enter upon the immediate consideration of the state of
public affairs; and he further moved a call of the house
for the 4th of December, and that the speaker should be
directed to send circullir letters, requiring the attendance
of every member on that day.
The tenor of the precedents afforded by the history of
England was regarded upon the whole as in favour of a
regency, under which the whole, or a considerable part of
. -die power of the state, should be confided to the next heir
to the crown, or to the adult of the royal family most nearly
related to the king ; and what rendered this consideration
the more mtiffcHal upon the present occasion was, that the
Prince~of Wales was understood to entertain an avowed
partiality for the political connection which had lately
been instrumental in obtaining for him the discharge of
his-debts and an increase of his annual income, as well as
«ome personal resentment against the ministers now in
possession of office1.’’^'Accordingly, soon after the indispo¬
sition of the king had been ascertained, the prince dis¬
patched an express to Mr Fox, who was at that time in
Italy, requesting his immediate presence to assist him in
forming an administration. The ministers were also aware
of the intentions of the Princ^ of Wales, and wished, if
possible, to retain possession of office. Besides, as the du¬
ration of the king’s illness was necessarily uncertain, and
he might speedily be able to resume the reins of govern¬
ment, it was obviously their interest to procrastinate as
long as possible; and they were enabled to do so in con¬
sequence of the tranquil state of the nation, which rendered
the exercise of the executive power of less immediate ne¬
cessity than in times of war or public alafm. The effect
of mere reputation in supporting any political measure
was remarkably illustrated on this occasion. Mr Pitt and
his colleagues in office were in possession of the public fa- Ueici;
vour in a degree in which perhaps no ministers had everGeoresj
before enjoyed it for so long a period of time. To Mr Fox
and his associates still attached part of the odium which
the coalition and the Indian bill had originally excited.
The Prince of Wales himself was even less popular. The
sobriety of his father’s life formed a contrast to his youth¬
ful indiscretions ; and the rumour of his marriage with Mrs
Fitzherbert was still propagated, and met with credit. In
this state of affairs the king’s ministers, who had ceased to
be any thing more than ministers by courtesy, had every
advantage in their project of delaying as long as possible
the relinquishment of their official situations, by placing
the exercise of the royal authority in new hands. Mr
Pitt likewise conducted himself with great dexterity in
contriving subjects of discussion in the House of Com¬
mons ; whilst his antagonists, in contending against him for
victory upon speculative political questions, seem not to
have been aware that they were in fact fighting his battle,
by delaying the period of their owm entrance into power.
Uponf the re-assembling of parliament on the 4th of
December, a report of the privy council, containing an
examination of the royal physicians, was presented to the
two houses by Lord Camden and Mr Pitt; and it was
suggested, that when the delicacy of the subject and the
dignity of the person in question were considered, parlia¬
ment would probably perceive the propriety of acting upon
this report, rather than of demanding that more direct
and ample information to which, in strictness, they were
entitled. This suggestion seemed reasonable, as it could
scarcely be supposed that the ministers of the crown would
act so directly in opposition to their owm interests, as
falsely to represent their master as incapacitated by men¬
tal disease for the exercise of his royal functions. Mr
Fox, Mr Burke, and others, however, would not take any
assurance upon this point, but insisted on the solemnity
of an inquiry by a committee of the two houses. This
was accordingly agreed to, and the report of the com¬
mittee was laid upon the table of the. House of Commons
on the 10th, when a further proposition was moved by
Mr Pitt for the appointment of a committee to examine
precedents respecting those cases in which the persona
exercise of the royal authority had been prevente or
interrupted by infancy, sickness, infirmity, or any other
cause. Mr Fox observed, that though he had no objec¬
tion to the appointment of a committee for the purpose
proposed, yet as it was notorious that no precedent exis ■
ed which could be applied to the present case, he took the
opportunity of stating as a general principle, that the king
being at present incapable of holding the executive govern
ment, the Prince of Wales had as clear and express a Rg
to assume the reins and exercise the power of >soverel.|” 7
during the continuance of the present incapacity, as i
father were actually dead; but he added, that thoug
prince’s right was perfect and entire, the two houses
parliament, as the organs of the nation, were alone
fled to pronounce when he ought to take
right. In reply to this observation, Mr Pitt state^1’ ,
for any man to assert such a right in the Prince o ’
otherwise than as it was voluntarily conferred up°n
by the two houses of parliament, was little less than
son against the constitution; and that, except v ^
election, he had no more right, in point of pnncip
assume the government, than any other subject in bng ,
On the following day the opinion which had been s ^
by Mr Fox was attacked in the House of Lords by
Camden, and defended by Lord Loughborough an . aS
Stormont. Ministers had now got an abstract que& , 0f
a subject of debate, and they resolved not to lose s g
it, especially as their side of the question was Ukeiy
BRITAIN.
Rei{ of most popular, from being founded on an assertion of the
Geori; II.p0Wers of parliament in opposition to hereditary right.
'bt A /'inz-w/l i r> rrl ir 117V» an flio onV\i uro o ^— i.! 1 T\/T_-
453
Accordingly, when the subject was next mentioned, Mr
Pitt said, that the question which had been started re¬
specting the rights of parliament was of much greater
magnitude and importance than those which related to
the present exigency; and that it was impossible to dis¬
miss the question of right without its being fully discussed
and decided. And on the 16th of December, in a com¬
mittee upon the state of the nation, he entei’ed at large
into the subject, and endeavoured to. prove by ancient
precedents that the powers vested in a regent had always
been inferior to those of the king, and that parliament had
interfered in cases of royal infancy in appointing councils
of regency, nay even a single regent or protector; but he
at the same time admitted that it would be expedient
to intrust the government to the Prince of Wales, what¬
ever limitations it might be thought necessary to impose
on him. Mr Fox, on the contrary, contended that his
doctrine was supported by the very nature of a hereditary
monarchy. _ Upon Mr Pitt’s principles, said lYe?Af a man
were questioned whether the monarchy is hereditary or
not, the answer must be, I cannot tell; ask his majesty’s
physicians.. When the king of England is in health the
monarchy is hereditary, but when he is ill and incapable
of exercising the sovereign authority, it is then elective.
He ridiculed the absurdity of Mr Pitt’s assertion, that
the Prince of Wales had no more right than any subject of
the realm, while he at the same time confessed that par¬
liament was not at liberty to think of any other regent.
But Mr Pitt’s motion on the question of right was carried
by a considerable majority.
On the 22d of December Mr Pitt proposed in the House
of Commons, a resolution, the object of* which was to cle-
dare it necessary, for the purpose of supplying the present
deficiency, and maintaining entire the constitutional autho¬
rity of the king, that the two houses should determine on
the means by which the royal assent might be given to
die bill which they might adopt for constituting a regency.
The object of this proposition was obvious. Administra¬
tion had resolved not to confide the regency to the Prince of
vvales except under certain restrictions ; but without the
royal assent, an act of parliament, fixing these restrictions,
could not be passed. They wished, therefore, to devise a
so emnity which, in this case, might be held as equivalent
o the royal assent; and Mr Pitt proposed, that the great
sea should be affixed by the lord chancellor to the act of
parliament, and that this should be held as equivalent to
le royal assent. Mr Fo^rfrn the contrary, urged an im¬
mediate address to the Prince of Wales, requesting him to
take upon himself the regency; and upon the pomt long
eoates occurred in both houses of parliament, in which
administration continued to be supported by the maioritv.
n the meanwhile Mr Pitt, in the name of the rest of the
cabinet, explained to the Prince of Wales, in a letter, the re-
s rictmns which were fieant tod* inserted in the regency
D ll. these were, that the care of the k^s person, and
1S.^0Sai household, should be committed to the
|lne,n,; aru* t^at ^ power to be exercised by the prince
snouid not extend to the personal property of his father,
ppm ° i Srant‘ng of any office, reversion, or pension, ex-
p w iere the law absolutely required it, as in the case
nlooc.6 Jut oes’ f°r any other term than during the king’s
surh ? e’ n°r to.tlle conferring of any peerage, unless upon
the JAT8 0f the r°yal issue as should have attained
wrrp^fn ^WjntT'one years. It was added, that these ideas
ivonlrl r!1*! i UP°n ^le opposition that the royal malady
that it ^ ^temporary, and might be of short duration ;
ft’hirh t^8 1®CU t0 at present the precise period for
111686 provisions ought to endure ; but that it would
heieafter be open to the wisdom of parliament to reconsi- Iteign of
der them whenever circumstances might appear to render George HI.
it eligible. In his answer, which was dated on the second
of January 1789, the prince declared, that it was with deep
regret he perceived, in the propositions of administration,
a project for introducing weakness, disorder, and insecu¬
rity, into every branch of public business; for dividing
the royal family from each other ; for separating the court
from the state, and depriving government of its natural and
accustomed support; for disconnecting the authority to
command service from the power of animating it bv re¬
ward ; and for allotting to him all the invidious duties of the
kingly station, without the means of softening them to the
public by any one act of grace, favour, or benignity. He
stated it as a principle of the British constitution, that the
powers and prerogatives of the crown were held in trust
for the benefit of the people, and were sacred as condu¬
cing to preserve that balance of the constitution which
formed the best security for the liberty of the subject;
and he objected to making trial in his person, of an ex-
peiiment to ascertain Kdth how small a portion of kingly
power the executive government of the country couldloe
conducted. He stated his conviction, that no event could
be more repugnant to the feelings of his royal father on
hia recovery, than to know that the government of his son
and i epi esentativjj had exhibited the sovereign power in
a state of degradation and diminished energy, injurious in
its piactice to the prosperity of the people, and mischiev¬
ous in its precedent to the security of the monarch and
the rights of his family ; but he nevertheless declared him¬
self resolved to undertake, under every disadvantage, the
office of regent, in order to avoid the evils which mDht
arise from his following a different line of conduct. ^
The most singular part of this project for the govern¬
ment of the kingdom appears to have been that for con-
filling’ to the queen the j^^er of removing’, nominating*,
and appointing the officers of the royal household ; assist¬
ed by a permanent council, to be selected by parliament,
and to.qonsist, in some measure, of the members of admi¬
nistration. The annual income of the royal household was
computed at L.300,000, and the nuftber of officers of which
it consisted amounted to four hundred ; an influ^aice which
would certainly have been sufficiently formidable to a go-
verfimfcnt in other respects restricted and limited. The
lords ofthe becFchamber had been madt* use of to defeat
Mr Fox’s India bill, and might, under a separate establish
ment, have proved embarrassing to the existing government.
It is obvious, however, that, on this occasion, administra¬
tion were encouraged in the pursuit of the/ftua which they
had formed for restricting the prince’s power, byithe ad¬
dresses presented to them from various parts of the king¬
dom, expressive of gratitucj^ for the assertion byMie House
of Commons of their right of providing for the ,|e_
ficiency.
On the 16th of January Mr PitE^inposed his regency
bfil, testing it, in somgjneasure, upon the decisive opinion
of Dr Willis, whe expressed great hopes of the king’s re¬
covery ; and after long debates, the limitations were sanc¬
tioned by a considerable majority. In the House of Lords
similar debates occurred but there also administration
proved victorious. On the 31st of January Lord Camden
moved in thgilouse of Lords, that the lord chancellorfhould
be directed, by authority of the two houses of parliament,
to issue a commission in the name of the sovereign, for the ** * >
purpose of immediately opening the session of parliament; ‘
and this r^olution having been carried in both houses, tfie-
session w^T opened in the proposed form on the 3th of
February. ^Tftough the principles of the regency bill had
been previously discussed, yet its various clauses g&tte rise
to new divisions,’ in which administration still maintained
BRITAIN.
lieign of
George III.
their superiority. The bill passed the House of Commons
on the 12th of February, and was presented on the fol¬
lowing day to the House of Lords, where it was discussed
on the 17th and 18th, and a few unimportant amendments
introduced into it.
But here the whole of these proceedings terminated.
On the 12th of February, the king having been declared
by his physicians to be in a state of progressive amend¬
ment, an adjournment of the House of Lords was there¬
fore proposed on the 19th. On the 25th bis majesty was
declared by his physicians free from complaint; and on
the 10th of March the lord chancellor, by the king’s au¬
thority, addressed both houses of parliament in a speech,
after which the ordinary business of the session com¬
menced.
In the meanwhile the administration of Mr Pitt had
been less fortunate in Ireland than in this country. The
unexampled popularity which reconciled the people of
Great Britain to all his measures, and the odium and sus¬
picion which had fallen upon his opponents, had not hither¬
to been communicated to the neighbouring island. The
prospect, therefore, of his departure from office excited
little regret in that country, and its parliament made haste
to worship what they accounted the rising sun. It bad
stood adjourned, previous to the royal incapacity, till the
20th January 1789 ; and the Marquis of Buckingham, then
lord-lieutenant, with consent of the privy council of Ire¬
land, ventured to defer its meeting till the 5th of February.
On the 11th of that month, two motions were offered to
the consideration of the House of Commons, the one by
Mr Grattan, the member most distinguished for his talents;
and the other by Mr Conolly, the richest of the Irish com¬
moners. By the first the royal incapacity was declared ;
and by tbe second it was proposed to present an address
to the Prince of Wales, requesting him to take upon him¬
self the government, with its various powers, jurisdictions,
and prerogatives. After a long debate, the propositions
of Mr Grattan and Mr Conolly were carried by a large ma¬
jority ; and on tbe following day an address to the Prince
of Wales was also voted, and sent to the House of Lords,
where it was adopted by a great majority. On the 19th
of February the address was carried to the lord-lieuten¬
ant, who, however, refused to transmit it to England; upon
which the two houses appointed six commissioners to pre¬
sent the address immediately to the prince : but these mea¬
sures had scarcely been carried through parliament when
the king’s recovery rendered them ineffectual, and the con¬
sequence was, that the majority of the Irish parliament, who
were far from intending to engage in a contest with the Bri¬
tish government, found themselves in an awkward situation.
The subject of the slave-trade, which had been brought
under the consideration of parliament during the preceding
session, was resumed upon the 12th of May. In the inter¬
val, petitions against the abolition of the traffic had been
presented by persons in London, Liverpool, Bristol, and
other places interested in the trade. Meanwhile, the report
of the committee of the privy council, of which Mr Pitt
had previously given notice, was presented to the House of
Commons; and the enemies of the trade had been ex¬
tremely active in endeavouring to excite the indignation
of the public against this odious and inhuman traffic. Innu¬
merable pamphlets were distributed, either gratuitously or
at a low price, giving an account of the calamities endur¬
ed by the unhappy natives of Africa; the wars in which
petty princes were tempted to engage, with a view to sell
their prisoners to European traders, were fully explained ;
the wretched manner in which these slaves were trans¬
ported to the West India colonies, fettered and crowded
together so as to occasion the destruction of multitudes
by disease, was represented by prints, distributed along
with the popular publications upon the subject; and, last- Reign
ly, instances were given of the cruelty of the masters in George !
the West Indies, tending to render the white inhabitants ''“’’T*’
extremely odious. By these means the public were led
to interest themselves in procuring, if not an abolition of
the state of slavery, at least a complete prohibition of the
importation of additional slaves from Africa; and to this
last object the attention of the legislature was now con¬
fined. The business was opened by Mr Wilberforce, who
stated the effects of the trade upon Africa; noticed the
mode of transportation, which he very fully described;
adverted to the diseases contracted on ship-board, with
the astringents and washes employed to hide the wounds
of the miserable sufferers ; descanted on the wickedness
of the trade, which he felt to be so enormous and irreme¬
diable, that he could stop at nothing short of abolition;
asserted that the number of negroes in the West Indies
might be kept up without the introduction of recruits from
Africa; and moved twelve propositions, stating the num¬
ber of slaves annually carried from Africa, imported into
the British West Indies, and entered in the custom-house
accounts ; the consequences produced upon the inhabitants
of Africa; the injury sustained by the British seamen;
the fatal circumstances which attended the transportation
of the slaves ; the causes of the mortality of the negroes,
and a calculation of the relative increase of population in
Jamaica and Barbadoes; together with a declaration that
no considerable or permanent inconvenience would result
from discontinuing further importation. Mr Pitt support¬
ed that side of the question which had received the sanc¬
tion of popular approbation; declaring himself satisfied
that no argument, compatible with any idea of justice,
could be assigned for the continuation of the slave-trade;
and expressing a hope, that while Great Britain took the
lead of other countries in a matter of so great magnitude,
foreign nations would be inclined to share the honour, and
contented to unite with us in so excellent a work. Mr Fox
highly approved of what had fallen from Mr Pitt, and de¬
clared that he had considered the trade in human flesh as
so scandalous, that it was in the last degree infamous to
suffer it to be openly carried on by the authority of the
government of any country. Mr Burke was of opinion
that, whatever might be the present situation of Africa, it
could never be meliorated under the present system; that
while we continued to purchase the natives, they must for
ever remain in a state of savage barbarity; that it was im¬
possible to civilize a slave ; and that there was no country
situated like Africa into ■which the shadow of improvement
had ever been introduced. On the other hand, Mr vyi-
berforce’s propositions met with considerable opposition.
Mr Savage and Mr Newnham, on the part of the city
of London, asserted, that the measure, if carried into ef¬
fect, would render the metropolis bankrupt; Mr Dempster
thought that Mr Wilberforce’s first proposal ought to be,
to make good out of the public purse the losses which in¬
dividuals would sustain from the abolition of the tia e,
Lord Penrhyn asserted, that as there were mortgages in
the West India islands to the amount of seventy mi ion
sterling, Mr Wilberforce’s project would subject the coun
try in the repayment of that sum; Mr Henniker 0PP°®f
the abolition, on account of the alleged depravity o
Africans, which rendered them incapable of c^1;1Zp’
and Lord Maitland, Mr Marsham, Mr Hussey, Mr o >
Mr Drake, and Mr Alderman Watson, each alleged som
thing intended to pass as a reason for entertaining sim
views. Lastly, the matter ended in the renewa o
William Dolben’s act to regulate, for a limited time’ t
mode of conveying slaves in British vessels from t e
of Africa. ,. eQX.
The annual business of the budget was not broug
BRITAIN.
ReL i of
Georj III
455
ward this year till the 10th of June; and immediatplvnrp. „ T
•vious to the discussion, the office of speaker of the HoPuse every article rfeJenuesr °f IndlJ|> which, after deducting Iteign of
of Commons was vacated by the promotion of Mr Gren- at l/l 8‘>0 00^ ^en.dltu,'e ,n that country, he calculated George III.
ville to be one of his majesty’s principal secretarffis of Mr R, T' rn Unng ^ preSent session’ trial of v '
state. On this occasion Mr Henry Addington the ner- 1 f 0Ce<;deti ^fore the House of Lords,
sonal friend of the premier, and "on of D^Stephen Ad' rec^td bvChldl%urHnShi;af0rWard’ reSpeC^ pre°ents
dington, physician to Mr Pitt’s family, was appointed to opened bvVr RmL & ^ .government of Bengal, was
succeed Mr Grenville in the chair. His opponent was Sir alluded K , T °’ in the COurse of his ^eech,
Gilbert Elliot, who was proposed by the opposition • and sorted that mTh efec1utlon Nundcomar, and as-
both Mr Fox and Mr Burki animadverted on the^outh hands of Sif Fffiab f8" ad that man ^ the
and inexperience of his competitor; but on a division Mr snectine-Nnnde J ^lipe>; But ^ the transaction re-
Addington was elected by a large majority. E K “ ?ni'ad "° part of the charges
The expense incurred by the recent armament tli ^1IC1 ^ecn preferred against Mr Hastings by the
— - a :^t recent^armament, the House of Commons, and as the question, in as far as Sir
, 1J. w.as lrnphcated, had been examined and reiected
during the preceding session, Mr Hastings presented a
petition to the house, in which he entreated them, either
he hm56 M f addltral/al]egations urged against him to
iZrTh ™0r.Ia;d’.t”d in specific articles, or
c inuaneu uy uie recent armament, the
allowance to the American loyalists, and other circum¬
stances, rendered it necessary to have recourse to a loan
of one million, to defray the interest of which additional
taxes were imposed upon newspapers, advertisements,
cards, and dice, probates of wills, legacies to collateral
VPI a firm a o A 1  » ■» _ .
relations, and carriages and horse’s. And as one of M toaffoTHm, ’(n"d Pr?SeCUted in SPecr,ic artick8.
Pitfs methods of extending the revenue omsist^d In en! let d
ry*. , > i.1 j cio uiic or ivir
itts methods or extending the revenue consisted in en¬
deavouring to suppress smuggling, and as he had formerly
transferred the management of the duty on wine from the
customs to the excise, he now pursued the same course in
regard to the article tobacco. The subject was opened
m the House of Commons on the 16th of June, when it was
observed that tobacco had come to be considered as the
staple of the smuggler, in the same manner as tea, wine
and spirits, had formerly been. The quantity of tobacco
consumed in the kingdom had been found to bear a toler
able and proper. Mr Pitt supported th^ petitJ, ufon the
und t lat tile murder of Nundcomar formed no part of
the crime of peculation, and every rule of evidence was
against its being alleged; that it had been charged in or-
dei to discredit the character of the accused, although it
was a rule m the courts of law that no fact could be given
in evidence to discredit even a witness; that if the mur¬
der of Nundcomar was not admissible as evidence, it could
only be urged as matter of aggravation, which it was im-
ably near proportionTo the^u^TfTea; TndaVleaT Ctl!? .fl,7 5 7 common sense of the
half of this quantity was the exclusive commoditv rf b m,ankind> 'T°uld not Pemit »f
the smuggler. The consumption amounTed lo fourfecn cXfion MrTx 88 H a«Slaratio" »f crime of pe-
millions of pounds; and the loss to the revenue upon the canTin nf oil ^ " 16 ^ontrary’ Clted the case of a
half of this consumption exceeded three hundred thou havino- S'T’ a»ainst 'v^om murder was charged in
sand pounds per annum. Under the e cTc TsTncP M^ having thrown Ins cargo of slaves overboard, in order to
Pitt thought it necessary to haveTecourserthe syst^ IZ ZZ ^ e^oured to de-
of excise, by which the stock of the dealer was tax/d n l t!?e underwriters 0f the amount of the insurance ;
stead of the duty being collecTd on importatio. A hdl Tu ^ the present case exa^lj correspond-
was accordingly introduced for effectini the transference actffinlnf M WR m'Posslhl?.t0 describe the corrupt trans-
proposed by the minister, and, after a'good dea of dis Thich haL Hastings without alluding to the crimes
cuss,on, passed by a large majority. 5 accomPanied or to relate the crimes with-
■ Mr Fox having annually brought fmuvoivl a ™ r c i°Uti mentlonin» tlle names of the persons by whom they
the repeal of the" shop-S whTcfl^roved ZZTy Td ^riedZTl f h°W™> ™ --el
unpopular in the capital, Mr Pitt at length consented tlml ha hZZ ^ 7® decIared’ that no authority
motion foMhe^epea]6^*thXorporadon and'testnacts ^hfch SS’n&f" llfl T
! S“d itbt "fX Icchtf^ r I%nh0pe’- ^ °f Aur°a CTftomXeToTXlc^o^u1,1,*
established worship; prohibiting men 6-r. ie(lu^.nt tIie cific nature from the different powers in Europe, andTt
wni"g in derogation of ?he doefrine of dr^o^f8 °r T Same1t,™ congratulated the nation on the hippiness
3oSeerihe"j0ini”g the eating »» certain d°y7; ’ ‘“reas.ng advantages of peace.
>rohibitinf thl lmpriS°n-ent of Persons excommunicated ;
lersonswhnw! a*portatlon .of women; and declaring all
1 certain declaTtffin0?1!, W1.tll01Ut havinS previously made
ncusant conlSX “ Sf “*?*.*?« ot, I.aw P°PM
CHAP. XV.
SsXrrL abfa aad ^ol“eIe7„X
he0bn!|l was ultimately re/ected! “ ep‘SCOpal bc»ch; and
lle iioi«of;'li,!ly 1 ce East bl(i';l Company petitioned
I ^Hion to theb f01!8 f°r Permission to add a sum of one
ttle difficulty n'Tv and the request was granted with
ent of the b’oarrin f116 day Ml' Dundas’ as Presi-
of control, brought forward a state-
REIGN OF GEORGE III. FRENCH REVOLUTION.
Origin of the French Revolution.—Allusions thereto in the House
tt .oldnnon;s-—-Approved of, in the first instance, by Mr Pitt 
Hostility of Mr Burke—Revolution defended by Mr Fox and
Mr Sheridan—Conduct of Mr Pitt.—Motion for repeal of the
Corporation and 1 est Acts—Mr Flood’s motion for a Reform
in Parliament—Affair of Nootka Sound—Disturbances in the
Austrian N etherlands—New Parliament—Schism amongst the
members of Opposition—Burke and Paine on the French Re
volution—Desertion of the Opposition by Mr Burke Slave-
456
Iteign of
George III-
BRITAIN.
trade and Sien-a Leone Company—Dispute about Oczakow.—
General state of Europe—Catholic Iteliet Bill—War in India.
—Early popularity of the French Revolution.—Riots at Bir¬
mingham-State of Europe—Project for the partition of Poland
and France—Treaty of Pilnitz—Parliamentary proceedings—
Proiect for the gradual abolition of the Slave-trade—Scotch
Burgh Reform—War in India—Siege of Seringapatam—
Treaty of Peace with Tippoo—Causes of the impending changes
in Europe—Royal Family of France—Defects of the new
French Constitution—Society of Friends of the People—De¬
bate on Mr Grey’s notice of a motion for Reform in Parliament.
 Paine’s Rights of Man—Proclamation against Seditious I ub-
lications Its effects—France menaced with invasion—Rus¬
sians invade Poland—Duke of Brunswick’s Manifesto—Its ef¬
fects The Prussians enter France—Defeated at \ almy—
Retreat Battle of Jemmappes—Proceedings of the French
Government—Ferment in Britain—Political Associations—
Friends of the People—Constitutional and Corresponding So¬
cieties Meeting of Parliament—Speech from the Throne-
Debate on the Address—Desertion from the ranks of Opposi¬
tion Mr Fox’s motion to treat with France—The Alien Bill.
—Correspondence between Lord Grenville and M. Chauvelin.
 The King’s message announcing War—Attempt by the
French to re-open negociations—Declaration of TV ar.
During the preceding summer the eventful career of the
French revolution had commenced. The extreme weak¬
ness into which the government of France had fallen, ow¬
ing to the pressure of the public debts, and the embarrass¬
ment of the finances, had induced the king to call together
the states general of the kingdom, which soon assumed the
title of the national assembly. Their debates, which were
held in public, diffused a love of innovation, and a desire
to reform their ancient government, and establish a free
constitution. The court became alarmed by the violence
of their proceedings, and attempted to set bounds to their
projects ; but the populace of the capital rose in arms, and
the military refused to act against them. Meanwhile the
national assembly proceeded daily in the discussion of new
plans of change. They seized the ecclesiastical property
and tithes, resolving to limit the clergy for the future to
fixed salaries; they put an end to the monastic institu¬
tions ; they abolished the whole order of nobility, and li¬
mited the power of the crown. 1 hese, and other proceed¬
ings, which will be stated in their proper place, excited
much attention in Britain; and accordingly allusions to
them became not unfrequent in parliament during the pre¬
sent session ; indeed general questions were debated with
more animation, and excited a higher degree of interest,
than they had for many years done.
The supplies for the navy and army, which were stated
at the same amount as in the preceding session, produced
some animadversions from Mr Marsham and Mr Fulteney,
who alleged that, in the actual state of Europe, the mili¬
tary establishment of Britain might safely be reduced.
Mr Fox observed, that if ever there was a moment in
which he could be less jealous than at another of an in¬
crease of the standing army, the present was that moment.
The example of a neighbouring nation had proved that
the former imputations upon standing armies were entirely
unfounded and calumnious ; and it was now universally
known throughout all Europe, that a man by becoming a
soldier did not cease to be a citizen. He thought the
new form which the government of France was about to
assume, would render her a better neighbour than when
her affairs were controlled by the intrigues of ambitious
and interested statesmen. Mr Pitt acknowledged that the
tumultuous situation of France afforded a prospect of tran¬
quillity ; but he thought that the opportunity ought to be
seized to raise our army to such a state of respectability
as would leave no hopes of future hostility. The present
convulsions of France must sooner or later terminate in
the re-establishment of order ; but there was a probability,
that while the fortunate arrangements of such a situation
might render her more formidable, they would also con- Reign
vert her into a less restless neighbour. As an Englishman Georg n
and as a man, he wished for the restoration of tranquillity
in France, though that event appeared to him consider¬
ably distant. Whenever it arrived, and her inhabitants
became truly free, they must be in possession of a free¬
dom resulting from order and good government, and they
would then stand forward as one of the most brilliant
powers in Europe ; nor could he regard with envious eyes
an approximation towards those sentiments which were
characteristic of every true British subject. But while Mr
Pitt, who had commenced his public career as the cham¬
pion of political reform, and still on important occasions
represented himself as preserving his attachment to po¬
pular rights, was thus applauding the first revolutionary
movements of the French, his friends considered them¬
selves as at perfect liberty to give utterance to sentiments
of a very different nature upon the subject. Viscount
Valletort, who moved the address, expressed great com¬
passion for the king of France, then almost a prisoner in his
own palace, and for the families of distinction who had
found it necessary to fly to foreign countries to avoid the
unexampled barbarities which were committed with im¬
punity at home; and Colonel Phipps declared that the
praise bestowed by Mr Fox upon the conduct of the
French military, was a poor compliment to the profession
in general, and that, if he had wanted a subject foi pane¬
gyric, he ought rather to have adverted to the conduct
of the English army during the riots of 1780, when they
were not led by false feelings to put themselves at the
head of schemes leading to anarchy and cruelty.
On the 9th of February, when the vote of supply for
the army came a second time under consideration, Mr
Burke revived the subject of the French revolution. He
declared himself, in decided terms, an enemy to the mea¬
sures which had lately taken place in that country, an
conceived that it would be the greatest of all calamities
for Britain, if any set of men amongst us should represent
the late transactions in France as fit objects of imitation.
He, however, condemned the greatness of our military
establishment, by reason of the weakness of France; ana
declared, that on looking over the geography of this pari
of the world, he saw a great gap, a vast blank, the spa
hitherto occupied by France, which had no longer any po¬
litical existence. France had at different periods een
dangerous to us by her example as by her hostility,
the last age, we had been in danger of being entangiea,
by her example, in the net of a relentless despotism,
present danger, from the example of a people w ose f
racter knew no medium, was that of being led, thro g
admiration of successful fraud and violence, to nm a
excesses of an irrational, unprincipled, proscribing) c
eating, plundering, ferocious, bloody, and tyrannic
mocracy. They had a good political constitution ^
mocracy. iney nau a guuu . , a,:,
their states general assembled in separate orders;
they had destroyed. They had now no other system
a determination to destroy all order, subvert all ar anD^
ment, and reduce every description of men to
It was absurd to compare a proceeding like this ,
volution in England, which neither impaired themon ;
nor the church, and merely drove away a lega
who was attempting arbitrary power. . opinion
Mr Fox expressed great concern &1 it reve-
from Mr Burke, for whom he avowed the higm.
rence and esteem. He repeated his former opinion f^n
the subject of French affairs, but declare .
enemy of all absolute forms of governmen , v gperidan
narchical, aristocratical, or democratical. 1 . f]ylr
in more unqualified terms stated his disappro any nian
Burke’s sentiments, expressed his surprise 1
BRITAIN.
11'n of
Ge >e III
457
who valued the British government should feel such ab- ed the church of France nlnn,W0,i i r j •
horrence of the patriotic proceedings in France, and de- disgraceful i manner tn qK * fi ^ an(\ (?er^olls*ie^ in so Reign of
dared himself as ready aAlr Burk? to detest the cruel pS happyTr^celS^ 0UrGt"'
ties which had been committed. He complimented indi- reply declared himself filled with .1 1 1' ,Mr Fax,m ^
vidually the Marquis de Lafayette, M. Bailli, and other seLLent whfch "k lad^
Hench patriots and expressed a hope that the despotism all the principles he had stated had form“lyZe7ved fhe
of France won d never be restored ; but observed that he sanction of his friend. He thought ttSke at nresem
ought not on that accoun to be considered as approving of misled by his sensibility; his feeling had been shocked
a wanton persecution of the nobility, or an insult to royal- and irritated by a mistaken idle „r .hf . shocked
^ j“e answered Mr Sheridan with indignatL, France li&Tn SylThbg llfS
and denied that he was the advocate of desnotism • hni miiioo u J & niuie man tne cala-
declared that Mr Sheridan had sacrificed his friendshin at the neriod nf ‘}vei^ ca!intr7 ^as unavoidably subject
for the applause of clubs and association!: * P bLefice^^ government, however
It is probable that Mr Pitt had now become aware of rejected on a dfvisbnf' rhe was of course
the difficulty of his situation with regard to the French A few days afterwards Mr Flood brought forward a mo
revolution which at this period was generally regarded tion for the reform of the representaS of
with approbation in Britain, as an imitation of that spirit parliament and nronosed to ndd o hunllr i tiie PeoPle m
by which our ancestors had raised their country to a sLe Lose of Comm^
of unexampled prosperity and happiness. Mr Pitt must holders in every county. Mr Windham onnosed the mo'
already have known hat the court regarded it in a very tion, on the ground tlrnt the country had mosnered Z"
^ ’ ancd t iaV ^ no.d1'stant period, his ambi- der the representation as it stood, and^ecause innovations
tion and his love of popularity might become incompatible, had become extremely dangerous. Where said he is tlm
On the present occasion he undoubtedly saw with satis- man who would repair his house in the hmr cane s’eason 9
faction a division likely to occur among those who had Mr Fox, on the contrary, decked ^861^8 Lch ner
it ei to been his competitors for popularity ; and with suaded as ever of the necessity of reform • but he thoiLht
that dexterity in debate for which he appears to have the majority of the nation of a differeroDinfon and wL
been remarkable, he instantly endeavoured to widen the therefore of opinion that the motion ought to’be with
and t0 atMChRt0 a.man of 80 miIch int.el" drawn* Mr Pitt considered the proposals brought for-
Hip ,a P°Tei ,as x 1 ^U1'ke, declaring that he agreed with ward at an improper time, and said he wished to wait for
t e atter m almost every thing he had urged respecting a more seasonable opportunity, when he would certainly
Burkp ^ ^?mmo ,ons in fiance; that the sentiments Mr again submit his ideas upon the subject to the considera^
filL h m Prtf88edresPecting British constitution tion of the house. Mr Flood accoidbgly withdrew Id
filled him with the smcerest satisfaction; and that the proposition. & 7 "itnurew his
manner in which he had pledged himself to maintain it On the 5th of May a message from the kino- informed
low-citizenl'aml^tlm^admiration40^116 F" >'tude °f h,S fel‘ b°.th h°uses of parliament of certain acts of hostility com-
A new pff i ad™iratl01n ofposterRy. nutted by the Spaniards in the seizure of three British
reneffi nf 1 ^ °a the2d of ^arch to Procure a vessels which had attempted to establish a foremn trade
prevailed^it^M^Fn0”!311^ iaCtS', d 16 di.ssenters had between China and Nootka Sound, on the westToast of
clerov of the elmreh Of F ‘ i °/UF t ie ,m0tT \ but the Nortb America* The Spaniards conceiving the whole of
downfal of the eoclesffi!tPf & "° doubt at the that Part of the American coast to be their property,
anxious to diffnS ! ' > establishment in France, were were the first to give information of what they liad done,
attack Mr F sPirit of opposition to the intended and required that steps should be taken by the British
inguponthisrpHncmlTSthatdno1,SWh° eaTimentaFreSt‘ &overnment to prevent future encroachments upon that
animadver unon the -n ?-° g0Ve.ri?ment b?s a u8ht to coast- The British navy was instantly augmenJed; and
till these nntalnn1 sPeculatlve opinions of its subjects, as a war with Spain, unassisted by France, could not prove
pl c ranS-tv Tr v> C°ndUCt °f the VelT formidable, the public seemed to regird the approach
errors in rSon tnded ndi^r1? *em * at of'.bostiIities with ^tle concern. But the determination
but surely nn]hta!fl d d dlstarb the Pabllc tranquillity; evinced induced the Spaniards to come to an accommo-
much greater degree vlt Tuh tendency'o a datioih and the dispute ended without an appeal to arms,
test laws th-ii o & e> {et/ucb was F-6 absurdlty °f tbe During the present session little progress was made in
entimlnts In T ° P0wer in his tbe trial °fMr Hastings; and both parties accused each
a~i^ered ^ ab0lltl°n ofAial^ber as the authors of the delay that had taken place,
and law of narliarmmTZ’ a'ld f6 ;avasion °f the freedom while the subject began to be neglected or forgotten by
might easily nave hk 1 I T T -he constltutlon’ tbe Publ.ic- °n the 10th °f June the king put an end to
state. Mr Pitt as usicd 7 t0 Sltaat10ns ln tbe the session by a speech from the throne, and this parlia-
estahlish i 1tt5 T ’ suPPorted the privileges of the ment was dissolved. 1
not be a ewarrlntCflhleaSSertin/Vthat th0Ug,h °Pinion.s miSht At this period the Austrian Netherlands were in a state
they might afford n JITF 01 oilminal accusation, yet of great agitation. The people of these provinces had
individuals from tlm Soodreason.for excluding particular long been governed by a feudal constitution, which vested
dangerous onininr « seFv*Ce L TF to dlscover important privileges in the clergy, the nobles, and certain
Mr Burke TT d ta Jest might be highly expedient, classes of citizens, but more especially in the clergy. Jo-
Pox had stated tlF1 ^ ^ i10stde F tbe measure. Mr seph II. had invaded these privileges, seized upon the
tion, but ahsf-raet P.rin.clP es °f toleration and persecu- greater part of the property belonging to the monasteries,
abstract nrineinl PunciP es be always disliked. Of all and driven from the country all who opposed his innova-
whichdisseS T .TeVeu T086 of natural right, upon tions. At length, about the end of the year 1789, the
idle and the m TT as 1 lelr stron»bc,id’were the most exileshaving united on the frontiers, entered the coun-
and snapped asundeFuFiT8 ’ T16 j suP?rfeded ®ociety> try, and being joined by others, formed a considerable
constituted the hn • 1 e 6 bc)nJs which had for ages army, which rapidly overran the whole of Austrian Flan-
house not to snffeTfTT^ V .ma jbmd. ,^e adjured the ders ; while the emperor, engaged in a war with the Turks,
vol. v. 6 *ata mcidents which had attend- was prevented from sending any considerable force against
3 M
458
BRITAIN.
Reign of them. In December, the states of Barbant having assem-
George III. bled, appointed an administration, at the head of which
was Henry Vander Noot, a popular advocate ; and in Janu¬
ary 1790 were formed the outlines of a federal constitu¬
tion, by which each of the Belgic provinces was to retain
its peculiar constitution, whilst the general defence of the
republic was to be intrusted to a congress. Meanwhile a
considerable number of foreigners entered into the service
of this new republic. But it soon appeared that the Bel¬
gic revolution would produce no lasting effects. rIhe old
aristocratical government, uncontrolled by the authority
of a prince, was everywhere adopted ; the power of the
clergy was even increased ; the very first step of the Bel-
gian congress was a public declaration of religious into¬
lerance ; and the liberty of the press was prohibited, and
state licensers appointed. The consequence was, that dis¬
contents speedily arose. But at this period the emperor
Joseph died, and was succeeded by Leopold, archduke of
Tuscany, who issued a proclamation, inviting the revolted
provinces to return to their allegiance, and promising to
restore their ancient political constitutions. And not trust¬
ing to peaceful measures alone, he sent an army against
the insurgents, and at the end of the year the house of
Austria had recovered its authority in the Netherlands.
The new parliament assembled on the 25th of Novem¬
ber 1790. As no uncommon efforts had taken place at
the preceding elections, nearly the same members as for¬
merly were returned to the House of Commons; and Mr
Addington was chosen speaker. On the following day the
session was opened by a speech from the throne, in which
his majesty informed parliament that the differences which
had arisen with the court of Spain were brought to an
amicable termination; that a separate peace had been con¬
cluded between Russia and Sweden; that, in conjunction
with his allies, he had employed his mediation to nego-
ciate a treaty between Russia and the Porte; that he was
endeavouring to assist in putting an end to the dissen¬
sions in the Netherlands; but that the peace of India had
been interrupted by a war with Tippoo Sultan, son of the
late Hyder Ali. The speech concluded with recommend¬
ing to parliament a particular attention to the state of the
province of Canada. Various debates, of little importance
in a historical point of view, occurred respecting the ne-
gociations with Spain, the fur trade at Nootka Sound, and
the expensive naval armament which had been fitted out
to enforce the claims of Britain.
But in the beginning of March 1791 a bill was brought
into parliament by Mr Pitt for regulating the government
of the province of Canada in North America. This cir¬
cumstance is chiefly worthy of notice on account of an al¬
tercation to which it gave rise between Mr Burke and Mr
Fox. During the last session of the former parliament Mr
Burke had declared his disapprobation of the French re¬
volution, whilst Mr Sheridan and Mr Fox had expressed
very opposite sentiments. Mr Pitt, as we have already
seen, had dexterously laid hold of the opportunity to ex¬
cite disunion among his antagonists, and had declared him¬
self highly satisfied with Mr Burke’s attachment to the
British constitution. Mr Burke, on the other hand, had
long been engaged in a career of fruitless opposition to
the existing government; and during the king’s illness, in
the end of the year 1788, he had indicated such an inde¬
cent impatience when any expectation was expressed of
his majesty’s speedy recovery, as sufficiently demonstrated
how eager he was to obtain possession of office. It is not
improbable, therefore, that the approbation expressed by
Mr Pitt, of his fears on account of the French revolution,
suggested a decisive opposition to that great national
movement, as a mode of ingratiating himself with admi¬
nistration ; and that this idea, concurring with his former
sentiments, stimulated his eager mind to devote his prin- Iteign
cipal attention to the subject. Accordingly, in November George I
1790, he published a treatise, in which he endeavoured ''■'V*
to vilify the French national assembly, and to hold out
the revolution as a subject of alarm and of detestation
to all Europe. The style of copious and popular elo¬
quence in which the book was written, together with the
sentiments which it contained, produced a great impres¬
sion; and replies to it were published by Dr Priestley
and others; but that which proved most successful in
gaining the attention of the public, was the production
of Thomas Paine, who had formerly published in North
America a pamphlet entitled Common Sense, which prov¬
ed extremely prejudicial to the royal cause throughout the
colonies. His present work contained a statement of the
facts connected with the French revolution, together with
satirical strictures upon what he accounted imperfections
in the British constitution. He was not equal to his an¬
tagonist in copiousness of diction; but in shrewdness of
remark and concise effective energy of style he was supe¬
rior. Mr Burke’s love of literary fame was great; and
it had been highly gratified by the attention which his
book had attracted, particularly among the higher orders.
Hence, when he saw his reputation rudely assailed, his
temper became ruffled ; and he appears to have wished for
an opportunity of separating himself from his former po¬
litical associates. Accordingly, on the 6th of May, when
the clauses of the Quebec bill were about to be discussed
in a committee of the whole house, he rose, as he said, to
speak to the general principle of the bill, and enlarged
upon the importance of the act which they were about to
perform, namely, that of appointing a legislature for a dis¬
tant people. But he thought the first consideration ought
to be the competency of the house to such an act. By what
were called the “ rights of man,” a body of principles late¬
ly imported from France, all men are by nature free, and
equal in respect to rights. If such a code were admitted,
the power of the British legislature could extend no fur¬
ther than to call together the inhabitants of Canada to
choose a constitution for themselves. But, rejecting this
code, which was never preached without mischief, he as¬
sumed the principle, that Britain had acquired the right
of legislating for Canada by conquest. The next question
was, what model was to be followed in instituting a go¬
vernment for Canada; whether that of America, of France,
or of Great Britain, which were the three great modern
examples. In discussing this point, he diverged from the
subject more immediately before the house, and took an
opportunity to pronounce a vehement invective agams
the principles and enactments adopted by the French na¬
tional assembly, in attempting to form a new constitution.
He was called to order by some of his former friends, an
an altercation ensued, in the course of which he as.ser^.
that a design had been formed by certain persons m
country against the constitution. Mr Fox accuse -
Burke of leaving the question before the house to see
difference with him, and to fortify misrepresentations^
something which he had said in a former debate ,c0!?C^er
ing the French revolution; and he adhered to ms or ^
sentiments in approving the revolution, tll0U§
new constitution of France. Mr Burke repeated ms a
upon the French revolution, and declared that his 11
ship with Mr Fox was dissolved by that accursed e ^
Mr Fox, with much apparent agitation, endeavouie ^
Mr rox, witn muen appaieni agiuiwuij, ^
soften the asperity of Mr Burke, but without eftec • ,
had evidently resolved upon the part he was to ac > ^
this may be considered as the first occasion UP<?1? • offn
any member of the British legislature represente .
conduct as seriously influenced, to the extent of e rjce
his former political views and associates, in conseq
BRITAIN.
R< a of
Geo HI
of an alarm originating in the example of the French re¬
volution.
During the session, the question of the slave-trade was
again brought forward by Mr Wilberforce, and was sup¬
ported by Mr Pitt and Mr Fox; but his motion was ne¬
vertheless negatived by a considerable majority. The zeal
of the nation in favour of abolition had however become
very great; and as the evidence led before the House of
Commons had represented the trade as the source of in¬
numerable crimes and great misery, a company was esta¬
blished with the view of civilizing the natives of Africa,
and of cultivating, by the hands of freemen, West India
productions in that country; and having received a char¬
ter, they fixed on Sierra Leone as their principal settle¬
ment, and great expectations were entertained of the suc¬
cess of the project; expectations destined never to be
realized.
On the 28th of March a message from his majesty an¬
nounced that his endeavours to effect a pacification be¬
tween Russia and the Turks having proved unsuccessful, he
had judged it necessary to add weight to his representations,
Jw making some further augmentation of his naval force.
The point in dispute related to Oczakow, a town situated
upon the Black Sea, at the mouth of the river Dnieper,
which had been taken from the Turks, and was consider¬
ed by Russia as a situation of great importance with re¬
ference to future operations against the Ottoman empire.
The Turks, greatly exhausted by the contest, were redu-
459
had fallen under the influence of Austria; whilst the re- Reign of
volution, or rather the weakness which preceded it, had George III
incapacitated her for interfering in foreign affairs. In the
mean time Austria and Russia, relinquishing all rivalshin
had entered into a close combination, and acted in sub¬
serviency to their mutual ambition. Hence, to preserve
some tolerable balance of power on the continent of Eu-
i ope against these two great military empires, it became
absolutely necessary for Great Britain and Holland to
unite with Prussia and Sweden, and to protect the Turks
in order to prevent the further aggrandisement of these
two great and warlike powers. The British ministry, how¬
ever, finding a war with Russia likely to prove unpopular
consented that Great Britain should descend from her
proud station of holding the balance of the Continent; and
the consequences of this desertion speedily appeared • for
Piussia, no longer backed by Britain, was under the ne¬
cessity of joining Russia and Austria in their schemes of
aggrandisement at the expense of the weaker powers
that she might strengthen herself by a share of the spoil’
and maintain her position in relation to these powers!
How far the British administration acted culpably in de¬
serting what they accounted their duty, in compliance
with the apparent wish of the nation, is a question which
was never discussed, because the consequences of their
conduct were soon overlooked and forgotten amidst the
great events which speedily occurred. From the love of
popularity, and the habit of resisting all the projects of
any price6 butT^0' l]UrC',afalmost' Llministration, opposition at thUrime^ncowag^lhfpn'
“TuYone be ddegraded frri"S F°pe; ra?
evenentprpHinfn n i ^ ^.anothe.r^h ^pam, an(j immeasurable aggrandisement of the power which soon
onrl TOritlk A - /■» .1 ^ alliance with these countries proved so dangerous to Britain and to all Europe.0
An unsuccessful effort was made during this session of
parliament by Sir Gilbert Elliot, to procure for the mem¬
bers of the church of Scotland an exemption from the test
act. But the Roman Catholics in England were more
fortunate in obtaining relief from certain penal statutes.
—ujjit; cuimnue wiui uiese countries
and with Austria, for the purpose of restraining the influ¬
ence of Prussia, Britain, and Holland. In moving an ad¬
dress to his majesty on this message, Mr Pitt observed,
that having entered into defensive alliances, which were
admitted to be wise and politic, we ought to adhere to
thpm. tKnf •  r Ctuiicre 10 rortunate in obtaining relief from certain nenal statntPc
ed to affect thnTr^ WaS °Ui r •an^ ®vent calculat- As the Catholic church was the great object both of poli
ed to affect that power, and diminish its influence on the deal and religious terror in the first stages of the reforma-
oa f   “'V’ ttlv event ecticuiat-
ea to attect that power, and diminish its influence on the
continent, would be injurious to us, as far as our mutual
interests were concerned; and that the progress of the Rus¬
sian arms against the Porte gave sufficient cause for alarm,
since, if the power of the Porte were further humbled by
us aspiring rival, Prussia would instantly feel it, and not
I russia alone, but all Europe. Mr Fox, on the contrary,
expressed his conviction that Prussia could not be endan
gered by the progress of the Russian arms in Turkey, and
mat an D111 fi Ti nn+li   * i • .i
an alliance with Russia appeared to him the most
'H a^vantageous which we could possibly form.
But tli reSS’ .^Pwever’ was carried by a large majority
But the opnosi ion finding r y g majority, whilst by others they were compelled to attend the esta-
greater tiers than usual an,1 S.Twa.i however contrary to their consciences.
tion, the English statute book was loaded with the most
rigorous edicts against the professors of that obnoxious
faith ; and though some of these were removed in the year
1780, yet in 1791 not less than seventy pages of Burn’s
Ecclesiastical Law were occupied with the enumeration of
the penal statutes in force against the Roman Catholics.
Amongst these were some of the most sanguinary nature.
For example, it was high treason and death to make a
convert to the Catholic faith; and severe penalties were
enacted against papists for hearing mass by some statutes,
whilst by others they were compelled to attend the esta-
g ea er numbers than usual, and that a war with Russia
and Ur.PU,ar’ ^)rou£h*; the question repeatedly forward;
• a ministration, perceiving the current of public opi-
p ® run against them, abandoned their views, and re-
fi.n a support Prussia in attempting to set bounds to
the ambition of Russia.
nistr^0118^6™^ t^e state op Europe at the time, admi-
sia by1!!! Were Probably guided, in their jealousy of Rus
sia> by the maxims wbih W ’ a jeumusy or nus- Catholics from the penalties and disabilities to which per-
Great Britain Sn^ h ?d lnfl,Jenf.d tbe Polltlcs °f sons professing the Romish r eligion were subject by law ;
s—• , liuun during the best periods of its history. The nnd tho k;ii a  ^ ’
Grpnt R -v • J . nmueuuou Lilt poiIUCS 01
Snan; i ntain during the best periods of its history. The
whir if!. m?nar^by had long been in a state of debility,
continpru0 11 op bttle weight or importance on the
her armi °v b'aroPe 5 and France had likewise suffered
es 0 decline, and, by a sort of family compact,
A reform was therefore imperiously called for, and had
become the more reasonable, as, in the year 1790, a body
of Catholic dissenters had formally protested against the
temporal power of the pope, and against his assumed
authority to release men from their civil obligations, or
to dispense with the sacredness of oaths. Mr Milford,
therefore, brought forward a bill to relieve the protesting
Catholics from the penalties and disabilities to which per-
and the bill passed unanimously, excepting that Mr Fox
wished to extend it, not merely to protesting, but to all Ro¬
man Catholics; upon the principle, that the state has no
right to inquire into the opinions, either political or religious,
of the people, but only to take cognizance of their actions.
460
BRITAIN.
Reign of The war now carrying on in India gave rise to some
George III. debates during the present session. Like all other wars
in that quarter of the globe, it had been undertaken on
our part for the purpose of aggrandisement, and on the
part of our antagonist from a jealousy of the British power.
The ostensible cause of the war, however, was, that the
Dutch had long been in possession of two forts upon the
frontier of Hyder All’s kingdom of Mysore; that in the year
1780 Hyder had seized and garrisoned these forts, under
the pretence that they belonged to a vassal of his; that
having speedily thereafter induced the Dutch and tiench
to join him against the British, the forts were given up
to the Dutch; that in 1789, Tippoo had again claimed the
forts; and that the Dutch, dreading his power, had sold
the forts to the rajah of Travancore, a vassal or ally of
the British. Tippoo, resenting this mode of evading his
claim, made war upon Travancore; but as the rajah had
effected the purchase under secret instructions from the
British government in India, he was defended by them.
Thus the war was said on our part to have been entered
into in defence of the just rights of our ally, the rajah of
Travancore; whilst on the other hand it was contended
that this was nothing more than an attempt to subdue
the sovereign of Mysore, and extend our eastern empire,
at a time when the power of France was annihilated, and
our own forces in great strength in that quarter. . In the
trial of Mr Hastings little progress was made during the
present session. As parliament had been dissolved during
the dependence of the trial, a question occurred, whether
that circumstance did not put an end to the impeachment.
The friends of Mr Hastings adopted the affirmative side
of the question, and were supported by Mr Erskine and
the attorney and solicitor general, Macdonald and Scott;
whilst Mr Pitt, Mr Burke, and Mr Fox contended that a
dissolution could have no effect upon an impeachment.
After much discussion, it was carried in the House of
Commons that the impeachment was still depending,
and the same decision was adopted by the Ilouse of
Lords. The session of parliament was concluded on the
10th of June.
As the avowed object of the first leaders of the revo¬
lution in France was the establishment of a system of po¬
litical freedom, or of a representative government, with a
hereditary monarch at its head ; and as one of the con¬
sequences which they expected to follow from the esta¬
blishment of the new system was the complete abolition
of wars, which they ascribed entirely to the ambition of
kings; the progress of the revolution was regarded with
much favour by many persons in Great Britain. The re¬
form of the Gallican church, though it alarmed the Eng¬
lish clergy, was favourably regarded by the English dis¬
senters ; and the abolition of titles of honour was not dis¬
liked in a country where they are only enjoyed by a few
individuals, and are chiefly valued on account of the pri¬
vilege of hereditary legislation by which they are accom¬
panied. The English also had long been accustomed to
boast of their political freedom, and of their superiority
in this respect over their French neighbours; and hence,
when the populace of Paris rose in arms, when the military
refused to act against them, and when the state prison or
fortress of the Bastille was taken and demolished, many
persons in Great Britain regarded as an imitation of the
efforts of our ancestors the attempts made by the French
to shake off the ancient despotism, and to renovate the
order of society. The public at large indeed had not yet
given much attention to the subject; but of the specula¬
tive and enthusiastic there was a sufficient number to form
numerous convivial parties in commemoration of the 14th
of July, the day on which the Bastille had been taken.
These meetings, it is true, were on the whole regarded
rather unfavourably by persons attached to the monarchi- Reign
cal part of our constitution; but no public expression of George;^
disapprobation had hitherto appeared. ''■'Y*
A festive meeting of this nature was to have been held
at Birmingham on the 14th of July 1791; but several
days preceding it, some unknown person had left in a pub¬
lic-house copies of an inflammatory handbill, representing
the late transactions in France as proper to be imitated
in England. The contents of this placard were very
generally circulated, and produced much conversation in
the town; upon which the magistrates offered a reward
of a hundred guineas for discovering the author, printer,
or publisher. Meanwhile the friends of the intended
meeting disclaimed in the strongest terms the sentiments
expressed in the seditious handbill; and finding their
views misrepresented, they at first resolved that the meet¬
ing should not take place ; but another determination was
afterwards adopted, and the company assembled to the
number of eighty. The party, however, had scarcely met
when the house was surrounded by a tumultuous rabble,
who expressed their disapprobation by hisses and groans,
and by shouting “ church and king.” Upon this the meeting
immediately dispersed. But in the evening the mob at¬
tacked and burned a Unitarian meeting-house belonging to
the congregation of Dr Priestley; and although this distin¬
guished person had not been present at the meeting, his
house, from which he was compelled to fly with his fami¬
ly, was also attacked, and his library, his valuable philo¬
sophical apparatus, and his manuscripts and papers, were
destroyed. During the three succeeding days they destroy¬
ed some other meeting-houses, together with the dwelling-
houses of several eminent dissenters in the neighbour¬
hood ; and it was not till the night of the fourth day that
some parties of light dragoons arrived. The damage done
was very great; and the magistrates were accused of at
first favouring and encouraging the mob, whose excesses
they afterwards found it impossible to restrain. Five of
the rioters were tried at Worcester, and one was convict¬
ed and executed. At Warwick twelve were tried, and
four convicted of burning and destroying houses, three ot
whom were executed, and one was reprieved upon the
application of the magistrates, as it appeared that his inter¬
ference in the riot had been accidental.
At this time a foundation was laid on the Continent for
the most important political changes. 'I he various nations
of Europe had for some centuries owed their independ¬
ence to the jealousies which they mutually entertained.
Many petty states were altogether unable to contend m
war against their powerful neighbours ; but they owed their
safety to the circumstance of their neighbours being held
in check by other great powers, who resisted all attempts
at aggrandisement. When one nation became dangerous
by its ambition, the combination of a number of other
states repressed its machinations; and thus the Spams ,
and afterwards the French monarchies, were restrame
within due bounds. But in the course of the century uj
power of Russia had become formidable in Europe, an
its rulers sought rather to undermine than to overt*1p
that balance of strength to which the lesser states o _
rope had owed their safety. A former Russian s°ve|,e'?
had entered into a close alliance with the head 0
house of Austria ; and, notwithstanding the talents o
great Frederick, this union had nearly proved fata o
Prussian monarchy. Finding the advantage of suc .
alliance, the house of Austria attempted at the same
to attach itself to France, its ancient hereditary ene >
by the marriage of the archduchess Marie Antoine
uy wie iiicuiiciee ui uie cu —- ;a(Te
the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI. ; and this ma
fully produced all its intended political effects.
French court, relinquishing its former policy of um
BRITAIN.
Ildpf'
Geort !II
461
Austria, suffered its armies to fall into decay, and allowed the Swiss cantons, if they became narties in thp i? •
itself to be led on all occas.ons by this more active power; were likewise to ^ceivfceSteSrL This , eatv < “„3m
and the revolufon, which wrought so radical a change was publicly disavowed ; but it was never heless unTve/ W-i
“ thlr of the nation and the order of society, sally believed throughout Europe to have been entered
by subverting every existing establishment, and exciting into, and was accordingly talked of under the appellation
jealousy and discontent in every quarter, reduced the of the “ Concert of Princes.” er me appellation
nation, in the eyes ot foreign powers, to a state of utter Parliament assembled on the 31st of January 1792 and
debility. The king and royal family, exposed to endless a variety of uninteresting debates occurred, the prindoa
insults and humiliations, had been compelled to submit to of which related to the frmament which had been fitted
a new constitution which placed the royal authority on out on account of the dispute with Russia concerning the
a very precarious footing; the principal nobility had emi- fortress of Oczakow. Diring the preceding autumn8 the
grated and the king himself had attempted to follow their Duke of York, second son of the kingP, had mafded a daurfi-
example; but being seized at Varennes, he was brought ter of the king of Prussia. This p riLce was believed tobe
back as a fugitive, and placed at the head of a form of a favourite son ; and as the marriage in question had been
E“dmthteer.had ^ ^ ^ ^ “L^clS oT^Tarr'^Tl^"^"3^^ ^
In this state of affairs Russia and Austria, acting in con- provision of L.37,000 per’annumwar'readiirmadebv nai^
junction, saw nothing to resist their ambition. They had liament for the royal pair. On the 17 th of FebruaiwMr
"ri T t and dlv1!de.the richest P^- Pitt brought forward a statement of the public revenue
v nces of lurkey , but the Austrians having met with un- from which it appeared that nearly half a million mi«bt
expected resistance, desisted from the attempt. The Rus- be applied towards the extinction of taxes, or the pavmen
with ttTdV^ m°re 7uefUA J f king °f PrUSsia’ 0f the national debt; and this was accordingly do^e the
with the aid of Britain and Holland, had attempted to re- additional tax recently laid on malt, the taxes on female
strain their progress ; but being deserted by Britain, he servants, on carts and waggons, and on houses under seven
now found it necessary to keep on fair terms both with Rus- windows, and part of the duty on candles beino- those re
hlin^ left h81? ;i ?nd]f°r thlS PurP°se, as well as to avoid pealed. On the 2d of April tlfe question of the slave-trade
rlhsern nf ? d m the career of usurpation and aggran- was again brought under the consideration of the House
n ,T?ehemhe Wp f0“pell®d to enter into a11 their aqjbiti- of Commons by Mr Wilberforce. He disclaimed any pro¬
of the TS't 0 and a”d Prance were at this time two ject of emancipating the negroes, but contended that bv
e weakest states in Europe. For the sake of erecting the abolition of the importation of new slaves the state of
enee™ ^ Prussian monarch ^d those in the West Indies would be improved ’ The slave
nnliSged I1-! k/ng endDthie nob,es to form a new trade was defended on this occasion by Colonel Tarleton
political constitution for 1 oland, by which its government and Mr Jenkinson ; while Mr Wilberfm-ce was supported
thet eyes un"8 hthledco,mlIlfUShl and .A"stria .ha.d cast Mr Montague, Mr Whitbread, and Mr Milbank. Mr
Of wh^hadTeen dnno fo Kto f “ •V'eW’ •I" h™self a friend to the abolition, huten-
vJes and the kino V ’ of ,t3 best P™' tertamed doubts with respect to the mode of effecting it.
acquiesce in t enrntefPT !a,in0"/0."ntl-,pneCeSSary1..0 Mr Addington agreed in opinion with Mr Dundas. He
neLrl 1 la t l ProJect- And the state of France at this thought the trade ought to exist for some years longer
E ^ 0Upt strong.temPtatlons for the formation of a and therefore could not vote for an immediate abolitfon’
mnv hPa1d0J:CftfteSPeCting/t-- emperor of Ger- Mr Fox deprecated every kind of deceptron or
name]’ tn e^CU?^ for interf®nn& in French affa”-s. practised upon the country, and reprobated in strong
MyLl ^ e the king from the state of thraldom to terms Mr Addington’s views of the subiect. Mr Dundas
princes^of Euroneliad^hern ^ ^ SubJecfts 5and the °ther n|10Ved’ as an amendment to Mr Wilberforce’s motion, that
L France of limb alarmed at the exa™P]e ft the trade should be abolished gradually; and although Mr
strovinp-the ‘ i & ^ auth011ty of the monarch, of de- Pitt declared his disapprobation of the amendment, the
level aUclaLerofpIrLnV^ft^t1^ aad of redu?ing t0 a “fion for a gradual abolition was carried by a consider-
of the north therlfm-e the state. I he united powers able majority. Soon afterwards Mr Dundas stated the re-
kin- and « nnh! f t’ * * olved to restore the French gulations which he meant to propose for the gradual abo-
divfde amono-1 ^ the same time determined to lition of the trade. The chief of these consisted in i„-
vinces of FmncP T VeSvfn?i e,ir & 1 f ?°me °f the Pr°- creasi"g the duties upon the age of the negroes imported ;
these point?"?;. a ^ Cl°Se fthe 1791 abolishinS the trade as far as not necessary for the supply
nitz inP Saxnn h adjusted’ at a conference held at Pil- of our own islands; limiting the tonnage to be employed
kin* of PrS’ ThT^ i G !mpeir-r e°pdd ^ Jhe ^ Punishing British subjects guilty of crimes in caiy-
be kept secret ■ ®ntered^n.to was intended to mg it on; and providing that the importation of negroes
and afterwards hv "ubstance, lt. soon .transpired, into the British colonies should cease on the first of Janu-
French naTfon ^ ^ eXCIted m ^ ^ 180°* Mr Wilberforce disclaimed all acquiescence
general obiect is'irndprstffA^^K^^portffcycnts. Its in these propositions; and Mr Fox ridiculed them, by
went of Pol^d W nl c have been the dismember- asking where the baptismal register was kept on the coast
to be divided a’mnn Part °f kran.^* Po]and was of Africa, by which the age of those who were to be ex-
different norh-Z w-I tbree great military powers in ported could be ascertained. A variety of amendments
was to obtain Riv'di-; ^ fgaid to France, the emperor were now proposed; and it was at length agreed that the
lands, which Im « ^ m 6XC iange the t rench Nether- period of abolition should be fixed for the first of January
the Austrian N^fi ^i ° ^on(luer’ aad transfer, along with 1796. In the upper house the advocates of abolition were
Archduke CtiDrl am S’ to, tbe elector of Bavaria. The less successful; and they were not a little provoked at
Strasburo- oml ai* WaS t0 obtain the duchy of Lorrain ; finding one of the younger branches of the royal family,
the kingwjf aCe were to be restored to the empire; the Duke of Clarence, now William IV., declaring him-
ceded to the cnalV3 ^ receive Dauphine, if he ac- self decidedly hostile to their wishes. It was ultimately
to be accommnrl k lan 5 ^pam, on the same condition, was resolved that evidence should be heard at the bar, which
°f St Domin.<>-A t ;?i 'Vth.the French portion of the island necessarily produced delay, and little or no progress was
& j 1 Corsica, Rousillon, and Bearn; and made during the rest of the session. On the 18th of April
462
BRITAIN.
Reign of Mr Sheridan moved for an inquiry into certain grievances
George III. complained of by the royal burghs of Scotland, fifty out of
the sixty-six having concurred in the petition upon which
Mr Sheridan grounded his motion. The motion was re¬
sisted by Mr Anstruther, Mr Dundas, and Sir J. St Clair
Erskine, upon the general ground that no serious griev¬
ance existed ; and the inquiry was refused by a large ma¬
jority. Excepting some debates relative to the rrench re¬
volution, nothing further of any importance occuireddunng
the present session.
That we may not afterwards have occasion to interrupt
the detail of the transactions connected with the state of
affairs in France, we shall here notice the war in India, and
which was now brought to a fortunate termination. The
western side of the peninsula of Hindustan consists of a
level country for upwards of seventy miles inwards. Behind
this tract, and parallel to the ocean, runs a chain of lofty
mountains, presenting a front towards the west, broken
into tremendous precipices, but on the other side consist¬
ing of an extensive plain, gradually descending eastward
to the Bay of Bengal, and forming the territory of the
Mahrattas, Mysore, Madras, the Carnatic, and other states.
Now as Tippoo Sahib possessed territory on both sides of
these mountains, which are denominated Ghauts, fiom the
narrow paths or passes by which they are crossed, the army
of the Carnatic, under General Meadows, was directed
to attack this territory from the east; the Bombay army,
under General Abercromby, was to reduce the country
to the westward of the Ghauts ; the Mahrattas, and the
nizam of the Deccan, agreed to attack Tippoo s country
on the north and north-east, where it bordered on their
own territories; and Seringapatam, his capital, was fixed
upon as the point towards which the whole of the hostile
armies were to direct and concentrate their efforts. On
the 15th of June 1790, General Meadows entered Tippoo’s
country. The grand army on this occasion amounted to
fourteen thousand effective European troops, a body of
men which no power in India could encounter in the field.
A variety of operations occurred ; but little appears to have
been effected towards the subjugation of the enemy, ex¬
cept the capture of the country to the westward of the
Ghauts, till the end of February 1791, when Lord Corn¬
wallis assumed the command in person. His first opera¬
tion was directed against Bangalore, which he reached on
the 5th of March ; and a practicable breach having been
made in the walls, the fort was stormed on the 21st, with
little loss to the British. Of the garrison not less than
a thousand were bayoneted, and a small number taken.
Being joined by above fourteen thousand of the nizam’s
troops, and seven hundred Europeans, with four thousand
five hundred and eighty troops under Colonel Oldham,
Lord Cornwallis proceeded towards Seringapatam, where
he arrived on the 13th of May, after a difficult march in
bad weather over a hilly and barren country. Tippoo lost
no time in displaying a considerable force in the field, with
the view of covering his capital; but being beaten, though
with little loss, he was forced to retire within the walls of
Seringapatam, which, defended by a river at this season
swelled with the rains, seemed secure against attack. In
fact, circumstances had completely defeated the object of
the combined operation which had been so ably projected.
Lord Cornwallis was in want of provisions for supporting
his army during a protracted siege; and as General Aber¬
cromby had not been able to join him from the west, it was
judged expedient to retire to Bangalore, after destroying
the battering train. On his retreat Lord Cornwallis was
joined by the Mahrattas to the number of about thirty
thousand. General Abercromby also retired across the
Ghauts with a fatigued and dispirited army; and thus for
the present Tippoo escaped a siege in his capital.
After his retreat, Lord Cornwallis employed himself for Rek!
some time in reducing various small forts in the neigh-Georp
bourhood of Bangalore, some of them of such natural
strength as, in any other hands but those of the feeble na¬
tives of that country, to be absolutely impregnable. Nun-
didroog, built on the summit of a mountain 1700 feet in
height, three fourths of which are altogether inaccessible,
fell after a siege which lasted from the 22d of September
to the 18th of October; the place being assaulted by a
breach at midnight, and taken, though not by surprise.
The fortress of Savendroog, eighteen miles to the west¬
ward of Bangalore, was still more strongly situated. It
stood on the summit of an insulated rock, rising about
half a mile in perpendicular height, from a table or base
of eight or ten miles in circumference, and divided at its
summit into two hills, each having its peculiar defences,
capable of being maintained independent of the lower
works ; while the whole was surrounded by a strong wall,
with cross walls and harriers in every accessible part. Yet
this stupendous fortress was taken in ten days.
In December, General Abercromby once more crossed
the Ghauts, and proceeded eastward towards Mysore;
while Lord Cornwallis, in the beginning of February 1792,
advanced from Bangalore, and arrived on the 5th within
sight of Seringapatam. Tippoo Sultan occupied a posi¬
tion under the walls, and there resolved to make a stand
in defence of his capital. On the 6th, at eight o’clock in
the evening, the attack was made on the sultan s camp.
After a sharp engagement at different points, parties of
the British crossed the river, and established themselves
in the island on which Seringapatam stands. This move¬
ment proved decisive. Yippoo, finding himself in dan¬
ger of having his retreat intercepted, was compelled to
retire; and being pressed by the invaders on all sides,
while his palace and gardens were in their possession,
and his power reduced within the narrow limits of a for¬
tress, he found it necessary to endeavour to purchase
peace upon almost any terms. With this view he released
two prisoners, Lieutenants Chalmers and Nash, and re¬
quested the former of these gentlemen to present a letter
from him to Lord Cornwallis. The operations of the siege,
however, still continued, and, on the 19th of February,
the trenches were opened; whilst the Bombay 2rmy,un
der General Abercromby, invested the western side of the
capital. But a cessation of hostilities was agreed to on
the 23d of February, and a treaty of peace concluded, hy
which it was stipulated, first, that Tippoo was to cede one
half of his dominions to the British and Indian powers;
secondly, that he was to pay in money three crores ana
thirty lacs of rupees ; thirdly, that all prisoners were to oe
restored; and fourthly, that two of the sultans sons wer
to become hostages for the due performance of the treaty.
On the 26th, the two princes, each mounted on an ele¬
phant, richly caparisoned, proceeded from the fort to Ro
Cornwallis’s camp, where they were received by his lor-
ship with his staff. The eldest, Abdul Kalhch, .w£®a
ten, and the youngest, Mooza-ud-deen, about eight y
of age ; and they were dressed in long white musi?n,^° t J
with red turbans richly adorned with pearls. ^ducai
from infancy with the utmost care, the spectators
astonished to behold in these children all reserve,
liteness, and attention, of maturer years. * he kin
with which they were received by the British comm
appeared to afford them satisfaction ; some PresenJjtneSs
exchanged; and the scene is described by an eye ^
as in the highest degree interesting. It 'va® 116 i- steC|,
March before the definitive treaty was finally a J . ^
/lol i Rv flip VO HUP’ DriHCCS illtO tllG h&H $
and delivered by the young princes into the hands
Cornwallis. . ffere
In the meanwhile scenes of unparalleled intere
BRITAIN.
^ the French revolution. When, by an abuse of’that pdicy “Lrica fixed hela,- Xs f0" g0,Vel'nme”t !n North GeorleIn.
which had once produced a vigilant attention to the ba- nature which it this ' • f* .an>r changes of a political
lance of power, Russia and Austria had formed the pro- amon? meTof et ersPTe Franfe’ whe^er
ject of extending their dominions, and when Prussia pro- But if forming ! n I V i ° • the pe°Ple at large’
bably nothing lolh, found it expedient to concur in’their French Ticlf imWd?, t le vanity the
policy, it became evident that the situation of Europe servile imitation, had Ihappilv^T^m^ diffSTnmif
mus speedily undergo great changes ; whilst the French most essential point from the British co™st tu^ Their
revolution, which had reduced that once powerful mo- legislature comnVpH nnl„ pi* o i - L0nscBution. iheir
narchy to a state of complete debility, seemed to afford an of representatives ; whereas in Brifain by me^s of
opportunity for the extension of the system of spoliation, intermediate estate, that of the peerage^nTturally lea”
by enabling the great powers to regard its ample territories lous of popular innovation, laws infurioufto Uie rova^ fre‘
as a further subject of partition. In another point of view, rogative are prevented from being enacted wRhout thJ
however this revolution had now begun to be an object of king being involved in dispute with the Commons But
no smal alarm. The distinguished place which France in France the king himself was under the necessity
had held among the nations of Europe rendered the late such cases, of presenting the passing of he W by^ner
change of her government an object of universal atten- sonally interposing a negative- that is he ^
tion ; and there was a danger that it might come to be re- the unpopular amf absurd situation of opposTng his single
garded as an object of imitation. The public discussions judgment to the united will of a nation^ and^hat too^n
which took place in her national assemblies, and in print- perilous and critical times, when he could not fail to be
ed publications, were conveyed through the medium of a suspected of disliking a constitution by which his power
language universally understood, to the most obscure cor- was taken away. Still, however, the representative to¬
ners of Europe ; and kings, nobles, and priests, became ap- vernment of Britain had been the model on which the
t the fCon.ta§1<?1? of innovation might not be French proceeded; and there is no doubt that they ex-
confined to the country in which it had originated. Hence pected, during any contest in which they might be involv-
a geneial wish prevailed among the ruling classes that ed with the powers of the Continent, that they would en-
whelm thehrmmibefnade’ ^ ^ ^ t0 °Ver' ^0y’ ifnot the suPPort> at least the neutrality and favour-
vl elm the country from which so much danger to estab- able countenance of the British nation. But, on the other
ished governments was anticipated. Nor was this alarm hand, the passion for innovation which seized the French
altogether groundless. Men had almost everywhere out¬
grown their institutions; and whilst the former had been
rapidly advancing, the latter remained stationary. The
diffusion of wealth and of knowledge had created new in¬
terests, and led to the formation of new opinions; w-hilst a
nation, had in many instances proceeded to extravagant
lengths ; and there was reason to anticipate, on the part of
the court of London, some alarm lest this passion might
communicate itself in an inconvenient degree to Britain,
where, though political abuses were less flagrant, and the
i n , ,  > ttxxiiou a uuiitiucu uuuscs were less naerranu and rne
imnn^nn8’ 7 considered bJ r.ulers as of little or no passion would consequently find less food for its exertion,
strLPmf Jhatn vr’ eXCept 38 TlHieCtS 0f taXat!°n °.r.in' enouSh flight yet exist to kindle disturbances and pro-
ts of ambition, was gradually and steadily rising duce anxiety,
^ °f ^ n°bi!.ity was .rapid1^ In the month of APril 1792 a society was instituted in
^le establishment of standing armies ren- London, at the head of which appeared Mr Grey, Mr
ered them of httle importance m wur; and their wealth, Baker, Mr Whitbread, Mr Sheridan, Mr Lambton, Mr
mm-P n ^eat landholders of Europe, was daily more and Erskine, and several other distinguished members of par-
whiL 'tl>pPS^ ^ tb^,aPuience tbe industrious classes ; liament, for the purpose of obtaining a reform in the repre¬
in whlU a tU GS bonour ®tdl remained, the estimation sentation of the people. The association assumed the title
minkliori 61 ei • • d W^S prom vari°us causes much di- of “ The Friends of the Peopleand it w-as speedily joined
wu: , •' pUt Prodigious abuses remained. In those states by some respectable characters in the commercial and lite-
/n t0™er times had resisted the innovations pro- rary world. Similar societies had, at former periods, ex-
tic nrH ^ reif10U.S zea ’ a wealthy priesthood and monas- isted in Great Britain ; and the Duke of Richmond, Mr
of the ^ Stl existed' dhe privileges of the nobles and Pitt, and others, while they zealously advocated parliamen-
was e Cuer^y rendered taxation unequal; and commerce tary reform, had attended meetings, not merely of persons
old in*11 arras. by restrictive laws and the privileges of acting in their individual capacity, but of persons appear-
formed0r^0ratl°i!S’ .ere was therefore much to be re- ing as delegates from other societies. At the present pe-
desirp tanri^n? the continental states of Europe, and the riod, however, government appears to have regarded any
jn P 0 0 ^ain this reform was daily increasing. association of this kind as unusually dangerous. The so-
theR ranCp though the.house of Bourbon had supported ciety had resolved that, early in the ensuing session, a mo-
of a r? Cath° .,C religi°?> yet,upon the whole, they were tion should be brought forward in the House of Commons
in EurUC rnor1e hheral spirit than any other royal family for a reform of parliament; and that the conduct of the bu-
ters a0?6/ la(^- S*ven. greater encouragement to let- siness should be committed to Mr Grey and Mr Erskine;
fuj L a p° every kind of improvement. It is not wonder- and, in conformity with the intentions of the association,
ofm 'e ^re’ the desire for improving the condition Mr Grey, on the 30th of April, gave notice in the house of
whidi Wi u and simphfying the arrangements of society, a motion i ’
shonlrl^?^ bfn 80 successf'ully pursued in other countries
fortunaS6ib®C.0rne extrer"e,y Prevalent in France. Un
 which he intended, next session, to submit to their
consideration, for a reform in the representation of the peo-
iortunat T iUCt;UIUe extremely prevalent in Erance. LJn- pie. Its necessity, he said, had been admitted both by Mr
WonarcJ6/’. la'vever’ though the character of the reigning Pitt and Mr Fox. The times were indeed critical, and the
decided1 ] • m enc.°urage such projects, yet his un- minds of the people agitated; but his object was to tranquil-
state of.] fiinacdve spirit, together with the embarrassed lize them, by removing every cause of complaint. Mr Pitt
in these f nances’ prevented him from taking the lead declared, with unusual vehemence, that he objected both to
nately c lan§es> or from repressing them when inordi- the time and the mode in which this business was brought
Prosper^8 - by otbers' Meanwhile the example of forward; that the present was not a time to make hazardous
1 y enjoyed under the free constitution of Great experiments; and that he saw with concern, gentlemen who
464
BRITAIN.
Reign of might only desire an amelioration of our institutions united
George III. in an association with others who professed not reform only,
 ' but direct hostility to the very form of our government,
and who threatened the extinction of monarchy and every
thing which promoted order and subordination in a state.
Mr Fox declared himself satisfied concerning the neces¬
sity of a reform in the representation, but that he never
entertained very sanguine hopes of its accomplishment.
Had his honourable friend consulted him, he should have
hesitated in recommending the part he had taken; but
having taken it, he could not see why the period was im¬
proper for the discussion. He professed a strong attach¬
ment to the British constitution, but did not regard this
as the only free country in the world. After a tumul¬
tuous debate, in which Mr Burke and Mr Wyndham
opposed Mr Sheridan and Mr Erskine, the subject was
dropt. In the mean time a variety of political pamph¬
lets daily appeared, the most remarkable of which was a
publication by Thomas Paine, entitled The Rights of Man.
This being a direct and inflammatory attack upon the
whole principles and practice of the British constitution,
administration thought fit to issue a royal proclamation
against the publishing and dispersing of seditious writ¬
ings ; enjoining the magistrates to exercise vigilance in
attempting to discover the authors of such writings, and
exhorting the people to guard against all attempts which
aimed at the subversion of regular government. It is not
easy to perceive what precise purpose government intend¬
ed to serve by this proclamation. The authors of the se¬
ditious publications alluded to did not conceal themselves ;
and the publications were openly sold without any attempt
to suppress them by prosecutions. Perhaps it was intend¬
ed to prepare the minds of men for future measures of di¬
rect hostility against France ; perhaps it was only meant
to rouse in the friends of government a spirit of opposi¬
tion to the schemes of innovation which were at this time
afloat. But whatever object administration might have
in view, the effect of their proclamation was to excite ge¬
neral curiosity, and to serve as a public advertisement to
the dangerous writings of Thomas Paine and others. In
all parts of the island multitudes of persons, who had not
hitherto interrupted their ordinary occupations to attend
to the transactions of the Continent, or the speculative
discussions which the present state of France had excit¬
ed, were now seen crowding to the shops of booksellers
inquiring for the treatises, the names or titles of which
they knew not, against which the king’s proclamation had
issued ; every printing press in the kingdom was occupied,
and copies could scarcety be supplied in sufficient abun¬
dance to satisfy the demand. Nor did the folly of govern¬
ment stop here. On the 25th of May the master of the
rolls moved an address to his majesty, in pursuance of
the proclamation, the object of wffiich he admitted to be
Mr Paine’s works; and having read an extract from one
of the pamphlets of that writer, importing that all kings
were tyrants, and their subjects slaves, he complained of
the circulation of such publications. Mr Grey asserted
that the minister, apprehensive of the effects of the asso¬
ciation of the friends of the people, had concerted this
measure with an insidious view of separating those who
had long been connected; and alleged that such sinister
practices were delighted in by a gentleman whose politi¬
cal life was a tissue of inconsistency, and who never pro¬
posed a measure without intending to delude his hearers.
Mr Fox disapproved of the proclamation, because it was
insidious and ambiguous, tending to propagate vague and
unnecessary alarm. Mr Pitt did not impute any improper
design to the new association; but it might be taken ad¬
vantage of by ill-disposed persons, who, under the shelter
of a respectable body, might push forward their own
sinister designs. The plan of the persons to whom he Rei..
alluded was evidently to overturn the monarchy, and con-Georp
vert the kingdom into a republic. The address to the
throne was agreed to without a division. In the House of
Lords, on the 31st of May, a similar address was voted
after some debate; and parliament was prorogued a short
time afterwards.
The eyes of all Europe were now turned towards France;
and the combination which the continental monarchs were
known to have formed against that country was expected
speedily to issue in action. The king of Sweden, who was
fond of war, having now settled all disputes with Russia,
offered to lead in person the armies of the combined
powers, to destroy in France those new institutions and
opinions which threatened to subvert the whole ancient
system of public order in Europe. But continuing at va¬
riance with his nobility, he was assassinated at a masque¬
rade on the 16th of March, by an enthusiast of the name
of Ankerstrom, who boasted, on being seized, that he had
liberated his country from a tyrant. In the meanwhile
Leopold, emperor of Germany, had also died, and been
succeeded by his son Francis II. Leopold had chosen to
temporize with France ; but his successor thought it unne¬
cessary to observe any measures of caution with that coun¬
try. On some remonstrances being made by the French
government against his permitting troops to assemble on
the frontiers, he avowed the concert of princes against the
constitution of France, and stated it to be one of the con¬
ditions necessary to the preservation of peace, that the
neighbouring powers should have no reason for the appre¬
hensions which arose from the present weakness of the
internal government of France. This acknowledged in¬
tention to interfere in the internal affairs of the French
nation produced a proposal on the part of the French king
to the national assembly, which was readily acceded to,
for declaring war against the king of Hungary and Bohe¬
mia ; and in a short time war was in like manner declared
against Prussia and Sardinia.
In the meanwhile, though the combined princes had
not probably as yet completely adjusted their respective
shares of the spoils of France and Poland, yet, that the
latter might be kept in a state of weakness, and that all
traces of the new principles might as far as possible be
obliterated, the empress of Russia gave notice of her de¬
termination to invade Poland with an army of a hundre
and fifty thousand men, for the purpose of overturning the
new constitution. No provision had been made by the
king to resist such a force; but an attempt was made j
Kosciusko, a Polish nobleman, who had served under ge¬
neral Washington in America, to defend the independence
of the country; and some battles were, in consequence,
fought. But "the Russians continued to advance; and on
the 23d of July the king, despairing of the result of the
contest, submitted without reserve to Russia, an“ co"’
sented to the restoration of the old constitution, wit a
its weakness and anarchy. . ,
While the combined princes were thus successful in m
north, a very different fate awaited their efforts again
France. The French king and his ministry cai\s® {
Austrian Netherlands to be invaded; and four di er
detachments under Lafayette and other genera s w
directed to enter that country at different points,
made some progress, but their raw troops were ®Pe*\
repulsed; and when Prussia and Austria, who ha
taken the extinction of the revolution in France,
pleted their preparations, the Duke of Brunswic w
pointed commander of the combined armies. /V, sgja,
manifesto issued by the emperor and the kmg o an.
they thought it necessary to disclaim all views o a»P f
disement, or interference in the internal adminis ra
BRITAIN.
Hi a of
Geclflll
France; but they declared themselves resolved to re¬
establish in that country public security, meaning the an¬
cient order of things, and to protect the persons and pro¬
perty of all loyal subjects; threatened to punish as rebels
all who resisted them ; and declared their determination
to give up the city of Paris to the most terrible vengeance
if the least insult were offered to the king, the queen, or
the royal family. The Duke of Brunswick also issued a
manifesto, in his own name, dated from his head-quarters at
Coblentz, in which he declared that the two allied courts
had no intention to make conquests in France, and that
they intended merely to deliver the king from captivity,
and to restore his authority ; he promised protection to
all who submitted to the king, required the national guards
to protect the public safety till further orders, and threat¬
ened to treat those who resisted him in arms as rebels to
their king; enjoined the officers and soldiers of the French
regular troops to submit to their legitimate sovereign; de¬
clared the French magistrates responsible, on pain of losing
their heads and estates, for every disorder which they
should not have attempted to prevent; menaced with death
465
the inhabitants of towns and villages who should defend
themselves against his troops, but promised protection to
those who should submit; called upon the city of Paris to
yield instantly to the authority of the king; declared the
members of the national assembly, and the magistrates and
national guards of Paris, personally responsible for disobe¬
dience, and amenable to military law; threatened, on the
word of the emperor and king, if the palace of the Tuille-
nes were forced, or the least outrage offered to the kino-,
queen, and royal family of France, or if they were not im¬
mediately placed in safety and set at liberty, to inflict the
most exemplary punishment, by giving up the city of Paris
to military execution; and declared that no other laws
could be acknowledged in France, excepting those de¬
rived from the king, who was invited to repair to a fron¬
tier town, where he might provide for the restoration of
order, and the regular administration of his kingdom.
This fatal manifesto had no sooner been published than
a I France was in commotion. The insolent language em¬
ployed by two foreign powers, one of which had for ages
been regarded with a sort of hereditary hostility, wounded
t ie pride and the patriotism of every Frenchman ; many
who were enemies of the revolution could not brook an
open attack upon the national independence; the zeal of
lose who had been enthusiastic promoters of freedom
was kindled into absolute frenzy; and multitudes from all
quarters hastened to the frontiers to share the danger of
protecting the independence of their country. Unhap¬
pily tor the monarch, the enemies of the nation had loudly
ecared themselves as his friends; and the restoration
or ansotute power was made the excuse for a hostile inva-
on o lance. The king, therefore, and all wdio were
attached to him, became objects of public hatred. The re¬
in ICan Party.had previously been small, but every hour
wpiocmed it a fresh accession of strength; and as it
hEc , an?ei'ou® t0 intrust the national defence to the
rji nb,.° 1 , kln&> it was resolved to get rid of his autho-
of A °Setiler’ was therefore dethroned on the 10th
thp n.f1-! i u™ a rePubiic proclaimed; and soon afterwards
tWn a ^ecarne the scene of a sanguinary massacre of
adhpr'^erS°niS-'V^° i}een imprisoned on suspicion of
aanenng to his cause.
into 0^®runswickwas,in the mean time, advancing
armv V^i1 ^le country at the head of the combined
in the Pn fr\and Longwy had surrendered to his arms
the npio-lu ° , ugust> and by this time he had reached
Positimf 3<-°U11001 °i> Chalons. But he had met with op-
the countrvl eY Step °* hlS P^0Sress 5 and the people of
vol v ^ removed ad kinds of provisions from the
course of his march, while the French army under Du- Reiyn of
mouriez was supplied with every necessary. At length, as George III
the French daily acquired discipline, General Kellerman
was able to sustain at Valmy, with sixteen thousand men,
an attack which, though made by a superior force, and
persevered in for fourteen hours, effected nothing. Un¬
able to make any serious impression on the raw levies op¬
posed to it, the combined army also suffered by disease,
which thinned its ranks; whilst the French were rapidly
augmenting in numbers and courage ; so that the advance
to Paris, which seems to have been regarded as a sort of
holiday promenade, became an achievement beyond the
power of the invaders to execute. The king of Prussia was
personally present with the army, and enabled to judge of
the difficulties as well as dangers of his position. A war
of the people revealed itself to his astonished view; and
he perceived, that before he could accomplish the object
of the coalition, he must not only conquer an army ani¬
mated with an enthusiastic spirit of patriotism, but subdue
a whole nation, ready to rise in mass to resist the aggression
on its territory. The prospect was abundantly gloomy;
and his Prussian majesty was appalled by it. Accordingly
a retrograde movement was commenced without any at¬
tempt being made to penetrate farther into the country;
and some suspicions were at this time entertained by dis¬
cerning men, that France would not have much to dread
from the obstinate hostility of the king of Prussia. After his
retreat, the French, with wonderful activity, commenced
offensive operations. In October General Custine re¬
duced Alentz; in the same month Dumouriez invaded the
Netherlands; on the 4th of November he fought the ce¬
lebrated battle of Jemmappes, in which the Austrians were
defeated; and as the emperor Joseph II., trusting to his
alliance with France, had demolished the fortifications of
the towns in the ^Netherlands, excepting Uuxembourg
and the citadel of Antwerp, the whole of that country, as
far as the frontiers of Holland, now fell into the hands
of the French. After the victory of Jemmappes, the go¬
vernment of the French republic, in order to conciliate
the inhabitants of the Austrian Netherlands, resolved to
open the navigation of the river Scheldt, which for some
centuries had been kept shut by the jealousy of the Dutch,
and thus to revive the trade of Antwerp, anciently one of
the first commercial cities in Europe; and at the same
time, in order if possible to counteract the combination of
princes which had been formed against them, and which
was now rapidly extending itself the convention endea¬
voured to represent theirs as the cause of the people in
every country, in opposition to that of their princes or he¬
reditary rulers, who were denominated tyrants. Accord-
ingly, on the 19th of November, the convention passed
a decree, declaring, that they would give assistance, by
means of their armies and otherwise, to every people who
should attempt to establish a free government for them¬
selves; and two months afterwards, the same body, by a
majority of votes, ordered their imprisoned monarch to be
put to death upon an accusation of having betrayed the
cause of the nation.
I he important transactions which were now taking place
on the Continent produced a powerful impression upon the
British nation, where the minds of men, as already remark¬
ed, had been directed to political questions by the royal pro¬
clamation against seditious publications. According as the
sentiments of individuals varied, they perused with terror
or with satisfaction the Duke of Brunswick’s manifesto.
Men of a patriotic character, however, whatever their po¬
litical opinions might be, were not dissatisfied to see a net-
tion capable, even amidst great public confusion, of repell¬
ing an invasion by the best disciplined armies, conducted
by the most experienced commanders in Europe. But the
3 n
466
BRITAIN.
Reign of horrid massacres which took place in September, together
George III-with the treatment of the royal family, excited very dif-
ferent sentiments, and were justly regarded as instances
of unparalleled barbarity and wanton bloodshed ; and the
general result was, that by the months of August and Sep¬
tember the whole British nation was in a most agitated
state. In all companies, questions as to the comparative
merits of monarchical and republican government, toge¬
ther with the propriety of a reform in the British House of
Commons, formed the subjects of conversation ; and per¬
sons of every rank entered into these discussions with sin¬
gular eagerness. At the commencement of the revolution,
very few had any idea that a republican government would
be found practicable in France ; and with regard to Britain,
which enjoyed a sound administration of justice and much
internal prosperity, no change whatever seemed necessary.
But, in pi'oportion as the French proved victorious, a re¬
publican government seemed less and less impracticable ;
and, as the subject of political abuses was canvassed, new
ideas concerning the state of government in Britain began
to be entertained. The scenes of tumult and corruption
which occurred at elections, the inattention of parliament
to the petitions for the abolition of the slave-trade, the
memory of the coalition, and the reproach under which
the House of Commons since that time had fallen, indu¬
ced many to think a reform in the representation of the
people absolutely necessary. New notions were daily
broached at home, or imported from the volcanic region
of France; and one in particular, that of the boundless
perfectibility of the human mind, which is so true in theory,
but so false in fact, became extremely prevalent, and gain¬
ed singular favour. Men of science or benevolence, who
judged of others from the rectitude of their own inten¬
tions ; men of ardent imaginations, who believed every
thing practicable to their unbounded zeal; and the young
and inexperienced, who were unacquainted with the im¬
perfections of the human character ; all imagined that the
period had arrived when mankind, become rational and
just, were no longer to engage in wars of ambition,—when
good sense alone was to rule the world,—and when the
public business of society, reduced to the narrow limits of
administering justice, and constructing high roads, har¬
bours, and other works of internal improvement, might be
conducted with little trouble, and without the establish¬
ment of different ranks and orders of men, or the display
of military force for the preservation of public tranquillity.
In short, a species of delirium upon political subjects pre¬
vailed ; and mankind were led to believe that the greatest
changes in the order of society might be accomplished
with facility and safety.
Besides the society called the Friends of the People,
other associations of less distinguished persons, called the
Constitutional and Corresponding Societies, were establish¬
ed in London ; and during the autumn societies assuming
the name of Friends of the People were established in
most towms and villages throughout the country, for the
avowed purpose of bringing about a reform of parliament.
In proportion, however, as the character of the French re¬
volution began to display itself, in the sanguinary scenes
which were daily enacted, and in the extravagant projects
and sentiments which were entertained, persons of rank
and property became alarmed. In the month of Novem¬
ber an association was instituted at the Crown and Anchor
tavern in London, the avowed object of which was the pro¬
tection of liberty and property against the attempts of re¬
publicans and levellers; and similar associations for the
support of government were set on foot in other parts of
the metropolis, and throughout the country.
Parliament assembled on the 13th of December 1792.
The speech from the throne intimated that his majesty
had judged it necessary to embody a part of the militia, Reign
and to assemble parliament previous to the time fixed for George;
that purpose ; and stated, as the causes of these measures,
the seditious practices which had been discovered, and the
spirit of tumult and disorder, shown in acts of riot and in¬
surrection, which required the interposition of a military
force in support of the civil magistrate. His majesty as¬
serted, that he had observed a strict neutrality in regard
to the war on the Continent, and had uniformly abstained
from any interference with respect to the internal affairs
of France ; but that it was impossible for him to see, with¬
out the most serious uneasiness, the strong and increasing
indications which had appeared there of an intention to
excite disturbances in other countries, to disregard the
rights of neutral nations, to pursue views of conquest and
aggrandisement, and to adopt towards his allies, the States-
general, measures which were neither conformable to the
law of nations, nor to the positive stipulations of existing
treaties. Under these circumstances he felt it his duty to
have recourse to the means of prevention and internal de¬
fence wdth which he was intrusted by law, and to take
the necessary steps for augmenting the naval and mili¬
tary force of the kingdom.
When the usual address was moved in the House of
Commons, Lord Wycombe opposed it, on the ground that
the speech from the throne had calumniated the people of
England ; that, so far from any spirit of insurrection ex¬
isting, the kingdom was on the contrary overflowing with
loyalty; that speculative political opinions had always
been agitated under the free constitution of Britain ; and
that the persons who were thought most disaffected wish¬
ed merely to reform that constitution. Mr Fox declared
that the present wras the most momentous crisis that he had
ever read of in the history of this country; and that on
the conduct of parliament depended, not merely the fate
of the British constitution, but that of doctrines affecting
the happiness and well-being of all human kind. He af¬
firmed, that there was not a fact stated as such in the
speech from the throne which wras not false ; he denied
the existence of any insurrection ; he justified the exulta¬
tion which many persons had expressed on account of
the retreat of the Duke of Brunswick; he described the
calling out of the militia as a fraud, intended to induce the
people to believe that cause of alarm existed, and there¬
by to bring them more completely under the influence of
government; he treated the opening of the Scheldt as no
just cause of war; and he recommended the removal of
acknowdedged grievances, as the certain means of appeas¬
ing the discontent of the people. Mr \Y indham now deseit-
ed the opposition, and joined administration in contending
that there existed great danger to the constitution. He
also declared his approbation of the march of the combin¬
ed armies into France. Mr Dundas asserted, that under
the pretext of reform, the example of France had been
held out for imitation to the people of this country; an
that the object of the French was evidently the aggrandise¬
ment of their dominions. Mr Sheridan denied the exis
ence of any just cause of alarm, and declared that he won
vote for the impeachment of any English minister wio
should enter into a war for the purpose of re-establisnmg
the former despotism in France, or who should dare, m sue
a cause, to spend one guinea, or shed one drop of b oo •
From the commencement of Mr Pitts administration
considerable number of members of parliament, tie re .
nant of the coalition, had remained in opposition to
measures. But in consequence of the alarm wnmn
at this time diffused itself among persons of high ran ,
perhaps also as a plausible excuse for deserting a frul
and unprofitable opposition, a great number of the nie.nl. j
of the party hitherto hostile to administration now jo
BRITAIN.
l!f a of
Geo TIT
467
in supporting those measures which they perceived to be might be thrown out against them. With regard to the de- Reien of
agreeable to the executive power. Accordindv. on a di.  r.u. b , ... „ ign "y
agreeable to the executive power. Accordingly, on a di
vision there appeared for the address two hundred and
seventy, and for the amendment only fifty. In the House
of Lords similar debates took place upon the address, and
opposition also experienced a desertion of part of its mem¬
bers. The Duke of Norfolk, the Marquis of Lansdown,
Lord Rawdon, afterwards Earl of Moira and Marquis of
Hastings, and Earl Stanhope, declared themselves averse
to war; whilst Lord Grenville, Lord Stormont, the Mar¬
quis Townshend, and others, supported the sentiments ex¬
pressed in the king’s speech.
After the French king had been dethroned, Earl Gower
the British ambassador was recalled ; but the French am¬
bassador, M. Chauvelin, still continued to reside in Lon¬
don. On the 15th of December Mr Fox moved that a
minister should be sent to Paris to treat with the provi¬
sional executive government of France; declaring, that
by this motion he meant not to approve of the conduct of
the French government, but simply to record it as his
opinion, that it was the true policy of every nation to treat
with the existing government of every other nation with
which it had relative interests, without regarding how that
government was constituted ; and that we could have no
stronger objection to the existing government of France,
than to the governments of Algiers and Morocco, in both
of which countries we had resident consuls. This motion
gave rise to a very animated debate, in which the opposi¬
tion were accused of desiring to encourage discontent and
sedition, and were defended by Mr Taylor, Mr Grey, and
Colonel larleton. But Mr Fox’s motion was negatived.
; 0n tlle 19th of December Lord Grenville introduced
into the House of Lords what has been called the alien
bill, authorizing government to dismiss from the kingdom
such foreigners as they might think fit, and which passed
after some opposition from the Earl of Lauderdale and the
Marquis of Lansdown. On the 28th of December Mr Se-
cretary Dundas urged the House of Commons to adopt the
alien bill, on account of the extraordinary influx of foreign-
eis into the country, and the dissatisfaction of persons at
home. Sir Gilbert Elliot, in supporting the bill, expressed
ns regret at being under the necessity of differing from
nis former political associates; and Mr Burke, as usual,
spoke with very great vehemence on the subject. I vote,
sai ie, for the present bill, because I consider it as the
means of saving my life, and all our lives, from the hands
ot assassins. When they smile, I see blood trickling down
eir face; I see their insidious purposes; I see that the
jec of all their cajoling is blood. I now warn my coun¬
ty o beware of those execrable philosophers, wdiose only
pTm-i8-10 destr°y every thing that is good here, and
WViS ™ora!ity and murder by precept and example,
su ^ If 1611 bl11 WaS under consideration, another mea-
bill to prevent'thenrirf!^Se T i"trotduce'l; namely, a message from the king, announcingthalcopiesof'the'pa-
rooneybinder the authority of ’ '"''‘T a"d otfer PaI’c,r I”,';5 ,,"JW mentioned were laid before the house. It was
of DecemW a 1 ? fFrMnCe’ Dunng the month added, that his majesty thought it necessary to make a
vend f to eXp0rmtn0„fr"Ct‘l V* ^ "T'’ for auSmentetio" ^ by sea Jl land “ and
which had grain 0„ ^".d 2 FraT’,a.nd s<?ma sh;Ps tha‘ 'e relied upon the zeal of the House of Commons to
the 26th of December in compeHed to unload. On enable him to take the most effectual measures for main-
the subject. act of lnde>“nty passed upon tain.ng the security of his dominions, supporting his allies,
Affairs were nnwTactf i . * , . , and °PP0Smg the ambition of France, at all times danger-
France. On the T7S “as‘emng to a"r°^n ruP1t.ure with ous, and peculiarly so when connected with the propaga-
mitted a note tn T m-1 n ^mber M. Chauvelm trans- tion of principles utterly subversive of the peace and or-
state, in whir-h in fi renvidcf, one of the secretaries of der of civil society. And thus Britain became a party in
the French rennGli ^ n^me executive council of the most sanguinary and eventful war that ever desolated
Britannic mniJInr ’ * demanded to know whether his Europe or afflicted humanity. In the month of April the
a hostile nowpi- • u 1 C0I?jlder®d a.s a neutral or French government made another attempt to enter into
France to entertain l ^ u u? Said’ e1X1Stef .on the Part of negociations, and the minister, Le Brun, transmitted to
eyen desired toanswe^nv i”^1!1 the subJect; ,and ^ eT England by a private gentleman letters to Lord Grenville,
e previously all those reproaches which in which he requested passports for M. Maret to repair
cree of the French convention of the 19th November, it had George III.
been misinterpreted. The French republic did not intend
to favour insurrections in neutral or friendly states; and the
decree applied only to those people who, after having ac¬
quired their liberty, might request the assistance of the
Fiench republic by a solemn and unequivocal expression
of the general will. As to the neutrality of Holland, it
would be respected while that power confined itself with¬
in the bounds of strict neutrality ; and with regard to the
opening of the Scheldt, it was a question irrevocably decid¬
ed by reason and justice. It was added, that on the fatal
supposition of a war being resolved on, whilst the inten¬
tions of France were thus peaceful and conciliatory, the
whole weight and responsibility of it would sooner or later
fall on those who had provoked it.
Lord Grenville’s answer to this note, which bears date
31st December 1792, disclaimed considering M. Chauve¬
lin in any other public character than that of minister from
his most Christian majesty. It denied that the decree
of the 19th November was satisfactorily explained, as the
promoters of sedition in every country might still have in
view the case in which they might count beforehand on
the support of France. It affirmed that the neutrality of
Holland had already been violated; and that the unim¬
portance of the Scheldt would only render the opening of
its navigation a clearer proof of the existence of an inten¬
tion to insult the allies of England by violating their rights,
which were guarded by the faith of treaties.
An official note from the executive power of France
was transmitted through M. Chauvelin in reply to Lord
Grenville’s answer, in which another effort was made to
explain the obnoxious decree of the 19th November. In
this document all intention of effecting a conquest of the
Netherlands was disclaimed; and it was added, that if the
Belgians, from any motive whatever, consented to deprive
themselves of the navigation of the Scheldt, France would
not oppose it. In an answer to this note by Lord Gren¬
ville, these explanations were declared to be unsatisfactory.
On the 17th of January M. Chauvelin sent to Lord Gren¬
ville his credentials as ambassador from the French repub¬
lic ; but on the 20th of the same month Lord Grenville
sent him a letter refusing to receive his credentials, or to
consider him in any other character than as one of the
mass of foreigners resident in England; and on the 24th
his lordship sent M. Chauvelin a passport for himself and
his suite, declaring that, after the fatal death of his most
Christian majesty, he could no longer be considered as
holding any public character in Britain.
In consequence of this correspondence the French con¬
vention declared war against England and Holland on the
first of February; three days previous to which Mr Se¬
cretary Dundas presented to the House of Commons a
BRITAIN.
468
lleign of to Britain in order to negociate peace; but no public no-
Georgelll. tice whatever was taken of the application.
—1
CHAP. XVI.
REIGN OF GEORGE III. WAR WITH FRANCE.
Remarks on the Causes of the War—Doubts as to its necessity.
 Mr Pitt’s absence from Parliament—Debates on the French
declaration of War Great failures in the Commercial world—
Mercantile Loan Government Loan—Traitorous Correspon¬
dence Bill Parliamentary Reform—Board of Agriculture in¬
stituted Relief of the Scottish Catholics—Renewal of the East
India Company’s Charter—Incidental Details.—Political Trials
in Scotland Mr Muir and Mr Fysche Palmer convicted of
sedition British Convention—Foreign Treaties—The War.
 Defection of Dumouriez—Favourable opportunity of making
Peace lost Defective nature of the general plan of the War—
Opening of Parliament in 1794.—Debates on the Address—
Sources of Alarm Dread of Invasion, and of Plots and Con¬
spiracies Secret Committee appointed—Finance—Policy of
Prussia Maritime successes of Britain—Victory of the 1st
June 1794 Continental Campaign—Conquest of Holland by
Pichegru Desertion of the Allies by Prussia—Trials for Trea¬
son Acquittal of Hardie and Horne Tooke—Trial of Watt and
Downie Pop-gun Plot—Meeting of Parliament—Changes in
the Cabinet Motion for entering into negociations with France.
 Mr Pitt’s Amendment Duke of Bedford’s Motion for Peace.
—Mr Hastings’ Trial concluded—Debts of the Pr ince of Wales.
 His Marriage War with Holland—Expedition to Quibe-
ron Bay Campaign in Germany—Riots at the Meeting of
Parliament Two Gagging Bills—Pacific Message from the
King Futile attempts at Negociation—Continental Cam¬
paign Maritime events—Lord Malmesbury’s Negociation.
—Bank Restriction—Supplies—Loyalty Loan—War with
Spain Mutiny in the Fleet—Maritime operations—Dun¬
can’s Victory Preliminaries of Peace signed at Leoben be¬
tween the Emperor and the French Republic—Treaty of Cam-
po Formic Meeting of Parliament, and secession of the Oppo¬
sition Relative situation of France and Britain—Alarm of
Invasion Defence Act Redemption of the Land-tax—Navy
Bill Duel between Mr Pitt and Mr Tierney—Rebellion in
Ireland Negociations at Rastadt—Switzerland seized by the
French Importance of this country—French Expedition to
Egypt Battle of the Nile—Its political results—Russia joins
the confederacy against France—-Minorca taken—St Domingo
abandoned.—Meeting of Parliament—Income Tax—Its De¬
fects Union with Ireland proposed—Fall of Tippoo Sahib—
Continental War—Suwarof’s brilliant Campaign in Italy—
Attempt to drive the French from Switzerland—Russians de¬
feated by Massena at Zurich—Invasion of Holland by the Bri¬
tish Bonaparte declared First Consul—Meeting of Parlia¬
ment.—King’s Speech.—Letter of Bonaparte to King George
III—Lord Grenville’s Answer—M. Talleyrand’s Reply—
Rejoinder of the British Minister—Debates in Parliament on
the subject of this Correspondence.—Union with Ireland effect¬
ed Debates on this subject—Discussion respecting the expe¬
dition to Holland—Mr Dundas’s defence of that enterprise—
War in the East Treaty of El Arish disavowed—Events in
Egypt—Campaign on the Continent—Bonaparte enters Italy
by the Great St Bernard, at the head of the Army of Reserve.
—Battle of Marengo—Operations in Germany.—Battles of
Schauffhausen, Moskirch, Biberach, Augsburg, and Hochstet—
Continental truce—Renewed—Scarcity in Britain War with
the Northern Powers—Campaign in Germany—Battle of Ho-
henlinden.—Peace of Luneville—Change of Ministry and re¬
signation of Mr Pitt—Ostensible cause of Mr Pitt’s retirement
from office.—Probable real cause—Character of his Admini¬
stration—New Ministry—Royal indisposition—Imperial Par¬
liament—Speech from the throne—Debates on the Address.—
Motion on the State of the Nation—Conduct of the War de¬
fended by Mr Dundas—Mr Pitt’s account of the Change of
Ministry Attack upon Copenhagen by Lord Nelson—Death
of the Emperor Paul—Convention with Russia—Naval en¬
gagement off the coast of Spain—Attack on Boulogne.—Cam¬
paign in Egypt Death of Sir Ralph Abercromby.—Cairo taken.
—Surrender of Alexandria.—Preliminaries of Peace.
In the quarrels of nations the real causes and motives of
hostility are often very different from those which are osten¬
sibly held out to the world. It was for some time customary R^g,,
in Great Britain to dispute with great eagerness the ques-George 1
tion as to who were the aggressors in this war; and in such v*^Yv
disputes the friends of administration laboured under con¬
siderable difficulties, in consequence of the narrow ground
upon which government had thought fit to rest the grounds
or causes of hostility. The French government had been
willing to explain away the offensive decree of the 19th
November; the question about the Scheldt they were pre¬
pared to give up ; and their ignorance of the nature of
the British constitution, and of the elements which influ¬
ence it in practice, prevented them from entertaining any
idea that they were likely to encounter hostility from this
country arising out of their revolution. Hence they not
only neglected their navy, but had already in some measure
ruined it, by sending their seamen to the frontiers in the
character of soldiers. But though the French had not origi¬
nally entertained hostile designs against this country, and
though the ostensible causes of war on the part of Great
Britain were weak, if not futile, it does not therefore fol¬
low that the motives which actually influenced the con¬
duct of the British government on this occasion partook
of the same character. France had been the ancient and
dangerous enemy of England. She had suddenly fallen
into a state of anarchy and consequent debility. All Eu¬
rope was now leagued against her. W ithin she was divid¬
ed by faction, and without she was assailed by immense
hosts of the best disciplined soldiers in Europe, conducted
by the most skilful leaders, to whom she had nothing to
oppose but an undisciplined multitude, led on by inexpe¬
rienced chiefs. In this state of things it seemed a safe mea¬
sure to make war against her. To do so was only to reta¬
liate the conduct she-had herself pursued when she effect¬
ed the dismemberment of the British empire, by assisting
our revolted colonies. And the moment seemed to have
arrived when, by dismembering France, she might be ren¬
dered for ever incapable of becoming dangerous to Bri¬
tain.
But the most powerful incitements to this war undoubt¬
edly arose from the example of political innovation, which
it was so much the interest of every government in which
there existed any mixture of hereditary authority, com¬
pletely to defeat and overwhelm. To comprehend the
full force of this motive for going to war, it is necessary
to recollect the ferment which universally prevailed in the
minds of men, and to imagine the situation and the feel¬
ings of a prince, who, though still safe, yet saw in his im¬
mediate vicinity the first of European monarchs hurled
from his throne to a prison, and from the prison to a scaf¬
fold, and his power assumed by subjects who represent¬
ed their conduct as the triumph of reason and of freedom ,
while the contagion of their sentiments, extending itself
into neighbouring kingdoms, threatened to break out into
actions not less violent than those of the revolutionists 0
France. In such a state of things, and under the influ¬
ence of such sentiments, a war against trance seemed to
be a war in defence of the whole arrangements of society ,
and princes and nobles considered themselves as engage
in the protection, not merely of their power and station,
but even of their personal safety.
Still, however, there were not wanting at this time som
individuals who thought the war altogether unnecessary
for the support of the British constitution and governmen •
The great amount of the national debt, the influence
the crown, and the general happiness and good feehng
the people at large, gave powerful assurances of sta 1';
to government and safety to property. Even ^e^01^re.
war commenced, the crimes committed ^7 ^,e f ien^t].ejr
volutionists had greatly diminished the popularity 0
cause; and the associations on the side of governm
BRITAIN.
fn of
which were forming throughout the kingdom demonstrat-
•ed the superiority of its adherents in wealth and numbers.
It was therefore thought by many to be perfectly practica¬
ble to weather the storm without having recourse to hostili¬
ties ; and there were even some who doubted the prudence
of the war, notwithstanding the strength of the combina¬
tion formed against France, and suspected, that in a san¬
guinary and desperate contest, armies conducted by princes,
brought into power by the casualty of birth, might prove
no match for French enthusiasm in the first instance, and
far less ultimately for the superior tactics and enterprise
which must speedily be introduced by men rising to com¬
mand from the admiration produced by their talents and
success. Lastly, if Great Britain, instead of assailing,
had actively protected the independence of France, this
would have secured such an ascendency over her councils
as might have enabled us to protect Holland, and to pre¬
serve the life, perhaps even the crown, of Louis XVI.;
and, at all events, it would have placed us in a condition
speedily to terminate the contest, without any important
changes being suffered to take place in the relative strength
of the continental states of Europe.
At the close of the year 1792 Mr Pitt did not attend
parliament when it first assembled; nor did he make his
appearance in the House of Commons till the alien bill
was passing through its last stages in January, the discussion
ended, and the relative strength of parties ascertained.
Hie ostensible cause of his absence was, that having, on the
death of the Earl of Guildford (Lord North), obtained the
place of warden of the Cinque Ports, and thereby vacated
his seat as a member of the House of Commons, he had
gone down to Cambridge to secure his re-election. But the
length of his absence suggested to some a suspicion that
he was hesitating about engaging to support the court in its
design of going to war; and in the mean time Mr Dundas
stood forward in the House of Commons as the leading ser¬
vant of the crown in support of the proposal for engaging
in hostilities. On his return, however, Mr Pitt resumed
his station in the debates of the house, and supported the
measure with the utmost ardour. At this period Lord
Thurlow was removed from the office of lord high chan¬
cellor, and succeeded by Lord Loughborough, who had
originally owed his preferment to the support given by
469
from their memories, to expunge it from the page of his- Reign of
01 y, and to remove it for ever from the observation and George III.
comments of mankind. All the members who remained
m opposition concurred in reprobating the conduct of the
French revolutionists. Mr Fox, however, asserted, that
the general maxim of policy was, that the crimes commit¬
ted in one independent state could not be cognizable by
another; he alleged that the topics adverted to by Mr
Pitt were introduced into the debate to blind the judg¬
ment by exciting the passions; and he contended that the
opening of the Scheldt, and the decree of the 19th of No¬
vember, which were stated as the causes of the war, could
never justify such a measure. He censured our past neu¬
trality as unfair. While the French were invaded we re¬
mained quiet spectators; but on their becoming invaders in
their turn, we said Europe was in danger, and interfered
against them. He asserted that the real cause, always
disavowed by our government, but ever kept in mind, was
the internal government of France. The destruction of
that government was the avowed object of the combined
powers; but, though about to join them, we were ashamed
to own that Britain was engaging to aid the restoration
of despotism, and therefore the Scheldt and Holland were
collusively had recourse to as pretexts. In the House of
Lords, when the same subject was discussed, the Marquis
of Lansdown contended, that, by sending an able and ex¬
perienced minister to Paris, our government might have
saved the life of Louis XVI. He declared that the war
would be wanton on our part, and without provocation on
the part of France; and he highly disapproved of the insult¬
ing manner in which M. Chauvelin had been dismissed.
At the period of which we are now treating, British com¬
merce had become extremely extensive, and, owing to the
commercial treaty, British and French merchants had be¬
come closely connected in their transactions. But from the
sudden stagnation of trade which the war now produced,
added to the alarms which had been excited upon political
subjects, a sort of paralysis appeared to seize the country,
and the number of bankruptcies exceeded all that had ever
happened in the most calamitous times. A general stop¬
page of commercial credit took place, and no bank would
venture to advance money to merchants or manufacturers;
the consequence of which was, that many of them, with
. , ^ ^ w i i/ i-w i/iiv^ 1V CTII t/Ht/ V/wIlQL. UL WIlIV/ll »V Cl&j LiiCtL xilciliy UI lllLIIJj VV1L11
nm to Lord North’s administration and measures, and who, large quantities of goods in their possession, were unable
t lough hitherto an adherent of opposition, had in the re- to make the smallest payment. To apply a remedy to this
cent debates defended the plans of administration. alarming evil, several of the principal traders and mer-
On the occasion of a message from the king announcing chants having waited upon Mr Pitt, requested the interfer-
declaration of war by France, Mr Pitt stated that his ence of government; and a select committee of the House
majesty had always declined taking any part in regard of Commons was accordingly appointed to investigate the
to the internal government of France; that during the subject. After consulting with a variety of bankers, manu-
summer, while trance was engaged in war with Austria facturers, and merchants, the committee, on the 29th of
and 1 russia, he had in no way departed from his neutra- April, gave in a report favourable to the solicitation of the
1 J} '3U*' that as the French seemed now determined to merchants for relief; and a bill was introduced on the 1st of
u jugate other nations to their principles, he was under May, authorizing government to issue five millions by ex-
e necessity of interfering for the protection of his allies chequer bills, in loans to such merchants and manufactu¬
re JJutch, who had not indeed made any formal requisi- rers as should deposit goods in security for the sum ad-
on tor assistance, but to whose government the French vanced. This measure proved extremely salutary. When
la at all times been notoriously hostile. Mr Pitt also  
to tl i duarcny. lie also adverted in strong terms channels were by degrees round
re death of the French king as a calamitous event; productions of British industry.
Mai°h ra^6 t0 eveiT principle of religion, justice, and hu- On the 27th of March, Mr Pitt, in a committee of the
Eur* f11 aCt rids country and in the whole of House of Commons, stated, that he had borrowed for the
nat-0^' i ^ exc^eri hut one general sentiment of indig- service of the year the sum of L.4,500,000. rlhe terms of
sam0>n a • a^101'{’ence> and could not fail to produce the the loan were, that for every L.72 advanced to the public
in all ^n^lmen^s in every civilized nation. It was, he said, the lenders should be entitled to L.100 stock, bearing an
Must h S Cllc.ums.tances5 80 fuli of grief and horror, that it interest of three per cent., which would make a capital of
e a wish, in which all united, to tear it if possible L.6,210,000, the interest of which, to be paid by the pub-
470
BRITAIN.
Reign of lie, would amount to L.186,000 a year. But there was
George III. another charge attending the loan; for, by the act for
appropriating a surplus million to a sinking fund, it was
provided, that whenever a new loan should be made, a
fund equal to one per cent, on the whole of it must be
provided, and applied to the liquidation of the principal.
This, therefore, required an annual charge of L.62,100, and
made the whole, including interest, L.248,400 per annum.
On the 15th of March the attorney general brought for¬
ward a bill for preventing traitorous correspondence with
the king’s enemies. The object of this bill was to prohi¬
bit the sale to the French government or the French ar¬
mies, of arms, military stores, provisions, or clothes, under
the penalty of high treason. The purchase of lands in
France was also prohibited. No one was allowed to go from
Britain to France without a license, under the penalty of a
misdemeanour ; and persons, though subjects of this coun¬
try, coming from France, were prohibited from entering the
kingdom without a passport, or presenting to the master of
the vessel a declaration that, in the mean time, they would
not quit the place where they had landed without the per¬
mission of a justice of peace, or finding security for their
good behaviour. Lastly, the insurance of vessels either
coming from France or going thither was prohibited. And
this bill passed through both houses, supported by great
majorities.
During the present session a very great number of pe¬
titions were presented to the Flouse of Commons from
different parts of the country, praying for a reform in the
representation; and on the 6th of May Mr Grey brought
forward the question, after presenting a petition which had
been framed by the association called the Friends of the
People in London. He asserted that the number of peti¬
tions now brought forward demonstrated that the House
of Commons were not the real representatives of the peo¬
ple, and he gave a detailed statement of the various defects
in the representation. The proposal of reform was chiefly
resisted on account of the hazard attending it from the ex¬
ample of France, and on account of the extent to which
its more ardent partizans out of doors wished it to be car¬
ried. Mr Pitt explained his motives for being formerly
friendly to a parliamentary reform, and also his objections
against it at the present moment. If the principle of in¬
dividual suffrage, pointed at in several of the petitions,
was to be carried to its utmost extent, it would subvert
the peerage and depose the king, and, in fine, extinguish
every hereditary distinction and privileged order, and es¬
tablish that system of equalizing anarchy announced in the
code of French legislation, and attested in the blood shed
in the massacres at Paris. Mr Fox, on the contrary, re¬
presented in strong terms the inconsistency of Mr Pitt’s
present conduct with his former professions. As to the
time of attempting a reform, he said, it had been proposed
at all periods, in war and in peace; but they had all been
represented as improper. The present was not a more
dangerous period than the year 1782, when Mr Pitt him¬
self had brought forward a similar proposal. These dan¬
gers he ascribed to the councils, generally unwise, and
often wicked, by which the country had recently been
governed. Mr Grey’s motion was rejected upon a division
by a majority of two hundred and eighty-two against forty-
one.
During the present session several popular measures
were adopted. On the recommendation of Sir John Sin¬
clair, L.3000 per annum was voted by the House of Com¬
mons for the establishment of a board of agriculture; an
institution which has been the means of collecting and
conveying to the public much useful information respect¬
ing the most valuable of all arts. On a motion by the
lord advocate of Scotland, Mr Robert Dundas, a bill was
brought into parliament in the month of April for the re- Reig
lief of the Roman Catholics of Scotland. The persons of Georg i
that proscribed sect were still incapacitated by law from
holding or transmitting landed property, and were liable
to other severe restrictions ; but these were removed by
a bill which now passed without opposition. The passing
of this bill was a popular measure, although a dozen years
had scarcely elapsed since the people of Scotland had al¬
most universally, and with the utmost violence, combined
to oppose any relaxation of the penal laws affecting the
Catholics. By the assistance of Mr Dundas, the inhabi¬
tants of the north of Scotland also obtained a repeal of the
duty on coals carried coastwise, as far as respected that
part of Great Britain ; but the cities of London and West¬
minster were less fortunate in an attempt to procure a re¬
peal of the taxes paid by them on the same article.
At this period the exclusive charter of the East India
Company being within a year of its expiration, that body
presented a petition for a renewal of it; and on the 23d
of April the subject was considered in the House of Com¬
mons. Mr Dundas observed that the proposal which he
was about to make of a renewal of the charter wras undoubt¬
edly attended with difficulties. No writer upon political
economy had as yet supposed that an extensive empire
could be administered by a commercial association; and
no writer on commerce had thought that trade ought to
be shackled with exclusive privileges. In deviating from
these principles, which had been admitted and admired,
he was sensible that his opinions had popular prejudices
against them; but he was supported by successful expe¬
rience ; and when the house adverted to the peculiarities
of the subject before them, they would at once see that
he was not attempting to overturn theories, though he was
unwilling to recede from old and established practice. It
would be idle, and a proof of ignorance, to maintain that
all the advantages which Great Britain possessed from its
connection with India arose out of the present exclusive
privilege of the Company; but it would be impossible to
say what might be the political or commercial effects ofa
deviation from the present system. He then stated, that
the shipping employed by the East India Company amount¬
ed to eighty-one thousand tons; that the seamen navigat¬
ing those ships were about seven thousand men, who had
constant employment; that the raw materials imported
from India for the use of home manufactures amounted
annually to about L.700,000; that the annual exports of
British produce and manufacture to India and China in
the Company’s ships amounted to upwards of a million am
a half sterling; and that great difficulties would attend
any alteration of the present system of government in In¬
dia, especially from the effects which the innovation nng
produce on the minds of the natives. He therefore propos
ed a variety of resolutions, the most material of which was,
that it appeared fit and proper to continue to the East n
dia Company their exclusive trade, within the limits non
enjoyed by them, for a further term of twentyyeais, to e
computed from the 1st of March 1794, but liable to e
continued at the end of such a period, if three years n
tice should previously be given by parliament. Ihe re -
lutions proposed by Mr Dundas having been carne ’
bill for renewing the East India Company s char er
brought in, and passed through both houses with i e
position. The trial of Mr Hastings still proceede ,
very slowly. It was now totally disregarded by t e Pu
During this year government sought to strengt
self by erecting barracks in the vicinity of the grea T
in order that, by residing apart from the citizens,
diers might be removed beyond the contagion o P f
opinions. But a considerable degree of pohtica e „
tion still prevailed in the minds of the people.
BRITAIN.
^ ^ X A a i i\. ...
leign of land, a bookseller was prosecuted, and punished with im- in o-pneroi oci.,,;™ _
?orge III. prisonment, for selling the second part of Paine’s Rights were tIso'Hli-rAp/ tie Compacts of alliance Reign of
of Man; and one or two individuals of humbterank were PonuSl" Russia, Austria, and George III.
committed for seditious publications. In Scotland the pub¬
lic attention was much excited by the prosecution of two
gentlemen, Mr Thomas Muir of Hunter’s Hill, a member
of the faculty of advocates; and Mr Fysche Palmer, a
member of the university of Cambridge, who officiated'as
Unitarian minister at Dundee. Mr Muir had been ex¬
tremely active during the autumn of the preceding year,
when the political agitation was at its height, in promot¬
ing associations in Glasgow and its neighbourhood, for the
purpose of procuring a reform of the representation in the
House of Commons. In point of talents he was not above
mediocrity, but he possessed the faculty of unpremeditated
elocution in a surprising degree, and appeared to be ac¬
tuated by the vanity of haranguing without end, which the
daily meetings of these societies afforded him an opportu¬
nity of gratifying.. In other respects he was not formi¬
dable, possessing little knowledge of the world, and still
less discernment of the human character. He injured the
cause which he meant to promote, by collecting assem¬
blages of people, first at Glasgow, and afterwards at Edin¬
burgh, and thus creating an appearance of disorder and
turbulence, which alarmed the government, and intimidat¬
ed persons who were otherwise disposed to favour the po¬
litical sentiments which he professed. Mr Palmer was a
man of eminent literary talents, and attended.political so¬
cieties, but without making any remarkable efforts to dis¬
tinguish himself in these assemblages. He was tried be-
fore the circuit court of justiciary at Perth, on the 17th
of beptember, some months after Mr Muir’s conviction at
Edinburgh and found guilty of publishing a political libel,
which had been written by some other person, but which
lie had corrected and ordered to be printed. Both of these
gentfemen were sentenced to transportation, Mr Muir for
our een, and Mr Palmer for seven years ; and they were
accordingly shipped off, among common felons, for Botany
Bay. Ihe disproportionate severity of these sentences ex¬
cited general sympathy, and produced considerable discus-
sndh- 116 iCnn-e °f whlch tlley were convicted was that of
Dunkhlir fSing-makinS’ which by tbe law of Scotland is
pums ahle by fine, imprisonment, or banishment; but as it
nrptprl Vn Vat Pena^ statutes are to be strictly inter-
tatinn o' T?!1*0-11 h°W far the Punishment of transpor-
in general ? ^ nfcte\l under a statute which points out,
fenop eral t?ra?s» banishment as the punishment of the of-
publip ni ° iat.imidated by these trials, a few persons of no
in the m pa, lmportance whatever met at Edinburgh
selves a Br • fpNovember> and thought fit to call them-
inss of thp F.1 C°nven.tlon- They mimicked the proceed-
sible salntin lenc,1 nahonal convention as closely as pos-
Public sin; ^ Ca(l1 .other with the title of citizen, holding
sittings and’™-3' !™ttin,£ strangers to the honours of the
singular stvlp lnf ,lns the solemn with the ludicrous in a
have excitwl n ^ a^ 0tl\e.r Perioti their conduct would
sidered in an n ^Ut ridlcuie ? at this time it was con-
br°ught to tri.^ S0.™e1of tbe members were
had been ’an, Punishedwith the same severity which
To DromnfrCfiSed towar(ls Messrs Muir and Palmer,
been conclnHp i -e s1uccess. op the war, a convention had
of Petershm-o-C ^ , spring between our court and that
till the Prpnfn stlPu,atl.ng for the prosecution of hostilities
was soon nfi J. re iuquished all their conquests. A treaty
Hesse Casspl r"31C S ieat^red ^nt0 with the landgrave of
which, by a snV,°r a subsidiary body of eight thousand men,
thousand • nn 1 !fbae.nt agreement, was extended to twelve
Per annum mV k,ng of Sardiuia engaged, for L.200,000
employed in UP an army of fifty thousand men, to be
> in the particular defence of his dominions, and
Portugal ; and besides the stipulation of vigorous hostility,
it was agreed that the conduct of other powers shoufd
be watched with extraordinary circumspection, lest they
should abuse their professed neutrality by protecting the
commerce or property of the French.
The detail of the military transactions of this eventful
contest will be given under another head. But we may
observe here, that during the present campaign the inde¬
pendence of France seemed at one time to be in consider¬
able hazard. Ihe faction which had overturned the mo¬
narchy assembled a convention of national representatives,
and endeavoured to establish a republican form of govern¬
ment, soon divided itself into two parties, those of the Gi-
londe and the Mountain. The leading party, when the re¬
public was first proclaimed, consisted chiefly of men of let¬
ters, who were led by speculative considerations to expect
a wonderful amelioration of the human character, and of
the state of society, from the changes they were producing,
they wished to avoid sanguinary measures at home, and
to restore tranquillity to their country as speedily as pos¬
sible ; but being equally deficient in energy and in know¬
ledge of the character of their countrymen, they were suc¬
cessfully opposed by a turbulent and ferocious minority,
led by Robespierre, Danton, and other men of the most
unprincipled and sanguinary temper. The moderate and
ruling party were also deceived by many of those whom
tiey had employed; and at last their favourite commander,
Dumouriez, having been repulsed in the Netherlands by
the united foices of Austria, Prussia, and England, enter¬
ed into a negociation with these powers for the restoration
of monarchy in France. But the treacherous project was
rendered abortive by the fidelity of his army, which almost
to a man deserted their general, and refused to bring the
independence of their country into hazard by allowing fo¬
reign armies to interfere in the arrangement of its internal
government. The defection of Dumouriez, together with
the repulse of their armies, brought the moderate party,
which still ruled in the French convention, into great dif¬
ficulties ; and it is an unfortunate circumstance that the Bri¬
tish government did not then seize the opportunity of mak-
ing peace with them. The hazard of innovation was now
past. One of the maxims of the first French republicans
was the love of peace and hatred of war; and the unsuc¬
cessful issue of the attempt made to penetrate into other
countries must have added force to this sentiment. The
tranquillity of Europe might thus have been insured ; a
mild party would have been preserved in power; Great
Britain might have obtained an influence over their coun¬
cils ; and the sanguinary scenes which afterwards occur¬
red in the interior of France, and upon the frontiers, might
have been prevented. But this opportunity was unhappily
disregarded ; and from the distraction within, and the im¬
mense combination of force assailing France from without,
the complete subjugation of that country was confidently
anticipated. Meanwhile the failure of the military opera¬
tions of the Girondists encouraged the wild party to at¬
tempt the overthrow of the more moderate French republi¬
cans, by exciting an insurrection of the populace in Paris; an
attempt which unhappily proved but too successful. The
national representatives were subdued, ninety members
of the convention were imprisoned, and the minority were
enabled to convert themselves into an apparent majority.
By this event all France was thrown into confusion. The
authority of the convention, thus impaired, was utterly re¬
jected by the south of France ; and the town and harbour
of Toulon, with its fleet and stores, were surrendered by
negociation to the British admiral, Lord Hood, as trustee
for the next heir of the monarchy. In the western parts of
47
79
BRITAIN.
Ileign of France the standard of royalty was reared, and joined by measures. But Lord Mornington, on tne other hand, con- Reign;
George III. immense multitudes, who adhered to it with the most oh- tended that the alternative of war or peace did not at George I
stinate bravery, and were not subdued till after a greater present exist. Before we could relinquish the principles wrv
expenditure of blood than was found necessary for the re- on which the war had commenced, proof was necessary
pulse of the combined armies of Europe. either that the opinions which we had conceived of the
On the part of Britain the general plan of the war does views of France were erroneous, that the war had become
not seem to have been well contrived or properly carried desperate and impracticable, or that, from some improve*
into effect. A great part of the western coast of France was ment in the system and principles of the French, the ne-
in full possession of the royalists, whilst the British navy at cessity which had prompted us to commence the war no
the same time commanded the ocean. It would therefore longer existed. Nothing of this sort had occurred. France
have been comparatively an easy enterprise to land an army
on the French coast for the assistance of the royalists, and
to advance through an open country, destitute of fortified
towns, to the capital, and against a convention whose au-
entertained unlimited views of aggrandizement and am¬
bition, connected with principles subversive of all regular
government. Mr Sheridan entirely dissented from these
views, and affirmed that Britain had acted with as little
thority was scarcely acknowledged by a third part of the regard to the independence of neutral states as the French;
nation. Instead of this, the combined armies w'ere directed that she had endeavoured to compel Genoa, Switzerland,
against the French Netherlands, where they wnsted the and Tuscany, to join the confederacy against France, by
summer, as well as their own strength, in the siege of a few the most insulting menaces ; and that, as far as prudence
of the fortresses which defend that frontier; and thus the would permit, she had assumed the same language towards
attack upon France was made upon its strongest side, at Sweden and Denmark. If the French system oi irater-
a distance from the centre of its power, and where the
means of protracted resistance were the greatest; whilst
leisure was afforded to the convention to establish its au¬
thority, to call out immense levies for the defence of the
country, and before the close of the year to turn the tide
of success in its favour. Toulon was retaken under the
masterly direction of Bonaparte, who then first appeared _ , _. . _ j
on the revolutionary stage; and the Spaniards were beaten act of aggression having come from them, instead of jeav-
in the south; whilst, on the northern frontier, the British ing that task to us, to whom comparatively the fact is in*
army was repulsed before Dunkirk, and the commander in different. When he hears this called a war of necessity
chief of the allies, the prince of Cobourg, before Maubeuge.
The Duke of Brunswick and General Wurmser were also
driven across the Upper Rhine near Mentz, in the last two
weeks of the year, after a succession of sanguinary con¬
flicts, in which the French, by daily bringing forward fresh
nization with other nations who wished to overturn their
own internal government formed a just cause of war, their
dereliction of that system ought to be a reason for making
peace. He denied that the French were the original ag¬
gressors. I am astonished, said he, that the minister who
sits near the Noble Lord does not himself feel it necessary
to his own dignity to oppose this paltry argument of the
and defence, I wonder he does not feel ashamed of the
meanness which it spreads over the whole of his cause,
and the contradiction which it throws among the greater
part of his arguments. Will he meet the matter fairly ?
Will he answer this one question distinctly ? If France
troops, at last succeeded with their raw levies in wearing had abstained from any act of aggression against Great
down the strength and the courage of their veteran enemies. Britain and her ally Holland, should we have remamec
The British parliament assembled on the first of January inactive spectators of the last campaign, idle, apart, anc
1794. In the speech from the throne his majesty called listening to the fray, and left the contest to Austria an
the attention of the two houses to the issue of the war, Prussia, and whatever allies they could themselves have
“ on which depended the support of our constitution, laws, obtained? Does he then mean to say that he would have
and religion, and the security of all civil society to the sat still; that Great Britain would have sat still with amis
advantages which had attended our arms both by sea and folded, and, reclining with luxurious ease on her com-
land ; and to the expectation of ultimate success, founded mercial couch, have remained an unconcerned spectator
on the circumstance that the efforts of the enemy, proceed- of this mighty conflict, and have left the cause of civi
ing on an arbitrary system, which enabled them unjustly order, government, morality, and religion, and its Go , o
to dispose of the lives and properties of the people, must take care of itself, or to owe its preservation to the mer
eventually introduce internal discontent and confusion, cenary exertions of German and Hungarian baibanans.
His majesty further stated the impossibility of making pi'ovided only that France had not implicated Grea
peace consistently with the permanent safety of the coun- tain by a special offence, and forced us into this c^use
try, and the tranquillity of other nations ; he noticed the divine and universal interest by the petty motive o a p
treaties and conventions into which he had entered with
foreign powers; and he mentioned the general loyalty which
prevailed amongst all ranks, notwithstanding continued ef¬
forts to mislead and seduce the people.
As usual, the topics introduced into the king’s speech prove
became the subject of debate, both in the House of Lords
and in the House of Commons ; but they excited little
attention throughout the nation. Men of property were
generally so much alarmed by the events which had oc¬
curred in France, that they reposed implicit confidence in me mauness m me iicueu, ne ,
the government; and as administration seemed resolved culty not to be accounted for? \Vild and unsettle as ^
not to despair of success, they derived great support from must necessarily be from the possession of suci P
the approbation of the public. A minority, indeed, exist- the surrounding states had goaded them n^0n.
ed throughout the country, by whom the war was openly
disapproved of; but as they consisted in general of per¬
sons of little influence, they were unable seriously to em¬
barrass the measures of administration. When the king’s
speech was taken into consideration, Lord Wycombe mov¬
ed an amendment to the address, recommending pacific
sonal provocation ? Mr Sheridan admitted that enormities
had been committed in France, which disgusted and sic
ened the soul. This was most true; but what rela m
had these to England? And if they had, what did i
What, but the eternal and unalterable truth,
a long-established despotism had so far degraded an w
based human nature, as to render its subjects, 011 tlian'?
recovery of their rights, unfit for the exercise of e
That we and all the powers of Europe had reason to i ^
the madness of the French, he agreed; but was this
of madness, fury, and desperation. We called t16 ^
sters, and hunted them as monsters. The C0"SPU‘ ']ot)
Pilnitz, and the brutal threats of the abettors of ^ Jnce
had to answer for all the additional horrors . ^
disgraced humanity. We had covenanted for ^ ^
termination, and now complained that they turn
BRITAIN.
oilh'pfof SccesS wh!c&ght0,r„"d ^^ ^ a"d “''’-^eous peace ought to ^,g„
E ^ — .u_ ..... . on Z“lcn we ought t0 Proceed, be concluded, as soon as it could possibly be obtained; but Georfe lib
the security and henpfits nf t.rifU    ,  i
What was the state of our allies when we pntprpH intp j i. p _p ' 1 j >-»- ^utatucu-y uui
?4=?«s»s« steffianSSSSs
473
Reign of
compelled to abandon Brabant, and the power of the ve¬
teran troops of Prussia absolutely untried, though the sea¬
sons and disease had induced them to retire from Cham¬
pagne. What was their state now ? Defeat had thinned
their ranks, and disgrace had broken their spirit. They
had been driven across the Rhine by French recruits, like
sheep before a lion’s whelp, and that not after the mishap of
a single great action lost, but after a succession of bloody
contests of unprecedented fury and obstinacy. Where now
was the scientific confidence with which we were taught to
regard the efforts of discipline and experience, when op¬
posed to an untiained multitude and unpractised generals ?
The jargon of professional pedantry was mute, and the plain
sense of man was left to its own course. Mr Windham com¬
bated the opinion, that the enormities committed in France
were the effects of the war. Mr Dundas defended the
management of the war, and the activity which had been
employed by government in conducting it. Our seamen in
the beginning of the year w^ere only fifteen thousand; in the
course of the w^ar fifty-four thousand men had been added.
At the commencement of the war we had only thirteen
ships of the line and thirty frigates fit for service; at the
present time we had eighty ships of the line and a hun¬
dred frigates in actual employment, which, with the arm¬
ed vessels now in the service of the public, made the whole
above three hundred sail. In augmenting the army, the
most effectual and economical system had been pursued;
besides the militia, thirty thousand men had been added
to the army. Mr Fox repeated that we were the aggres¬
sors in the war; contended that every state had a full
right to regulate its internal government; and asserted,
that the manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick had occa¬
sioned all the excesses of the French. He denied that
the prodigal manner in which the French government
conducted their affairs, and the confusion and ruin into
which their finances were hastening, afforded any pros¬
pect of success to the allied powers. He remembered,
that during the American war there was much talk of a
vagrant congress, which was nowhere to be found, of their
miserable resources, and their wretched paper money at
three hundred per cent, discount, of which, with any few
halfpence you had in your pocket, you might purchase to
t le amount of a hundred dollars. The Americans were
represented as exercising on each other the most into-
Iprnhlo t,,™ & curing tne war ot winch we are now treating, Mr Pitt’s
cruelty - mid U waTthon JiTtW t '6 1™°^ un!leard-°f administration derived incredible strength from these two
y 9 ftnu it \\ &S then Sdici. thcit it such nrincinlcs wprp* cmirr'oc : • i .t -i ^
cruehy; and it was then said, that if such principles were
suffered to exist, if the cause of America wrere ultimately
successful, there was an end of all civilised government,
and England must be trodden in the dust. Yet then, said
his statesman, I recommended negociation, and lived to
S-Tfi iSat ^rda*n treat with that very congress so often
VJ1 ed and abused, and the monarchy remain in sufficient
vigour. Mr Pitt recapitulated the arguments formerly
emp oyed to prove that the aggression had certainly taken
p ace on the part of France. The system adopted by the
renc i, their usurpation of foreign territory, their hostile
m entions against Holland, and their unprecedented views
aggrandisement and ambition, were subversive of all re¬
ha r ?ov<:rnrnent 5 an(l unless it could be proved that we
mistaken these principles, we were bound to continue
eveu supposing that difficulty and disappointment
wk °ccuned In ^e prosecution of it. He conceived there
n na ^“e least probability of the continuance of the
|la 1 ,n government of France. The efforts of the people
bv flp<fen.mere^ dle resu^ of terror, and were supported
V0L^erlate resources, which could not possibly continue.
the address was carried by an overwhelming majority. In
the House of Lords a similar debate took place, and simi¬
lar arguments and views were respectively urged by the
adverse parties; but ultimately the address was carried
by a majority as decisive as that in the Commons.
It is one of the characteristics of the British nation, to
be at all times easily thrown into a state of anxiety and
alarm, by any object which government for the time thinks
t0 ^ePresent ns dangerous. The two greatest objects
of political terror to Englishmen have at all times been
the fear of a foreign invasion, and the dread of secret con¬
spiracies by a disaffected party. During many ages Bri¬
tain has not been successfully invaded; and, since the
time of the Spanish Armada, no such attempt has been
made by any of those governments with which Britain has
engaged in hostility; but this circumstance, which leads
reflecting persons to regard such a project as extremely
unlikely to occur, seems to produce a contrary effect upon
the people at large. The evils attending invasion having
never been felt, lay hold of their imaginations, in the
wildest and most exaggerated forms; and from the terror
thus pioduced, they are prevented from reflecting upon
the difficulties attending the project, which deterred Louis
XIV. from attempting it while in the height of his power,
and with the advantage of a disputed succession to the
crown. \et such is the credulity of the British nation
upon this head, that administration can at any time throw
them into a state of the utmost consternation, by express¬
ing an apprehension of a French invasion ; and from this
apprehension ministers usually derive very considerable
advantages. The voice of faction is for a time silenced by
patiiotic terror, and all parties hasten to arrange themselves
under the banners of government for the defence of their
country. Ihe dread of plots and conspiracies produces
effects somewhat similar. It is true that no conspiracy of
Englishmen was ever productive of danger to the govern¬
ment whilst it remained even tolerably popular; but this
never prevents the nation from being thrown into conster¬
nation, by intimations, on the part of government, that
some desperate conspiracy is secretly carrying on, and
ready to burst forth, to the utter destruction of the public
tranquillity.
During the war of which we are now treating, Mr Pitt’s
sources of terror; the fear of invasion, and the dread of
conspiracies by disaffected persons. Nor did he want skill
to profit by them. At the commencement of the war it
had been believed by most persons, and perhaps by go¬
vernment, that it would be of short duration, the state of
anaichy which succeeded the overthrow of the monarchy
in France seeming to render that country an easy prey to
the powerful armies by which it was invaded; and when
any doubt of success was expressed, it was answered, that
after making trial of the war for a year, we might desist in
case we were unsuccessful. But although the original state
of affairs had been considerably altered by the successes
of the trench, yet the British government still resolved to
persist in the war, which, however, was now daily becoming-
less popular. On the other hand, the French leaders were
greatly irritated by the persevering hostility of the British
ministry, and in the pride of victory menaced England
with invasion. It is evident that they had still too ‘much
business upon their hands on the Continent to be able to
make the slightest attempt to carry their threats into exe¬
cution ; but the British administration, taking advantage
3 o
474
BRITAIN.
Reign of of the threat, expressed their fears that it mi^ht be suc-
George III. cessfui; an(l proposed the arming of associations of vo-
lunteers, both1 cavalry and infantry, throughout the island,
for the defence of the nation against foreign invasion, and
the efforts of disaffected persons at home. They also en¬
couraged the raising of subscriptions to defray the ex¬
pense of these armed associations ; and although the mea¬
sure was disapproved by the minority in parliament, as an
unconstitutional mode of raising money, it was supported
by the majority. An act was passed authorizing the em¬
bodying and training of volunteers, and the measure was
carried to a considerable extent throughout the country.
In like manner, though the political ferment occasioned
by the French revolution had now considerably subsided,
administration, aware of the strength derived from keep¬
ing the country in a state of anxiety upon political sub¬
jects, announced to parliament, by a royal message, that
seditious practices had been carried on by certain socie¬
ties in London, with a view to overturn the constitution,
and introduce the system of anarchy which prevailed in
France; and that their papers had been seized, and were
submitted to the consideration of the house. On the same
day Thomas Hardie, a shoemaker in Piccadilly, who had
acted as secretary to the London Corresponding Society,
and Daniel Adams, the secretary to the Society for Con¬
stitutional Information, were apprehended for treasonable
practices, upon a warrant from Mr Dundas. Mr Horne
Tooke, well known for his ingenious philological writings,
as well as for the political part he had formerly acted in
the turbulent days of Wilkes, the Reverend Mr Jeremiah
Joyce, Mr Holcroft a dramatic writer, Mr Kyd a barrister,
and Mr John Thelwall, who had for some time entertain¬
ed the town in the character of political lecturer, were also
in a few days arrested and committed to the Tower on a
charge of high treason.
For the sake of giving solemnity to the inquiries made
into this conspiracy, a secret committee of the House of
Commons was chosen by ballot, the members of which
were the friends of the minister. The report of the com¬
mittee concerning the alleged conspiracy amounted to
little more than a recital of a number of advertisements
from societies, or accounts of their debates, which had
previously been inserted in the public newspapers ; but it
served as a pretext for suspending the Habeas Corpus
act, and thereby enabling ministers to prevent any politi¬
cal movement, or avowed disapprobation of their mea¬
sures, from being rashly exhibited out of parliament. In
the meanwhile the dread of invasion, added to the political
alarm which had previously diffused itself throughout the
country, and which was thus artfully maintained, confer¬
red upon ministers a degree of strength which, for a cen¬
tury and more, no British administration had possessed.
Almost all men of property were their adherents; whilst
their antagonists sunk into utter discredit, and suffered a
species of persecution in every department of society ; so
that it became dangerous to a man’s prospects in the world,
and in ordinary business, to express the slightest doubt of
the propriety of any measure approved by government.
In the early part of his administration, Mr Pitt had en¬
deavoured to rest his reputation, in a considerable degree,
upon the improvement of the finances, and the hope which
he held out of paying off the national debt. He now de¬
serted all such views; and taking advantage of the un¬
controlled power he possessed at home, and the pliability
of parliament, he engaged in a career of unexampled ex¬
penditure, in corrupting successive parties in trance, or
in the management of the war.
From its first rise to eminence as a European power,
Prussia considered France as its protector against the am¬
bition of Austria. During the present year, notwithstand¬
ing the resistance of a party in Poland, headed by the Reign of
brave Kosciusko, that country was partitioned, and Prus-GeorgeII'
sia obtained an ample share of its territory. But the par-
tition of France was an object from which Prussia had
every thing to fear, as it would destroy the only power by
which Austria, the inveterate enemy of Prussia, had at all
times been kept in awe. When the Prussian monarch
found it necessary, in conjunction with his allies, to in¬
vade France in 1792, he retired upon the first appearance
of a tolerably firm opposition, and gave the republic a
respite of another winter, during which to arrange its
strength, and call into action its resources. In the year
1793 the Prussians remained extremely inactive till to¬
wards the close of the campaign, when at last, in conse¬
quence of repeated remonstrances from their allies, they
advanced against Alsace; but being there repulsed, and
the republic beginning to exhibit on all sides a firm mi¬
litary front, the king of Prussia declared that the expenses
of the war were more than his finances could sustain, and
required the other German states to supply him with
money, threatening in case of refusal to abandon the com¬
mon cause; and on their declining to comply with his
demands, he actually began to withdraw his troops. But
by this time the British ministry had engaged in the war
with a degree of eagerness which induced them to make
every sacrifice to obtain success; and therefore, to avoid
losing the assistance of Prussia, they offered a subsidy,
which was finally adjusted, upon the condition that his
Prussian majesty was to furnish sixty-two thousand troops,
or thirty thousand beyond his contingent; for which his
Britannic majesty was to pay him L.50,000 a month,
L.100,000 a month for forage, L.400,000 to put the army in
motion, and L.100,000 on their return, or in all, for the re¬
maining nine months of the year, L.1,350,000. At this
rate the expense of the whole year would amount to
L.1,800,000, of which the states general were to pay
L.400,000; and the forces thus subsidized were to be
commanded by an officer to be named by the king of
Prussia. By this treaty the king of Prussia was enabled
to keep his army upon the war establishment with little
additional expense to himself, and with the power of claim¬
ing a share of whatever conquests were made from France,
whilst, by retaining the appointment of the general of the
subsidized army, he preserved a complete command over
it, and might prevent his troops from being worn out by
active service, or restrain them from doing greater injury
to the French republic than he should judge prudent or
expedient in the circumstances.
All Europe looked forward with great anxiety to the ap¬
proaching campaign as decisive of the contest; in wine i s
whole powers, excepting Russia, Sweden, and Denmar >
were actively engaged. At sea, where her strength cou
be most effectually exerted, Great Britain was e*finen ^
successful. An expedition under Sir Charles „
Sir John Jervis was sent to the West Indies, where
tinique, St Lucie, and other islands, were taken. n ,,
Mediterranean the French were driven from the lfj ^ »
Corsica, and the inhabitants acknowledged the kmg
Great Britain as their sovereign. But the I"ost ®s h
victory was that gained by Lord Howe over t ie
fleet on the first of June near Brest. During j?
years of the revolution France had suffered muc „
from a scarcity of grain ; and such was the line /
with which the present war was conducted, that a.
tish government had formed a plan of subduing 1 ^
tion by famine, by preventing their obtaining ^'PP egg
provisions from any foreign country. In t leir jte(j
the French rulers had applied for assistance to ieMto
States of America, which still owed a considera e ^
France, contracted during the war by which t iei
Reign of volution had been accomplished; and they now offered to
ikorgeIII.accept payment of this debt in corn, a commodity abound-
ing in America. The Americans, accordingly, delivered
the grain in their own ports, and a hundred and sixty sail
of vessels laden with grain set out for France. As soon as
this became known, Lord Howe was dispatched, in order
if possible, to intercept this valuable convoy; while the
French admiral, Villaret-Joyeuse, sailed from Brest to
hazard an engagement with the British fleet, for the sake
of preserving the convoy. The force of the hostile fleets
was nearly equal, the British having twenty-six, and the
French twenty-five sail of the line; but the French line
was bioken, and, after an obstinate engagement, six of
their ships were taken, and two sunk. Before the battle
however, the French admiral had detached a considerable
force for the protection of the convoy, which was thus en¬
abled with safety to reach its destined port. This victory
produced very great exultation in Britain ; and the fear
of invasion which had been previously excited was abated
by so decided a proof of naval superiority.
On the part of the French, however, these colonial and
naval losses were greatly overbalanced by the general re¬
sult of the campaign. The allies still concentrated their
principal force against the Netherlands, and with that
view, at the commencement of the campaign besieged and
took Landrecies; but the fortune of the war was speedily
changed. General Pichegru advanced into maritime Flan-
ers, and m a variety of engagements defeated Count
Uairfayt, an Austrian general of great activity, who ruin-
ea Ms army by incessant and sanguinary efforts to drive
back a superior enemy. An attempt made by the grand
1 °iff t le 1retreat of Plchegru proved unsuccess¬
ful , and the latter having in turn manoeuvred to intercept
yinp^Trn111^1011 ?f the imPerialists with their maga-
sdno*at ^ ln llke manner repulsed; but the ob-
^ nate conflict which he maintained, and the steady fire
from r°KPS’ ?un-?,g a succession of conflicts, which lasted
tlm th!ybreak tlll£.sJl?nset> convinced the allied armies
iect A invasion of France had become a hopeless pro-
dan’ fr lSt the French advanced, under General Jour-
whirl eaftwai:d’ and at Fleurus gained a victory
best trnnn 8 nearly fifteen thousand of their
now nrpv^u' a 1 utua d,sgust> as well as discouragement,
leavin^thr n a,™onj? the allies. The Austrians retreated,
Hanovrrin fU'e ^orKat the head of the British and
sistance nf ih ^^iln ^}.nfdderabIe peril; but, with the as-
his retreat ^^oira, his royal highness made good
.retreat, ibis nnhlrmon  _• .j ?•
BRITAIN.
as-
I rplroof TU- , , ’ iiigimcBB uiaut; good
self in ft, a !s no^eman> who had distinguished him-
which hp^hn ^Ucai? war’ ^as opposed to the present war,
havine nevp JePro^ated In his place in parliament. But
feeblegarm! the eSS bee.n sent administration with a
coast of Frnment t0i arSSISt the royalists on the western
any thiL pf11-6’ and finding too weak to effect
back hisg,r lmPortance in that quarter, he had brought
defend (Wp01!8’ und was afterwards sent with them to
Duke ofYnrP ’ Earning the difficult nature of the
not lon^ Hp m! ®ltaat|on»and perceiving that Ostend could
desertedhp^ eCn 1 after the rest of Flanders had been
°f much dl rChe j acr0SS the country, and in the face
junction wfiWv? an • u^d^r great hardships, effected a
feinforcement aff6 ?r?clPal British army, to which this
The Fpp m afforded seasonable aid.
and on thefi-p"^6 no[Jess successful on the Upper Rhine,
^ camDai!rt'er-S 0f Italy “">1 8?^". At the end of
forced thpii-a’ ^ lntense frost having set in, they rein-
ter a varietv nf1168’ and Pichegru invaded Holland. Al¬
together with enSagements the British and Hanoverians,
had subsidiVprl SOme -Austrian auxiliaries, whom Britain
abandon Hnllo’ rePu^sed, and found it necessary to
n o its fate. Many Dutch families sought
refuge in Britain. When Utrecht had submitted to the
not bJ’d fG knowing tllat Amsterdam would
}f,5 fiefended, left his country, and escaped in a fishing-
boat to England, where he and his family became imme¬
diate objects of royal liberality, and were treated with the
espect due to their rank and misfortunes. The Dutch
who had viewed the English with a very unfriendly eye
since the revolution of 1787, appeared to be highly pleased
with this change in their affairs. They had treated our
soldiers with great ilhberahty, and refused to alleviate by
kindness or compassion the sufferings of the wounded, or
the distress of the fugitives, who at length effected their
retreat to Bremen, after a long and severe trial of their
patience and fortitude. The United Provinces were now
revolutionized on the French model. Liberty, equality,
and the rights of man, were proclaimed; representatives
o the people were chosen ; and the regenerated state was
named the Batavian Republic. But the pretended friends
ot the Hollanders, in rescuing them from what they term¬
ed a disgraceful yoke, did not suffer them to enioy real
freedom or independence.
. TIie result of these successes was, that the king of Prus¬
sia perceiving France restored to more than her ancient
energy, and capable of humbling his enemy and her an¬
cient rival, the house of Austria, deserted the coalition,
refused to accept of any further subsidy from Britain, and
took under his protection, as neutral states, the whole
princes of the north-west of Germany; thus becoming the
ostensible head and guardian of a large division of the
empire, which was enabled to recover its tranquillity, and
to become a calm spectator of the prolonged contest,
which the rest of the empire under Austria continued to
carry on against France. Spain was also under the neces¬
sity of imitating the example of Prussia, though upon less
favourable terms, being constrained to relinquish, as the
price of peace, her half of the island of St Domingo ; and
the Duke of Tuscany also deserted a contest in which he
had reluctantly engaged.
In the meanwhile administration pursued their system
of alarming the friends of internal tranquillity, by the
dread of conspiracies and attempts against the constitu¬
tion. The persons who in the month of May had been
imprisoned on a charge of high treason were brought to
trial in the end of October. The first was Thomas Har-
die. His indictment stated nine overt acts of high trea¬
son ; first, forming an intention of exciting rebellion and
insurrection, and conspiring to subvert the government
and depose the king; secondly, writing various books,
pamphlets, letters, and addresses, recommending dele¬
gates to a convention ; thirdly, consulting as to the means
of forming such a convention ; fourthly, agreeing to form
themselves into a society for the purposes aforesaid; fifthly,
causing arms to be made in order to subvert the govern¬
ment and depose the king; sixthly, conspiring to levy war
within the realm; seventhly, conspiring to aid the king’s
enemies; eighthly, composing and publishing certain books,
pamphlets, letters, exhortations, and addresses, for the
purposes aforesaid; and, lastly, procuring arms for the
purpose of levying war against the king, and exciting re¬
bellion and insurrection. The written evidence consisted
chiefly of advertisements and addresses, published in the
newspapers, many of which were expressed in a very in¬
temperate style ; and of the proceedings of the societies,
which were all public. With regard to the alleged charge
about arming the people, it appears to rest upon no solid
foundation ; and the accusation and defence, therefore,
turned chiefly upon the question of treasonable intention
upon the part of the accused and his associates. Hardie
was ably defended by the Honourable Thomas Erskine
and Mr Vicary Gibbs, and the prosecution was conducted
475
Reign of
George in.
476
Reign
George
BRITAIN.
of by the attorney and solicitor general; but after the pro-
III* ceedings had been protracted to the eighth day, the jury,
^ after some deliberation, brought in a verdict of not guilty.
The next trial was that of Mr Horne Tooke, who enuea-
voured to prove that he had merely followed the example
of Mr Pitt, in recommending a plan of parliamentary i e-
form. The minister was examined on the occasion, chiefly
regarding the proceedings of the popular party, before
the close of the American war, with a view to establish
this point; but he evaded most of the fluestlon® by alleg¬
ing a want of recollection. The acquittal of Mr looke
was followed by that of Mr Thelwall; and a despair of con¬
victing any one of the supposed traitors led to the aban¬
donment of the other indictments. _
As the war was becoming unpopular, the acquittal o
these persons, which tended to discredit the alarms kept
up by the friends of administration, was felt by them as
an additional misfortune. Had the indictments been laid
for sedition only, the prosecutions would probably have
proved successful; but ministers were led to carry mat¬
ters the length of an accusation of treason, by their suc¬
cess in a similar charge at Edinburgh in the preceding
month of September, against two persons named itobeit
Watt and David Downie. Watt had been a spy, employ¬
ed by government to attend political societies, and discovei
the designs of the leaders ; but as he was a needy person,
and had been unable to communicate intelligence of much
importance, he had received little pay. To earn more
money, he thought fit to contrive a plot, which he com¬
municated to Downie and some others, for seizing the
castle and the public offices at Edinburgh, with a view no
doubt of afterwards holding out his associates to govei n-
ment as criminals. Neither he nor they had any means
of carrying such a plan into effect. 13ut \\ att having
procured some pikes, deposited them in a cellar in his
own house, where they were accidentally discovered; the
spy was apprehended ; and the persons to whom he had
communicated his plan having come forward as witnesses
against him and Downie, they were both found guilty ot
high treason. Downie, who had done little more than ap¬
pear to approve of Watt’s plan, was recommended to mercy,
and afterwards pardoned ; but Watt was executed.
Another source of encouragement to proceed with mea¬
sures of severity arose at this time out of a plot brought
to light by some informers, and by way of ridicule termed
the Pop-gun Plot. The persons implicated in this charge
were, John Peter Le Maitre, a native of Jersey, and ap¬
prentice to a watch-case-maker in Denmark Street, St
Giles ; William Higgins, apprentice to a chemist in Fleet-
market ; and a man of the name of Smith, who kept a book
stall in the neighbourhood of Lincoln’s-inn. 1 heir accusei
was one Upton, an apprentice or journeyman to a watch¬
maker. Le Maitre, Higgins, and Smith, were apprehend¬
ed on Saturday the 27th of September, by a warrant from
the Duke of Portland, as secretary of state, and examined
on Sunday the 28th, before the privy-council, the lords
of which were summoned again to attend on Tuesday upon
the same important business. The charge, supported by
the testimony of Upton, bore in substance, that an instru¬
ment was to have been constructed by the informer Upton,
in the form of a walking stick, in which was to have been
inserted a brass tube of two feet long ; that through this
tube a poisoned dart or arrow was to have been blown by
the breath of the conspirator Le Maitre at his majesty,
either on the terrace at Windsor, or in the playhouse ; and
that the poison was to have been of so subtle a nature,
that if the point but glanced upon the king, it would pro¬
duce instantaneous death. Nothing short ot the most con¬
summate ignorance of the state ot human science could,
on any ordinary occasion, have procured a moment s at¬
tention to so ridiculous a story as this ; but such is the well- Reign
known credulity of the English nation regarding political George,,
dangers, that administration and their friends appear to UrVv:
have regarded this plot as an affair of some importance.
Parliament assembled on the 30th of December. In
the speech from the throne his majesty urged the neces¬
sity of persisting in the war, however unfortunate it had
been ; and noticed the rapid decay of the resources of the
enemy. The Dutch had, he observed, from a sense of
present difficulties, entered into a negociation for peace
with the prevailing party in France; but no established
government could derive security from such a negociation.
The most effectual means had therefore been employed
for the further augmentation of the forces, on whose va¬
lour, as well as on the public spirit of the people, he placed
the utmost reliance. This speech also mentioned the ac¬
cession of the sovereignty of Corsica to the British domi¬
nions ; a treaty of amity and commerce with America; and
the conclusion of a treaty of marriage between the Prince
of Wales and the Princess Caroline of Brunswick.
When an address to his majesty in similar terms with
the speech was moved in common form, very animated de¬
bates took place in both houses of parliament. The war
was attacked and defended upon the usual grounds, with
this additional circumstance, that the events of the late
campaign gave considerable countenance to the assertions
of opposition, that all hope of ultimate success was irra¬
tional. Administration, however, were no less powerful
than formerly. On the last day of the preceding session
they had received into official situations some of those
supporters of the war who in former years had opposed
their measures. Earl Fitzwilliam had been appointed pre¬
sident of the council; the Duke of Portland became one
of the secretaries of state ; Earl Spencer was declared
keeper of the privy seal; and Mr Windham was appoint¬
ed secretary at war. But notwithstanding these official
changes, Mr Pitt, with the aid of his friend Mr Dundas,
and his relation Lord Grenville, was understood to retain
the efficient power of the state. Mr Dundas still retaine
the management of the w'ar with Prance; and, as a kind o
third secretary of state, he performed a considerable pait
of the business which would otherwise have devolved upon
the Duke of Portland ; while at the same time he continu¬
ed, as president of the board of control, to supennten
the affairs of India, and to hold the office of treasurer ot
the navy. Earl Fitzwilliam was soon got quit of, being
sent to Ireland as lord-lieutenant, under an agieemen
that he was to have full power to promote the repea o
the penal statutes against the Catholics, and to conceci
certain privileges which had been withheld in 1 / •
ministers having altered their sentiments about s°mej)
these points, prohibited him from proceeding, an as
insisted upon the terms on which he had accep ec »
situation, he was recalled and dismissed from office, j
joining ministers for a time, he was prevented horn ac
along with opposition in reprobating the war, and til
was left insulated and separated from both parties.
Among the debates of the present session, one o
most remarkable was that which occurred upon ie
tion of Mr Grey in the House of Commons on the ^
January 1795, that the existence of the actual go
ment of France ought not to be considered as pie
a negociation for peace. After twro years of wal>'v jjj
had drained this country of its blood and treasures, h
not appear to be one point nearer the objec j t ]ron
it was undertaken. From certain words of the w
a former occasion, Mr Grey inferred that t ns w ^
of extermination, a mortal strife, to be came 01 , nl0.
of the parties should be destroyed. He wishec, y ffas
tion, to put the question to issue whether this op
ignof
(.1 age III
s -y-w1
BRITAIN. 477
countenanced by the House of Commons. The public at the convention had determined never to treat with them Reien of
■ large and even he enemy with whom we were contend- until there was a reform in the English government P HeGeorJ I r
,ng, had a right to know the length to which the contest recalled to the recollection of Mr Pitt the declaiation of 1
was to be carried, and the terms upon which peace was to his father, that they should die in the last breach before
be obtained. He endeavoured to show that there existed they granted the independence of America • vet the first
no prospect or chance of success in overturning by force act of the political life of the son had been to sien the
of arms the republican government of France, and that a very independence which his father had deprecated Ne
war persisted m with that view must necessarily be absurd; cessity had dictated that act; and he must now on the
that the people of France were too firmly attached to their same account, retract his declaration respecting France
new arrangements to be likely to give them up, however The motion was opposed by Mr Dundas, on the ground
that it would fetter the executive government in their
negociations for peace; and ultimately the motion was
negatived, and the amendment adopted.
On the following day the Duke of Bedford brought for¬
ward, in the House of Lords, a motion similar to that which
, n -  r— Mr Grey had introduced into the House of Commons;
dence. Our own resources were, he doubted not, equal to and Lord Grenville moved an amendment precisely simi
every tniner to which thevous-ht to he annlipfl. hnt nni pniml lc-i  iti t
w , o ' J mtlil up, 1JUWCVC1
they might change their leaders ; that a dependence upon
a decay of their finances was equally ill founded ; and that,
both in the American war and in this, the affairs of the
British nation were unfortunately intrusted to persons un¬
able to distinguish between the fallacy of imperfect calcu¬
lations and the energy of a people struggling for indepen
everything to which they ought to be applied, but not equal
to the conquest of France, or to a war of aggression. The
exhausted state of the emperor’s finances was evinced by
a memorial he had recently addressed to the circles of the
Upper Rhine. Was it then from him, from the Italian
states, the kings of Sardinia, Naples, and Spain, or from
our disgraceful alliance with the empress of Russia, that
we expected assistance ? Or was it from our good German
ally, who had taken L.1,200,000 of our money, who had
not brought into the field the sixty-two thousand men for
which he stipulated, who had denied our right to command
any of the Prussian troops, and contended that they ought
not to march against the French, but to remain to defend
Germany ? The strongest reason which a great nation could
have for war, was the defence of its honour; and this, he
contended, we had so fully vindicated, as to secure us from
future insult. The decree of the convention in November
1792 now formed no bar to a negociation, as that decla
lar to that which had been proposed by Mr Pitt and carried
in the House of Commons. A great deal of discussion fol¬
lowed; but ultimately a large majority voted in favour of
the amendment. rIhe victories of the French during the
last campaign, and the despair of ultimate success in the
war, which now began to be entertained throughout the
country, encouraged opposition to renew the subject un¬
der a variety of forms, and to urge ministers to enter into
a negociation ; but on every occasion the motions made by
them were negatived by a similar superiority of numbers.
The number of seamen and marines voted during the
present session amounted to a hundred thousand, whilst a
hundred and nineteen thousand three hundred and eighty
men were voted to form the guards and garrisons. In order
to procure the requisite number of seamen, the parliament
required the merchants to give up a part of the crews of
their shipping, in proportion to the tonnage, and ordered
every parish to furnish one man for the service. A loan
,• L 1 1 T — Ilian 1U1 LHC ViUtf. SY luan
ion ad been repealed, and followed by a contrary de- of L.18,000,000 was found necessary, together with a large
caration. As additional reasons, Mr Grey noticed the issue of exchequer bills, as the supplies voted amounted
capture of Holland, and the debates in the diet at Ratis- to no less than L.29,307,000. The new taxes were made
on, in which all parties agreed for overtures to the ene- payable on wine, spirits, tea, coffee, stamps on deeds, in-
tv, e^ctor °f Hanover^ and the landgrave of surance on ships and cargoes, timber, and on persons w ear-
Hesse. Mr Pitt, in reply, asserted that the motion was
utterly mcongistent with the sentiments formerly express-
e "1S majesty and by parliament, and therefore pro¬
posed an amendment, importing that it w-as the deter¬
mination of the house to prosecute the war, as the only
means of procuring a permanent and secure peace. Mr
ing hair-powder.
During the present session the trial of Mr Hastings
was at length brought to a conclusion. The subject was
discussed in a committee of the House of Lords. The
lord chancellor and the Earl of Carnarvon considered Mr
Hastings as criminal; but he was ably defended by Lord
Pin i l l*” secuie peace, mr xiasungs as criminal; nut ne was amyr uerenaea ny i^ora
to con^en(^e^ 110 nation at war with another ought Thurlow, who was supported by the Marquis of Lansdown,
sec*^ a government which could not give the Bishop of Rochester, and others. When every part of
theUn id ”1IS ^ast.was ^le great object by which alone the accusation had been disallowed by the' committee, the
rev ^ COlW i^e terminated; that nothing but a series of report was reviewed by the house; and after some debates
ciDl° U 10nS ^at keen generated under the system and prin- on the mode of proceeding, it was resolved that the ques-
cornm Pr®va^ent trance; that the agriculture and tion should be put separately on sixteen points. The
and ‘ 0 j rance were in the most disastrous situation, greatest number of peers who voted the defendant guilty
wi]H^ 106 a mos*' unknown; that the house would never in any one respect did not exceed six, whilst the votes of
Anri]^17qCqnSient-° treat a na<aon a^ie*sts ’ *n not guilty on some of the charges were twenty-six, in
again t ’ ^ ^rencl1 hud enacted the penalty of death others twenty-three, and in one nineteen. The lord chan-
count8 l]ers?n w^° ^uuld propose peace with any cellor then intimated the decision of the court to Mr Hast-
one a^l ^n0t acknowledge the French republic ings, who received it in silence, and withdrew,
amount 1f1ndlV1Slb,e ’ tbat tbe admission of these principles At this time the delits of the Prince of Wales amount-
of eve 6 h° 3 conbessl°n °f the usurpation and injustice ed to L.630,000 ; but it had been arranged at court that
would i^ ° ^ g0Vernment ’ an(ltbat treating with France these debts should be paid, and that the prince should
i ^ ^ cickn0wl6dp,mf?n1'nftTmsp nrinrMnlpo mamr liic pmicin flip HmioTifpr nf* flip T)llkp of Rmnswick :
had mado • wdjebiy, at tlie opening ot the sessic
he askerl 3 Sf:ri°us impression upon the public. Whs
> would have been the feelings of Englishmen,
session, me ucuto, mime*    ^ 
What, penses of the marriage, as well as the repairs and decora-
if tions of Carlton House.
478
BRITAIN.
Reign of Parliament was prorogued on the 27th of June by a
George III. speech from the throne, in which ministers thought it pru-
dent to hold out to the public some prospect of negocia-
The incidents of the war during the year l*9o were
less memorable than those of the preceding years. Lord
Bridport, with an inferior force, attacked a French fleet
near Port 1’Orient, and took three of their ships. Vice-
admiral Hotham pursued to the Genoese coast a fleet
which had sailed from Toulon to attempt the recoveiy of
Corsica, and had captured one of his detached ships ; and
having brought the enemy to a partial engagement, he took
two sail of the line ; but he afterwards lost one of his own
ships in consequence of damage sustained in the conflict.
On the western coast of France, the enemy, with thirteen
sail of the line and fourteen frigates, avoided coming to
an engagement with Vice-admiral Cornwallis, who had
only eight ships including frigates. These events occur¬
red early in summer. But notwithstanding the vigilance
of the British navy, the French captured, in the month
of July, thirty sail of a valuable convoy returning from
the Mediterranean, and also made prize of part of a Ja¬
maica fleet; but, on the other hand, their own commerce
had sunk so low as to present few objects of attack to our
cruizers and privateers.
As the Dutch, though nominally the allies of the French,
had, in fact, become subject to them, letters ot marque
were issued against them by Great Britain, and directions
given to seize their colonial territories, under the profess¬
ed intention, however, of restoring them when the stadt-
holder’s government should be re-established. Ihe Cape
of Good Hope was taken, together with Trincomalee and
the other Asiatic settlements of the Dutch, excepting only
Batavia. Their territories in the West Indies were not
attacked during the present year, on account of the diffi¬
culties which the British experienced in that quarter in
keeping in subjection the islands captured from the French,
where various insurrections were incited by their ancient
masters. Jamaica was also kept in a state of great alarm
by a small tribe of independent negroes, called Maroons,
who had long existed in the mountainous parts of the island.
These people, having quarrelled with the white inhabitants,
committed many cruel ravages, and were not subdued till
Spanish hunters and blood-hounds were procured from the
island of Cuba, and employed against them, which induced
them at last to submit to deportation from the island.
The British ministry resolved, when it was too late, to
give assistance to the royalists in the western parts of
France ; and an expedition, planned by Mr Windham, and^
guided by French emigrant officers, with troops, many of
whom consisted of prisoners of war, relieved from confine¬
ment on condition of bearing arms against their native
country, set sail for the French coast, and landed upon the
extremity of the narrow peninsula of Quiberon. Here they
fortified themselves; but many of the troops proving un¬
faithful, and the expedition being otherwise ill conducted,
they were speedily overpowered by the republicans, who
put to death such of their countrymen as they found in
arms fighting against them. By this feeble and ill-timed
invasion of the French territory, nearly ten thousand men
were killed or taken prisoners.
The continental campaign on the side of Germany was
of little importance during this year, but upon the whole it
proved unfavourable to the French. The convention had
shaken off the yoke of that sanguinary faction which, un¬
der Robespierre and his frantic associates, had deluged
the interior of France with blood, but had nevertheless the
merit of calling forth with astonishing energy the powers
of the country for the support of its independence. The
present leaders possessing less activity, and affecting a
milder course of conduct, the military operations languish- Reign
ed; and the French army remained inactive till autumn, George'!
when it crossed the Rhine near Mentz under General Pi-
chegru, but was speedily repulsed, and an armistice con¬
cluded for the winter. The convention, however, establish¬
ed a new form of government, consisting of an executive
directory of five persons, elected by two representative
bodies, to which the powers of legislation were intrusted;
and it was expected, that if the war continued, the new
executive power would endeavour to distinguish itself by
some important operations.
The British parliament was again assembled at an early
period, namely, on the 29th of October. The state of pub¬
lic affairs wore at this period an unfavourable aspect. The
French armies had been inactive during the summer, but
they had lost nothing; for the new republic retained pos¬
session of the territory extending from the Pyrenees to
North Holland, and consequently of an immense length of
coast opposite to Great Britain. Meanwhile, a dearth of
provisions began to prevail at home. The winter, which
had set in with extreme severity at the close of the year
1794, and had enabled the French to conquer Holland with
little difficulty, was followed by an ungenial summer, dur¬
ing which the crop failed in consequence of almost inces¬
sant rains. This state of things was productive of discon¬
tent among the lower orders, and the wav was blamed as
tending to aggravate the distress which they thus suffered.
Previous to the assembling of parliament some meetings
were held by the London Corresponding Society, for the
purpose of petitioning the king and parliament in favour of
peace and of parliamentary reform; and as the meetings
were held in the open fields, they were very numerously
attended, but the persons composing them dispersed with-
out disturbance. At the opening of parliament, however,
some riots took place. •
His majesty proceeded from the palace to open the ses¬
sion of parliament at the usual hour; and the crowd in St
James’s Park, which is always considerable on these oc¬
casions, was certainly much greater than usual. A fine day,
and a rumour which had been circulated that a riot was
likely to take place, contributed greatly to increase the
multitude of the spectators. As the royal carriage pass¬
ed along the park, the predominant exclamations uttered
were “ Peace, peace ! Give us bread: No Pitt; no famine;
no war!” and a few voices were heard to exclaim, “ Down
with George,” or words to that effect. In the park and
the streets adjacent to Westminster, stones and other mis¬
siles were thrown, some of which struck the state coacn,
and one of them, supposed to have been thrown from a
house in Margaret Street, perforated a window oi tn^
carriage by a small circular aperture. From this circum¬
stance it was alleged to have been a bullet discharged y
an air-gun, or by some similar engine; but no bullet
found; and happily it neither touched the king nor ,
noblemen who attended him. As his majes^f,re^1 _e.
from the house through the park, the gates of tha no '
guards were shut to exclude the mob; yet even t118 P,
caution was not sufficient to prevent a renewa 0 .
outrages, and another stone was thrown at the ca g
as it passed opposite to Spring Garden Ten ace. .
the king had alighted at St James’s, the P°PU ac.e: p t0
ed the state-carriage, and, in its way through Pa - ,
the Mews, it was almost entirely demolished, ine p ^
from the throne stated that the general situation ^
fairs, notwithstanding many events unfavJura, ® prenCh
common cause, was materially improved ; that i 0f
had been driven back in Italy, and checked on 1 ce
Germany; that their successes, and the treaties .Jatjng
which they had entered into, were far from comp
the evils they had suffered from the continuanc
BRITAIN.
1(3 Of
;c ill!
that the unparalleled embarrassment and distress of their
internal situation had produced an impression that their
only relief must result from peace and a settled govern¬
ment ; that the crisis in which they now were must pro-
479
turn to negociate. Similar observations were made in the Reign of
.House ot 1 eers. A species of advance towards negocia-George III.
tion was nevertheless made soon afterwards on the part of
Britain, though in a very oblique and indirect mode. Mr
bably produce consequences important to the interests of Wickham, his majesty’s minister to the Swiss cantons
Europe; and that if this crisis terminated in any thing af- transmitted, on the 8th of March 1796 a note to M Bar’
fording a reasonable expectation of security in any treaty, thglemi, the French ambassador at Berne, stating that he
the appearance of a disposition to treat for peace on just himself was not authorized to enter into any negociation
and suitable terms would be met, on the part of the Bri- but requesting information in writing on the part of the
tish government, with an earnest desire to give it the French court about three points; first, whether France was
speediest effect. In the speeches for and against the usual disposed to send ministers to a congress to negociate a ge-
addresses little novelty occurred, the expediency of conti- neral peace with his Britannic majesty and his allies • se-
nuing the war having been so often discussed before. condly, whether the French government were willing to
Meanwhile administration took advantage of the attack state the general grounds upon which they would consent
upon his majesty’s person to issue a proclamation, connect- to conclude a treaty ; and, thirdly, whether the French
ing the meetings of the Corresponding Society with the in- government would think fit to propose any other mode of
suits offered to his majesty, and also to bring forward two arriving at a general pacification. M. Barthelemi return-
new penal statutes. The firstwas introduced into the House ed an answer on the 26th of the same month, statin<>- that
of Lords by Lord Grenville, and entitled an act for the the executive directory doubted the sincerity of these
preservation of his majesty’s person and governmentagainst overtures of peace, from the proposal of a general congress
treasonable and seditious practices. One clause enact- which would lead to endless negociations, and from Mr
ed capital punishment against every one who should ex- Wickham not having received powers to negociate; assert-
press, utter, or declare, by the publication of writings, or ing the willingness of France to make peace; but declar-
by any overt act, such imaginations, devices, or intentions, ing that the executive directory had no power to relin-
as were calculated to injure the king, impair his authority quish any of the territories which the constitutional act had
or that of the parliament, or promote an invasion of his declared to form an integral part of the French republic,
dominions; another provided, that all declarations tending With regard to the other territories occupied by the French
to excite hatred or contempt of the king should be consi- armies, these might become objects of negociation. But
dered as high misdemeanours; and a third, that a second as the Netherlands and the island of St Domingo had
offence might be punished, either in the ordinary mode, been declared by the new French constitution to form
or by banishment from the realm for a term not exceed- part of the territory of the republic, the British govern¬
ing seven years. The other bill, introduced by Mr Pitt ment immediately published a note intimating that these
into the House of Commons, provided, that no meeting of pretensions on the part of France were totally inadmis-
any description of persons, exceeding the number of fifty, sible ; and that while they were persisted in, nothing was
left but to prosecute a war equally just and necessary.
This first attempt towards negociation for peace gave rise
to various debates in the British parliament, in all of which
administration were supported by their usual majorities.
Supplies were voted during this session to the amount
of L.37,588,000, and upwards of twenty-five millions and
a half were borrowed. As no prospect existed that British
armies could be employed on the Continent, the guards
and garrisons were reduced to forty-nine thousand men;
the forces in the colonies were increased to seventy-seven
thousand ; and the sailors and marines amounted to a hun¬
dred and ten thousand. Taxes were imposed on legacies
to collateral relations, and on horses, and dogs, and hats;
the assessed taxes were increased, and also the duties on
wine, tobacco, salt, and sugar. Parliament was dissolved
on the 20th of May, and new elections immediately took
place.
An extremely active campaign was now opened by the
French upon the Continent. Their generals, Moreau and
Jourdan, penetrated into Germany; but they were ulti¬
mately repulsed by the Archduke Charles, though not till
they had reached the vicinity of Ratisbon. The retreat
of Moreau, amidst hostile armies, and through the difficul¬
ties and entanglements of the Black Forest, formed one of
the principal events of the war, and has been much laud¬
ed by some military writers, though severely criticised
by Napoleon. On the side of Italy the French obtained
greater success. Their new general in that quarter, Bo¬
naparte, turned the Alps by the Col di Tende, and gain¬
ing in rapid succession the victories at Montenotte, Mille-
simo, and Dego, compelled the king of Sardinia to desert
the allies, and to purchase peace at the expense of a con¬
siderable portion of his territory. He next descended into
the Milanese ; obliged the Italian states to surrender their
finest paintings, statues, and other curiosities, together with
large sums of money, as the price of peace ; and after a
except such as might be called by sherift's or other officers
or magistrates, should be holden for political purposes,
unless public notice had been previously given by seven
housekeepers; that if such a body should assemble with¬
out notice, and twelve or more individuals should continue
together, even quietly, for one hour after a legal order
lor their departure, they should be punished as felons,
without benefit of clergy; and that the same rigour might
be exercised, if any person, after due notice of the meet¬
ing, should use seditious language, or propose the irregu-
ar alteration of any thing by law established. With re-
gaid to the delivery of lectures or discourses, or the ex¬
ercise ol debate on topics connected with the laws and
government of the country, a license was declared to be
necessary. Very animated discussions took place upon
iese bills in both houses of parliament, and many peti-
10ns were presented against them; whilst, on the other
an , various corporations and public bodies petitioned
tiff ^ ?nactmenL But the result nevertheless was,
St’ll 6i 'S Were Passec^ by great majorities,
i , lowever, administration were sensible that it would
larit metneCeSSai^’ ^°r Sa^e Preserv*n& their popu-
end assume an appearance of willingness to put an
der f he •'rai ’ anC* accorcbngly, whilst the bills were un¬
kin? 1*CUS?1Pn’ each house received a message from the
dirprf10, i 1C^’ fading to the new constitution, and the
order °rfafV0Vernraent.0^ France, he stated that such an
any d ° ‘ * aiasen as would induce him to meet
full IT ne§0.c*ation on the part of the enemy with a
ofthfln,Ts.to §*ve it the speediest effect. An address
aaiendmen'fT^6611 moved’ Mr Sheridan suggested an
and to ’ lenclIng f° promote immediate negociation,
and Mr pm0Vie a^.°^stac^es t0 ^be attainment of peace;
oeed frJX 3 S° w^sbed that the first advances should pro-
it advisahl °fr cou.rt; bat Mr Pitt and Mr Dundas thought
e o wait until the enemy manifested a disposi-
480
BRITAIN.
Reign of multitude of sanguinary conflicts at Lodi, Arcole, Lonato,
George III. Castiglione, Rivoli, and other places, he succeeded in sub-
duing, by famine, Mantua, the only fortress that remain¬
ed to the Austrians in Italy. Few maritime events of much
importance occurred. The Dutch were deprived of their
whole intertropical possessions, with the exception of the
unhealthy but rich settlement of Batavia, in the island of
Java ; and they also lost a squadron which they had sent
out to attempt the re-capture of the Cape of Good Hope,
but which was itself made prize of by the British admiral
Sir George Elphinstone, afterwards Lord Keith. On the
other hand, the British were under the necessity of aban¬
doning Corsica, in consequence of the conquests of Bona¬
parte m Italy, and the mutinous spirit of his countrymen
the Corsicans. The result of the campaign was, that the
British ministry, in order to appease the nation,, found it
necessary to send Lord Malmesbury to Paris on the pre¬
tence of attempting to negociate a peace ; but it was af¬
terwards admitted by Mr Pitt that they had no wish to
conclude a treaty, and that the measure was adopted
merely in compliance with the wishes of the public. Ac¬
cordingly, as the French still refused to relinquish their
hold of the Netherlands, this was accounted a sufficient
reason for persevering in the war.
In the early part of the session of parliament, which
met on the 6th of October, there occurred few debates,
on account of the intention to attempt an immediate nego-
ciation, which had been announced in the king’s speech,
and afterwards from expectation of its issue. But at the
close of the year the French directory, in consequence
of an invitation from a disaffected party in Ireland, sent an
expedition of seventeen ships of the line and many smaller
vessels, having on board an army of eighteen thousand
men under General Hoche, to invade that country. The
violence of the weather prevented this armament from
assembling at the rendezvous in Bantry Bay, and no land¬
ing was in consequence attempted; so that the fleet re¬
turned home with the loss of two ships of the line and two
frigates, which perished in a tempest, and of one frigate
taken by the English. Shortly afterwards the French dis¬
embarked on the coast of Pembrokeshire twelve hundred
and fifty criminals, whom they had sent as soldiers upon
the Irish expedition, and knew not how to dispose of after
the failure of that attempt.
At this period the first instance of serious difficulty oc¬
curred in the management of the British funding system.
The large sums of money sent abroad as subsidies to fo¬
reign princes by government had diminished the quantity
of gold and silver in Great Britain, whilst administration,
through the medium of the Bank of England’s paper, had
issued immense sums for the public expenses, and in pay¬
ment of the additional interest of the national debt. The
alarm occasioned by the Irish invasion coming in addition
to these circumstances, produced a run upon the bank to
exchange its paper for specie; and as their coffers were
soon drained, they found themselves under the necessity
of giving a premium for bullion, which they paid with
their paper. This made matters worse, as certain persons
secretly melted down the guineas which the bank had
caused to be coined and issued, and sold the gold to the
bank as bullion for the sake of the premium. A ruinous
traffic was thus carried on by the bank, which purchased
bullion at a high rate, while they gave out their guineas at
par. The directors, therefore, were under the necessity
of laying their case before the privy council, which, after
considering the circumstances of the case, issued an order
authorizing the bank to discontinue the payment of their
notes in cash. Considerable alarm was occasioned by this
step; and committees of both houses of parliament were
appointed to inquire into the state of the bank’s affairs.
But although these were reported as prosperous, yet each R. n
^ 1 4- 4- ^ /-a w-a w-i ^ 1 / \ o /■»/"v n i v* n o _ C' _
~ —   n   i . a i w ~ a
committee recommended a continuance of the restric- Geo? |[
tion; and an act was therefore passed for confirming it, u
while, to render it less inconvenient, bank notes for one
and two pounds were put into circulation. As the bank
of England is the medium through which the British go¬
vernment issues all payments, and as these payments were
made in the bank’s paper, which administration might
induce the directors to augment indefinitely, many per¬
sons feared and predicted that this paper would speedily
sink in value when compared with gold and silver, as the
French assignats and the American paper currency had
done when rendered inconvertible at pleasure into specie.
The stability of the British funding system, however,
speedily displayed itself. The credit of the bank’s paper
remained unshaken, because government received it in
payment of all taxes; and although depreciation soon
followed, and prices necessarily rose, yet, from confidence
in our resources, and a conviction of the immutability of
the national faith, this depreciation was confined within
narrower limits than it would have reached in other coun¬
tries not so favourably circumstanced, and the credit of the
paper continued unaffected by an operation which would
have utterly ruined it anywhere else.
During the preceding year the emperor had received a
subsidy, under the name of a loan, from the British go¬
vernment, and a new subsidy was now given him under a
similar denomination. To supply this and the rest of the
national expenses, L.27,647,000 were voted early in the ses¬
sion, and afterwards above fifteen millions additional were
thought necessary, and voted. Two loans were nego-
ciated by government; one of sixteen millions and a half,
in the usual way, from money-brokers; and another ot
eighteen millions, called the Loyalty Loan, from the nobi¬
lity and gentry being requested to fill it up, which they
did with great eagerness. The troops voted consisted ol
a hundred and twenty thousand seamen; sixty thousand
seven hundred and sixty-five soldiers for European service,
and above sixty-four thousand for the dependencies ol
Great Britain. As the threat of invasion was now reviv¬
ed, a large supplementary body of militia was levied, to¬
gether with a considerable force consisting of cavalry
The interest of the two loans was provided for by taxes
upon houses, stage-coaches, horses, auctions, stamps on
agreements and newspapers, ornamental plate, spirits, tea,
coffee, and other articles. Towards the close of the ses¬
sion the opposition brought forward motions to address
the king to dismiss his ministers, resume the negotiation
with France, and repeal the two acts introduced in the
preceding session, by Lord Grenville and Mr Rdf dr ex
tending the treason law's, and imposing restrictions upon
popular meetings for political purposes. I hey were e
couraged by a variety of addresses which were Pre*eIj'
ed to his majesty at this time from different parts o
country, advising him to dismiss the present mimstr} ,
as usual, their efforts proved unavailing.
The French had now acquired such an ascendency
the Spanish monarchy, as to induce the governmen ^
that country to declare w'ar against Britain; an
afterwards the Spipiish fleet, amounting to twen )
sail of the line, attempted to join a French arm ’
but they were attacked by Sir John Jems on m
of February, near Cape St Vincent, with only
ot Tebruary, near cape ot vim;ent, win. — v . fw
of the line; and four of their ships, of from sevei y ^
or me line; aim iuui ui men v,. t v the
to a hundred and twelve guns, were made P11^, p of
British fleet. This victory may be regarded as tne ^
that mighty series of naval triumphs with wluc i
of Nelson is indissolubly associated. The Brm*h lor
consisted of two ships of a hundred guns, two o ^ ^
eight, two of ninety, eight of seventy-foui, an
r< in of sixty-four, with four frigates, a sloop, and a cutter. The
Gerelll-Spaniards had one four-decker of a hundred and thirty-
six guns, six three-deckers of a hundred and twelve
two eighty-fours, and eighteen seventy-fours; with ten
frigates and a brig. The disparity of force was therefore
prodigious. The British were formed in two lines in the
most compact order of sailing; and, by carrying a press
of canvass, Sir John Jervis came up with the enemy’s
fleet at half-past eleven on the 14th, before it had time to
collect and form a regular order of battle. Not a moment
was to be lo»t; so, departing from the regular system, the
British passed through their fleet, in a line formed with
the utmost celerity, tacked, and thereby cut off nine ships
or one third, from the main body. The vessels thus sepa¬
rated attempted to form on the larboard tack; but only
one of them succeeded, under cover of the smoke, which
prevented her intention being discovered till she had
reached the rear; whilst the others were so warmly re¬
ceived that they put about, and did not again appear in
the action till towards its close. The admiral now made
a signal to tack in succession; but Nelson, whose sta-
tion was m the rear of the British line, perceiving that
the Spaniards were bearing up before the wind with an
intention of forming their line, going large, and joining
their separated ships, or avoiding a close engagement,
disobeyed the signal, without a moment’s hesitation, and
ordered his ship to be wore. This at once brought him
m contact with the Santissima Trinidad of a hundred
and thirty-six guns, the San Josef of a hundred and
welve, the Salvador del Mundo of a hundred and twelve,
the San Nicolas of eighty, the San Isidro of seventy-four
another seventy-four, and another first-rate; but Trow-
biidge, in the Gulloden, immediately joined, and nobly
aXhTr T; a"d for,near]y an hour did the Culloden
, d 1 , CaPtain> Nelson s ship, maintain the most terribly
in the annals of ”aval warfare!
g the B,enheim, passing between them and the
.mn^gace therr\a resP,te’ while she poured in her fire
jJL the &Paniards. The Salvador del Mundo and San
tX f0iWur°^peiastern’ and were fired int<> in a mas-
terly styJe by the Excellent, Captain Collingwood. The
ban Isidro struck, and the Salvador also hauled down her
SLbUotfCh0"ingW00d> disdaW"S of taking
set fn 1 f beaten enemies, pushed on, with every sail
Cama n If^ ^ and messmat<h Nelson, iif the
rate bt bp? 'xr 1 thlS fired uPon by three first
Blenhehn ' ^ N,<;olas’and hY a seventy-four; whilst the
R w • 3 lead’ and the Culloden, crippled, astern
sail fuS m pe a°bleSt Styl6’ and llauling up his main-
SanNirnlp ’ Cohuigwood passed within ten feet of the
the Sant! • ’ her a tremendous fire, passed on to
when the The San Nicolas then luffed up,
his statinn&ajn Josef Pel on board her, and Nelson resumed
Captain he? 16381 t lem’ and cl°se alongside. But the
the* line or hfoh™ ln^aPab]e ?f further service, either in
to starbmrrl ° \aS?’ Ne,son directed the helm to be put
ders1 were^d’ ?nd,theLboarders to be called up. His Gr¬
and after n*18]ant k obeyed ; tbe San Nicolas was boarded,
in the mo" Xr,rbUt Sharp C°ntest hand hand, carried
musketrThavfnIh"111 But a fil'e °f pistoIs and
gallery of the 5 ^t1 0p^nud on the victors from the stern
^nd moretb! Sanf ^ Nelson, directing his captain to
that shin fmm ^t- pnze’ ^ave orders for boarding
sdf, exclIinfin he«Svn ^lcolas; and> fading the way him-
thing waS™g ?r Westminster Abbey!” the
enthusiasm wh?Uhed ^ an,,nstant’ with an energy and
the Spani-mb ]Cbi rea||er.ed aH resistance hopeless. But
had suffered ht?? Stl ei?h_teen or nineteen ships which
fleet which hnrl t.6 °r n° Injur^; and as the part of the
vol. y. been seParated from the main body in the
BRITAIN.
481
TS r nr7,coming fir John Jervis made signal lieign of
.f ‘ , ^ eueuny had chosen at this moment toGeorgeHI-
avail themselves of their great superiority of force, the    
criticiT1 Bnt,sh admiral would have been most
tical. His ships could not have formed without aban-
donmg those which they had captured, and running to
, ward; tbe Captain was lying a perfect wreck on board
her two prizes, with her fore-topmast shot awav, and not
a sail, shroud, or rope left, while her wheel was'smashed •
and many of the other ships were so shattered in their
masts and rigging as to be wholly unmanageable. But
the Spanish admiral, Don Josef de Cordova, having inquir¬
ed of his captains whether they judged it proper to renew
the action, and nine having answered in the negative, whilst
ot lers gave their opinion in favour of delay, abandoned
alf idea of recommencing the battle, and drew off, leaving
t ie British m possession of the prizes which they had so
gallantly won. For this victory the commander-in-chief
was rewarded with the title of Earl St Vincent, and Rear-
admiral Nelson had the order of the Bath given him. It
was his skilful and daring disobedience of orders which
rendered the battle decisive.
At the commencement of the summer an event occur-
led which, had the French been prepared to attempt an
invasion of this country, might have been productive or
sermus evils. This was a mutiny in the fleet. Gross im¬
positions had for some time been practised upon the sea¬
men, both as to the quantity and quality of the provisions
a lowed them ; and they had made an anonymous appli¬
cation for redress to Earl Howe. But the application was
disiegarded, because the strictness of discipline prevented
the open avowal or appearance of discontent, which his
lordship inconsiderately supposed had no existence ; and
the seamen, disappointed of the expected relief, resolved
to enforce the consideration of their claims. Accordingly,
when orders were given to prepare for putting to sea, the
ciew of the Queen Charlotte, and other ships lying at
opithead, refused to act; and treating with contempt the
remonstrances of the officers, they made choice of dele¬
gates, who after a formal consultation drew up petitions to
the board of admiralty and the House of Commons. Earl
Spencer, first lord of the admiralty, dreading a dangerous
mutiny, and not thinking the demands of the seamen unrea¬
sonable, promised compliance ; and the king readily offered
full pardon to all who should immediately return to their
duty. But the seamen would not be satisfied till the
parliament had confirmed the promises of the admiralty ;
and as some delay thus ensued, the irritation of their
minds led to a contest with Vice-admiral Colpoys, in which
some lives were lost. An act, however, was passed for the
gratification of the seamen in point both of pay and pro¬
visions ; and subordination was restored at Spithead and
Plymouth. I he concession of these claims encouraged
the seamen at the Nore to insist on a more punctual dis¬
charge of arrears, a more equal distribution of prize-money,
and a general abatement of the severity of discipline. A
council of delegates was elected, at the head of which was
a seaman named Richard Parker, who took the command
of the fleet, and prevailed upon the men to reject repeat¬
ed offers of pardon. He robbed two merchant ships of
piovisions, obstructed trade by the detention of other ves¬
sels, and fired on some ships of war which refused to accede
to the mutinous combination. An act of parliament was
passed in the beginning of June, denouncing capital punish¬
ment against all who should hold intercourse with the re¬
bellious ships, or voluntarily continue on board; and as
the public strongly disapproved of this last mutiny, for
which no excuse could be offered, the seamen gradually re¬
turned to their duty. Parker was apprehended, and, along
with several other mutineers, punished with death ; and a
3 p
482
BRITAIN.
lleign of considerable number were also condemned after trial, but away, a seaman of tbe name of Crawford nailed the flag Reign
George III. the greater part of them were pardoned. to the top-mast head.* This victory excited the most George 1
During the summer the port of Cadiz was blockaded lively joy in the British nation, from its tendency to put
by the British fleet under Sir John Jervis, now Earl St an end to all dread of invasion.
Vincent; and an attempt was made against the Spanish While their allies, or rather subjects, were suffering these
island of Teneriffe, but without success. Meanwhile an- disasters by sea, the French armies triumphed on the Con-
other fleet under Admiral Duncan watched the Texel; tinent. Bonaparte advanced from Italy against the centre
but the blockading force having retired for a short time, of the Austrian dominions, and, after several sanguinary
the Dutch fleet, under Admiral De Winter, put to sea. conflicts, crossed the Alps where they approach the fron-
Intelligence of this event having been broughtAo Admi- tiers of Hungary, and forced the emperor to conclude
ral Duncan at Yarmouth, he instantly proceeded in quest preliminaries of peace at Leoben, on the 18th of April,
of the enemy ; and about eleven o’clock in the forenoon which were followed by a definitive treaty, signed at Cam-
of the 11th October 1797 he got sight of the squadron po Formio, near Udine, on the 17th of October. The
which had been left to watch their motions, and which emperor acquired the city of Venice; but he relinquished
displayed signals of an enemy to leeward. Admiral Dun- the Milanese and the Netherlands, and, by secret arti-
can immediately made signal for a general chase, and cles, consented that the Rhine should form the boundary of
soon got sight of the Dutch, forming in a line on the star- France. Britain being now left alone in the contest into
board tack to receive him, the land between Camperdown which she had originally entered as an auxiliary to Aus-
and Egmont being then about nine miles to the leeward, tria and Prussia, the government opened a negociation to-
On making this discovery, he shortened sail to connect wards the close of the summer; and as both the French
the squadron ; and finding there was no time to be lost in and British nations eagerly wished lor a termination of this
making the attack, he made signal to bear up, break the sanguinary contest, it is probable that administration seri-
enemy’s line, and engage each ship her opponent to lee- ously wished to conclude a treaty; but at this time a party,
ward, without waiting to form the line of battle. The headed by the director Barras, had gained the ascendency
order was promptly and gallantly obeyed; Vice-admiral in France, and resolved to continue the war. A demand
Onslow, in the Monarch, bore down on the enemy’s rear, was therefoi'e made that Britain should renounce every con-
his division following his example ; and about forty mi- quest as a preliminary to negociation, whilst France reserv-
nutes past twelve o’clock the battle commenced. Admiral ed a right to make further demands; and on this being re-
Duncan, in the Venerable, also passed through the enemy’s fused, the British ambassador. Lord Malmesbury, was dis-
line, at the head of his division, and began a close action missed from Lisle, where the negociations had been opened,
with the enemy’s van, which lasted two hours and a half, Parliament assembled on the 2d of November. In the
when all the masts of the Dutch admiral’s ship were ob- speech from the throne his majesty stated his concern
served to go by the board, and she not long afterwards that his endeavours to restore peace had been rendered
struck to her opponent. The Dutch vice-admiral’s ship ineffectual, and expressed the fullest reliance on the mag¬
being also dismasted, surrendered to Vice-admiral Ons- nanimity and courage of the people. During this session
low, and nine others became the prizes of the conquerors, of parliament few or none of the members of opposition
The battle was obstinate and sanguinary; but its deci- attended. At the close of the preceding session they had
sive results may be ascribed to the bold manoeuvre of in- declared it to be their intention to retire from parliament;
stantly pushing between the enemy and the land, to which and they justified their conduct by alleging that, in times
they were fast approaching. Had Admiral Duncan waited when every man who censured the measures of admini-
to form line of battle, in the ordinary way, there either stration was regarded as in league with the enemy, it was
would have been no action at all, or if the British had equally painful and useless to incur such odium; that it
attacked, the Dutch admiral, by getting nearer to the they declared their sentiments, they were proclaimed as
shore, would probably have drawn both fleets on it, which the enemies of the king, and if they tacitly acquiesced m
would have been a victory to him. The force on both the measures of the minister, they voluntarily took upon
sides was nearly equal, each squadron consisting of six- themselves a share of the responsibility; that they ha
teen ships of two decks; but of the British not more done their utmost to prevent the war, and had urged re-
than ten ships were seriously engaged, and these captured peatedly the necessity of bringing it to a speedy termina-
eleven of the enemy. Had Admiral Duncan’s fleet been tion, without persuading their opponents; thateventsmus
composed of the same materials as Lord St Vincent’s, now take their natural course ; and that as they could no
every Dutch ship would have been taken ; and the same aid byr their counsel, it should not be said that they em ar
result would have followed had all the ships followed the rassed by their opposition. This retirement of opposition
example set them by the Venerable. The fact is, how- was much resented, and spoken of with great bitterness, y
ever, that the British squadron was composed of very in- the friends of administration, as it suggested to the na io^
different and inadequate vessels, many of them having the idea that government was conducted by the power
been intended for Indiamen ; and that it was otherwise the crown alone, unchecked by any discussion of its mea
in many respects ill conditioned and deficient; but there sures in the two legislative assemblies. ,
was no want of gallantry on the part of the crews, and The inability of the bank of England to pay upon ^
when the main-top-gallant mast of the Venerable was shot mand its notes in specie, according to ancient custom
1 The following characteristic anecdote has been related of an officer who distinguished himself by his gallantry, m this . ^
Captain Inglis of the Belliqueux of sixty-four guns, owing either to long absence from the service, or to an inaptitude 11 . 'f
uncommon among naval officers of the old school, had neglected to make himself master of the signal-book; and on the mo
the day of battle, when it became necessary to act with promptitude, in obedience to the signals, he found himself more con.
enlightened by it. After poring over it for some time, without being in any degree benefited by the perusal, he threw it are
tempt upon the deck, exclaiming in broad Scotch, “ Damn me, up wi’ the hellem and gang into the middle o’t.” I “ese w ^Teis0n,
instinct with the true spirit of battle, and show that Captain Inglis bravely anticipated the remedy in such cases provided y ^
who, in his celebrated memorandum on the eve of the mighty combat of Trafalgar, observes, that “ if a captain should be ^ ^ nQ t;me
cannot do very wrong if he lay his ship alongside of the enemy.” In strict conformity with this doctrine, the Belliqueux os ^ ^
in “ ganging into the middle o’t,” by attacking the enemy’s van, which she contributed to throw into confusion, althoug
rather roughly treated by them before she could be supported.
BRITAIN.
a of the terms of the obligation contained in these notes, ap-
? HI-pears now to have created in Mr Pitt’s mind some dread
respecting the funding system, and an apprehension, that
from the immense sums annually borrowed, and the cor¬
responding quantity of paper-money necessarily issued to
pay the interest of the loans, the system might be car¬
ried so far as to discredit the paper-money issued in the
name of the bank of England. And this apprehension
was strengthened by a fact, of which everybody was daily
becoming more sensible, namely, that the money price of
all kinds of property in Great Britain had rapidly risen
during the war; and this rise of price was justly ascribed
to a gradual sinking in the value of money, or of paper,
the only money used in Britain, in consequence of its too
great abundance. Mr Pitt therefore proposed, instead of
borrowing the whole sum necessary to defray the expense
of the war, and imposing no more taxes than were requi¬
site to pay the interest of the loan, that heavier taxes
should be imposed, in order to defray a portion of the ex¬
traordinary expenditure. Accordingly an act was passed
for raising seven millions within the year; and this was to
be effected by augmenting the assessed taxes, but so as
not to compel any individual to pay more than one tenth
of his income. The leading members of opposition attend¬
ed to oppose this extraordinary measure, but without effect.
As the French were now disencumbered of all other ad¬
versaries, it was naturally expected that they would turn
their arms in a more direct manner than formerly against
the British empire. The result of the combination of the
states of Europe for the partition of France had been ex¬
tremely disastrous, and had left the new republic in pos¬
session of an extent of territory which the ablest and most
ambitious of the French monarchs had in vain aspired to
possess. The command which they had now obtained of
Holland rendered France more dangerous than formerly,
by the superior means of invasion which an additional ex¬
tent of coast and the possession of a large quantity of
shipping might afford; and had the French navy been less
weak, or the French rulers possessed of greater ability, a
dangerous crisis in the history of Great Britain might at
this period have occurred. It never ivas the interest of
any British administration to conceal from the public at
arge the possibility of a foreign invasion; and as the
french government at this time boasted of their intention
to make such an attempt, and ordered a considerable army
to advance to the sea coast, it became the duty of mini-
steis in Great Britain to make preparations to resist any
such effort. Accordingly they came forward in parlia¬
ment to propose measures of defence; and the danger with
which the nation considered itself as threatened obliged all
men m some measure still to adhere to an administration
winch m other respects might have lost their popularity
10m the ill success of their late measures. On the 8th
0 february 1798 Mr Dundas introduced into the House
o ommons a bill to enable the king to incorporate in the
eguar militia a portion of the supplementary militia. And
118 i being passed with little debate, the same mini-
er, on the 27th ot March, moved for leave to bring in an-
mr, to enable his majesty to provide for the security and
mioht06 t\lese realms, and to indemnify persons who
Su“er injury in their property by the operation of
ever meas?jres* 1 he object of this bill was to provide for
to dis POSS™e emergency, by giving a power to his majesty
and ?C0Jer what persons were prepared to appear in arms
asrpr*0 ■ 6 embodied for the public defence; and also to
tricts am n i numher of the inhabitants of certain dis-
rinuc ^.ou . he able to act as pioneers, or in other labo-
event^f11,3^^11** other provisions were, that in the
to rpm ltS kein& necessary to employ persons as pioneers
me stock, or assist in facilitating the carriage of
483
Military stores, proper compensation would be made; and Reign of
tie bill was also intended to give a power of embodying a George Ilf.
portion of the regular militia, and employing them in the '
defence of the country. This bill was passed into a law
after some unimportant debates, the principal members of
opposition not usually attending.
As it was supposed that the war, on the part of Britain,
would occasion greater expense than when all Europe had
been engaged in it along with her, the supplies were aug¬
mented to L.35,000,000; and, with a view to draw re¬
sources from distant parts of the country, instead of rais¬
ing large loans for the public service, which were nego-
ciated in London alone, Mr Pitt brought forward a scheme
by which proprietors of land were enabled to redeem the
land-tax; in other words, the owner of land, and, failing
him, any other person, was to be permitted to purchase this
tax, by a transfer of stock, which produced a dividend
greater than the amount of the impost. The measure be¬
came law, but produced little immediate effect.
On the 25th of May Mr Pitt brought forward a bill in
the House of Commons, with a view to increase the navy,
and to resist with greater success the threatened invasion.
On this occasion an event occurred, which indicated, that
by the long possession of power, and the support he had
received from the nation, Mr Pitt had suffered to grow
upon him a certain haughtiness of manner and impatience
of contradiction, which, in former times, would have proved
extremely inconvenient to a British minister. On the sub¬
ject of his proposed bill, he observed, that the object he
had in view was to suspend, for a limited time, the pro¬
tections which various descriptions of persons enjoyed, to
prevent them from being impressed into the service of
the navy; and he stated it as his wish that the bill should
that day pass through its different stages, with a suitable
pause at each if required, and that it should be sent to the
Lords for their concurrence. Mr Tierney remarked on the
very extraordinary manner in which Mr Pitt called upon
the house to adopt this measure. He had imagined that
the augmentation of the navy was to be provided for in
the usual way; or, if any very uncommon mode was to be
resorted to for the attainment of that object, that notice
would have been given to the house. He had heard no
arguments that proved its propriety; and even if he had,
some time ought to have been allowed to weigh the force
of such arguments, before proceeding to give three or four
votes on a measure, of which no notice of any kind had
been given. If the ministers persisted in hurrying the bill
through the house in the manner proposed, he must give
it a decided negative; and, indeed, from what he had al¬
ready seen, he must view all their measures as hostile to
the liberties of the subjects of this country. Mr Pitt re¬
plied, that if every measure adopted against the designs
of France was to be considered as hostile to the liberty of
this country, then indeed his idea of liberty differed widely
from that of the honourable gentleman. He observed that
he had given notice before of the present motion, and that
if it were not passed in a day, those whom it concerned
might elude its effects. But if the measure was necessary,
and if a notice of it would enable its effects to be eluded,
how could the honourable gentleman’s opposition be ac¬
counted for, except from a desire to obstruct the defence of
the country ? Mr Tierney called Mr Pitt to order; and
the Speaker observed, that whatever had a tendency to
throw suspicion on the sentiments of a member, if con¬
veyed in language that clearly marked that intention, was
certainly irregular. Mr Pitt replied, that if the house
waited for his explanation, he feared it must wait a long
time. He knew very well that it was unparliamentary to
state the motives that actuated the opinions of gentlemen ;
but it was impossible to go into arguments in favour of a
484
BRITAIN.
Reign of question, without sometimes hinting at the motives that
George III. induced an opposition to it. He submitted to the judg-
ment of the house the propriety of what he argued ; and
he would not depart from any thing he had advanced, by
either retracting or explaining it. The result of this
altercation was a duel on the following Sunday between
Mr Pitt and Mr Tierney. They went to Putney Heath,
attended by seconds, and, standing at the distance of
twelve paces, fired two shots each ; but Mr Pitt discharged
his second pistol in the air, upon which the seconds in¬
terfered, and thus the affair terminated.
During the summer of this year a rebellion broke out in
Ireland, the particulars of which will be stated in their
proper place. The enthusiasm which the French revolu¬
tion had kindled in so many quarters of Europe extended
itself to Ireland. There, some men of ardent imaginations,
chiefly Protestant dissenters, persuaded themselves that
they could regenerate their country, cast off the dominion
of Great Britain, heal the unhappy divisions among the in¬
habitants of Ireland, and convert it into an independent
republic. As early as the year 1793 these persons formed
themselves into a society, under the name of the United
Irishmen, and were gradually joined by a very large pro¬
portion of the population of the country. They applied
for aid from France; and it was in consequence of their
urgent invitation that the unsuccessful expedition under
General Hoche was undertaken. From that period the
country remained in a state of the greatest alarm. On
the one side rigorous laws were enacted, and every effort
was made, by severity of punishment, to repress all appear¬
ance of opposition to the existing government; whilst, on
the other, the common people busied themselves in the
fabrication and concealment of pikes, or broke into the
houses of country gentlemen, to seize whatever fire-arms
gociation carried on at Rastadt, between the French di- Reigi
rectory and the German empire. It was conducted with George]
much slowness, and ultimately proved ineffectual. But
whilst it was in progress, the French government, having
contrived to quarrel with the Swiss cantons, invaded and
seized their country, and converted it into a new republic,
under their own influence. Austria, however, had been
so much humbled by recent losses, that she did not ven¬
ture, on this occasion, to assert the independence of Swit¬
zerland, although it must have been evident that her own
independence was ultimately connected with that object.
Switzerland consists of a vast assemblage of lofty and pre¬
cipitous mountains, situated in such a manner as to divide
the most important countries of Europe from each other.
On one side these mountains look down upon the fertile
territory of Italy; to the north they command the very
centre of Germany ; and to the west they are bounded by
France. For ages they have been inhabited by a virtuous
and fearless race of people, divided into petty communi¬
ties, who contented themselves with maintaining their
own independence; and though, as individuals, they en¬
tered into the military service of the neighbouring princes,
yet, as a people, they had long ceased to take any part in
the wars of Europe. For some centuries the independence
of Switzerland proved the chief basis of the independence
of the neighbouring nations. All parties respected and
avoided any dispute with the Swiss, in a wmr against whom
much might be lost, but nothing could be won. Accord¬
ingly, when the French attacked the Austrians, and when
the Austrians attacked the French, the assailing party
was under the necessity of sending its armies to a great
distance from the centre of its own power. If defeated,
the march homewards was long and difficult; whilst, even
if tolerably successful, the attack never proved seriously
they could discover. The schemes of the disaffected party dangerous, in consequence of its having been made in a
were sreatly disconcerted by the discovery and apprehen- remote quarter with limited means Hence, in 1796, when
A rebellion, however, ac- the French generals Moreau and Jour dan marched through
were greatly disconcerted by
sion of their principal leaders
tually broke out; but, though attended with considerable
destruction of human lives and of property, it was of a
partial nature, and speedily suppressed. During its exist¬
ence some circumstances occurred which completely de¬
monstrated of how visionary a nature had been the schemes
of those persons who hoped to establish in Ireland an in-
Suabia and Franconia to invade Austria, the length of
their march afforded many opportunities of attacking them
with success ; and the invaded country had full leisure to
call forth its whole resources against them. The result was,
that when Jourdan sustained a defeat, the retreat of the
other army became almost impracticable ; and hence arose
dependent government upon any basis that could afford the unbounded reputation acquired by Moreau for accom-
a tolerable hope of national prosperity. The disaffected plishing it with success. Had the French at that peno
party among the Protestants, too weak to be able of them- occupied Switzerland, the retreat of Moreau would have
selves either to shake oft' the dominion of Great Britain, been attended with little or no difficulty; because, by re-
or to assume the ascendency in Ireland, were under the tiring into that rugged country, he could easily have ma ea
necessity of calling in the aid of the Roman Catholics, stand against a very superior force for a considerable time,
who constitute the great mass of Irish population; and till he had received reinforcements. For the future, t ere
they were the more readily induced to do so, from a no- fore, by commencing a war of invasion against Austiia, no
tion, which of late years had very generally gained ground upon the frontiers contiguous to France, but at the eas ern
in Europe, that religious sentiments form no proper ground extremity of the Swiss mountains, the French, ”,SUCC^l
of distinction in civil society, and from perceiving the fa- ful, might reach the gates of Vienna in a few weeks,
cility with which the Catholics of France had set at defi- independence of Switzerland, by placing these nations^
ance the religion of their fathers, when placed in compe- a distance from each other, had hitherto prevente s
tition with what they accounted the interests of freedom, an enterprise from being carried into effect; and t le
or the means of aggrandisement to their country. But it sent removal of that barrier by the French directory^^
speedily appeared that these new maxims of conduct could ring a period of peace with Austria, displayed, upon
part, a correct knowledge of the cause which hac a _
not be adopted by the superstitious and illiterate peasantry
of Ireland. The Catholics were no sooner in arms than
their chief animosity came to be directed, not against the
dominion of Britain, nor against any form of civil govern¬
ment, but against their own countrymen of the Protestant
faith, who must thus ultimately have fallen a sacrifice to „ _
the success of their own schemes. In short, it became against the European part of the British en?Fir^‘jeW 0f
evident that Ireland could not possibly exist in tranquillity, French government, however, with the doub e
or with safety to the Protestant part of its inhabitants, in- attacking the rich empire which Britain had acqw
dependent of the supremacy of Great Britain. Asia, and of removing a successful military c ue , ^ ^
Upon the Continent, the world was amused with a ne- ambition was already accounted dangerous, foime
times set bounds to the ambition of France, an at
same time evinced a determined spirit ot hostility aga
the independence of the surrounding states. ,
Meanwhile the weakness of the French navy renc ^
it impossible for them to engage in any seiloy* a »p]ie
BRITAIN.
IU>i of
Geon HI
sign of sending Bonaparte, with an army, to seize upon
and colonize Egypt. To accomplish this scheme with the
greater safety, the threats of invading England were loudly
renewed; the troops stationed on the coast were denomi¬
nated the Army of England; and Bonaparte being now
appointed their commander, visited them in person. But
suddenly departing, he embarked at Toulon with a power¬
ful army, before his intentions were suspected in Great Bri¬
tain ; Malta was surrendered to him on his passage ; and de¬
parting thence, he landed in safety in the vicinity of Alex¬
andria, and soon made himself master of all Egypt. Here,
however, his successes terminated. He was"closely pur¬
sued by a British fleet under Admiral Nelson; and the
French admiral, Brueys, having remained at anchor near
the shore in the Bay of Aboukir, afforded an opportunity
for the British navy to earn one of its proudest and most
decisive triumphs.
Why Bonaparte, having effected a landing in Egypt,
should not have suffered the fleet to return, has never
been explained. He accused Admiral Brueys, after that
officer’s death, of having lingered on the coast, contrary
to orders; and the same charge is repeated in the me¬
moirs which he transmitted from the place of his exile.
But it is scarcely credible that any officer, situated as
Brueys was, would have incurred the heavy responsibility
which such disobedience incurs; and the more probable
supposition therefore seems to be, that the fleet was de¬
tained by Bonaparte’s orders. It arrived at Alexandria on
the first of July; and Brueys, not being able to enter the
port which time had ruined, moored his ships in Aboukir
Bay, in a strong and compact line of battle; the headmost
vessel being close to the shoal on the north-west of the bay,
and the rest of the fleet forming a curve along the line of
deep water, so as not to be turned by any means in the
south-west. He had in fact made the best of his situation,
and chosen the strongest position which he could possibly
take in an open roadstead; so much so, indeed, that the
commissary of the fleet thought they were moored in such
a manner as to bid defiance to a force double their own.
Besides, the advantage of numbers, in ships, guns, and
men, was in favour of the French. They had thirteen
ships of the line and four frigates, carrying eleven hun¬
dred and ninety-six guns, and eleven thousand two hun-
dred and thirty men. The English had the same number
of ships of the line, and one fifty-gun ship, the Leander,
caxrying only a thousand and twelve guns, and eight
t lousand and eighty-six men. The French had one three-
cecker of a hundred and twenty guns, and three eighty-
TVi'1 S^'PS ’ English ships were all seventy-fours.
e moment Nelson perceived the position of the enemy,
ns intuitive genius suggested to him the decisive concep¬
tion, that where there was room for a French ship to swing,
tieie was room for an English ship to anchor; and the
p an he accordingly adopted was to keep entirely on the
exterior side of the French, and station his ships, as far as
ne was able, one on the outer bow, and another on the
ou er quarter of each of the enemy’s, thus doubling on
nem in the way which had been projected by Lord
owe when he intended to attack the French fleet at
le*r anchorage in Gourjean road.
s the British squadron advanced the enemy opened a
■16 1(lra ^le starboard side of their whole line into the
ows o the leading ships. It was received in silence and
i stein composure; whilst the men on board of every
i ^ w®.re en)ployed aloft in furling the sails, and below
Cmt0’1 lnf i^le Braces, and making ready for anchoring.
Zeal310 , .y ^ the way in the Goliath, outsailing the
noiip°U^i i!-C^ ^0r so?ie minutes disputed the post of ho-
ner ItT^ 1 ’ an<^ intending to fix himself on the in-
w the Guerrier, kept as near the edge of the
485
shoal as the depth of water would admit; but his anchor Reign of
hung, and having opened his fire, he drifted to the second George III.
ship, the Conquerant, before it was clear, then anchored by ' 
the stern inside of her, and in ten minutes shot away her
masts. Captain Hood in the Zealous took the station
which the Goliath intended to have occupied, and in twelve
minutes totally disabled the Guerrier. The Orion, Sir
James Saumarez, next passed to windward of the Zealous,
discharging her larboard guns as long as they bore on the
Guerrier; and running inside the Goliath, sunk a frigate
which annoyed her, hauled round towards the French line,
and anchoring inside between the fifth and sixth ships
from the Guerrier, took her station on the larboard bow
of the Franklin and the larboard quarter of the Peuple
Souverain, receiving and returning the fire of both. The
Audacious, Captain. Gould, pouring in a heavy fire into
the Guerrier and the Conquerant, fixed herself on the
larboard bow of the latter, and, when that ship struck,
passed on to the Peuple Souverain. The Theseus, Cap¬
tain Millar, followed, and having brought down the Guer-
rier’s main and mizzen masts, anchored inside the Spar-
tiate, the third ship of the enemy’s line. The sun was now
nearly down ; but Nelson’s decisive manoeuvre had already
been completely executed in its most critical parts.
The Vanguard, bearing the admiral’s flag, and leading
his division, now anchored on the outside of the enemy’s
line, within half-pistol-shot of the Spartiate, and veering
half a cable, instantly opened a tremendous fire, under
cover of which the Minotaur, Bellerophon, Defence, and
Majestic, passed ahead to occupy their several stations.
On this side the French were completely prepared; and
in a few minutes every man stationed at the first six
guns in the fore part of the Vanguard’s deck was either
killed or wounded. The Minotaur anchored next ahead
of the Vanguard, and took off the fire of the Aquilon, the
fourth in the enemy’s line. The Bellerophon passed ahead
and anchored by the stern on the starboard bow of the
Orient of a hundred and twenty guns, Brueys’ own ship,
and the seventh in the line, “ whose difference of force
was in proportion of more than seven to three, and whose
weight of ball from the lower deck alone exceeded that
from the whole broadside of the Bellerophon.” The De¬
fence took her station ahead of the Minotaur, and engaged
the enemy’s sixth ship, the Franklin, by which judicious
proceeding the British line remained unbroken. The Ma¬
jestic having got entangled with the main rigging of one
of the French ships astern of the Orient, suffered severely
from the heavy fire of that three-decker; but she at length
swung clear, and engaging the Heureux, or ninth ship, on
the starboard bow, received also the fire of the Tonnant,
which was the eighth in their line. The remaining four
ships of the British squadron, having been detached pre¬
vious to the discovery of the French, were at a consider¬
able distance when the action commenced, which was at
half past six ; and as night closed about seven, they had
no other light to guide them in going into action than the
fire of the contending fleets.
Irowbridge in the Culloden, the foremost of the re¬
maining ships, being two leagues astern, came on sound¬
ing as the others had done ; but as he advanced the dark¬
ness increased the difficulty of the navigation; and sud-
denly, after having found eleven fathoms water, and before
the lead could be hove again, he was fast aground; nor
could all exertions get off the ship in time to bear a part
in the action. This accident, however, proved in some
degree fortunate, since the Culloden served as a beacon
to the Alexander and Swiftsure, which would otherwise
have gone upon the reef, and thus enabled them to enter
the bay and take their stations in the darkness. As the
Swiftsure was bearing down she fell in with what at first
BRITAIN.
486
Reign of seemed to be a strange sail, but proved to be the Belle-
George IH-rophon, which, overpowered by the Orient, was now drifit-
ing out of the line towards the lee side of the bay, with
her sails hanging loose, her lights knocked overboard,
nearly two hundred of her crew killed or wounded, and all
her masts and cables shot away. Suspecting how it was,
Captain Hallowell, with great judgment, abstained from
firing; and occupying with the Swiftsure the station of
the disabled ship, he opened a heavy fire on the quarter of
the Franklin and the bows of the French admiral; whilst
Captain Ball, in the Alexander, passed under the stern of
the Orient, and anchoring within side on her larboard
quarter, raked her, at the same time keeping up a severe
fire of musketry on her decks. Lastly, the Leander, find¬
ing nothing could be done to get off the Culloden, advan¬
ced with the intention of anchoring athwart hawse of
the Orient; but the Franklin being so near ahead that
there was not room for him to pass clear of the two, he
took his station athwart hawse of the latter.
This description will serve to convey an accurate idea
both of the plan of attack and of the mode in which it was
carried into execution. Though fiercely contested and
sanguinary, the issue of the battle was never for an in¬
stant doubtful. The first two ships of the French line
had been dismasted within a quarter of an hour after the
commencement of the action, and the others had suffered
so severely that victory was already certain. At half past
eight o’clock the third, fourth, and fifth, were taken pos¬
session of; and about nine a fire broke out in the Orient,
which soon mastered the ship, illuminating the contend¬
ing fleets with the light of the conflagration. About ten
o’clock the ship blew up with an explosion so tremendous
that the firing immediately ceased on both sides, and for
a time no sound was heard to break this awful pause, ex¬
cept the dash of her shattered yards, masts, and timbers
falling into the water from the great height to which they
had been projected. The firing recommenced with the
ships to the leeward of the centre; and at daybreak the
Guillaume Tell and the Genereux, the two rear ships of
the enemy, formed the only portion of their line which had
colours flying. Not having been engaged, these ships cut
their cables in the forenoon and stood out to sea, accom¬
panied by two frigates, being the only portion of the ene¬
my’s fleet which escaped. It is needless to add that the
victory was complete. Of thirteen sail of the line, nine
were taken and two burnt; and of four frigates one was
burnt and another sunk. The British loss in killed and
wounded amounted to eight hundred and ninety-five ;
while of the French three thousand one hundred and
five, including the wounded, were sent on shore by cartel,
and five thousand two hundred and twenty-five perished.
About two hours after the commencement of the action,
Nelson received a severe wound on the head from a piece
of langridge shot; and Captain Westcott of the Majestic
fell. Brueys was killed before the fire broke out which
destroyed his noble vessel. He had received three wounds,
yet would not leave his post; but a fourth cut him almost
in twain, and he died like a hero on the deck. From the
description of this battle, or rather naval conquest, it must
be obvious that its triumphant success was owing to a
skilful repetition, with necessary variations, of the man¬
oeuvre which had decided the victory at Camperdown;
and in fact Nelson, although not acquainted with Lord
Duncan, wrote to him, soon after the battle, to tell his
lordship how “ he had profited by his example.”1 * *
From the time of the battle of Actium, by which the so¬
vereignty of the Roman empire was decided, no naval vie- Reigr
tory was ever attended with consequences so immediatelyGeorge ;i
and obviously important as this. The French directory had f
concealed their intended enterprise from the Ottoman
Porte, which lays claim to the sovereignty of Egypt, but
has never been able to make its claim fully effectual. The
grand signior, however, considered the present attempt
as an act of hostility against himself; and the maritime
victory above mentioned encouraged him to declare war,
in the name of all true Mahommedan believers, against
that host of infidels which had invaded the land from
which the sacred territory of Mecca is supplied with
bread. In Europe similar consequences took place. The
irresistible career of Bonaparte had compelled Austria to
submit to peace, upon terms which left France in a state
of most dangerous aggrandizement. But as this victorious
chief, with the best part of his veteran army, was new
held under blockade by the British fleet in a distant coun¬
try, the hopes of Austria began to revive, and there
seemed reason to expect, that by renewing the contest,
her ancient rank in Europe might be recovered. The
king of Naples entered into these views with great eager¬
ness, and rashly declared war against France, without
waiting for, and following, as he ought, the movements
of the greater powers. The empress of Russia was now
dead, and her son Paul had succeeded to the throne of
the Czars. The empress had never contributed more than
her good wishes towards the war which the other powers
of Europe had waged against France ; but her son, a man
of a furious and passionate character, had not the sense
to follow the same cautious policy, or to remain a quiet
spectator of the issue of a contest against the French
republic ; and, encouraged by the naval victory of the Nile,
which seemed to insure the absence of Bonaparte and his
army, he declared his willingness, as far as his finances
would permit, to join in a new combination against France.
Thus, by the victory of the Nile, Great Britain was en¬
abled to procure allies, willing to send abundance of troops
against her enemy, provided she consented to defray the
necessary expense. In the mean time, the acquisitions
and losses of Britain were nearly equally balanced in other
quarters. An armament sailed towards the island of Mi¬
norca, and a descent w7as effected near the creek of Ad-
daya. Here a body of Spaniards threatened to surround
the first division of the invading army ; but they wrere soon
repulsed, and our troops gained a position from which
they might have attacked the enemy with advantage, u
the latter had not retired in the evening. The army
seized the post of Mescadal, and a detachment took the
town of Mahon and Fort Charles. It was expected that
the principal stand would have been made at Civadella,
where new works had been added to the old fortifications,
but the approach of the English drove the Spaniards within
the walls of the town, and General Stewart summoned the
governor to surrender it without delay. Intimidated by t e
movements of the troops and the appearance of the squa¬
dron, the garrison capitulated, and thus the whole islan
was I’educed without the loss of a single man. But towar s
the end of the same year, the British troops, which during
a considerable length of time had occupied a great num
ber of positions upon the coast of the island of k*- ®
mingo, found it necessary to abandon the whole,
power of the French government there had nearly be ^
annihilated by a negro commander, Toussaint-Louvc-
ture, to whom the British surrendered Port-au-Prince
St Marc. The losses incurred in consequence of the
1 Ekins’ Naval Battles, pp. 234, 237. Southey’s Life of Nelson, vol. i. p. 220 et seqq. We beg here, once for all, to at; n0g.('ape
our obligations to this admirable and authentic biography for the principal materials of our condensed accounts of the battle o
St Vincent, the attack on Copenhagen, and the mighty crowning achievement of Trafalgar.
] gn of fortunate attempt made by the British government to sub-
l ge III. jugate this island were immense
BRITAIN.
487
Parliament assembled on the 20th of November; and
in the speech from the throne it was observed, that the
success which had attended our arms during the course
of the present year had been productive of the happiest
consequences, and promoted the prosperity of the coun¬
try; that our naval triumphs had received fresh splen¬
dour from the memorable action in which Lord Nelson
had attacked a supeiior enemy, and turned an extravagant
enterprise to the confusion of its authors; that the mag¬
nanimity of the emperor of Russia and the vigour of the
Ottoman Porte had shown that these powers were im¬
pressed with a just sense of the present crisis ; that their
example would be an encouragement to other states to
adopt that line of conduct which was alone consistent
with security and honour; that our preparatious at home
had deterred the enemy from attempting to invade our
coasts; that in Ireland the rebellion had been suppressed ;
that under the pressure of protracted war, the produce of
the public revenue had been fully adequate to the increase
of our permanent expenditure; that the national credit
had been improved, and commerce flourished in a degree
formerly unknown. The debates which occurred in the
House of Commons upon this occasion were not remarkably
interesting, as the leading members of the old opposition
were usually absent. Administration was chiefly opposed
by Mr Tierney, Sir Francis Burdett, Sir John Sinclair, and
Sir William Pulteney. In the House of Lords, Earl Darn-
ley moved the usual address to the throne, which was se¬
conded by Lord Craven.
As a prospect had now opened of reviving, upon a most
extensive scale, the continental war against France, it be-
came necessary to provide great pecuniary resources to
subsidize the armies which were to be brought forward,
especmlly by the Russians, the poverty of whose country
could ill afford to sustain the expense of supporting armies
in ta y or on the banks of the Rhine. The same difficulties,
or rather doubts, however, concerning the prudence of car-
rying to its utmost length the British practice of borrowing
money to defray the extraordinary expense incurred during
eac year of the war, which had led to an augmentation of
wnat are called the assessed taxes, still induced the mi¬
nis er to attempt to raise a proportion of the extraordinary
or wai expenditure within the year, not by a loan, but by
axes to the requisite amount. With this view he brought
or war what was accounted a very bold measure, namely,
project for imposing a general tax upon the income of
in f? ln„lvldual throughout the nation. Mr Pitt stated
i e. ouse Commons his plan to be, that no one
he 0?*j.lnc®rne was less than sixty pounds per annum should
naid- i?6 contribute more than the taxes he already
vond' ti Ut ™at every one who had an income of or be-
in ill la^ am?unt should be additionally burdened, some
All wbPrKrtl0n ten Per cent' and others at a lower rate,
to sio- ° i iW° hundred pounds a year would be required
sum f i ec , ati°n el" their willingness to pay a certain
narHm -e^S 1 lan a tenth part of their income, without
of pae, arizlnS the modes in which it accrued ; and a scale
doubts ci)n?Putation would be adjusted for the rest. If
commit' 1 6 fai!ness °f the statement should arise, the
and demm*&ht summon an individual before them,
and if ^ uPoa oath a minute specification of his income ;
racv shm n continuance of suspicion, full proof of accu-
of contn’k .not he adduced, they might fix the amount
no relipf U ^ley should require more than a tenth,
amn or .n °U allowed unless the books of the trades-
snbrnittpA6 ?rdlnary accounts kept by others, should be
plan Mr pP ln'sPec.ti°n. Having stated the outlines of his
1 mentioned the data upon which he formed
an estimate of its produce. He was of opinion that the Reign of
annual rent of all the land in England and Wales amount-George III.
ed to twenty-five millions of pounds sterling; a sum which,   
by the allowance of a fifth part for the exceptions under
sixty pounds, and the modifications under two hundred
pounds a-year, would be reduced to twenty millions. Six
millions, he thought, might be assumed as the clear income
of the land to tenants, the tithes might be valued at four
millions, the produce of mines, canals, and the like, at three,
the rents of houses at five, and the profits of the liberal pro¬
fessions at two; on all these heads it might be sufficient to
allow an eighth part for Scotland, which would be five mil-
ions. Income drawn from possessions beyond seas might
be stated at five millions; annuities from the public funds
at twelve; and those of internal trade, mechanical skill,
and industry, at twenty-eight millions. These calculations
formed an aggregate of a hundred and two millions; and
iiom this source about , ten millions of supply were ex-
pected to arise. Ihis measure was opposed, without suc¬
cess, by Mr Tierney, Sir John Sinclair, Mr Pulteney, and
others. Its chief defects were its inequality in point of
pi inciple, and the falsehood it occasioned with a view to
evade it when carried into practice. Its inequality in point
of principle is extremely obvious; because, under the tax
upon income, a man without capital who earned two hun¬
dred pounds per annum by his industry, paid the same
tax to government with a man living in idleness and en-
joying a revenue of the same amount upon a land estate.
In its collection this tax presented to merchants, and all
other persons whose income depends upon their own in¬
dustry, a powerful temptation to represent the amount of
the latter as extremely low. It was expected, indeed, that
the vanity of appearing wealthy and prosperous wmild coun¬
teract this tendency; but it was soon found that, in a com¬
mercial community, the love of gain is not easily subdued
by any other passion; and as a general understanding soon
prevailed among men with regard to each other’s feelings
upon this subject, nobody regarded his neighbour as un-
prosperous, merely because he had reported his own in¬
come to government at a low rate.
The fear of a French invasion had in a former age in¬
duced the English nation so far to overcome their own
prejudices as to consent to an incorporating union with
Scotland. The rebellion in Ireland, together with the
dread that by means of French aid Ireland might be dis¬
membered from the British empire, as the American co¬
lonies had been, now produced a sense of the necessity of
doing that which ought to have been done three centuries
before this date; that is, of uniting Ireland to Britain, by
incorporating into one the heretofore distinct legislatures
of the two islands. The measure was at this period very
practicable, because Ireland was in fact under the domi¬
nion of forty thousand troops, who had been collected to
crush the rebellion, and protect the island against the
French ; and because the friends of government were too
much intimidated by the confusion and the scenes of
bloodshed which had recently occurred there, to venture
to oppose vigorously a measure which promised for the
future to preserve the tranquillity of the country invio¬
late. On the 31st of January Mr Pitt proposed the mea¬
sure in the British House of Commons. He observed,
that a permanent connection between Britain and Ireland
was essential to the true interests of both countries; and
that, unless the existing connection should be improved,
there was great risk of a separation. The settlement of the
year 1782 was so imperfect, that it substituted nothing for
that system which it demolished; and it was not consider¬
ed as final even by the ministers of the time. It left the
two realms with independent legislatures, connected only
by the identity of the executive power; a very insufficient
488
BRITAIN.
Reign of tie, either in time of peace or of war, and inadequate to the
George III. consolidation of strength, or the mutual participation of po-
litical and commercial benefits. rlhe case of the regency
exhibited a striking instance of the weakness of the con¬
nection ; and if the two parliaments had differed on the sub¬
ject of the war, the danger of a disjunction would have been
seriously alarming. The entire dissociation of the king¬
dom was one of the greatest aims of our enemies; and as
their eventual success in Ireland would expose Biitain to
extreme peril, the establishment of an incorporative union,
by which their views might be effectually baffled, was a ne¬
cessary act of policy. Among the advantages which would
accrue to Ireland from an incorporation with Ij.itain, he
mentioned the protection which she would secure to her¬
self in the hour of danger; the most effectual means of in¬
creasing her commerce and improving her agriculture;
the command of English capital, and the infusion of Eng¬
lish manners and English industry, necessarily tending to
meliorate her condition; whilst she would see the avenue
to honours, distinctions, and exalted situations in the ge¬
neral seat of empire, opened to all those whose abilities and
talents enabled them to indulge an honourable and laud¬
able ambition. The question was not what Ireland would
gain, but what she would preserve; not merely how she
might best improve her situation, but how she might avert
a pressing and immediate danger. In this point of view
her gain would be the preservation of all the blessings
arising from the British constitution. As the supposed
loss of national independence formed, in the minds of
many, a strong objection to the scheme, he argued that
this would be a real benefit; that the Irish would rather
gain than lose in point of political freedom and civil hap¬
piness ; and that though a nation possessing all the means
of dignity and prosperity might justly object to an asso¬
ciation with a more numerous people, Ireland, being de¬
ficient in the means of protection and civil welfare, could
not be injured or degraded by such a union with a neigh¬
bouring and kindred state as would connect both i calms
by an equality of law and an identity of interest. INIr
Sheridan opposed a union, as particularly unseasonable,
amidst the* irritation which at this period prevailed in
Ireland; and he deprecated the accomplishment of the
object by means of force or corruption. The measure,
however, was approved of by a very large majority; and
in the House of Lords the same subject was afterwards
discussed with a similar result. But in the Irish parlia¬
ment the proposal was resisted with such vehemence, that
administration, finding themselves supported only by a
small majority, thought fit to avoid pressing the matter
further at this time.
During the present year the British power in India was
greatly augmented, and its territory extended, by the fall
of Tippoo Sultan, the son and successor of Hyder Ali.
From the time when this prince had been compelled by
Lord Cornwallis, in 1792, to surrender one half of his
dominions, it was understood that sooner or later he would
make an attempt to recover what he had lost. It would
even seem that he had entertained hopes of aid from the
French, and that with this view he had privately sent en¬
voys to the Isle of France, to attempt to form a connection
with the present French rulers. But when intelligence
reached India of the expedition to Egypt, and the victory
of the Nile, the British governor-general demanded from
Tippoo Sultan an explanation of his views ; and after some
fruitless negociation, a British army under General Harris
invaded the territory of Mysore, which they found in a
bad state of preparation for war. After some slight en¬
counters the British army encamped before Seringapatam
on the 6th of April; but it was not till the 2d of May that
the besieging batteries began to breach the wall. On the
4th, during the heat of the day, the place was stormed, Beir
and Tippoo himself perished fighting gallantly at one ofGeort;(
the gates of the fortress. His dominions were seized by the 's,pvi
British, who bestowed a portion of them upon the Mah-
rattas and the nizam their ally ; whilst part was reserved
under the direct sovereignty of the East India Company,
and the remainder nominally bestowed upon a prince of
the family which had lost its power by Hyder’s usurpa¬
tion. The substantial authority over this last-mentioned
portion of Tippoo’s dominions, however, was in truth re¬
tained by the British government; and as the nizam him¬
self soon became entirely dependent upon the British
power, the whole peninsula of Hindustan, with the excep¬
tion of the Mahratta states, which evidently could not
long remain unsubdued, might now be considered as un¬
der the dominion of Great Britain.
In Europe the present campaign proved extremely event¬
ful. The French directory had been more anxious to
establish its own power at home, than careful to maintain
the armies upon the frontiers and in the conquered coun¬
tries in a proper state of force and efficiency. A French
army under General Jourdan advanced into Suabia in the
month of March, but was encountered and beaten at
Stockach by the Archduke Charles. The importance of the
possession of Switzerland instantly displayed itself. The
vanquished French army immediately crossed the Rhine
into Switzerland, and in that mountainous country contriv¬
ed to make a stand during the greater part of the summer.
The Austrians advanced as far as Zurich, of which they
obtained possession; but before they could proceed fur¬
ther, the French armies, having been reinforced towards
the end of the season, were enabled in their turn to assume
the offensive.
In Italy the French manoeuvred unskilfully at the open¬
ing of the campaign. Instead of concentrating their forces,
they attempted to retain possession of the whole of that
country, and were thus beaten in various engagements at
different points. The combined Austrian and Russian
army was commanded by the Russian general Suwarof,
who pressed upon the French with incredible activity and
energy^; carrying on a multiplicity of sieges, and bringing
his troops together with wonderful celerity, whenever his
enemy attempted to take advantage of the manner in which
his forces were scattered. Macdonald, with the Neapo¬
litan army, was defeated on the Trebbia; Moreau, who
succeeded Joubert, killed at the commencement of the
battle, w^as beaten at Novi; and in a number of combats
of less magnitude the Austro-Russian army proved almost
uniformly successful. The result of the whole w'as, t at
before the campaign terminated, Suwarof had driven the
French out of Italy, with the exception of Savoy and the
Genoese territory. But this was not accomplished with¬
out a great loss of men in sieges and battles, in which the
hardy warriors of the north suffered very severely. iell[,
leaders depended for success more upon the intrepidity o
their troops, and the promptitude with which they rusie
into action, than upon the skilful dispositions with w ic
they arranged their force or harassed their enemy*. en
it happened that, amidst all Suwarof’s victories, no instaI? ,
occurred of any column of French troops being c®ml)e
to surrender without fighting, nor was any a v.an ”
gained but by the efforts of superior force exerted in P
battle. Such a warfare, carried on against a sing e
my by a combined army, could not long be succes •
The Austrian officers complained loudly of their aor • g
allies as men destitute of military skill, who waste a ^
w ithout a proportional return of conquest; whi s,
other hand, the Russians censured their associates ^
titute of proper spirit, and as protracting the wa j
ill-timed caution.
BRITAIN.
R n of
Gee elU
w —'
The advantage derived by the French from the posses¬
sion of Switzerland having by this time begun to be un¬
derstood, a resolution was in consequence formed to close
the campaign, not by sending Suwarof from Italy into the
south of France, but by directing him to turn his arms
northward against the Alps. The Archduke Charles had
spent the summer in pressing upon the French in that quar¬
ter, but had not been able to advance beyond Zurich ; here,
however, he left a considerable body of Austrians and Rus¬
sians, and proceeded with a division of his army towards
Manheim and Philipsburg. Suwarof advanced from Italy at
the head of eighteen thousand men to take the command of
these troops ; but his views were anticipated by the French
general Massena, who, finding the Archduke Charles and
Suwarof at the distance of more than a day’s march on
his left and right, instantly attacked the troops stationed
near Zurich. The Austrians perceiving the hazardous
nature of their situation, retreated with only a moderate
489
by which it was stipulated on the one hand that he should Reign of
jure le countrj1, and that a number of French pri-George 111.
soners in England should be released; whilst, on the other
hand, it was agreed that the Duke of York should be per¬
mitted to retire unmolested. ”
At the end of this campaign the French government
underwent a new change. After the conquest of Egypt
Bonaparte had invaded Syria, and subdued or conciliated
most of the native tribes; but his career of victory was
stopped at St Jean d Acre by the Turkish governor of that
town, assisted by the British under Sir Sidney Smith. He
was forced to raise the siege of that place, after fifty-nine
day s of open trenches, and delivering five unsuccessful as¬
saults; and having returned into Egypt, and destroyed a
iurkish army at Aboukir, he ventured upon a step which
is without example in the history of modern Europe. Hav-
";arne^ from an old newspaper the great reverses which
loss; but the Russians, 'from an' ill-iud’a-ed Jcontmnnf "nf tht arrn,es1 had experienced in the early part of
their enemy, total ignorance of the country and want of thpsp^^f anC\ *16 general discontent produced by
skill in the art of conducting war in7t maintained their t0 ^ t0 f°rtune and re'
ground till they were hemmed in on all sides TIipv ‘if. nCei dllav.iew secretly embarked,
tempted to resist the French, as they had often resisted spMpnT’ fl 80 CCt partJ °f friends, on board a small ves-
the Turks, by forming a hollow square of o-reat strength • nlp’ipl ^ w co™mand ,11S army> which was now com-
but neither this nor their own courage afforded any sal-tv offirp/nf^r h6 m. th.e c°untry, to General Kleber, an
against the artillery of the enenn^h^the face of wdiirhan V g rePutatl0n f?r military genius and enter-
r bXtSartE“ klT?
% side“y Brr„chrdibTetSffj °n as \-t-l^aba^S
sis1:?? - p
£^srbile''erything’andre,“ini"s<>ni^hem--
Italy; but France was still enahlpd to remaine.C! ™asters of to usurp the government, cashier the directory, and to
as wp 1 ^ i l!” u stl11 ePabIed t0 menace that country, dissolve the representative legislature. ^
On thp 27th nf A./rr f 1 I- 1 renen out ot Holland, tion of force, which was thought necessary to give effect
Ralph Abercrom1,vgaf^ha„ T 7f, Unde,r ?ir t0 t,,e invas!?n of Hollan<1> »» enterprise of the success of
Zuvdpr 7 y Ve ™outi1 °t the lexel; and the which sanguine hopes were at that time entertained The
under Admira^Mitchell ' ^Unon'thJ^he^D ^S5eech fr0.m the throne’ after recommending the propriety
Storey, sTreXed the flppVf,nlr V of Perm\tting t0 a considerable extent the voluntary ser-
that his men rpfusPfl tn t T i Pommand’ allegIng VIce of tbe militia, in order to augment our forces abroad,
number, and eld t of them mo, nf Weifie,tW;lve ln stated that.our prospects had been improved beyond the
seventy-fourguns ^ Here ^however^hp pff01? ,y°L,r c sangu!ne expectation; that the deliverance of Italy
the expedition tennirled H^Dnkp IvT f considered as secured; that the kingdom of
assumed fhp ™ i , D ke of.loik afterwards Naples had been rescued from the French yoke, and re¬
thousand me^^ SFt0redt° dominion of its lawful sovereign; that the
that the invasion had been hi 7 i so°1n. dj«covered French expedition to Egypt had been productive of nothing
To have afforded a nros7e7t nf ^ Certed and lll,directed* but calamity and disgrace, whilst its ultimate views against
should have been fanded in thp " 7g T Possessions had been utterly confounded • that
which was full of Scotsmen Jd u j, °f Rotterdam» there was every reason to expect a successful result from
the stadfjr01 bcotsmen’ and where the supporters of our efforts for the deliverance of the United Provinces •
hRothe LnteT^he0^^8^ and that t0 °Ur &lly the emPeror of Russia we were in a
enemies of the Frpnpb tn l 7, f the numerous great measure indebted for the favourable change in the
vaders. Instead of til 7 forward in favour of the in- general posture of affairs. It was further stated that, in
extremity of a Innl ll ^ Wf dis?mbar1ked at tbe pursuance of the recommendation of the British parlia-
sea on b7th sides wherl l?nd’having dje meut> his majesty had communicated to both houses of
to arrest their nm f b rencb and I^utch were able parliament in Ireland their sentiments respecting a union
mere hanrlfnl Plogress fa1' a considerable time with a with that kingdom. *
son, which erpail JT^f8' u 16 unijsuaJ vvetuess of the sea- In consequence of the recommendation from the throne,
culties with whhA, !f ro^ds^a 80 added t0 the diffi- an act was passed, authorizing his majesty to receive into
British commamlpr 6 inva.eis bad ta struggle; and the the army volunteers from the militia regiments, and some
withdrawinp-hl« Wa! en?tb undef the necessity of measures of finance were adopted ; but government hav-
nally disemhaAprl °ri 0 tbe P01nt at.whIch they had origi- ing received intelligence of the failure of the expedition
vol y * Here a convention was entered into, against Holland, parliament was suddenly adjourned. In
3q
490 BRIT
Reign of the meanwhile affairs on the Continent began to assume
George IIL a most unpropitious aspect. The emperor of Russia,
being exasperated at the defeats sustained by his troops
towards the close of the campaign, became dissatisfied
with his allies; and there was reason to dread that his
irascible and unreasonable temper might lead him not
merely to desert but to quarrel with them. In the mean¬
while Bonaparte, under the title he had assumed of First
Consul of the French Republic, resolved to signalize his ac¬
quisition of power by an attempt to procure peace. With
this view he thought proper to address a letter, signed
by himself, to the king of Great Britain. In this docu¬
ment, after announcing his own appointment to the office
of first magistrate of the republic, he asked, “ Is the war
which for eight years has ravaged the four quarters of the
world to be eternal ? Are there no means of coming to
an understanding? How can the most enlightened na¬
tions of Europe, powerful and strong beyond what their
safety and independence require, sacrifice to ideas of vain
grandeur, commerce, prosperity, and peace ? How is it
that they do not feel that peace is of the first importance,
as well as the highest glory ?” “ France and England,”
he added, “ by the abuse of their strength, may still for
a long time, for the misfortune of all nations, retard the
period of their being exhausted ; but, I will venture to say
it, the fate of all civilized nations is attached to the termi¬
nation of a war which involves the whole world. This
letter was transmitted through the medium of an agent of
the French government, who resided at London for the
sake of managing the exchanges and other affairs relative
to prisoners of war.
But Lord Grenville, as secretary of state for foreign af¬
fairs, informed the agent who had transmitted Bonaparte’s
letter, that his majesty could not depart from the usual
forms of transacting business, and therefore, that the only
answer to be returned would be an official note from him¬
self. In this note his lordship stated that the king wish¬
ed for nothing more than to restore tranquillity to Europe ;
that he had only made war in defence of his people, against
an unprovoked attack; and that it -would be in vain to
negociate while the same system continued to prevail in
France which had ravaged Holland, Sw itzerland, Germany,
and Italy. “ While such a system therefore prevails,”
continued his lordship, “ and while the blood and treasures
of a powerful nation can be lavished in its support, experi¬
ence has shown, that no defence but that of open and
steady hostility can be availing. The most solemn trea¬
ties have only prepared the way to fresh aggression; and
it is by determined resistance alone, that whatever remains
in Europe of stability for property, for personal safety, for
social order, or the exercise of religion, can be preserved.
For the security, therefore, of these essential objects, his
majesty cannot place reliance on the mere renewal of
general professions of pacific dispositions. Such profes¬
sions have been repeatedly held out by all who have suc¬
cessively directed the resources of France to the destruc¬
tion of Europe, and whom the present rulers have declar¬
ed all to have been incapable of maintaining the relations
of amity. Greatly will his majesty rejoice whenever it
shall appear, that the danger to which his own dominions
and those of his allies have been so long exposed has real¬
ly ceased; whenever he shall be satisfied that the neces¬
sity of resistance shall be at an end, and, after so many
years of crimes and miseries, better principles have pre¬
vailed, and the gigantic projects of ambition, endangering
the very existence of civil society, have at length been re¬
linquished. But the conviction of such a change can re¬
sult only from the evidence of facts.” His lordship then
went on to say, with insulting irony, that the best pledge of
the reality and permanence of such a change would be the
AIN.
restoration of the princes of the house of Bourbon ; that Reign i
such an event would at once remove all obstacles in the^eorge I
way of negociation, confirm to France the unmolested en-
joyment of its ancient territory, and give tranquillity to
other nations ; that, however, his majesty did not limit the
possibility of solid pacification to this mode, and made no
claim to prescribe to France what should be the form of
her government; that he only looked to the security of his
own dominions, of his allies, and of Europe; that unhap¬
pily at present no such security existed, nor any sufficient
evidence of the principles by which the new government
would be directed, or even of its stability ; and that in this
situation, it remained for him to pursue, in conjunction with
other powers, the exertions of a just and defensive war.
As one of the principal objects on account of which
Bonaparte had commenced this negociation was probably
to cast upon Great Britain the odium of continuing the war,
he persevered in this purpose with uncommon dexterity.
Appearing not to be disconcerted by the first rejection of
his offers, he continued the correspondence through the
medium of Talleyrand, his minister for foreign affairs, who,
in a masterly note in answer to that of Lord Grenville,
dissected the official communication of the British minis¬
ter with consummate ability, and refuted the various state¬
ments and views which it embodied. He began with recri¬
minating respecting the origin of the war, and presented
a picture very differently sketched and coloured from that
which Lord Grenville had portrayed in his letter. The
charge of aggression brought against the French nation was
haughtily repelled, and retorted on the coalesced powers,
particularly on the British government. After expatiating
on this subject, the French minister observed, that a sin¬
cere desire for peace ought to lead the parties to the dis¬
covery of the means of terminating the war, rather than to
apologies or recriminations respecting its commencement;
that no doubt could be entertained of the right of the
French nation to choose its own government; that this was
a point which could not be decently contested by the mi¬
nister of a crown which was held on no other tenure; that
at a time when the republic presented neither the solidity
nor the force which it now possessed, negociations had
been twice solicited by the British cabinet, and carried into
effect; that the reasons for discontinuing the war were be¬
come if possible more urgent; that, on the contrary, the
calamities into which the renewal of the war must infallibly
plunge the whole of Europe, were motives which had in¬
duced the first consul to propose a suspension of arms which
might likewise influence the other belligerent powers
and he concluded with pressing this object so far as to pro¬
pose the town of Dunkirk, or any other, for the meeting
of plenipotentiaries, in order to accelerate the re-estabhs i-
ment of peace and amity between the French republican
Great Britain. In the answer of the British minister o
this note, the recrimination of aggression was as contemp
tuously repelled as it had been haughtily urged. Re
ring to his former note, Lord Grenville observed, that
obstacles which had been presented rendered hopeless o
the moment any advantages which might be expectei ro
a negociation ; that all the representations made wit
much confidence by the French minister, the persona 1
positions of those in power, the solidity and consistence
the new government, were points which could not ®
mitted as motives for opening a negociation, s^nc® ^
considerations remained yet to be proved; and t a
only evidence must be that already explained by
jesty, namely, the result of experience and the evi e
of facts. i nre
On the 22d of January copies of this correspon
were presented to the British parliament, along wit ia^ ^
sage from his majesty, announcing that he rebe o
nei of support of his parliament, and the zeal and perseverance of
Gem HI-his subjects, in carrying into effect such measures as would
^ best confirm the signal advantages obtained in the last cam¬
paign, and conduct the contest to an honourable conclusion*
On the 28th of the same month the subject was discussed*
in the House of Lords upon a motion made by Lord Gren¬
ville for an address of thanks to his majesty in consequence
of the message. Lord Grenville contended, that nothino-
in the state of Europe admitted a rational hope that there
was any security but in war; and that peace with a na¬
tion at enmity with order, religion, and morality, would
rather be an acquiescence in wrong than a suspension of
arms in ordinary warfare. He entered into a comment
upon the note of the French minister, and disputed all its
positions, observing that the love of peace, on the part of
France, had been displayed in a war of eight years with
every nation in Europe excepting Sweden and Denmark;
that hei disinclination to conquest had been evinced by
the invasion of the Netherlands, of Italy, of Switzerland,
and even of Asia ; that no honourable or permanent peace
could be made with the present rulers of France • and
that every power with which she had treated could fu’rnish
melancholy instances of the perfidy, injustice, and cruelty
of the republic. He remarked, that General Bonaparte,
in the third year of the republic, imposed upon the French,
at the mouth of the cannon, that very constitution which
he had now destroyed at the point of the bayonet. If a
treaty was concluded and broken with Sardinia, it was con-
c u ed and broken by Bonaparte ; if peace was estabiish-
i aiuV1<iated with Tuscan7’ h was established and vio-
11 j. |JOaaPart;e; if armistices were ratified and an¬
nulled with Modena and the other petty states of Italy,
they were ratified and annulled by Bonaparte ; if that
ancient republic Venice was first drawn into a war, and
compelled afterwards to conclude a treaty, it was that
tionaparte might more easily overthrow her constitution,
and annihilate the political system by which she had ex¬
isted with glory and security for ages past; if the govern-
ment of Rome was subverted, it was subverted by Bona¬
parte; if Genoa was reduced to the same humiliating situ¬
ation, her wealth and independence were sacrificed to Bo¬
naparte; if Switzerland, deluded by offers of peace, was
induced to surrender her rights and liberties, she was
deprived of them by Bonaparte.. He had multiplied vio-
ations of all moral and religious ties ; he had repeated
acts ot perfidy; his hypocrisies were innumerable; and in
lat country where he had affirmed that the French were
ruei os emins, he had given us a correct idea of his sin¬
cerity and his principles. If the interest of Bonaparte were
be sincere, and there was no
aouot but it was his interest to consolidate his power;
u i ought not to be forgotten, that whenever any acts
i a^rocity were to be accomplished by the French, they
been usually effected by a suspension of arms. The
p opose negociation would relieve her from the actual
]arJScre a*arm*n^ difficulties, but could not relieve Eng-
hlnr-t a00] ^ ^ ie P°rts France, which were now
in inf j by °Ur fleet and craisers, would be thrown open
„1 raauce naval stores, and a variety of necessary arti-
.0t which the country was in want; and fleets would be
all * ^ rin^ ^uck ^e troops which were now deprived of
hi ‘ntercourse with the republic, and which might then
arndpe °^r ^ m augmentjng the numbers of the French
live of kUS a.susPension of arms could not be produc-
un n any beneht whatever ; our ports were not blocked
ai ’ .^r C01™nerce was not interrupted ; and it should
rnaim-p consitiered that there would be no security for the
nrenarmf?Ce-°^ SUcb a susPension. Was Bonaparte now
not bp c* ° SI^ a &aneral peace ? If he were not, he could
incere in his offers. It was necessary for him to
BRITAIN.
491
eep an army of sixty thousand men to preserve tranquil- Reign of
Iity in the interior of France ; every act of his government George III.
was supported by force; and if he even were sincere it   
was hazarding too much to hazard all on his single life
What reliance could be placed on the unanimity of the
French people ? Men of the blackest characters had been
appointed to situations of the greatest trust; men infa¬
mous for professed principles of anarchy had been raised
to places of confidence and power; and those who were
judges m the sanguinary tribunals of Robespierre were
now exalted to a distinguished rank in the republic. His
lordship concluded by disclaiming on the part of admini¬
stration any wish to consider the restoration of the French
monarchy as the object of the war.
The Duke of Bedford opposed the noble secretary’s mo¬
tion, and contended, that all the objections against negoci¬
ation might have been urged against the negociations which
the ministers themselves had formerly opened at Lisle.
ie considered the conduct of the British government on
the present occasion as unwise, because provoking and
unconcihatory. He thought that, in a correspondence
with the present French government, all discussion about
the original commencement of the war ought to have been
avoided. W hether England or France was the first ag¬
gressor, was a question to be reserved to posterity. The
wild scheme of restoring the French monarchy was the
sine qua non, if not of peace, at least of negociation ; for
notwithstanding that the noble secretary had denied the
-charge, yet whilst he pointed out the impossibility of treat¬
ing with the French government during all its stages to
the present, and insisted upon vigorous hostilities being
the only means of our security, no inference could be drawn,
out that the war must be continued till monarchy was re-
established. If the restoration of monarchy was not the
object, what was it ? Were ministers contending that we
ought to wait for a more favourable opportunity of enter¬
ing into negociation ? Was it to be obtained by railing
at Bonaparte ? There were no terms sufficiently strong to
censure the littleness which attacked his character, in
order to min him in the estimation of the French nation ;
as if by so doing, we could negociate with more effect, or
gain a fairer prospect of peace. His grace contended that
no confidence was to be reposed in our present continen¬
tal allies; and as a severe scarcity at this period prevail¬
ed in the country, this circumstance was made use of as
an additional argument against persevering in the war.
I he fiist consul, doubtless, sought to make a peace ad¬
vantageous to himself and the nation over which he pre¬
sided : like all other statesmen, his motives might not be
influenced by humanity: it was to be supposed his aim
would be to satisfy the French people, and consolidate
his own power. As to the abuse which ministers threw
upon his character, it was their constant habit to abuse
every ruling power in France. But whenever they had
been driven by the voice of the people to negociate, their
former ill language had never been any impediment. The
duke concluded with a motion for an address recommend¬
ing a negociation for peace.
Lord Borington supported the views of ministers. But
Lord Holland reprobated their conduct throughout the
contest. At one time they asserted that the ambition
of France was so insatiable, that she would listen to no
terms; they were now driven from that pretext, and urged
that a peace would be insecure. As to the ambition of
the enemy, it was a consideration of weight in the arrange¬
ment of terms, not a preliminary objection preclusive of
treaty. What proof could be given of the abandonment
of dangerous views, but a negociation in which moderation
would be displayed. Was it reasonable to suppose that
he would admit that the guilt of the aggression lay frith
492 BRITAIN.
lieign of France ? This was a point which ought not to have been had been guilty of the original aggression in the war, and Reie:
George III. discussed. The object was to treat upon actual circum- contended that the British government had engaged in it Georg:. r
' ^ stances and the real grounds of dispute. Suppose that unnecessarily, and persisted in it without necessity. Mr W ,
Bonaparte, desirous to attain peace by any means, should Fitt, on the other hand, affirmed that the French leaders
sit down to consider how he could succeed ; what does the had themselves begun the war, on the. principle that it
note allow him to do? He would find that the restora- was necessary to consolidate the revolution. With regard
tion of the hereditary line of kings was the only case in to the proposal to negociate with their present leader, it
which a speedy peace would be admitted as possible; in was impossible to discuss fairly its propriety, without tak-
fact, therefore, this restoration was the sine qua non in ing into consideration his personal character and conduct
which immediate negociation was admissible with minis- Mr Pitt then expatiated on the conduct of Bonaparte at
ters. But surely if the ambition of the republic was so Campo Formio, in the Milanese, Genoa, Modena, Tus-
formidable, we could not forget this ground of apprehen- cany, Rome, Venice, Switzerland, and Egypt. His arts
sion when we talked of restoring the house of Bourbon, of perfidy, he said, were commensurate with the number
Had we forgotten their proverbial ambition, and was their of treaties; and if we traced the history of the men in
restoration the remedy for evils arising from such a source? this revolution whose conduct had been marked by the
We had now taken up the principle, so much objected to most atrocious cruelty, the name of Bonaparte would be
Jacobins, of distinguishing between the people and their found allied to more of them than that of any other within
government. But what .was the conduct of the French ? these ten eventful and disastrous years. From these facts
Bonaparte distinctly renounced this principle in the letter the house might judge what reliance might reasonably be
to the kino-, and acknowledged the title and the character placed on this conqueror, and what degree of credit might
of his majesty’s government. The note of our ministers be given to his professions. It had been observed, indeed,
was a manifesto to the royalists, and formed for that pur- that whatever had been his character, he had now an in¬
pose alone. Lord Holland further stated, that the people terest in making and preserving peace. This was a doubtful
at large disapproved of the abrupt rejection of Bonaparte’s proposition. That it was his interest to negociate, would
overtures; he therefore gave his most decided support to be readily acknowledged, and to negociate with thiscoun-
the amendment. The Earl of Carnarvon would not consider try separately, in order to dissolve the whole system ot
the answer of our ministers as a refusal to treat for peace, the confederacy on the Continent; to paralyse at once the
or a declaration of eternal war; it was a call upon the arms of Russia, of Austria, or of any other country which
house and the country to pause before they rashly suffered might look to us for support; and then either to break off
themselves to enter into a negociation with an unsettled his separate treaty, or, it he should have concluded it, to
government. He did not expect any extraordinary faith to apply the lesson taught in his school of policy in Egypt,
be manifested by Bonaparte, more than by any other chief and to revive at his pleasure those claims of indemnifica-
or chiefs; but although he would be best pleased with tion which may have been reserved to some happier period,
the restoration of monarchy in France, in all times, in Under all these circumstances of his personal character
monarchies as well as republics, aristocracies, and every and his newly acquired power, what security had he for
other species of government, good faith in treaties was retaining that power but the sword r His hold upon
preserved and exemplified only as long as it was the inte- France was the sword, and he had no other. But was the
rest of the parties to maintain it. So little integrity had inference to be drawn from these considerations, that we
history left on record, that, at the very time they were ought in no case to treat with Bonaparte ? No; but we
signed, a secret intention was ofteo indulged to violate ought to wait for the evidence of facts. At present there
them at a particular period. The address, as moved by was nothing from which we could presage a favourable
Lord Grenville, was then carried by a great majority. disposition in the French consuls. There was the great‘
In the House of Commons Mr Dundas moved a similar est reason to rely on powerful co-operation from our allies,
address, which gave rise to a similar debate. Mr Dundas the strongest indication in the interior of France of a dis-
said, that the leading feature of the French revolution was position to resist this new tyranny; and every ground to
a disregard of all treaties, and a contempt for the rights believe, that if we were disappointed of complete success,
of other powers; and in proof of this assertion, he consi- the continuance of the contest, instead of making our si-
dered it as necessary merely to recite the names of Spain, tuation comparatively worse, would make it comparative y
Naples, Sardinia, Tuscany, Genoa, Geneva, Modena, Aus- better. With regard to the negociation at Lisle m
tria, Russia, England, and Egypt, with Denmark and Swe- to which allusions had been made, the Jacobin system o
den, though at all times neutral states. Britain had not prodigality and bloodshed, by which the efforts ot france
at this time any reasonable cause to suppose that a change had been supported, had at that period driven us to ex
of principles had taken place. The Jacobinical form of ertions which had exhausted the ordinary means of e-
government was indeed at an end; but in substance and fraying our immense expenditure, and led many who were
essence all the qualities of the revolutionary government convinced of the necessity of the war to doubt the poss.
were in as full force at this moment as they were in the bility of persisting in it. Under this impression we nego
days of Robespierre. Mr Whitbread asserted, that, had ciated, not from the sanguine hope that its result wo
it not been for the interference and ambition of the other be permanent security, but from the persuasion 1 a
powers of Europe, the French revolution would have as- danger arising from peace in these circumstances wo
sumed a very different character from that which it now be less than the continuance ot war with inadequa
exhibited. He remarked, that other powers had treated means. Mr Fox was decidedly of opinion that France,
neutral states no less unjustly than had been done by the the commencement of the war, was the defending par .
French; Lord Harvey and Lord Hood had ordered the The aggressions of Austria and Prussia could not e
French ministers to be dismissed from Florence; and by nied by any impartial person; nothing could be more
threats we had compelled Genoa to dismiss her French cidedly hostile than their proceedings; they scrup e
inhabitants. He compared Bonaparte with Suwarof, and to declare to France that it was her internal conc£Lr^S’ te
the invasion of Egypt by France with that of Poland by her outward actions, which provoked them to con e e
Austria, Russia, and Prussia, whose friendship we had against her; they did not pretend to fear her ambition, ^
frequently courted. Mr Thomas Erskine entered at great conquests, her troubling her neighbours; but the} acc ^
length into the question, whether France or Great Britain her of new-modelling her own government. In all t 13
BRITAIN.
rn of was not seeking to justify the French, either in their in-
rtlll-ternal or external policy. On the contrary, he thought
■ their successive governments had been as execrable in va¬
rious instances as any of the most despotic and unprinci¬
pled governments which the world had ever seen. Men
bred in the school of the house of Bourbon, once engaged
in foreign wars, would naturally endeavour to spread de¬
struction, and form plans of aggrandisement, on every side;
they could not have lived so long under their ancient mas¬
ters without imbibing the insatiable ambition and restless
spirit, the perfidy and the despotism, inherent in the race ;
they had imitated their great prototype, and through their
whole career of crimes had done no more than trace the
steps of their own Louis XIV. Are we for ever, continued
Mr Fox, to deprive ourselves of the benefits of peace, be¬
cause France has perpetrated acts of injustice ? With the
knowledge of these acts, we had treated with them twice,
and ought not now to refuse to do so ? Much had been
said of the short-lived nature of military despotism ; yet
such was the government erected by Augustus Caesar,
which endured six hundred years. Indeed, it was too
likely to be durable wherever it was established. Nor was
it true that it depended on the life of the first usurper.
Half of the Roman emperors were murdered, yet the
tyranny continued; and this, it was to be feared, would
be the case in France. On a division, however* the address
was carried by a very large majority.
The great measure of a legislative union with Ireland
was carried into effect during the present session of par¬
liament. Administration had found it necessary to delay
this matter in consequence of the opposition in the Irish
parliament; but during the recess they had obtained a
more ample majority; and as the British parliament had
already, on Mr Pitt’s motion, passed resolutions in favour
of the union, the project was formally introduced to the
Irish parliament on the 5th of February 1800, by a mes¬
sage from the lord-lieutenant, in which his excellency
stated that he had it in command from his majesty to lay
before the houses of legislature the resolutions of the
British parliament, and to express his majesty’s wish that
they would take the same into their most serious consi¬
deration. After a long and spirited debate, the ministry
prevailed by a majority of forty-three. The distinguished
abilities of Mr Grattan were once more displayed on this
interesting occasion. In the debate which took place on
proposing the first article of the union, he opposed the
measure with such vehemence, that the chancellor of the
exchequer accused him of associating with traitors, and of
isanection to the government; but the reply of Mr Grat¬
tan was so pointed and severe, that the chancellor conceived
imself under the necessity of resenting it by a challenge,
an a meeting having taken place in consequence, he was
wounded in the arm. The question, however, was carried
y a considerable majority; and as the discussion proceed-
j- > ie numbers of opposition appeared to diminish. The
as struggle, as it may be deemed, occurred on the 13th of
arci, when Sir John Parnell moved to petition his ma-
J s y to call a new parliament, in order that the sense of
eir constituents might be more fully ascertained ; but this
nm 10n,w?s aJS0 overruled. In the mean time the business
wh;Cteded opposition in the House of Lords,
artM 5 °I(‘ ^ 24th of March, adopted the whole of the
both if Un*0Il few alterations; and soon afterwards
to thi °U^S W£f ted on his excellency with a joint address
men-'S e”ect’ No time was now lost in submitting the
April^6 anew *° the British parliament. On the 2d of
house a 1?essa?e fr°m Bis majesty was presented to both
the in h P^ament> communicating the resolutions of
betwe S t?ar lameijt in favour of an incorporating union
en m two kingdoms, and recommending the speedy
conclusion of a work so interesting to the security and Reign of
prosperity of the British empire. In the House of Lords George III.
the measure was opposed by Lord Holland, on the ground v—
that a union at this time was not the spontaneous offer
of the parliament of Ireland, uninfluenced by corruption
or menace; but the articles were afterwards carried in a
committee of the house, after some debates of no great
importance. In the House of Commons Mr Pitt stated
that the principal act of the treaty, that which fixed the
share of representation Ireland was to have in the united
parliament, was founded upon a comparative statement of
the population of both kingdoms, as well as the revenue
of both. The number of members fixed for the counties
and two principal cities was sixty-eight; and that for the
most considerable cities, towns, and boroughs, was thirty-
one, who would be selected without partiality. He next
adverted to the arrangements respecting the House of
Peers, and the members to be returned; and observed,
that as the members for the Commons of Ireland were in
number nearly double those of Scotland, the same rules
would be observed with the peerage, which therefore was
to consist of thirty-two members. It was also understood,
that such peers of Ireland as might not be among the
twenty-eight temporal peers, should be allowed to sit in
the united parliament until elected. The only article
consisting of minute details related to the apportionment
of the shares of the revenue of each country respectively.
Mr Grey opposed the union on nearly the same grounds
as Lord Holland had done in the Upper House. It had
been asserted in a speech of the lord-lieutenant to the
Irish parliament, that five sevenths of the country, and all
the principal commercial towns, except Dublin, had peti¬
tioned in favour of the union. But this only meant that
nineteen counties had presented petitions, and that these
counties constitute five sevenths of the surface of Ireland.
He admitted the petitions in favour of the union; but by
what means were they obtained? The lord-lieutenant,
who, besides being the chief civil magistrate, is com¬
mander of a disciplined army of a hundred and seventy
thousand men, and able to proclaim martial law when he
pleases, procured these petitions, which were signed by
few names, and those by no means .the most respectable.
But fortunately there were many petitions on the other
side, not obtained by solicitation and at illegal meetings,
but at public assemblies, of which legal notice had been
given. Twenty-seven counties had petitioned against the
measure ; the petition from the county of Down was sign¬
ed by seventeen thousand respectable, independent men;
and all others were in a similar proportion. Mr Grey then
adverted to some of the principal arguments of the union¬
ists ; and concluded by moving an address to his majesty
for a suspension of all proceedings relative to the union,
till the sentiments of the people of Ireland could be ascer¬
tained. Mr Sheridan represented the measure as an act
of tyranny towards the people of Ireland, which must be¬
come the fatal source of new discontents and future re¬
bellions. Mr Grey’s motion was, however, rejected by an
overwhelming majority.
Early in the session mention had been made by oppo¬
sition of the unfortunate invasion of Holland by the Bri¬
tish forces; but ministers declined entering upon the sub¬
ject, as the expedition had been carried on under the su¬
perintendence of Mr Secretary Dundas, and that gentle¬
man, soon after the meeting of parliament, had gone down
to Scotland in the depth of winter, without any ostensible
business; a circumstance which gave rise to suspicions
that some dissatisfaction existed at court on account of the
result of the Dutch invasion, or the manner in which the
Duke of York had been supported in it by the adminis¬
tration at home. On the 10th of February, however, the
494
BRITAIN.
Reign of subject was introduced in the House of Commons by Mr
George III. Sheridan, who moved for an inquiry into the causes of its
failure. He treated the capture of the Dutch navy as of
little value, or rather as pernicious, on account of the ex¬
ample of mutiny which it exhibited on the part of the sea¬
men whom we had received into our service; he admitted
that the restoration of the stadtholder was a justifiable
motive for our interference, but contended that Britain
had treated the people of Holland ill, by obliging them to
enter into the present war, and avoiding to promise a re¬
storation of their colonies in case of a successful invasion ;
he asserted that the expedition itself was ill arranged, as
the army after its landing had no means of moving for¬
ward on account of the want of necessaries, and, instead of
delivering the Dutch, was under the necessity of entering
into a capitulation for its escape, and of holding out, as an
inducement to enter into this capitulation, a threat of de¬
stroying for ever the commerce of that very people whom
we had embarked to save; and he contended, that to vin¬
dicate the honour of the British army, it was necessary to
inquire into the cause of its misfortunes upon this occa¬
sion. Mr Dundas defended the expedition against Hol¬
land with his usual dexterity. He stated its object to be
threefold: first, to rescue the United Provinces from the
tyranny of the French; secondly, to add to the efficient
force of this country, and diminish that of the enemy, by
gaining possession of the Dutch fleet; and, lastly, by hos¬
tile operations in Holland, to oblige the French to weaken
their armies in various other quarters. Mr Dundas con¬
tended, that at the commencement of the expedition a
great probability existed of the success of all these objects ;
two of them did actually succeed, and only one failed.
With regard to the capture of the fleet, he declared him¬
self astonished that a doubt should exist about the value
of such an acquisition. That fleet had been absolutely
destined for the invasion of our dominions; along with it
we took nearly seven thousand seamen, all of whom were
liable to be employed in the French fleet, and forty thou¬
sand tons of shipping, which might have annoyed our com¬
merce. By the invasion of Holland, also, the French had
been compelled to weaken their other armies, which gave
success to Suwarof in driving them from Italy, and to the
archduke on the Upper Rhine and in Switzerland. They
had indeed succeeded in defending Holland; but, as the
price of this success, they had been severely pressed in
every other quarter. At the moment our enterprise was
undertaken, it was doubtful whether they would send their
reinforcements thither, or to other parts of the Continent.
They had poured prodigious reinforcements into Holland,
by which means we were unable to rescue it from their
yoke; but the result was, that they had lost every other
point which they had contested during the whole campaign.
With respect to the conduct of the enterprise, never was a
commencement more prosperous than that of the late ex¬
pedition. Sir Ralph Abercromby had sailed for the Helder
on the 13th of August, and every thing promised the most
rapid success. On the 14th came on the most extraor¬
dinary hurricane that ever blew from the heavens ; it was
found impossible to land a single soldier on any part of
the coast of Holland; and this continued till the 27th.
The consequence was, that the enemy knew where our
army must land, and their troops came in shoals to oppose
us ; seven thousand men were collected ; and as they were
superior in number, Sir Ralph could not land his men to
advantage. The ardour of the soldiers and the gallantry
of the commander were never excelled on any occasion.
Without any tiling but their muskets and bayonets, against
cavalry and artillery, they made good their landing, and
by it they secured the Dutch fleet. It was alleged that
the troops had no means of drawing their waggons; but
they had no waggons at all, and could not possibly have Iteip
landed them had they been there. Instantly on their land- Geoip [
ing they could not want them ; for all they had then to do 1
was to secure a landing place and a post of communica¬
tion. Sir Ralph had to consider what position he should
take till the 1st of September, when reinforcements would
arrive. The same tempest prevented the Russian troops
from arriving to reinforce the army; they did not come till
the 18th. The Duke of York offered to the Russian ge¬
neral, D’Hermann, to delay the attack, if he thought his
men were not sufficiently recovered from the fatigues of
the voyage; but the general requested that the attack
should be made, with a promptitude and alacrity which
reflected the highest honour upon him; and this ardour
led him into the field two hours sooner than the time ap¬
pointed. The army, however, was gloriously successful
until a late hour in the day. General d’Hermann and his
troops were in possession of the village of Berghen, and
crowned with victory, till his zeal led him beyond a given
point, and turned the fate of the day. When the attack
was made the French amounted to seven thousand, and
the Dutch to twelve thousand men; yet, notwithstanding
this superiority offeree, our troops fought and conquered;
but the French continually pouring in reinforcements, the
duke was advised to accede to the terms of an armistice,
which was by that time mutually wished for. The duke
yielded to this advice; and, by so doing, consulted the
dictates of reason and humanity. Mr Dundas contended
that our army returned with as much honour as they en¬
tered Holland. The Duke of York, indeed, agreed to
give up eight thousand French prisoners on condition
that Iris retreat should be unmolested; but he could not
be wrong in doing so, because our prisons were overload¬
ed with them ; and he did not recede from any one article
in which national dignity was concerned.
Mr Tierney supported the proposal for an inquiry. He
disputed the advantages said to result from the expedition,
and contended, that to a secret committee, or in some
other form, ministers ought to account for their conduct,
and exonerate themselves from suspicions too strong to be
removed without proof. It was unconstitutional, and an
insult on the house, to say this could not be done consist¬
ently with the preservation of secrecy. General Abercrom¬
by landed on the 22d of August with ten thousand men;
he got possession of the Helder; he was reinforced by
General Don on the 27th.- Was it not strange that fifteen
thousand men, headed by an able general, and going by in¬
vitation, should think it imprudent to advance? Had the
Dutch been well affected, why did they not declare them¬
selves ? No French troops were then in Holland to keep
them in awe. Why did not the Duke of York sail at the
same time with General Don ? Why were all our forces
sent to one place, and fortyr-three thousand men cooped up
in a narrow peninsula where but few could act at a time.
It was strange that ministers, who were so fond of making
diversions, did not think of making a diversion in some
other quarter. This was a point which only military men
could determine; and the house was bound to examine
officers, that the truth might be known. The capitulation,
he said, had fixed an indelible blot on the nationa c a
racter. A king’s son, commanding forty thousand m>
had capitulated to a French general who had only t nr J
five thousand. Mr Addington observed, that having ^
turely and dispassionately considered the nature o
proposed inquiry, it appeared to him to rest upon
grounds : first, the propriety of judging any naeasur j
its event; and, secondly, that in consequence of a & e[
there was a necessity for investigation. It ought to
collected, that the worst concerted plans had o ePI ^
duced the most brilliant success, and the best termi
BRITAIN.
of in disaster. No human being could command success, and
III-no existing government control the elements. The pro-
^ posed inquiry was accordingly negatived by a very large
majority.
During the present year the war proved extremely
eventful. The army which Bonaparte had left in Egypt
under General Kleber being disgusted by the desertion of
their leader, a negociation was entered into by Kleber
with the Turkish grand vizier and Sir Sidney Smith ; the
result of which was, that the French agreed to abandon
the whole of Egypt, on condition of being permitted to re¬
turn unmolested to France. The convention was conclud¬
ed at El Arish on the 24th of January; and the imme¬
diate return of this discontented army to France might
have proved dangerous, if not fatal, to the newly-esta¬
blished power of the first consul. But here the usual for¬
tune of Bonaparte prevailed. The British government,
suspecting that some proposal of this kind might be made,
sent secret orders to Vice-admiral Lord *Keith not to
consent to any arrangement which might leave so large
an army at liberty to act in Europe, or which should not
include the surrender of all the ships in the port of Alex¬
andria. The consequence was, that Lord Keith refused
to ratify the treaty of El Arish which Sir Sidney Smith
and the Turkish grand vizier had concluded, and detain¬
ed as prisoners General Dessaix and a number of troops
which had been sent from Egypt. The French general
Kleber immediately intimated to the Turks a determina¬
tion to resume hostilities. He attacked and totally rout¬
ed their army, consisting of forty thousand men, in the
neighbourhood of Grand Cairo; and multitudes perished
by slaughter and in the desert, whije the French remained
complete masters of the country. ‘When it was too late,
an order arrived, from Britain to permit General Dessaix
and the troops along with him to land in France, and to
fulfil every part of Sir Sidney Smith’s treaty ; but the state
of affairs had changed; Kleber had been assassinated by a
fanatical Arab, and his successor, Menou, refused to eva¬
cuate Egypt; so that it became necessary, at a future pe¬
riod, to send an army from Britain to drive the French out
of the country which they had proposed to evacuate with¬
out firing a shot or shedding a drop of blood.
The Austrian armies in Germany and in Italy were re¬
spectively commanded by General Kray and by General
melas. Ihe campaign was conducted on the part of the
french government with great ability and decision. It
j been publicly announced in all the French newspapers
that the armies were to be reinforced as powerfully as'
possible; and that an army of reserve was to be formed in
a central position between Germany and Italy, from which
t ie armies might be supplied with fresh troops according
o the events of the war. Dijon was mentioned as the
lead-quarters of this army of reserve, and it already amount-
ci to upwards of forty thousand men. Nobody suspected
iat any important plan of operations or military stratagem
was concealed under the affected notoriety of this arrange¬
ment. Accordingly the Austrians commenced the cam-
f a*j’n by an attack upon Massena in the Genoese territory;
‘ii a ter a succession of obstinate conflicts the French were
l iven into Genoa, where they sustained a siege, till compel-
sie °fjSprren^er from wrant of provisions. Whilst Melas be-
Nir6- ^rerjoa’an^ even pushed forward his parties through
siuH 116 anc^ent French territory, Bonaparte in person
semW'0 ^ r£Pafred to Dijon and joined the army, to the as-
coun/nf u w^1^1 Europe had paid little attention, on ac-
of re ° aPPe.^at;*on which it had received of an army
A]nqSurVei’ ant* fromediately advancing, he crossed the
Milan ^ 1 . Great St Bernard, and descended into the
reinfnr&e Wlt 1 °PPosfrion. At the same time powerful
cements joined him from Switzerland, of which the
495
French troops continued to hold possession. Bonaparte Reign of
t ms placed himself in the rear of the Austrian general, and George III.
hazarded every thing upon the fortune of a single battle.
He was accordingly attacked on the plain of Marengo, near
Alessandria; and, as the Austrians were greatly superior
in cavalry and artillery, they proved victorious during the
greater part of the day. Ihe French wings were turned,
the centre division was broken, and scarcely six thousand
men stood firm at any one point, when General Dessaix,
late in the action, arrived with a reinforcement of six thou¬
sand tioops, though fatigued by a rapid countermarch of
several leagues. At this moment the battle seemed to be
irretrievably lost. The French had been thrown back in
the utmost disorder upon Montebello, where Lannes was
still maintaining a furious though desperate resistance ;
the whole field of battle was in possession of the Aus¬
trians; the Trench troops were crowded together in a dis-
oiganized mass, in which the enemy’s artillery were com¬
mitting the most frightful havoc ; and only one effort
more seemed necessary on the part of the Austrians,
with their fine cavalry, in which arm they were greatly
supeiior, to complete the destruction of the French army.
Matters were in this state when Dessaix arrived, who, per¬
ceiving the desperate situation of affairs, instantly hurried
his division into action. Surprised at, but not unprepared
for this renewed attack, the Austrians developed a power¬
ful force to oppose it; Dessaix fell mortally wounded ; and
his division were on the point of being overwhelmed, when
an event almost unexampled in war not only saved the
French army from destruction, but totally changed the for¬
tune of the day, and converted a disastrous defeat into a
complete victory. W hile a body of Austrian grenadiers,
six thousand strong, were advancing to the charge along
a broad causeway, and carrying all before them, they w ere
suddenly and furiously attacked in flank by General Kel-
lerman, at the head of six hundred horse, which he had
managed to conceal among some mulberry trees. A panic
immediately seized them, and believing themselves assail¬
ed by the mass of the French cavalry, they threw down
their arms. The whole affair passed in an instant, and even
the victors themselves were astounded at their own suc¬
cess. Bonaparte, however, lost not a moment in profiting
by this extraordinary turn of fortune. The French rallied
with their usual promptitude on Dessaix's division, which
still preserved some degree of order; resumed their for¬
mer positions ; recommenced the battle, which they had a
few minutes before given up for lost; and, animated with
the enthusiasm inspired by Kellerman’s extraordinary suc¬
cess, drove the Austrians from the field. In the French
official account of this memorable conflict, which decided
the fate of all Italy, no mention whatever is made of Kel¬
lerman’s gallant and decisive attack ; and it reflects little
credit on the memory of Bonaparte, that, though he after¬
wards heaped wealth and titles in boundless profusion on
the man who had not only saved him and his army from de¬
struction, but converted a disastrous defeat into a splendid
triumph, he should never have made any public admission
of the unparalleled achievement which changed the for¬
tune of the day. The service was probably considered as
too great to be acknowledged, because it could never be
sufficiently rewarded; and it ill comported with the cha¬
racter of Bonaparte to admit that, in genius, promptitude,
and energy, he could ever be surpassed by any of his lieu¬
tenants. On the following day Melas entered into nego¬
ciation, and, as the price of an unmolested passage to the
Austrian states, he agreed to abandon all Piedmont, and
the basin of the Po, and to surrender twelve of the strong¬
est fortresses in Europe.
On the side of Germany the French under General Mo¬
reau were scarcely less successful. They passed the Rhine
496
BRITAIN.
Reign of in the neighbourhood of Strasburg, where they were op-
George III. p0ge(j by the Austrians. But this was only a feigned
attack. Speedily retreating, the main body of their army
descended from the mountains of Switzerland, and crossed
the Rhine in the rear of the Austrian army near Schauff-
hausen. After a desperate engagement, the Austrians
were defeated with the loss of ten thousand men, of whom
four thousand were taken prisoners. As the mode of at¬
tack had been unforeseen, and was consequently unpro¬
vided for, the loss of magazines and baggage was immense.
In another and harder fought battle, at Moskirch, the
Austrians lost upwards of eight thousand men. At Bibe-
rach, Augsburg, and Hochstet, the French were equally
successful; and the result was, that the Austrians were
under the necessity of crossing the Danube, leaving the
French masters of the electorate of Bavaria, and in a con¬
dition to invest Dim. A general suspension of hostilities
was now agreed to, by which both parties retained posses¬
sion of their actual positions; and a negociation for peace
was entered into between the French and Austrians, which
produced an attempt to negociate on the part of Great
Britain; but as the French also demanded a naval armis¬
tice, the negociation was dropped ; and after a considerable
delay, during which the Austrian minister at Paris con¬
cluded a treaty which his court afterwards disowned, pre¬
parations were made for re-opening the campaign. But
the French ultimately consented to renew the armistice
with the Austrians, on condition of obtaining possession
of the important fortresses of Ulm, Ingoldstadt, and Phi-
lipsburg. These armistices and negociations proved of
great service to the French. The consent to a truce in
the midst of an unexampled career of victory gave an ap¬
pearance of moderation to the new consular government;
whilst the conclusion of a treaty at Paris, to which the
Austrian government afterwards refused to adhere, in¬
duced neutral nations to consider Bonapai’te as anxious for
the attainment of peace. Hence the wonderful success
which attended his arms, during the early part of the cam¬
paign, was far from rousing the jealousy of the other states
of Europe. The northern nations eagerly courted his al¬
liance ; and the emperor Paul of Russia, actuated by the
natural instability of his temper, and an admiration of mi¬
litary success, not only entered into a close alliance with
Bonaparte, but seized the British vessels in his ports;
whilst the Danes, Swedes, and Prussians, formed a con¬
federacy for evading the right claimed in war by maritime
states, of preventing their enemies from being supplied with
naval stores by means of neutral vessels.
In the meanwhile Great Britain was greatly distressed
by a scarcity of provisions, and riots broke out in Lon¬
don and some provincial towns. On this account parlia¬
ment assembled on the 11th of November, and the prin¬
cipal discussion which occurred in it related to the scar¬
city which prevailed throughout the country, and involv¬
ed in great difficulties both the middle and lower classes
of society. The members of opposition asserted that
the war and the scarcity were closely connected ; whilst
Mr Pitt and his colleagues contended that a more obvi¬
ous cause might be found in the deficiency of the two pre¬
ceding crops, owing to cold and rainy seasons. A royal
proclamation was issued in the beginning of December,
exhorting all heads of families to reduce the consumption
of bread by at least one third, to abstain from the use of
flour in pastry, and to restrict the consumption of oats and
other grain by horses ; and acts of parliament were at the
same time passed prohibiting the exportation, and offering
bounties upon the importation, of grain. These measures,
however, were of a very doubtful character. By increas¬
ing the alarm of scarcity they induced wealthy persons to
buy up grain, and to withhold it from the markets ; the
prohibition of exportation of provisions was unnecessary, Rej ,f
when a better price could be obtained in Britain than else- Geo -1
where; and the same high prices afforded a sufficient bounty w.
for importation.
At the commencement of the following year government
laid an embargo on all Russian, Danish, and Swedish ships
in British ports ; so that Great Britain was now at war with
nearly all Europe. Austria, mdeed, ventured to renew hos¬
tilities ; but the French general Moreau, having defeat¬
ed the Archduke John with tremendous loss, at Hohen-
linden, drove back the Austrian army upon their capital,
advancing within seventeen leagues of Vienna; whilst at
the same time signal defeats wrere sustained by them both
in Italy and in Franconia. From the necessity of their af¬
fairs, therefore, the Austrians were compelled to sue for
peace, which was accordingly concluded at Luneville. The
Netherlands and the Milanese were resigned; France ex¬
tended her boundary to the Rhine ; and Tuscany was re¬
linquished by the grand duke, who was to receive an in¬
demnification in Germany ; whilst, on the other hand, the
city of Venice and a portion of its ancient territory were
given up to Austria. The German princes who suffered
by the treaty were to receive an indemnification out of
the ecclesiastical states of the empire; thereby weakening
still further the influence of the house of Austria. By this
treaty the French became masters of Europe to the south¬
ward of the Rhine and of the Adige.
The commencement of the year 1801 was marked in
Great Britain by the termination of Mr Pitt’s administra¬
tion. When this event was announced to the public, it
created no small degree of astonishment. Since Mr Pitt
had come into office a new generation had sprung up; and
a succession of the most extraordinary public transactions
had occurred, amidst all of which that minister, with his
kinsman Lord Grenville, and his friend Mr Dundas, had
remained firmly established in power. The authority and
influence of these men had in some measure interwoven
itself in the opinions of the people, and they were sur¬
rounded by a train of powerful adherents, dependent on
their patronage ; whilst, at the same time, Mr Pitt himself
retained such a degree of popularity as caused his dismis¬
sion or resignation to appear a very bold measure in the
present state of affairs. The ostensible cause assigned
for Mr Pitt’s dismission obtained little credit with any
one. He was represented as having promised to the Insi
Catholics an equalization of privileges with their fellow-
subjects, on condition of their acquiescing in the treaty ot
union ; but it was pretended that, since his majesty ha
been persuaded to oppose the measure, as contrary to is
coronation oath, the ministry, in such a state of matters,
could no longer honourably remain in office. 01 the true
cause of this change little is publicly known. It does no
seem necessary, however, to search into secret history |0r
an explanation of a transaction which may be sufficien y
accounted for on principles which must be obvious to a ■
The influence acquired by Lord North, arising ^roni,, i
patronage he enjoyed during the American war, ena
him, by combining with others, to establish a ?.
interest in the legislature. But the power Posse*p..7an(j
was trifling when compared with that which Mr D
his friends possessed. The war which Mr Pitt ha
ducted had been expensive in a degree altogether u
ampled in preceding times; whilst the circumstances ^
which it commenced had united, as a party under ^ >
most all the persons of property in the kingdom. g
his long administration, too, the crown possessed, m a ^
direct manner than formerly, the increasing patron
India ; and hence the leading members of this a nl^ee 0f
tion might be regarded as having attained a aeg
power and influence which could not easily be
BRITAIN.
497
. jii of
■ye III’
and which migl, prove extremely mconvement, when held the subjugation of the weaker states, and the accumulation Reign of
by any combination of subjects in a free country. Insuch of that intolerable load of debt which hangs like a miIl-Geor«IH.
circumstances, it was natura for an experienced prince to stone round the neck of this country, and encumbers everv
wish for a change. Mr Pitt had been originally taken into effort it can make to develope its natural resources. Had
office as the agent or the crown in tire House of Commons, Britain originally remained neutral, or rather had she ne
to support the royal prerogative there, against a combina- gociated in favour of the independence of France bromrht
tion of powerful and accomplished men ; he had enjoyed into hazard as it was by the combination of the great mili-
great popularity, and had been considered as the man best tary powers, that country would have been confined with-
qualified to conduct the war of the French revolution ; and in her ancient boundary ; Italy, Switzerland, and Holland
as he knew the high lank which he held in public estima- would have retained their independence • and the strength
tion, and treated the House of Commons with but little of Austria would have remained unbroken - or if Britain
deference, it is not improbable that in the cabinet he may had withdrawn early from the contest, and avoided urging
have presumed upon the indispensable importance of his and subsidizing the continental powers, until they were
own services, and, accounting himself necessary to the successively vanquished, the same result might have en-
admmistration of the empire, arrogated a degree of inde- sued. On the other hand, if the war is to be considered
pendence not at all graceful nor becoming in a mere instru- as undertaken to overturn the principles of the French it
ment of the crown. Some, however, have thought that was undoubtedly successful to a certain extent as it com-
his retirement on this occasion is to be ascribed to a to- polled them to abandon these principles, and to have re¬
tally different cause ; that as he had been mainly instru- course to a military usurpation ; but it ought to be remem-
mental in plunging the country into the war with France, bered, that to Britain as a nation the political principles
and as all his schemes foi humbling that nation had prov- of the French were of no importance whatsoever, whilst
ed aboi live, he could neither admit his error, nor adopt their permanent aggrandisement was calculated to bring
the only means which now remained, in some degree to into hazard our very existence as an independent natiom
atone for it; and that he desired to escape the mortifica- Mr Pitt and his friends called forth the resources of the
tion of negociating a peace with a power which he had so country for the support of the war to an astonishing ex-
often denounced, and which he wished to exclude from
the pale of political and social relations in Europe. And,
in support of this view, it may be mentioned that, on the
dismissal of this administration, a resolution appears to
have been at the same time adopted by the British court,
seriously and earnestly to endeavour to obtain peace upon
any tolerable terms
tent. Immense treasures were lavished in supporting our
allies in fruitless or absurd expeditions, and in schemes
which served only to augment the public burdens, and
to increase the influence of the crown by the extension of
its patronage. The acquiescence of the public in the war
was preserved by keeping the minds of men in a state of
constant alarm, from the fear of danger to the constitution,
With regard to the general merits of Mr Pitt’s admi- in consequence of the alleged disaffection of a body of the
lustration, we are still probably too much involved in the people ; and in this manner a constant spirit of persecution
passions and prejudices which it excited to be able to was maintained throughout the country, which thus seem-
appieciate them with sufficient candour and intelligence, ed to be ruled rather by a jealous faction than by a legiti-
He derived great advantage from the copious and stately mate government. The concluding measure of Mr Pitt’s
eloquence which he at all times displayed in the House of administration, the union with Ireland, is entitled to much
Commons; and certainly no man ever possessed so com- praise. It was suggested by the course of events, and
pletely the art of managing the people of England, and
retaining their attachment, at the same time that he con¬
tinued to possess the confidence of his sovereign. Al¬
though he obtained the government of the British empire
at a very youthful age, the prudence of his conduct and
the magnitude of some of his designs entitle him to a very
ugh rank as a statesman. His sinking fund, though not
contrived by himself, and though based on erroneous prin¬
ciples, was a great and important measure, as it contri¬
buted to sustain the national credit at a period of unex¬
ampled difficulty and embarrassment, and enabled the
country to weather a contest which might otherwise have
pi!ove^ %-al to its independence. His commercial treaty
wit \ France was also, whatever the political economists
may say to the contrary, a measure recommended by the
soundest wisdom. The most ambiguous circumstances in
1 Pitts public conduct were those which related to par-
lamentary reform, to the trial of Mr Hastings, and to the
ave-trade, in which he adopted the popular side in the
av aten alth0USh ^le court was known to be hostile to his
ful°WeT]Sent*men^S’ accordingly were never success-
Hie most difficult question relates undoubtedly to
e war with France. Though by the forms of the Bri-
t^j cons*:itution Mr Pitt was responsible for engaging in
allv irr,1and *°r cont‘nuing in it) yet as he was not actu-
ren ^ •°^ t!le state, it is possible that the interfe-
liad06 °1 i might n°t originate with him, and that he
linnA^ the alternative of engaging in the wrar or of re-
advis'a ln£\^s Povirer. If the war is to be considered as
conseT and con^uci'e(^ by him, he is responsible for all its
v0rnCeS’ t^le enormous aggrandisement of France,
tended to remedy a great defect in the constitution of the
British empire, the want of consolidation into one united
political body.
Of the associates of Mr Pitt, Lord Grenville, who acted
as minister in the House of Lords, was the principal in
England, and Mr Dundas in Scotland, and perhaps also
in the rest of the empire. This last gentleman possessed
the greatest share of power ever intrusted to any Scots¬
man since the union, excepting for a short time to Lord
Bute. During a considerable length of time he appears
to have conducted almost the whole public business of
that vast assemblage of nations, in all the climates of the
globe, which constitutes the British empire; and under
his patronage, and that of his friend Mr Fitt, a numerous
body of dependents rose to the possession of boundless
opulence; whilst they themselves, engrossed by the pur¬
suits of ambition, were understood to have been somewhat
careless of their private concerns.
At the time when the change of ministry took place the
king became affected with a severe illness, supposed to be
the result of anxiety and agitation of mind. In making
choice of a new prime minister, however, he avoided admit¬
ting into power the party which had opposed the war; and
selected Mr Addington, who, as we have already mention¬
ed, was originally patronized by Mr Pitt, and who, as speak¬
er of the House of Commons, had gained approbation by
his good temper, prudence, industry, and conciliating man¬
ners. This gentleman appears to have obtained from his
predecessors in office a promise of support in parliament;
and he was therefore represented throughout the country
as nothing more than a nominal minister, holding a tem-
3 R
498
BRITAIN.
Reign of porary situation, which, on the first opportunity, he was to
George III. relinquish in favour of Mr Pitt and his friends. And this
■'V'*-'' account of the state of affairs derives plausibility from the
actual support which the new minister received from these
gentlemen, and from the influence which they evidently
retained in the nomination to all inferior offices. Mr Ad¬
dington’s appointment as first lord of the treasury and
chancellor of the exchequer was followed by the nomina¬
tion of Lord Eldon to the office of lord high chancellor, of
Lord St Vincent to that of first lord of the admiralty, of
Lord Hawkesbury as secretary of state for the foreign de¬
partment, of Lord Pelham for the home department, and of
Colonel Yorke as secretary at war. Lord Eldon was suc¬
ceeded by Sir Michael Pepper Arden, then created Lord
Alvanley, as chief justice of the common pleas; and Mr
Addington by Sir John Mitford, afterwards Lord Redes-
dale, as speaker of the House of Commons. Sir William
Grant was made master of the rolls, and Mr Law and Mr
Percival attorney and solicitor generals.
On the 2d of February the parliament of Great Britain
and Ireland was opened; but as the king’s illness imme¬
diately succeeded that event, the new administration did
from protecting the commerce of France on the seas or in Re^:
the ports of France; and Denmark and Sweden had ex-Geor [
pressed their readiness to agree on that very point which ^ f
they were now disposed to contend. We did not indeed
know the precise terms of their new convention; but as its
existence and general object were acknowledged, we must
necessarily act upon the supposition of their hostility.
In March Mr Grey moved for an inquiry into the state
of the nation. We were now, he said, in the ninth year of
a war with France, and threatened with a war by all the
maritime states of Europe, if not actually involved in it;
we had added L.270,000,000 to the capital of our national
debt, and above L.17,000,000 to our annual taxes; we
found ourselves opposed to France, which was now ex¬
tended in territory, increased in population, and support¬
ed by all the states of the north. We were opposed to
her with diminished means, exhausted strength, and strip¬
ped of every ally. It was, therefore, incumbent on the
representatives of the people to enter into a serious in¬
quiry into the means most likely to restore to us security
and happiness. The conquests we had made during the
war had not compensated our disasters or the acquisitions
not obtain formal possession of office until the month of made by France. Her frontier now extended to the Rhine,
March, and during the interval the old ministers continu- to the Alps, and to the ocean; yet all these possessions
ed to hold their former situations. At the opening of the
imperial parliament, as it was now called, the speech from
the throne expressed great satisfaction that the crown
would now be able to avail itself of the advice of the unit¬
ed parliament of Great Britain and Ireland; hoped that
this memorable era, distinguished by a measure calculat¬
ed to consolidate the strength of the empire, would be
we had consented to abandon as the price of peace which
ministers might have made with France confined within
her ancient limits, while our own country was prosperous
and happy. Our losses were thus irretrievable, and our
triumphs empty. There was almost no shore from the Tex-
el to the Adriatic which had not witnessed the defeat of
our forces and the disgrace of our arms. The unfortunate
equally marked by the energy and firmness which the pre- attempt upon Dunkirk, the shameful retreat through Hol-
sent situation of the country so peculiarly required; and land, the evacuation of Toulon, the abandonment ot Cor-
stated that the court of Petersburg had treated our re- sica, and the expedition to Quiberon, were all fatal proofs
presentations of the outrages committed against our ships of ill-concerted schemes; but the late expedition against
and property, and against Englishmen, with the utmost Holland was more disgraceful than the rest, because it
disrespect, and that acts of injustice and violence had ag- terminated in a capitulation to an inferior force. Admi-
gravated the first aggressions. It mentioned that a con- nistration had acted with such imprudence that even our
vention had been concluded between Petersburg, Copen- very allies were now converted into enemies, ihe Swedes
hagen, and Stockholm, the avowed object of which was to and other neutral nations had complained that their trade
establish a new code of maritime law, inconsistent with was molested, their ships detained, and justice refused
the rights and hostile to the interests of this country; them in our courts, or so long delayed that it was useless,
and that the earliest measures had been taken to repel These were points which undoubtedly deserved investiga-
this confederacy, and to support those principles essential tion. Nor did the internal condition ot the country kw
to the maintenance of our naval strength. It recommended require consideration. The sum ot L.270,000,000, as al-
an inquiry into the high price of provisions, and promised ready mentioned, had been added to the national debt,
a termination of the present contest whenever it could be exclusive of imperial and other loans, and the ire^ct‘<®
done consistently with security and honour. by the sinking fund ; and yet the ex-ministers alleged t at
When the usual address was moved, some discussion they left the countrv-in a flourishing condition. \et every
occurred in both houses regarding the actual state of af¬
fairs, more particularly as connected with the combination
of the northern powers against Britain. In the House of
Commons Mr Grey deplored the prospect of a war with
all Europe. Russia had evidently been guilty of the uccu lwc — -- *
grossest violence and injustice towards this country7, in the Was it now tranquil? Though rebellion had been crus
confiscation of the property of our merchants, and in the ed in the field, it lurked in secrecy; the mass ot the popu
treatment of our sailors; but the emperor accused the
British government of violating a convention by which he
was to receive the island of Malta as the reward of his
co-operation against France; and the truth of this asser-   x ^
tion ought to be investigated. Concerning the northern demanded the support of the new administration, as a
confederacy, Mr Grey remarked, that the principles on timony7 of their disapprobation of the measures of their P^*
which it was founded were of no recent origin, as indeed decessors.
was very generally known. Mr Pitt, who still acted as
chancellor of the exchequer, declared, that with every one
of the three northern powers, independently of the law of
nations, we had on our side the strict letter of engage¬
ments by7 which they were bound to us. In the conven¬
tion signed between Great Britain and Russia, the latter
bound herself to use her efforts to prevent neutral powers England to be long
Englishman, from "diminished comfort, or from positive
distress, felt this declaration to be an insult The situa¬
tion of the sister kingdom was also alarming in the ex¬
treme. Since the recal of Earl Fitzwilliam, Irefhnd ha
been the scene of transactions shocking to humanity-
lation was disaffected; and nothing prevented the separa¬
tion of Ireland from Britain but the inability of France to
send a force to assist the rebels. L pon these grounds
called for an inquiry into the actual state ot affairs, an
cessors. . ,
Mr Dundas defended, with plausible statements an
guments, the conduct of the war. The principle " ^
he laid down was, that war ought to be directed to ^
destruction of the commerce and colonial poss€?6*or^ust
the enemy, including their maritime power, vvhie ^® ^
depend upon their commerce. It was hardly pos^i e
~ ’ at war with France without bem0
BRITAIN.
Re i of volved in disputes on the Continent, which might deprive
Geo: III. us of many of the markets which we had for "our goods;
^ and therefore it was peculiarly our interest to gain these
colonies, that they might remain open for our commodi-
In order then to judge how far the war, conducted
499
ties .  
on this principle, had been disastrous and disgraceful, he
would state its progress and success. Hostilities com¬
menced against France in February 1793; and in that year
Tobago, St Pierre, Miquelon, Pondicherry, part of St Do¬
mingo, and the fleet at Toulon, were taken, besides the
possessions of the Newfoundland fishery. In the year
1794 we captured Martinique, Guadaloupe, St Lucie, the
Saints, Corsica, and Mariagalante; in 1795, Trincomalee
and the Cape of Good Hope ; in 1796, Amboyna, Berbice,
and Demerara; in 1797, Trinidad, with four ships of the
line either taken or destroyed ; in 1798, Minorca; in 1799,
Surinam; in 1800, Goree, Malta, and Curacoa.’ These
had been our successes. With regard to the expedition
against Holland, he defended it on the same principles as
formerly. As to the navy, he stated, that since the com¬
mencement of the present war we had taken or destroyed
eighty sail of the line belonging to the enemy, a hundred
and eighty-one frigates, two hundred and 'twentv-four
smaller ships of war, seven hundred and forty-three French
privateers, fifteen Dutch and seventy-six Spanish ships.
The losses we had sustained were three sail of the line,
one of which we had retaken; one fifty gun ship, which
we also retook; and of the frigates cap’tured by the ene-
my, the Ambuscade alone remained in their possession.
One of the great advantages to be derived from the colo¬
nial possessions of the enemy was the markets they fur¬
nished for our manufactures. In the year 1793 the ma¬
nufactures sent from this country to the West Indies
amounted to above L. 1,800,000 sterling. Before the war
our exports to the East Indies did not exceed one million,
but in the preceding year they exceeded L. 1,600,000, a
proof that we had not lost the* markets of Europe. The
failure of an expedition was now considered as a deci¬
sive proof of misconduct in ministers ; but in the glorious
oeven Tears \\ ar, which was in every body's recollection,
there were expeditions attempted which completely failed,
t ough the failure was not considered as a proof of inca¬
pacity or neglect in Lord Chatham. The conquests which
we then made were Senegal, Louisburg, St Lucie, Du-
quesne, Guadaloupe, Martinique, the Havannah, Mont-
♦"f"* c •n<^'C^err^’ ^rrena^a> Belleisle, besides destroying
ie oitifications of Cherbourg; and we took or destroyed
irty-two sail of the line and fifty-eight frigates, besides
a proportionable number of smaller vessels. We were now
possession of every place taken in that war. excepting
jjuadaloupe, the Havannah, and Belleisle; but, on the other
hand, we had gained the Cape of Good Hope, Cevlon,
emeraia, Berbice, and all the Dutch possessions in the
^ast and West Indies, added to Minorca and Malta. We
a also destroyed the confederacy formed against us in
e, ast. Ihdies, and acquired a great increase of power
Mtep-t0ry in that fluarter of the worId-
r Pitt, after expressing his respect for the new admi-
tha °kserved that no point had been more disputed
^ n, j confidence in ministers. By some people it
o-iJ5 he d ^ at n° Person was entitled to it, till he had
& n proofs of having merited it. But this never could
earned in substance to the letter; for whoever entered
coni emPloymetnt> must at first be new to it: there
had h G exPer^ence without trial; but when persons
se]vp„een,^r. . h1.011® situation, and had acquitted them-
thpv* \n •lt’ ^ was a ride t0 e‘ve the™ credit when
or miJi* Gi mto anot^er5 until proof of their incapacity
Mr Adc1 UCt aPPeared* He then lavished encomiums on
ington, on Lord Hawkesbury, and on Earl St Vin¬
cent, and asked the gentlemen of the opposition if they Ileio-n of
imew any one among themselves superior to Lord Hawkes- George III.
bury, excepting one, Mr Fox, whose transcendent talents
made him an exception to almost any rule. Of the other
individuals composing the new administration, much might
be said; but he would only add, that it showed little “re¬
flection or consideration to affirm that the present mini¬
sters were unentitled to a constitutional confidence; and
the house was bound by the best principles of policy to
wait to see the conduct of the servants of the crown be¬
fore they withheld it. Upon the subject of the retirement
or dismissal of the late administration, he contended that
his majesty had a right to part with his servants, and his
servants to retire, without any explanation being given to
the public. Concerning the affairs of the Irish Catholics,
and their connection with the dismissal of administration,
he stated, that a memorandum had been sent, in the name
of a noble lord at the head of the executive government
of Ireland, who thought it essential to communicate the
grounds of the change of administration to persons more
immediately connected with the Catholics ; and it had been
at his express desire that this communication had been
made, and the motives explained to them which led to the
change, in order to prevent any misrepresentation. Eman¬
cipation of the Catholics was a term he disclaimed. He
never understood the situation of the Catholics was such
as to need what deserved to be called emancipation ; but he
thought the few benefits which they had not yet anticipat¬
ed might easily have been added to those so bountifully
conterred on them in the present reign, not as a matter of
right, but of liberality and political expediency. Had such
a measure preceded the union, indeed, it would have been
rash and destructive; and even now, if any attempt was
made to push it so as to endanger the public tranquillity, or
to pervert the affections of any of his majesty’s subjects, the
ex-ministers would be forward and firm in resisting it. But
he hoped the day would come when such a measure might
be revived, and carried in the only way in which he wished
to see it carried, conformably to the general tranquillity of
the empire, lo him it had appeared of such importance,
that, being unable to bring it forward as a measure of go¬
vernment, he did not conceive it possible for him, with ho¬
nour, to remain in the same situation ; and he wished it to
be understood, that whenever the same obstacles did not
exist, he would do every thing in his power to promote its
success. He denied, however, that any of those who had
retired from office had so pledged themselves to the Ca¬
tholics as to be under the necessity of resigning their
offices because they could not perform their promise;
and he also denied that ever the Catholics supposed they
had received such a pledge. An expostulation was natu¬
ral, but a pledge had never been given. He concluded that
the British government had justice on its side, or rather
was supported by the law of nations, in the claims which
it now maintained to search neutral vessels for military
stores on their way to the enemy, and to declare parti¬
cular French or other ports under blockade, to the effect
of thereafter having a right to arrest neutral vessels at¬
tempting to enter them.
Mr Fox observed, that it was undoubtedly a doctrine
recognised by the law of nations, that free bottoms did
not make free goods ; but he doubted much the propriety
or discussing it at this critical juncture. He thought our
claims upon this subject were extended too far when
they were made to reach to naval stores, as these had not
been at former periods considered as contraband. He then
adverted to the successes of the war, which had been
enumerated by Mr Dundas. On the navy he bestowed
merited praise, and also on the late first lord of the ad¬
miralty, assigning his merit as the reason for the constant
lleign of and brilliant triumphs of the navy; whilst our military
George III. expeditions, though our troops were as brave as our sea-
v—men, had generally failed. In naval tactics almost every
thing depended on the talents of the officers; whereas, in
military movements, much depended on the original de¬
sign. The boasted capture of islands was not the object
of the war : our object had been to protect Europe against
France ; and how had we succeeded ? Which of the two
nations had been most aggrandised in the course of it?
A country paying double its land-rent was in a state de¬
manding inquiry. The war secretary had talked much
about the diversion of war, and shown us its nature on his
principles. He had sent the Duke of York and an army
of thirty thousand men to the only neck of land perhaps
in the world where a fifth part of their own numbers was
equal to cope with them. Of the armistice of Hohenlin-
den, and the negociation which followed it, Mr Fox spoke
with indignation, reprobating the conduct of the minister,
which had so fatally proved that eloquence was distinct
from wisdom. Time had now evinced that all the great ob¬
jects of the war were defeated, and that our allies had de¬
serted us; and when no prospect of success remained, we
might resort to negociation. The same men who had re¬
jected the proposals of Bonaparte with insolence, must
approach with respect, suing for favour, to avoid partici¬
pating in the disgrace. With regard to the Irish Catho¬
lics, no man ought to be deprived of his rights because
be worshipped God according to the dictates of his own
conscience; and it was a reflection upon parliament to
say, as Mr Pitt had said, that he could not there propose
a 'measure which he approved. He declared his belief
that no such difficulty existed, but that the late minister
might wish to retire for a season, till overtui'es of peace
were made, which he could not make, without mortification,
to the man whom he had insulted. He spoke of the change
of administration as a fortunate occurrence. Some indeed
might suspect, from the panegyric of Mr Pitt, that the
new ministers were the less gaudy puppets, directed by
those who had quitted their stations ; and if they adopted
the system of their predecessors, with the additional blame
of being hostile to the Catholic claims, acting in this point
from their own motives, they would be unworthy of con¬
fidence.
The new chancellor of the exchequer, Mr Addington,
observed, that the degree of confidence which the House
of Commons ought to extend to the present ministers, it
was not for him to conjecture; they only asked for that
portion of it which should be constitutionally reposed in
persons duly appointed by his majesty, unless it was pre¬
cluded by antecedent character and conduct. He then
commented on all the leading points in dispute with the
northern powers; and after stating the grounds of the
principle asserted by this country, and referring to the
exception made by existing treaties, gave it as his opinion
that the right for which we contended was vital and fun¬
damental, and could neither be abandoned nor compro¬
mised. Lastly, he felt it incumbent on him to declare
that it was the determination of his majesty’s servants to
take such steps as appeared to them best calculated for
the restoration of peace; that no form of government in
Prance would obstruct negociation ; and that if there was
a corresponding disposition on the part of the enemy, the
grand object would be accomplished. The motion for in¬
quiry was then rejected by a majority of more than two
to one.
Notwithstanding the change of ministry, Mr Pitt brought
forward the business of the supplies in the House of Com¬
mons. Their amount was L.35,587,462; of which sum
L.15,800,000 was for the navy, L. 15,902,000 for the
army, and L.1,938,000 for the ordnance. The income tax
was now stated as only amounting to about L.6,000,000. Reip
As some deficiencies of former estimates required to beOeor^
provided for, Mr Pitt stated, that the whole charge of '■’V
the two countries, for the service of the year, would
amount to L.42,197,000, which would be divided between
the two countries thus : Great Britain for its fifteen seven¬
teenths of the joint expense, and those charges which be¬
longed separately to her, would have to defray, in round
numbers, L.37,870,000 ; and the charges falling upon Ire¬
land would be L.4,324,000. The sum of L.25,000,000
was raised by way of loan, and new taxes were imposed
upon paper, tea, houses, lead, the post-office, and various
other articles. The income tax was also further mort¬
gaged, so that the debt for which it was pledged amount¬
ed to L.76,000,000.
In the meanwhile, to prevent the active co-operation of
Denmark with Russia, and if possible to break up the
northern confederacy, an armament was fitted out in the
British ports, consisting of eighteen sail of the line, and as
many frigates, sloops, bombs, fire-ships, and smaller ves¬
sels, as made the whole amount to about fifty-three sail.
This fleet, under the command of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker,
with Vice-admiral Lord Nelson as his second, sailed from
Yarmouth on the 12th of March 1801, and soon afterwards
reached its first rendezvous at the entrance of the Catte-
gat. The Danish navy at this time consisted of twenty-
three ships of the line, with about thirty-one frigates and
smaller vessels, exclusive of guard ships. The Swedes
had eighteen ships of the line, fourteen frigates and sloops,
seventy-four galleys and smaller vessels, besides gun-boats,
all in a state of respectable equipment. The Russians bad
eighty-two sail of the line and forty frigates, and of these
thirty-one sail of the line and a proportional number of
frigates were in commission in the Baltic, being divided
between Petersburg, Archangel, Cronstadt, and Revel;
but their fleet was ill built, ill manned, ill officered, and
ill-equipped ; and, of the number in commission in the Bal¬
tic, probably not more than twenty sail of the line could
have been put into a condition to act against an enemy.
At this time the Swedes had eleven sail of the line at
Carlscrona, ready for sea, and in tolerable fighting trim;
the Danish fleet at Copenhagen consisted of ten sail of
the line ready for sea, exclusive of about an equal number
in an unserviceable state ; and, assuming the available
Russian force as above stated at twenty sail of the line,
it thus appears that the entire effective strength of the
fleets of the northern confederates amounted to forty-one
sail of the line, besides frigates and smaller vessels. But
as not more than twenty-five or twenty-six of these could
by any means have been assembled at a given point,
and as even the best of them w'ere decidedly inferior to
our ships in condition, equipment, discipline, and skill)
eighteen, or even fifteen British sail of the line wrere more
than a match for them. This explanation is necessaiy to
show that the British government wrere not guilty of any
rashness in sending to the Baltic a force apparently so
small in comparison of that to which it was oppose »
though they certainly deserve the strongest reprobation
for allowing any petty consideration to prevent them from
appointing Nelson to the command. .
It was at first hoped that Denmark, notwithstanc ing
her hostile demonstrations, would prefer negociation ^
war ; but this expectation having been disappointed, an
the Danish government, instead of conciliation, hav'i g
assumed a tone of open defiance, preparations were ma
for forcing the passage of the Sound, though in these m
valuable time was lost through the irresolution o t e .
miral, Sir Hyde Parker. At length, however, the n
fleet weighed anchor at six o’clock in the morning o
30th March, and with a fine breeze at north-nor
BRITAIN.
Rei of
Geor HI
entered the Sound in a line a-head, the van division com-
■ manded by Lord Nelson in the Elephant, the centre divi¬
sion by the commander-in-chief, and the rear division by
Rear-admiral Graves. At seven the batteries at Elsineur,
which had been represented as tremendous, commenced
firing at the Monarch, which was the leading ship, and the
other ships as they passed in succession ; but the distance
was so great that not a shot took effect, nor did any of the
British ships fire in return except the van division, which
only discharged a few broadsides. As the strait at Elsi¬
neur, however, is less than three miles across, a mid-chan¬
nel passage would undoubtedly have exposed the ships to
a fire from Cronenburg Castle, adjoining Elsineur, on the
one side, and from the Swedish town of Helsinburg on the
other; but the British having observed that the batteries
of the latter mounted only eight guns of a small calibre,
inclined to the Swedish shore, where not even a show of
501
of it, avoided a fire which, as proceeding from nearly a
hundred pieces of cannon, could scarcely have failed to
do much injury to the ships. About noon the fleet an¬
chored at some distance above the island of Huen, which
is about, fifteen miles from Copenhagen; and the com¬
mander-in-chief, Vice-admiral Lord Nelson, and Rear-ad¬
miral Graves, accompanied by Captain Domett and the
commanding officers of the artillery and troops (namely,
the forty-ninth regiment, two companies of the rifle corps,
and a detachment of artillery which had been embarked
rm rWTQTVi O rll\7ioi/-vv\ *  1 TA \ i -•
squadron anchored off Draco Point just as the darkness Rehm of
closed, the headmost of the enemy’s line not being more George III.
than two miles distant. Captain Hardy now proceeded   v—'
in a small boat, under cover of the night, to examine the
channel between the anchorage and the Danish line, and
actually approached near enough to sound round the first
ship of the latter, using a pole lest the noise of throwing
t ie Jeact should occasion a discovery. Having completed
his task, he returned about eleven o’clock, and reported to
the admiral the depth of the water, and the practicability
of the channel up to the Danish line. This was gratifying
news to Nelson, though it added to his impatience, and
pievented him from sleeping during the remainder of the
night, the whole of which was spent in preparing instruc¬
tions and receiving reports.
The force now about to be attacked was of the most for¬
midable description. It consisted of eighteen vessels, all
fiigates, praams, and radeaux, mounting altogether about
six hundred and fifty guns, and moored in a line of about
a mile m extent, flanked at the north end, or that nearest
the town, by two artificial islands called the Trekrdner or
Crown Batteries, one of thirty twenty-four pounders, and
the other of thirty-eight thirty-six pounders, with furnaces
tor heating shot, and commanded by two-decked block-
ships. The entrance into the harbour and docks, which are
situated in the heart of the city, was protected by a chain
drawn across it, and also by some batteries on the north-
on board a division of the fleet in the Downs), proceeded ern shore paS
m a nger to reconnottre theenemy-s defences. These and, in addict, to thisf two seventyX,, gun sliipXne:
IP rip- vn  _ /* . n • -
were soon ascertained to be of the most formidable de¬
scription. It was apparent that the Danes could not be
attacked without great difficulty and risk; and when a
council of war was called in the afternoon, much as usual
was urged to show the propriety of foregoing, or at least
delaying, the attack. Councils of war never fight. But
happily the opinion of Nelson prevailed, and he offered his
services for the attack, requiring ten sail of the line and
all the small craft. Sir Hyde Parker willingly accepted
the tender, gave him two more line-of-battle ships than he
asked, and wisely left every thing to his own judgment.
be contended with. The approach to it was by a channel
extremely intncate.and little known; and, ^increase the
1 cu ty of navigating it, the Danes had removed or mis¬
placed the buoys. But Nelson himself saw the soundings
made, and buoys laid in the outer channel, between the
marck and Trekrdner, a forty-gun frigate, two eighteen
gun brigs, and several armed zebecs, provided with furnaces
for heating shot, were moored in advantageous positions off
the mouth of the harbour. Along the shore of Amak island,
a little to the southward of the floating line of defence,
w ei e gun and mortar batteries; and as the Danes were ani¬
mated by an enthusiastic spirit of patriotism, and eager
by every possible means to repel the assailants, there was
no wane of men, skilful and brave, to work the guns, either
afloat or on shore.
The day of the second of April broke, as Nelson had
TIip fmwp of n C 47 7 --xi judgment. xne uay or tne second ot April broke, as Nelson had
contended with^Thfa11 ^ ^ °bst?cle to hoPed ifc would> with a favourable, south-easterly wind;
contended with. I he approach to it was bv a channel and the slo-nd 17,. oil *1™ ...   , ^ ’
island of Saltholm and the Mlddll r V L’ 7 - uie (XJ,au,e smPs were to anchor by the stern abreast of the
«• ^ -X M an operation
tins exhausting service until it was completed. An attack
irom the eastward was first meditated; but a second ex-
amination of the Danish position, on the 31st, and a fa-
urable change ot the wind, determined the vice-admiral
0 a ack from the south. Accordingly, on the morning
and the signal for all the captains to come on board the
flag-ship was hoisted as soon as it could be seen. As
circumstances prevented the admiral’s plan of attack being
strictly followed, it may suffice to state that all the line-
of-battle ships were to anchor by the stern abreast of the
A O " J ^ HVJA*
for which they were already prepared by having cables
out of their stern-ports. I he Amazon, Blanche, Alcmene,
Arrow, and Dart, with two fire-ships, all under the direc¬
tion of Captain Riou, were to co-operate in the attack on
the ships stationed at the mouth of the harbour, and to
of the first of Anril 7C R v n a * ’ ^rmng tne snips stationed at the mouth of the harbour, and to
chorae-e within ! ’ / Ijntish fleet removed to an an- act otherwise as circumstances might require. The bomb-
weSexSi V Of thISflt C* ‘T’ "“' ‘T VC?elS Yere t0 Slation elveCut Je the British line,
iog alone the whole sea S ? ^rrou,ld; a shoal extend- and to throw their shells over it; while the Jamaica, with
and leavine an intervening eh f T e T °f CoPenhaffn> .the bngs and gun-vessels, was to take a position for rak-
Konigstiefe or KineC rhf h, vf1 °/f deeP water caded mS the southern extremity of the Danish line; and a si¬
mile wide ’in tl efnnri f tl’ three garters of a milar station was assigned to the Desiree. It was also
Panied bv^antain f R h7f0ren°0n Ne S°n^ aCwm" latended that the forty-ninth regiment, under Colonel
the last time dfe i v tJ\e1A!Iiazon’ reconnoitred for Stewart, and five hundred seamen under Captain Free-
and soon after his i-)0fSI 10'VV UC \ !e )vaf abput t° attack; mantle of the Ganges, should storm the principal of the
appeared at rhp p|Ltu.rn one 0 ejoek the s^nal to weigh Trekrdner batteries, the instant that its fire should be
with a shout thrmiJh’ mfS!"lead* was received silenced by the cannonade from the ships. Between eight
ly obeyed The, ^ ,0^ 1 wb? e S(]oadron, and prompt- and nine o’clock the pilots, most of whom had been mates
wind- the sm 11 ^ ividl a an(f favourable in Baltic traders, were ordered on board the Elephant.
Riou led the P°Ainted out tbe coul'se distinctly; But as they hesitated about the bearing of the east and
edge of the riirl.f 7 e AnJazo“ ; aatf coasting along the of the shoal, and the exact line of deep water, it became
reached and nnrti 3n s laa* °.r ^ldd*e f,round unfb tbcy evident that their knowledge was not to be trusted. Nelson
P y rounded its southern extremity, the was extremely perplexed. The signal for action had been
502
BRITAIN.
Reign of made ; the wind was fair; not a moment was to be lost.
George III. They were urged to be steady, to be resolute, and to de-
cide; but they wanted the only ground for steadiness and
resolution in such a case; and Nelson had now reason to re¬
gret that he had not trusted to Captain Hardy’s single re¬
port. At length Mr Alexander Briarly, the master of the
Bellona, undertook to lead the fleet; and his proposal being
acceded to, the captains returned to their ships, and at half-
past nine the signal was made for the ships to weigh in
succession, and advance to the attack.
The Edgar led the way; but the Agamemnon, which was
next in order, having anchored rather outside than off the
great shoal, could not weather it, and was obliged to bring
up again in six fathoms water, where the current was so
strong that, although she afterwards re-weighed, and con¬
tinued for a long time to warp with the stream and kedge
anchors, she w^as compelled again to bring up nearly in
the spot from which she had last weighed. When the
misfortune of the Agamemnon was discovered, the admiral
made signal for the Polyphemus, which followed the Edgar;
and the Isis steered after the Polyphemus. The Bellona,
notwithstanding a fair wind and ample room, kept too close
on the starboard shoal, and grounded abreast of the outer
ship of the enemy. The Russell following the Bellona,
also grounded; and although both were within range of
shot, their absence from their intended stations was severe¬
ly felt. Three ships of the squadron were now aground and
comparatively useless; so that Nelson was compelled to
begin the attack with one ship of the line less than he had
calculated upon as absolutely necessary. In compliance
with the wish of the pilots, each ship had been ordered to
pass her leader on the starboard side, from a supposition
that the water shoaled on the larboard ; but, as Captain
Hardy had proved, the water deepened all the way to the
enemy’s line. The Elephant, flag-ship, came next; but
Lord Nelson, as soon as he perceived the state of the Bel¬
lona and Russell, ordered his helm to be put a starboard,
and passed within those ships ; and all the ships astern
followed his example. By this act of promptitude on the
part of the admiral, the greater part of the fleet were sav¬
ed from going on shore. At the moment when Lord
Nelson’s squadron weighed, Admiral Parker’s eight ships
did the same, and took up a position somewhat nearer the
mouth of the harbour, so as to menace the northern wing
of the defence ; but a nearer approach was impracticable
in time to render any active service in the engagement.
The cannonade commenced at five minutes after ten,
and for nearly an hour the principal ships engaged were
the Polyphemus, Isis, Edgar, Ardent, and Monarch. By
half-past eleven, however, the Glatton, Elephant, Ganges,
and Defiance, got to their respective stations, as did also
several frigates and smaller vessels, and the action now
became general. The Desiree proved of great service in
raking the Provesteen, and drawing part of her fire from
the Polyphemus and Isis; but owing to the strength of
the current, the Jamaica, with the gun-vessels, could not
get near enough to be of any service in the action; and
the bomb-vessels were not able to execute much. The
absence of the Agamemnon, Bellona, and Russell, discon¬
certed the plan of the attack, and caused several of the
British ships to sustain a heavier share of the enemy’s
fire than had been allotted to them, or they were well able
to bear; and among the sufferers on this account was the
Amazon frigate, which, along with four others under Cap¬
tain Riou, had boldly taken a position right against the
Trekroner batteries. The cannonade had continued three
hours, and few if any of the Danish block-ships, praams,
or radeaux, had ceased firing, nor had the contest as yet
taken a decisive turn to either side. Meanwhile the com¬
mander-in-chief, near enough to the scene of conflict to
know the unfavourable accidents which had deprived Nel- L of
son of one fourth of his force, and yet too distant to knowfeilii
the real state of the contending parties, suffered the most ^"v
dreadful anxiety: and from the reports made to him that
signals of distress were flying at the mast-heads of two
British line-of-battle ships, and the signal of inability on
board a third; from observing the zig-zag course and slow
progress of the Defence, Ramillies, and Veteran, which he
had dispatched as a reinforcement; and from the distance
of the London, which bore his flag, preventing his judging
of the relative condition of the contending parties; Sir
Hyde Parker was induced to throw out the signal for dis¬
continuing the action. When this was reported to Nel¬
son, he continued to walk the deck without appearing to
take any notice of it. At the next turn the signal lieu¬
tenant met him, and having stated that the commander-
in-chief had thrown out number thirty-nine, asked if he
should repeat it. “ No,” replied Nelson, “ acknowledge
it;” and presently he called after the officer to knowr if the
signal for close action was still flying. Being answered
in the affirmative, he said, “ Mind 3'ou keep it so;” and,
after pacing the deck for some time, moving the stump of
his lost arm in a manner which always indicated great
emotion, he accosted one of the officers thus: “ Do you
know,” said he, “ what is shown on board the commander-
in-chief? Number thirty-nine.” The officer asked what
that meant. “ Why, to leave off action.” Then, shrugg-
ing up his shoulders, he exclaimed, “ Leave off action! No,
damn me if I do. You knowr, Foley,” turning to the cap¬
tain, “ I have but one eye; I have a right to be blind some¬
times and then putting the glass to his blind eye, in
sportive bitterness, he exclaimed, “ I really do not see
the signal;” adding, after a momentary pause, “ Damn the
signal! Keep mine for closer battle flying. That's the
way I answer such signals. Nail mine to the mast!” The
three frigates and two sloops nearest to the London,
however, obeyed the signal, and hauled off from the Tre-
krbner batteries; when “ the gallant, good Riou” was
killed by a raking shot, which cut him in two, just as the
Amazon presented her stern to one of the latter.
About half past one the fire of the Danes began to
slacken, and at a little before two it had ceased along
nearly the whole of their line. Some of the praams and
light vessels had also gone adrift; but few if any of the
vessels whose flags had been struck w^ould suffer them¬
selves to be taken possession of, and fired on the boats as
they approached ; whilst the batteries on the isle of Amak
aided them in this irregular warfare. Nelson was justly
irritated at this conduct on the part of the Danes; and at
one time had thoughts of sending in the fire-ships to bum
the vessels which had surrendered. But, as a preliminary
measure, he retired into the stern gallery, and wrote to the
crown prince of Denmark that celebrated letter, which will
ever be memoi’able in the history of England: “ ^ ice-ad¬
miral Lord Nelson is commanded to spare Denmark when
she no longer resists. The line of defence which covere
her shores has struck to the British flag; but if the firing
is continued on the part of Denmark, he must set on hm
all the prizes that he has taken, without having the P°^r
of saving the men who have so nobly defended them. 1 e
brave Danes are the brothers, and should never f3® *ie
enemies, of the English.” This letter was carried on
shore with a flag of truce by Sir Frederick Thesiger, w
found the crown prince at a sally-port. Meanwh e
destructive cannonade was still kept up by the -P6 ’
Monarch, and Ganges, while the near approach o
Defence and Ramillies silenced the fire of the Inl"S ,
then, Holstein, and the ships next to them in the js
line. But the great Trekrdner still continued its fire,
formidable work, having had nothing but frigates and s
BRITAIN.
i of
III
503
opposed to it, and that only for a time, was comparatively themselves and imnnrtnm-
uninjured; and as it had just been manned with nearly Eno-land. ’ 1 t to the maritime interests of Reign of
fifteen hundred men, it was considered as too strong to be On the 12th the RrifisT, « -i a r ^ George in
successfully stormed. It was now judged advisable to roads bv Hie i fleet sailed from Copenhagen v—'y''-"
withdraw the fleet out of the intricate channel while the islands of Amok and °f th? Grounfls’ between the
wind was fair; and preparations were making for this pur! em ext!em1tv nf H e id , S\eered f°r the north-
pose, when the Danish adjutant-general Lindholm came cent a Swedish ^ aiK °f Boij m’ 111 order to inter¬
bearing a flag of truce ; upon which the Trekrdner diW The Swedkb , ^Uad™’ rePorted at nine sail of the line,
tinned its fire, and the action, after having lasted five onl! six So of S’!! ’ Th°Se f°rce consisted of
hours, during four of which it had been hotly contested, CaHscrona • and hereTnl0^1.?'efuge behind the forts of
was brought to a close. tlio 99d ’a i • e a neS0ciat'10n was opened, which, on
The message from the crown prince beino- to inauire the to VCU 111 an a&ree^nent by his Swedish majesty
purport of Lord Neluons note/the latter^eplied^ wHt! On the S«h rf tlT P t eXiSti"g
ing, that humanity was the object; that he consented to xroR™ • - * i ,r Gyde I arker wms recalled, and
stay hostilities in order that the wounded Danes might be have he^f8 G Wlt 1 116 co.mniand’ which ought never to
taken on shore; that he would take hi* Ptlsone™ ou of R,h h^TV 0"e„mo"’™V?trUSt<:d t0 another- 0"
the vessels, and burn or carry off his prizes as he should that <dti ” Vy6 f vv^dls l aflrairalj by a flag of truce,
think fit; and that he would considerE ^ the greatest err.l Hyde Parkf had “nsented8not to in’
victory he had ever gained, if it should lead to a^econ- 1™ „s the R ‘d’T'f “.“r te’ rLord NeIson’ would acl
ctliation between the two countries. Sir Frederick The- left r.,,,. ,- \r edL'1 de,t i1 1)6 found it at sea; and he
siger was dispatched a second time with the reply and and a fYWp uiray .Wlth six sail of the line, the Glatton,
the Danish adjutant-general was referred to the com- Wdl S f’ a °ff1Carlscrona- 0n the 14th his
mander-in-chief for a final adjustment of terms I ind to I u R aa,C roads, PrePared, if necessary,
holm, accordingly, proceeded to the London Tho„rw l Ta ^ ^ Nels0n t0uch>’? ^der which Den-
miles off; and NelsoPn, avafllg himself of the Z had fluai!ed ’ but events had already
thus afforded, made signal to the leading British shins aU fai™ Indl! t lal fountr^ whlch changed the aspect of af-
of which were much crippled in their rigging and sails, to ther’hosdfiS °n ^ accommodatlon vvithout any
weigh in succession. I he Monarch led the wav, and touch- On Hip 9^rl r>f at i +1 t« i
ed the edge of the shoal; but the Gano-es takino- her amid f '3 m the erilPeror Paul, who had per-
ships, drove her clear. The Glatton ^drawinoAess watpr ^ f S° ve/satlIe.aad extraordinary a part on the political
passed free; but the DeLncHnd EleZft io^d j1;6 Period when he ascended the Russian throne,
about a mile from the Trekrdner, and there remained fix dtn Hls caPr.,cl0us tyranny, which was at
ed for many hours, in spite of the exertions of their cl w,' laSt ab°Ut t0 ^'fcted against the members of his own
At the opposite end of the line, also, the Desiree having ofTh^r ^ 1° ‘i™’, a?d he fel1 the victim of one
gone to assist the Bellona, became fast on the same shoaf ed °®e; cansPira5:les t0 whlch despots are peculiarly expos-
Soon after the Elephant grounded Lord Nelson m>ifted Z Ips son and successor, Alexander, immediately dis-
her and followed Lindholm to the London. The boats of mratfnn f hostility against Great Britain, and made re-
Sir Hyde Parker's division were arrive!,' ,.,',,,,1,. -j ■ puration for tile damage which our merchants had suffer-
the whole night of th^d iXu^ o^t“Ses anl was^h.l^T la!d Up0,n ‘heir fhipS- A convention
in getting afloat the ships which were am-mind • and ^ WaS adJusted W1.tb Russia in the month of June, which put
the morning of the 3d, the latter excpnt Hip IIpsiVo l, ^ an t0 tbf dlsPllte wbh the northern states, as Sweden
got off. The negociations continued dnrimr Hi fT’ an( Genmarb could not of themselves hope to resist the
lowing days• and°in the interval all th • & 1 five fol- power of Great Britain; and by the third article of the
Holstein, 1 sixty’gun shin whidi v!ls spnTbnm0X061 aSr1eemen1t it,was stipulated, that effects embarked in neu-
fire to and destroyed Six line nfhafH 1 ’ 0’ Wfre. S.e ^ra vessels should be free, with the exception of contra-
praams had been^aken. Of the fbrmp! flm V”? eidS St0re'i °f War’ and the ProPerty of an enemy; that
much finer ship than the Holstein was ,‘n 1 1 i°a an ’ t t!ie atte.r flesi»natiori should not include merchandise of
thoseconsigned tZL fl!meffor!;i ° ,am°ngS the Produce’ S™wth, or manufacture of the countries at
been able to ascertain " (Rfthpdth^an reas?n .we bav^ not ^ acquired by the subjects of the neutral state, and
teen weeks waf afte; muc^dit Zn ^ ^ a on tbeir account; that the commodities pro-
Henmark engaged to susnend all nrnpp ^iee ?’ afd bibited should be such only as were declared contraband
treaty of armedmeutralitv v^irli^h^harf e^ingS iU.nder tbe by the ?eaty of commerce concluded between Great Bri-
Sweden and Russia J h ed h tam and Russia in 1797; that a Port should be considered
This ivas a murderous artinn Dm- inoo ; i -n i i af U1?de,r blockade when the ships of a belligerent power
wounded fell little short of twplvp 1 1 Y” Y' Y Yd sbould be 80 stat*oned as to render it evidently dangerous
of the Danes, IncludbY nH^nP I hundrfd ^ whdst that t0 enter; tbat neutral vessels should not be stopped, ex¬
thousand. Manyofthe^BriSrshinsTaT ff lb°U fPt U^0n Str°ng Srounds ? that the proceeding should
lyfrom the steadyZllfiS be U"dorm’ PromPt» and legal; and that the right of
to the Danish shipper floatinl hnllJ J Z ^ S\ sfrchlnS mercantile ships sailing under convoy of a ship
them were literally knocked n !pp ’ °f °f War should only be exercised by the ships of the go-
Permitted the British shin! tn Yk! V anC 'Y- h° ^ °tS vernment, not by those of private adventurers. By this
the heavy carrYad^ arrangement the chief points in dispute were settled in
have proLp l tl Y /^Y Y Y and.Ardent would favour of this country.
been still nmre compt e and Af11011011 W°Vld have Th6 War between France and Great Britain was now
the battle of ConenhZn’v i ^ ainY rapid. For reduced to merely maritime operations, and these were of
eount; a palZrewSYfor ^ ° YT S* n° grCat maSnitude- One of the most important occurred
    Y eWaid for services e(lualIy splendid in upon the coast of Spain, between Sir James Saumarez
London, I1,Hunj °f Gr™t Britain, vol. ii. p. 518, et seqq. London, 1822; Southey’s Life of Nelson, vol. ii. p. 100,
et seqq
BRITAIN.
504
Reign of and a squadron of French and Spanish ships of war. On
George III. tiie morning of the 6th of July, the British admiral stood
through the Straits of Gibraltar, with the intention of at¬
tacking three French line-of-battle ships and a frigate,
which wrere lying at anchor off Algesiras. On opening Ca-
brita Point he found that the ships lay at a considerable
distance from the batteries on shore, and having the ad¬
vantage of a leading wind, he conceived that he had every
prospect of success. He had previously directed Captain
Hood in the Venerable to lead the squadron; but the
wind failing, this officer found it impossible to occupy the
station assigned to him. Captain Stirling in the Pompee,
however, having anchored opposite the inner ships of the
enemy, commenced the action ; while, in the ardour to en¬
gage, the Hannibal unfortunately ran aground. Every ef¬
fort was now made by the admiral to cover this ship from
the enemy’s fire; but as she was only three cables length
from one of the batteries on shore, he was obliged to re¬
tire, and to leave her in their hands. The loss on board
the English squadron was considerable. The admiral had
scarcely reached harbour when he was apprised that the
French line-of-battle ships, disabled in the action of the
6th, were on the 8th reinforced by a squadron of five
Spanish ships of the line under the command of Don Juan
de Mozen, and a French ship of seventy-four guns; and
that they were all under sail on the morning of the 12th
of July, together with their prize the Hannibal. He had
almost despaired of having a sufficient force in readiness
to oppose such numbers; but by great exertion he was
able to w'arp out of the Mole with all the ships under his
command, the Pompee excepted, which had not time to
get in her masts. The object of the British admiral being
to intercept tins powerful force on its way to Cadiz, he
observed, late in the evening, that the enemy’s ships had
cleared Cabrita Point, and at eight he bore up after them.
About eleven the Superb came up with the hostile squa¬
dron, and opened her fire at not more than three cables’
length. At this critical period a mistake of the enemy
decided the fate of the action. In the darkness and con¬
fusion, the Spanish ships fired upon each other; the Real
Carlos took fire and blew up; whilst the Hermenegildo,
mistaking her for an enemy, ran on board of her, and
shared her melancholy fate; and the San Antonio, of se¬
venty-four guns and seven hundred and thirty men, being
thus left unsupported, struck to the Superb. The remain¬
ing ships of the enemy now crowded all sail and stood out
of the straits; and at daybreak there appeared in sight
only one French ship, which was standing towards the
shoals of Cavil. But at this juncture the wind failing her,
the Venerable was able to bring her to action, and had
nearly silenced her when the loss of the mainmast ob¬
liged the captain of the Venerable to desist; and this ship,
which was one of eighty-four guns, escaped along with
the rest.
As the French had now resumed their usual menacing
project of invasion, and appeared to be collecting a force
in the harbour of Boulogne, an attempt was made by Lord
Nelson to obstruct their preparations; and he succeeded
in doing some damage, which appears to have encouraged
him to make a more serious effort. Boats intended for
boarding the French vessels were sent off in the night in
four divisions, under the conduct of the Captains Somer¬
ville, Parker, Cotgrave, and Jones; and launches furnish¬
ed with howitzers were detached under Captain Conn to
join in the enterprise. Parker’s division first approached the
enemy, and commenced a furious attack, making strenuous
efforts, with the most undaunted courage, and sanguine
hopes of success. But an unforeseen obstacle baffled all
their exertions. This was a very strong netting traced up
to the lower yards of the French vessels, which were also
fastened by chains to the ground and to each other; and Ik ^
so effectual was the resistance of the enemy thus protected, Gec^ H,
that the crew of Captain Parker’s boat were repulsed in
their attempts to board a large brig, by a furious discharge
of cannon and musketry, which killed a number of the as¬
sailants, while many more were wounded and maimed. The
captain received a shot which carried off his leg and part
of his thigh, and his boat would have been seized by the
enemy, had not a cutter seasonably towed her off. In the
mean time Somerville silenced the fire of a brig near the
pier head; but so far from being able to bring her off, he
found difficulty in securing the retreat of his own boats.
Cotgrave, after a spirited attack, was deprived of the ser¬
vices of many of his men by a fire from the flotilla and
the shore. And Jones felt so strongly the obstruction of
the tide, that not being able to approach before the break
of day, when the other captains were returning, he re¬
tired without making any hostile attempt. Captain Par¬
ker died of his wounds after the return of the fleet to the
Downs. The number of British seamen killed and wound¬
ed on this occasion amounted to nearly two hundred.
Owing to the refusal of the former administration to ra¬
tify the capitulation of El Arish, negociated between Ge¬
neral Kleber and Sir Sidney Smith, the French still retained
possession of Egypt. To remedy this unpardonable blunder
a considerable force had been dispatched from Great Bri¬
tain, under the conduct of an experienced and gallant offi¬
cer, Sir Ralph Abercromby. The British forces under Lord
Keith and General Abercromby, after unexpected delays
on the coast of Asia Minor, arrived off Alexandria on the
1st of March; and the following day the fleet made sail
for the bay of Aboukir, where it anchored. The sea con¬
tinued to run high until the 8th, and no disembarkation
could be effected; but on that day the first division made
good their landing at ten o’clock in the morning, in the face
of a body of French, who, evidently aware of their inten¬
tion, were posted in force, with considerable advantage, on
some sand hills opposite the landing place. The front of
the disembarkation was narrow, and a hill which command¬
ed the whole appeared almost inaccessible; yet the British
troops ascended it under a fire of grape and musketry with
the utmost intrepidity, and forced the French to retire,
leaving behind them seven pieces of artillery, and a num¬
ber of horses. The disembarkation was continued during
that and the following day; while the troops which landed
on tiie 8th advanced three miles the same day. On the 12th
the whole army moved forward, and came in sight of the
French, who were formed advantageously on a ridge, with
their left resting on the canal of Alexandria and their right
towards the sea. As it was determined to commence the
attack on the 13th, the British force marched in two lines
by the left, with an intention of turning the right flank or
the enemy. But the attack was in some measure antici¬
pated by the French, who descended from the heights on
which they were formed, and assailed the leading brigades
of both lines. The British troops were therefore compel¬
led to change their front, which, though one of the mos
difficult operations in wTar, was executed with the S^a^es,
precision ; and the rest of the army immediately fbllowe
their example. After a severe conflict, victory declare m
favour of the English, though not without considerable oss.
The French commander-in-chief, Abdallah Menou> ap
pears to have acted upon this occasion with but little ju g
ment. Instead-of bringing down nearly his wk°*e
to the coast, which would have enabled him grea V
outnumber, and consequently, in all probability) t° e
the invaders, who were less acquainted with the coun
than his own officers, he thought fit to hazard an
ment on the 21st of March with only half his foice.
battle commenced before day light in the morning) }
BRITAIN.
sign of
l rgelll
4^
505
generals, Koiz, was killed, and Generals Lanusse and Bo-
det died of their wounds. A French regiment which had
been styled Invincible was destroyed in this battle, and its
colours fell into the hands of a serjeant of the 42d regiment,
called Sinclair, having, it is said, been picked up on the field
by a Maltese, named Anthony Lutz. The victory of the
SlstrClecided the late of Egypt. In this battle, however,
false attack on the left of the English under Major-frene- fected a landing at i • i i 1 ,
ral Craddock, in which the French were repulsed. But the ra^ed from the fest of Ids sa^drnfTnt ^ been Sepa; ^ °f
most vigorous efforts of the enemy were directed ugainst difficult passage of the Red Sea; but beforefhTend3 o f^^''
the right of the English army which they endeavoured April he was joined by a large reinforcement undef the
b, every poss.ble means to turn. The attack on this command of General Baird, who had with h m Colonels
point was begun with great impetuosity by the French m- Wellesley and Murray, and other officers of diTtinction
fantry, sustained by a trong body of cavalry, who charged As the capture of Grand Cairo, next to that of Alex
*" col"mn- contes w,as ,ln.us"a,!y o^tinate. The andria, was a great object with tlm allies, a force was de‘
French were twice repulsed, and their cavalry were re- tached early in May for its reduction ^
peatcdly intermixed with the English infantry. While ral Hutchi/son, with four thousand Bridsh Ld an^quai
this was passing on the right, the French attempted to nun,berof Turks,attacked theFrench nearRhamaniehTnd
penetrate the centre of the British army with a column of the latter being driven in, retreated in the night towards
infantry, who we e also repulsed and obliged to retreat. Cairo, leaving a small garrison at Rhamanieh, wE on
Aco ps of! ght troops however, advanced supported by the following day surrendered to the British. The loss
infantry and cavalry to keep in check the left of the of the English oi, this occasion did not exceed thirty men
EngMi, which was the weakest of the line; but all their About the same time a body of French and Copls, who
efforts were f mt ess, and the British remained masters of had moved forward from Caik to attack the Turks, were
the field. The loss on our side was great, amounting in defeated by the grand vizier, who was essentially asskted
Med, wounded, and missing, to upwards of fifteen hun- by Colonel Murray and other British officers. The French
dred. The loss of the Fiench was calculated in the are said to have lost fifty men, and the Turks about thirty
English accounts at three thousand. One ol the French in this action. The whole number of French engaged
amounted to nearly five thousand, and the Turkish^army
to about nine thousand.
From various causes, it was the middle of June before
the British army under General Hutchinson reached the
vicinity of Cairo, where he found the works very much
extended, though the garrison did not exceed five thou-
tVio Rvifioiwv a? j ”V“ "»' * vox, sand in number. The capitan pasha at the same time
suffisird a, great calamity in the loss of its invested Gizeh, a suburb of Cairo, on the left bank of
r;*hlS 0fcer 7as at once beloved and esteemed the Nile, and the grand vizier took a position within can-
SilT T? Whr hr com™?,nded; preserved the non-shot of the city. Thus invested on every side, the
sprnrpfl ™ldtai4 11Sclfll"e’ whl!e atu th1e. same. tmie h.e garrison, on the 22d, sent a flag of truce to the English
ptv rpr fi •attacament troops by his obvious anxi- general, offering to treat for the evacuation of Cairo upon
u. 1 i i eu We1aie*j ^ie revo^utionary war certain conditions. After a negociation of several days,
„j .i e1ea "mI)0)e °n the Continent. He command- the surrender was finally agreed upon in a convention of
a vai]Ced Soard in the action on the heights of twenty-one articles; the substance of which was, that the
|4 pn.’ anfa no conducted the march of the guards from French army at Cairo and its dependencies were to be con-
in nuj61 t° i 4ifa •ln ^16 retreatof dle British troops veyed in the ships of the allied powers, and at their ex-
ed in pi' ° °'pinS years> till If 97, he command- pense, together with their baggage, arms, ammunition, and
British - n!11 rSt °r l le successful enterprises of the other effects, to the nearest French ports in the Mediter-
ronp h 111 • ™est tidies; and on his return to Eu- ranean ; and of this convention General Menou was to
raj o was imested wuth the rank of lieutenant-gene- be at liberty to avail himself. The port of Alexandria
land aPPain^ed to the command of the forces in Ire- was all that now remained in possession of the French;
nrntppi ri US station he made great efforts at once to it was attacked by sea and land, and at length surrender-
both f W e and restore discipline to the army, ed by capitulation on the 2d of September,
lers of th /C1 t lG v^°'ence faction had induced the ru- By the time when intelligence of this event reached
manner & <?0.untr^ to neglect. Though a man of simple England, the views of men had been turned to a new
fer and^fT 16 great independence of charac- state of things. Administration had seriously entered into
indiffnaf T-1, es‘tate to express, in public orders, the negociations for peace, which were conducted by Lord
consea W.lca fe^ on observing the disorder and Hawkesbury on the part of Great Britain, and M. Otto,
land b611 nuseiT which had been introduced into Ire- who resided in London as agent for the French prisoners
toward^ encouraS‘ng dle licentious insolence of the troops of war, and who was now intrusted on the part of the
freely inf C.rSanS aCC0Unte^.^*sa^ected to ^ie SovernmenG French with this important business. The whole was
become1 f0rnU'?i^ tbe arm^ in Biat country that they were managed with such secrecy, that not even persons who
expediti 0raiITf^!e to eveiT one but the enemy. In the held official situations, except those immediately concern-
excited tL ° | ■ .d d‘8P^ayed mddarJ talents vvddch ed> were acquainted with the state of the negociation;
tlie gene ? ac aiIradon n°t only of his own army, but of and the lord mayor of London was the first person out of
After tfi6 ] ° ,Were aPPosed to him. the cabinet to whom the result was communicated. Thus
mand dev T {at l Bffiph Abercromby, the com- no unfair advantage could be taken ; and this treaty stands
time in n vea uPon General Hutchinson, who lost no almost singular on our records, since, at a period when
pal force *'owards Alexandria, where the princi- the practice of gambling in the public funds wras, from the
ttman time tl 116 enem^ was now concentered. In the wide extension of public credit, more predominant than at
a division p6 jovvn and castle of Rosetta were taken by any previous crisis, not a single instance occurred of any
mded by a 1° je British army under Colonel Spencer, sinister practice. By the preliminary articles, which were
mg to eio-l f j5 ^ ^ f urks. The French garrison, amount- signed at London on the 1st of October, by M. Otto on
and retired . lui?dred men, made but a feeble resistance, the part of the French republic, and Lord Hawkesbury
mea killed ° 1 •ri^llt kank op the -^de’ leaving a Pew on the part of his Britannic majesty, Great Britain agreed
affairs in tl an . P^1S0ners* While such was the state of to the restoration of all her conquests, the island of Tri-
ket, with fl16 nei?:d)OUIJ,ood of Alexandria, Admiral Blan- nidad and the Dutch possessions of Ceylon excepted,
von v considerable force from the East Indies, ef- The Cape of Good Hope was to remain a free port to all
3 s
506
BRITAIN.
Reign of the contracting parties, who were to enjoy the same ad-
George III. vantages; the island of Malta was to be evacuated by
the British troops, and restored to the order of St John
of Jerusalem; Egypt was to be restored to the Ottoman
Porte; the territory of Portugal was to be maintained in
its integrity; the French troops were to evacuate the
territories of Rome and of Naples; the republic of the
Seven Islands was recognised by France; the fishery at
Newfoundland was re-established on its former footing;
and, finally, plenipotentiaries were to be named, and to
repair to Amiens, in order to proceed with the arrange¬
ment of a definitive treaty of peace, in concert with the
allies of the contracting parties. During the war, ne-
gociations for peace had so repeatedly proved unsuccess¬
ful, that a general incredulity prevailed with regard to
the possibility of such an event; and accordingly all mer¬
chants conducted their speculations upon the supposi¬
tion that there existed no probability of an immediate
termination to the war. The state of the present nego-
ciation had been so carefully concealed, that, when the
official intelligence of its issue was transmitted through¬
out the country, it excited everywhere the utmost asto¬
nishment, but nevertheless produced, almost instantane¬
ously, the most unbounded expressions of joy among all
orders of persons. The zealous adherents of the late ad¬
ministration, indeed, were upon the whole rather dissatis¬
fied ; but their voice was overwhelmed in the general ac
northern powers had been adjusted. It stated that the Sek;
preliminaries of peace had been ratified between us andGeoip?
the French republic; that whilst this arrangement mani-
fested the justice and moderation of our views, it would
also be found conducive to the interests of the country
and the honour of the British character; and that as the
provision for defraying the expenses of maintaining an
adequate peace establishment could not be made without
large additional supplies, all possible attention would be
paid to such economical arrangements as were consistent
with the security of his majesty’s dominions. The speech
concluded with applauding the operations of the last cam¬
paign, and particularly the glorious issue of the expedi¬
tion to Egypt, which, however, has deserved and obtained
a more fitting commemoration.
In the House of Lords the motion for the usual address
passed unanimously. In the House of Commons, both
Mr Fox and Mr Pitt declared that they joined in the ge¬
neral joy which the peace had produced, and gave it their
approbation. On the other hand, Mr Windham differed
as to there being any just cause for general joy and exul¬
tation ; and he disapproved of the preliminaries of peace
signed with France, as well as of the address, in as far as
it implied an approbation of them. It behoved him to
give his reasons for dissenting on so material a point. To
stand as a solitary mourner in the midst of public rejoic¬
ings, to wear a countenance clouded with sadness whilst
all others were lighted up with pleasure, certainly appear-
clamations which took place, and far surpassed the ex- _ .
pressions of joy which had occurred at the termination of ed ungracious. But were the circumstances of this peace
any former war; and, as an abundant harvest was at the such as justified our exultation upon former occasions’
same time reaped, the prospect of plenty added greatly to
the public joy.
CHAP. XVII.
REIGN OF GEORGE III. FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS TO
THE RENEWAL OF THE WAR IN 1803.
Meeting of Parliament Speech from the Throne—The Peace
impugned by Mr Windham—Debates on this subject—Defini¬
tive Treaty.—Suspicious conduct of Bonaparte—Debates on
the Definitive Treaty General Conduct of Administration—
Effects of the Change of Ministry—Consequences of the Peace.
 Conduct of the Erench Government—French Expedition to
St Domingo Abominable cruelty and oppression practised by
the invading force Conduct of the French in Europe—Des¬
potism of Bonaparte The First Consul and the English News¬
papers Meeting of Parliament—Execution of Despard and
his Associates Difficulties experienced in executing the Treaty
of Amiens Bonaparte’s Conversation with Lord Whitworth—
Transference of Louisiana—Extraordinary Scene between the
First Consul and the British Ambassador—Ultimatum of the
British Court.—War renewed.—Declaration in justification of
the renewal of the War—Situation of the Ministry—State of
Parties Menace of Invasion—Preparations for encountering
the threatened attack—Patriotism of all classes—The army,
the militia, the army of reserve, and the volunteers.
Parliament assembled on the 29th of October. By this
To him they appeared in a quite contrary view; and when
he was desired to illuminate, he first endeavoured to learn
whether it was to light him to a feast or a sepulchre. It
was his firm persuasion, that in signing this peace his
friends had put their signatures to the death-warrant of
the country. He knew the inconsistency of human af¬
fairs, nor was he profane enough to set bounds to the dis¬
pensations of providence; but neither could he foresee
what changes might be wrought in the disposition of the
people of England by intrigues from without or convul¬
sions from within; and upon no rational view could he
see his way out of the evils it would entail upon this coun¬
try. The only thing necessary to enable France to divide
with us the empire of the seas was a participation of our
commerce, and this she would effectually secure by the
present peace; whilst, by the surrender of our conquests,
we had thrown out of our hands the only means to pre¬
vent it, the extension of our colonial system. The mo¬
tives which induced ministers to conclude these prelimi¬
naries, he knew not; some of them he had heard, but was
not convinced, as they appeared wholly insufficient. It
they were forced to accept this peace through inability,
their conduct was the more excusable; and we had to
thank them, not for what they had acquired, but savei
to their country. If they could prove that, by ceding o
reign colonies, they had preserved objects nearer an
dearer to us, as Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Ireland, an
time the new administration, from the mildness of their the soil of England, from ravage and desolation, they w
conduct, and their successful negociations for peace, had entitled to gratitude instead of censure, and ha ^
obtained a powerful hold on the affections of the public, blished, not a ground of apology, but a claim to a
When they first came into office they appeared to have But such a plea he did not recognise; and how aJ,uture
obtained a promise of support from their predecessors; were actuated by necessity, would be a matter tor
but this kind of gratuitous support could scarcely be ex- discussion,
pected to be very consistent or uniform. Mr Pitt him¬
self continued to give countenance to the minister; but
some of his friends avowed their dissatisfaction on ac¬
count of the treaty with France. The speech from the or uie peace, ne anu meu, mat, an ,*<- o- - *ianrrers
throne announced the conclusion of the negociations com- have afforded us no sort of security against tne
menced during the last session of parliament; and ex- apprehended by Mr Windham, and that the bes ^ tjon
pressed much satisfaction that the differences with the poise to the power of France consisted in the pres
icussion. . ,
Mr Addington described the observations ot Mi
ham as premature, since the articles ot the treaty g
not before the house ; and, without referring to the
of the peace, he affirmed, that all we had given up
n of
sill
of our constitution, in our industry and skill, and in the
right direction of our resources. Mr Sheridan, notwith¬
standing the unanimity with which the address was con¬
sented to, believed, that if men sincerely delivered their
opinions, there never was a period of less real unanimity.
The peace had been spoken of as glorious and honourable!
It was a peace of which every Englishman might be glad,"
but no one proud; and it involved a degradation of national
dignity such as the war might lead us to expect, though
perhaps it was as good as any minister could make in the
circumstances in which we were placed.
His majesty having by message communicated the pre¬
liminary treaty with the French republic, an address of
thanks was moved on the 3d of November, when Earl Spen¬
cer expressed his regret at differing in sentiment from the
ministers, with some of whom it was his pride to have coin¬
cided in principles, and co-operated in conduct. The great
object of Britain, in former wars with France, had been the
preservation of the balance of power. This was the point
which had been considered, from king William’s confede¬
racy against Louis XIV. to the present time; and to in¬
sure the maintenance of such an equilibrium, it was not
only necessary that Britain should not be left by the
peace in a worse political situation than in the beginning
of the war, but that her strength, possessions, or acquisi¬
tions, should continue in proportion as high as those of
France. In the present war, the acquisitions of France
had been infinitely beyond all former conception ; she had,
by hei arts or her arms, subdued the Netherlands, Hol-
and, the left bank of the Rhine, and a great part of Italy •
her power, compared with that of Great Britain, exceeded
what she had been allowed to retain at any former treaty
of pacification ; nor could we be secure, wdien such im¬
mense acquisitions had been left to France, without any
thing hke an equivalent left to this country. He there-
ore condemned the conditions of the peace now conclud¬
ed, as of very great inequality, whether with reference to
the relative state of France and the Continent, or to that
o ranee and England. Lord Pelham thought that the
terms of peace were the best which could be procured,
even in favour of our allies. Portugal was safe, the Ro¬
man an Neapolitan territories had been released from the
rench yoke; the French were expelled from Egypt, by
tn M i°Ur 5^t0man ally had been saved ; and with regard
n retention would have been more injurious
h?11 ,eneacia^ .to England, as a powerful garrison would
wle* if- re(lu,site for its protection. In the East and
est Indies we had been triumphant by sea and land ;
°Ur Possessions hmd received important additions by
n COn<lu1ests we ha(l made. As to the security of the
evfrysecur*ty which could be expected; and
sprvo6^’1 rVaS1^e Policy and interest of France to pre-
a nma ' GreimPe thought that, as Britain was in
nnnrQKier?US State’ we 0UgIlt t0 have obtained more ho-
to fiprn 6 aerimS Peace’ because we were in a condition
valnp t len?\ vvas far from his intention to under-
thoimh/1!]aC^U,Slta°nS France; on the contrary, he
estemnoa m.ucJ1 more important than was generally
emnirp " j 16 made the Rhine the boundary of the
of hpr’m ex,ten(5ed her territories beyond the ambition
Pendpm ,0naruKS’ Rawing her frontiers protected by de-
had trinm epU ^1C? an^ tributary kings. On our side we
tiplied n°.less brilhant and striking. We had mul-
had rp C° Tr'68’an(^our navy sailed the seas invincible ;
°f MinnrpSCUe( captured Malta, possessed ourselves
of Franpp^’ jo S^ut UP tbe Mediterranean from the ships
the FW and Spainthe CaPe of Good Hope, the key of
except RnTaS-°Urs1’• t^le Fast Indies we had every thing
we thoimlifV,1f’ w dcb we might also have possessed had
© it worth the cost of an expedition; in the
BRITAIN.
507
West Indies we had Martinico, Trinidad, and other islands- i? • p
Ere11^011^?'!01' ^ We had an absolute Geo^m.
empire, m extent almost equal to that power to which we v—-Y"’-'
restored it. Such were the colonial possessions acquired
by the war; and if Europe could not have been restored
to her pristine state, these ought to have been retained as
a counterpoise to the power of France. He denied the
fairness of comparing the present treaty with that pro¬
posed at Lisle. We now gave up Surinam, Malta, and
Minorca. At no time during the contest was the spirit
ot the country so depressed as at the negociation of Lisle.
A variety of causes combined to produce that despon¬
dency ; the stoppage of the bank, the defection of our al¬
lies, and, above all, the mutiny in the fleet. The measure
therefore, was defensible on the score of necessity; but
tins was not the case at present; yet we had given to the
French the only thing they wanted, the means of creating
a navy, and of rivalling us in our commerce, while we had
obtained nothing in return. The Earl of Moira was of
opinion, that though the terms of the treaty were inade¬
quate, they were unavoidable. Lord Nelson observed re¬
specting Malta, that when he was sent down the Mediter-
ranea.n, this island was in the hands of the French; and
on his return from Aboukir, it was his first object to
blockade it, because he deemed it an invaluable service
to lescue it out of their possession. In any other view it
was of no consequence, being at too great a distance from
Toulon to watch the French fleet from that port; and in
time of peace it would have required a garrison of seven
thousand men, and in war as many more, without being
of any real utility to us. The address was carried by a
great majority.
When the same subject was discussed in the House of
Commons, Lord Hawkesbury ascribed the origin of the
war to the interference of France in the affairs of other
nations; but the state of that country was now consider¬
ably amended, and it was impossible to look at the present
condition of France without being convinced that we had
at least effected this change. He then expatiated on
the advantages we had gained, and the good faith we
had maintained with our allies, releasing them from ex¬
press stipulations when they were exposed to danger
by continuing faithful to their engagements. With re¬
spect to Minorca, he did not consider that island as an
acquisition worth retaining. Of Malta he spoke with
less confidence, as, from its impregnable state, it was
certainly of political consequence in the Mediterranean;
but it was no source of trade and opulence; and, con¬
nected with the prosperity of the Levant, its consequence
was considerably diminished. In a word, considering
the results of the war, if the term glory were not taken
into account, we had at least made an honourable peace;
we had been engaged in a tremendous contest, and had
come out of it, considering the circumstances, with ad¬
vantage. Earl Temple considered those who had signed
the peace as having signed the ruin of their country.
Amongst the ill consequences likely to result from it,
he lamented the encouragement given to republican prin¬
ciples ; and as to the various ostensible objects of the
war, not one of them had been accomplished. Mr Pitt
said that it was undoubtedly the duty of government, in
negociations, to obtain the best possible terms; but it
was difficult to know how far insisting on some lesser
points might endanger the whole treaty; and he declared
that he would rather close with an enemy on any terms
not inconsistent with the honour of his country, than
continue a war for any particular possession. Fie did
not pretend to state that this peace fully answered all
his wishes; but the government had obtained the best
conditions they could, and the terms for which we con-
508
BRITAIN.
Reign of tended would not have justified ministers in protracting
George III. the war. Mr Fox declared himself satisfied with the
terms of the treaty, and asserted, that no perseverance in
the war would have enabled us to make peace upon bet¬
ter conditions. There were persons who lamented the
peace as glorious for France; but if it were so, and not
inglorious to England, it gave him no concern. The opi¬
nions of men depended in a great degree upon their con¬
ceptions of the causes of the war ; if one of its objects was
the restoration of the accursed despotism of France, to
him it was another recommendation of the peace, that it
had been obtained without the accomplishment of such an
obiect. In tbe terms and tone of tbe present treaty he
perfectly coincided. He approved the terms, and thought
the noble secretary had wisely tempered firmness of con¬
duct with moderation of tone; but further than this he
could not go. He would by no means agree respecting
tbe time in which the treaty was made: it came many
years too late. He would put it to the house, whether, at
the time the opposition was most railed against for advis¬
ing pacific measures, we could not have made peace on
terms equally advantageous with the present. Would
not France, on the breaking out of the war, have acceded
to any ? Would she not then have relinquished Holland,
and perhaps abandoned her designs on the Netherlands ?
But, since that eventful period, could we not have nego-
ciated better after the surrender of Valenciennes; and
again, at Lisle, when we only failed from the extravagant
pretensions of administration ? In January 1800, the first
consul made a direct overture, and we returned an an¬
swer, that the most effectual mode of facilitating peace
would be to restore the Bourbons. Did we hint then at
the possession of Ceylon or Irinidad? W ould not Bona¬
parte have added these ? Yes, and the Cape into the
bargain. We then might have had Egypt by the conven¬
tion" of El Arish. The gallant Abercromby, indeed, would
not have fallen covered with laurels in the lap of victory,
nor would our brave army have acquired immortal ho¬
nour ; but we should have gained Egypt without the loss
of blood or treasure. The first consul might not per¬
haps have relinquished the Netherlands, nor the left bank
of the Rhine; but in Italy he had only the Genoese ter¬
ritory, and we had nothing then to resist to the south¬
eastward of the Alps, and our allies were victorious on the
frontiers of France. At that time the instability of the
government operated with us; but neithei its stability^
nor its instability were of any real consequence. None ot
the convulsions and changes of the French revolution pro¬
duced any material difference in her relation with foieign
powers. She had at the beginning made peace with Prus¬
sia, and sedulously preserved it during the stormy times
succeeding its ratification. We were told by the minis¬
ters to pause, and we did pause from January 1800 to Oc¬
tober 1801, and added seventy-three millions to our na¬
tional debt since we returned that impertinent answer to
the overtures of Bonaparte ; and this pause cost five times
as much as all the Duke of Marlborough’s campaigns.
To negociate the definitive treaty of peace, the Marquis
Cornwallis went to Paris towards the close of the year,
and thence proceeded to Amiens, where the negociations
went on very slowly, and were not concluded till the 27th
of March 1802. The chief difficulty occurred with regard
to Malta. But it was at last agreed that it should be re¬
stored to the knights of the order of St John of Jerusalem,
under the protection and sovereignty of the king of Naples ;
that it should be under the guarantee of France, England,
Russia, Spain, Austria, and Prussia ; and that if the order
should not have sufficient troops to defend the island, the
guaranteeing powers should each contribute an equal por¬
tion of troops, the officers to be appointed by the grand
master. It was settled that Malta should be a neutral Reigm
port, that one half of the garrison should be Maltese, andGe°rgti
that there should be no French nor English body of knights, ''“’V
or tongue as it is called. The king of Naples, however,
was to be invited to garrison the island with two thousand
men for one year from the restitution of the knights;
which was to take place in three months after the ex¬
change of the ratifications of the treaty. In other re¬
spects the definitive treaty differed little from the preli¬
minaries formerly agreed to.
During the dependence of the negociation, the first con¬
sul, Bonaparte, had taken some steps which indicated little
moderation, and showed that it would be difficult to re¬
main upon terms of amity with him, while the desire of
extensive dominion which at present governed his councils
seemed of too restless a character to allow much hope of
tranquillity to the world. Without waiting till a definitive
treaty of peace had been concluded, he sent a large army
to St Domingo, which obliged Britain to dispatch a power¬
ful fleet to the West Indies in order to watch its motions.
On the Continent his measures were not less arbitrary. A
considerable portion of Lombardy, with Milan as its capi¬
tal, which had been erected into what was called the Ita¬
lian or Cisalpine republic, and contained some millions oi
people, was now united to France, by the form of nominat¬
ing Bonaparte to the office of president over it; a measure
which at any other period would have involved all Europe
in wrar : but at present no state ventured to interpose, and
the British ministers finding no power in Europe disposed
to resist this step towards the permanent aggrandisement
of France, and being themselves anxious to restore peace,
did not interrupt the negociations on this account.
On Thursday the 29th of April Lord Pelham, by his ma¬
jesty’s command, laid before the House of Lords a copy
of the definitive treaty of peace between his Britannic
majesty and the French republic, and his Catholic majes¬
ty and the Batavian republic, signed at Amiens on the
27th of March. Several debates occurred in that house
upon the subject; and at length, on the 15th of May,
Lord Grenville moved the order of the day for the house
to take into consideration the definitive treaty. He re¬
marked, that it might be asked of what use was discus¬
sion, now that peace was concluded ? Was it to abrogate,
could it correct the treaty ? To this question he answere ,
that this unfortunate treaty had been ratified by his ma¬
jesty, and was therefore irrevocable; to its terms, how¬
ever injurious, w^e were bound to accede. By evasion we
should but add disgrace to disaster, and with the loss m
national honour fill up the measure of national calamity
He wished not to impede the execution of the tieaty, 11
to demonstrate to that house its dangerous tendency, 0
ascertain the situation in which it left the country; o
point out the perils which impended, and the safety wnic
yet remained. His objections to the preliminary trea y
he had already stated ; but to the definitive treaty tie1
were objections yet more formidable. The two bases
negociation, the status ante helium, which signified t e
tual situation of the parties previous to hostilities, an
uti possidetis, which referred to their position durmg
pacification, had both been applied in the most FeJ
cial manner to this country. With regard to herse , ^
land had adopted the status ante bellum; with reg
her rival, the uti possidetis. England had ceded
conquests, and confirmed to France her new acq0181^0^'
France possessed dominion on the Continent,
oppose that dominion, the colonies of France an I ^
It would have been just that trance should Purc ,
colonial by her continental sacrifices. He contra
definitive treaty with that of 1763. It had been
riable principle with Lord Chatham to make t F
BRITAIN.
llei of
Goor HI
nary as much as possible the definitive treaty. Our ne¬
gotiators had treated with France during a naval armistice.
Immediately subsequent to the preliminary treaty, France
had sent an armament to the West Indies, and obliged Eng¬
land to destine for the West Indies also a naval force more
than double any squadrons which had been sent during the
war. The necessity of keeping in the West Indies thirty-
five sail of the line was the first fruit of the peace. It was
obvious that the definitive treaty contained concessions
more important than the preliminary articles; and it was
palpably the object of the French government to exclude
the commerce of this country from the continent of Europe.
With respect to the situation in which Portugal and the
Prince of Orange were left by the treaty, it had been said
that it was a pity, and that the articles were read with re¬
gret. The proposed indemnity to the Prince of Orange
was evidently at the option of France; for the Cape of
Good Hope, no effort had been made to insure its inde¬
pendence; and Malta, whose independence had been ex¬
pressly stipulated, with the provision that it should be gua¬
ranteed by one of the powers of Europe competent to its
protection, was finally placed under the guarantee of six
powers, who never could be brought to agree on the sub¬
ject of it. Its restoration to the order was nominal and
futile. The order of Malta was virtually extinct; it would
be subject to the nomination, the influence, and the domi¬
nion of France. He then proceeded to take a retrospec¬
tive view of the situation of this country at the commence¬
ment of the negociation. With a colonial territory of an
immense extent, we had, in the very conquests achieved
by our arms, the means of perpetuating our victories.
From the West Indies, the produce of which amounted to
two millions annually, a considerable revenue had arisen,
which was now lost. By our naval superiority we had
controlled the movements of the French fleet; they were
now at liberty to steer for the West Indies, and we were
under the necessity of sending fleets to watch them. We
were in possession of resources adequate to the prosecu¬
tion of the war, and held in our hands the means of ex¬
torting a just and reasonable peace. Instead of improv¬
ing these advantages, we had resigned to France the pre¬
ponderance of power on the Continent, established her
sway in Italy, and annexed to her important possessions
in India. Even our right of sovereignty in India was no
onger recognised. It had been suggested that this right
was guaranteed by the silence of the definitive treaty; a
mode of argument which appeared equally strange and sin¬
gular. He affirmed that the sovereignty of the Cape was
necessary to the safety of our territories in India, and in¬
stanced the war with Tippoo Sultan, when a corvette had
een sent to the Cape, from which fresh troops were im¬
mediately dispatched, who landed, marched, and co-ope-
rated at the siege of Seringapatam. By ceding the Cape
w Holland, we had ceded it to France. In the West In¬
dies we had restored to France Martinique and Tobago,
a.n amhtated the recovery of St Domingo. France was
a so mistress of Louisiana, and in reality of Florida, which
cou u not, from its vicinity to Louisiana, remain subject to
pain; and she possessed the key of Mexico, which she
ng it enter at any period. If we turned to the Mediter-
lanean, it would be impossible to send a single ship there
nf P®rniissi°n of France. We were stripped
v 1 aJorca, Minorca, and even of the island of Elba; we
ere excluded from Leghorn, and deprived of the means
p 'pamtaming a fleet in that sea; the king of Sardinia
ed 'lC T° i l’er °Pen to us his ports. The victory obtain-
• {'Loi <a kelson at Aboukir was to be attributed to the
for tI.anCe len.^ere^ by the king of Naples; and in return
that i?86 ®erv*ces’ the British government had stipulated
le ^rench republic should evacuate his dominions,
without Stipulating that they should not return to them.
In short, whatever the valour of the British navy had won,
the incapacity of the British ministry had lost.
The Duke of Norfolk expressed his hope, that, now the
sword was restored to its scabbard, it would not again be
unsheathed for the acquisition of a station in the Medi¬
terranean. Lord Auckland, in reply to Lord Grenville,
stated, that it was an error to hold that all treaties between
nations were annulled by war, and that, to be reinforced,
they must be specially renewed on the return of peace.
It was true, that treaties, in the nature of compacts and
concessions, the enjoyment of which has been interrupted
by the war, were thereby rendered null; but compacts
which were not impeded by the course and effect of hos¬
tilities, such as the rights of a fishery on the coasts of
either of the belligerent powers, the stipulated right of cut-
ting logwood in a particular district, were not affected by
war. There were also circumstances which might autho-
nze the dissolution of treaties, without any rupture between
the two parties. It had therefore been observed by Vattel
and other writers, that treaties cease whenever an essential
alteration in either of the contracting parties takes place.
APP1ying this doctrine to Savoy, Switzerland, and other
countries, the temporary victims of the French revolution,
he admitted that the definitive treaty contained not a
single provision, direct or indirect, for the renewal of
treaties which had subsisted previous to the war; but it
was not true that, by the non-renewal of our treaties with
Holland, the vessels of that republic would be exonerated
from the ancient practice of striking their flag to British
ships of war in the British seas ; for that practice had ex¬
isted independently of the treaty of 1782, or even of the
tieaty of Breda in 1767, which were only recognitions of
a previously admitted claim. The same remark was appli¬
cable to the sixth article of the treaty of 1764, by which
the states-general promised not to obstruct the navigation
of British subjects in the Eastern seas. That article was
no new grant, but an acknowledgment of a right, and a
notification to merchants that they would not be disturbed
in the exercise of that right. With respect to France, the
commercial treaty of 1786 had expired, but not till it had
reached the natural era ot decay ; nor would he feel solici¬
tude for its resuscitation, unless our negociator at Amiens
should prove that the French manufacturers were able, in
1802, to resume the competition to which they were un¬
equal, in 1786, under the existing tariff. With regard to
our sovereignty in India, it had been confirmed and extend¬
ed by various treaties, recognised by all the powers of
Europe and India who had accepted privileges from us,
and finally established by undisturbed possession. On the
contrary, Lord Carnarvon represented the treaty as preg¬
nant with danger to the country. It had been hoped, that
some articles relative to our allies, and involving our own
national honour, would be altered; but the definitive treaty,
instead of realizing, had annihilated these hopes; conces¬
sion was heaped on concession, and disgrace on disgrace.
By omitting to renew former treaties, ministers had un¬
adjusted all former adjusted disputes, and, without the cus¬
tomary acknowledgment of our rights, had left us to the
honour and justice of France. Lord Ellenborough express¬
ed much surprise that the non-renewal of treaties should
have been urged as a serious objection to the definitive
treaty. To what purpose was this solemn nonsense to be
revived? Were not these treaties replete with articles
wholly inapplicable to the present political state of Europe?
For himself, he could as well think of the revival of the
condition of mankind, in some remote period, as of the
ancient treaties, which had become inapplicable and ob¬
solete. Our sovereignty in India rested on the rights of
conquest in legitimate war, upon the repeated recognition
509
Iteign of
George III.
510
BRITAIN.
Reign of of all the powers of Europe, and on the best of all rights,
George III. possession.
The same subject, after being repeatedly alluded to, was
finally discussed in the House of Commons on the 13th of
May. Mr Windham attacked the treaty in several of its
prominent parts. With regard to Malta, he contended,
that it must ultimately fall into the hands of the French.
The little order of Malta, which contained in itself the
great characteristic and distinctive qualities which the
French revolution had subverted, was now destroyed. I he
German knights had already refused to serve in a body so
degraded and debased; the Neapolitan soldiers would form
no security for the independence of the island; the state
of Malta was a virtual surrender, and our position in the
Mediterranean untenable. The Cape of Good Hope was
ceded, in full sovereignty, to the Dutch, who were thus
at liberty to resign it to France. Our Indian empire was
our sheet anchor ; and whatever was necessary for its pre¬
servation was of the last importance. The disadvantages
upon our side he then contrasted with the advantages in
favour of France. By the restitution of Cochin China to
the Dutch, they had acquired the means of annoying our
possessions in the East Indies. In defining the boundaries
of France and Portuguese Guiana, ministers had enabled
France to obtain her great object, the navigation of the
river Amazons; and the Portuguese settlements were left
exposed to the foe. He deplored the cession of Louisiana
to France, which, considering the almost indefinite extent
of Guiana, was a surrender of the two greatest rivers in the
world; the Mississippi in the north, the river of Amazons
in the south of America. In aggravation of this thought¬
less prodigality, ministers had abandoned the whole con¬
tinent of Europe to France. We already knew the French
too well to doubt that they would scruple what means
they used to accomplish their ends. Had they not frau¬
dulently obtained the restitution of Porto Ferrajo to the
king of Etruria, in order to secure it to themselves ? Re¬
gardless of stipulations and treaties, they had seized on
the island of Elba; and, to bestow a compensation on the
king of Etruria, had extorted Piombino from Naples. The
French were a new race of Romans; and in ten years
they had even acquired more than the Romans were able
to achieve in fifty-three. On the map of Europe two na¬
tions only stood erect; and of these, the one from distance
more than from strength. Austria was indeed still rich in
resources, but destitute of foreign aid. There was no single
power which could enter the lists with France. In the
first conflict it would be crushed by her tremendous mace.
He repeated, that we had given away two continents, and
that the object of France obviously was the attainment of
universal empire. He admitted that the peace must be
observed, now that it had been entered into ; but conclud¬
ed with a motion for an address, expressive of disappro¬
bation of it.
Lord Hawkesbury observed, that from some observations
of Mr Windham’s, it would seem that whenever any con¬
tinental power, however unconnected with us, became in¬
volved with France, it was our duty to volunteer our inter¬
ference and assistance. That we were deeply interested in
the destiny of the Continent, he was willing to admit; but
he conceived our interference with its commotions to be op¬
tional, neither instigated by necessity nor extorted by ho¬
nour. At the end of nine years of war, we had found our¬
selves deserted by our allies ; and with the first intimation
which his majesty’s ministers received of the new constitu¬
tion of the Italian republic, they had heard of its acceptance
by the courts of Vienna, Berlin, and Petersburg. Under
these circumstances, he submitted, whether it was incum¬
bent on us to continue the war on account of the Italian
republic. The cession of Louisiana by Spain to France
was another ground of complaint. That province had Re ? f
originally been a French colony, when the Mississippi was I
the boundary between it and Great Britain; and it had
been ceded by France to Spain, in a private convention,
between the preliminaries and the definitive treaty of
1763 ; a proof that conventions of this nature, if not right,
were at least not new. The value of Louisiana was at pre¬
sent only nominal; as a naval station it was allowed to be
insignificant; and its vicinity to America was calculated
to diminish, rather than augment, the attachment of that
country to France. Concerning the non-renewal of cer¬
tain treaties and conventions, he observed, that the prin¬
ciple on which treaties had usually been renewed appear¬
ed not to be understood. The treaty of Westphalia form¬
ed a distinct era in the history of Europe ; and in order to
ascertain the relative situations of the different powers, it
had been customary to renew that treaty, together with
any particular conventions subsequent to it. But it was
to be considered, that formerly all preceding treaties had
been renewed by the other powers of Europe, whereas in
the present war no European power had done so; and
consequently, if we had renewed former treaties, we only
should be bound whilst other nations were free. By re¬
newing former treaties, we should have been forced to
sanction all the recent encroachments of France ; and by
sanctioning the treaty of Luneville we should have been
accessory to the dismemberment of the Germanic empire.
His lordship represented the definitive treaty as coincid¬
ing with the preliminary treaty which had previously re¬
ceived the sanction of the house. In regard to the per¬
manence of the peace, he was willing to admit, and to de¬
plore, that, in the present state of the world, any peace
must be insecure ; but the precarious tenure on which this
blessing was to be held formed no reason for rejecting it.
He concluded with moving an address to his majesty, to
testify the satisfaction of the house on the conclusion of
the definitive treaty. Mr Dundas also opposed Mr Wind¬
ham. In his judgment, however, the Cape and Ceylon
formed our two great bulwarks, and he never would have
consented to the surrender of the former. The cession of
Malta was also to him a subject of equal regret; and to the
relinquishment of either of those places he should have re¬
fused his assent had he continued in administration. But
he would not support the address moved by Mr Windham,
because it contained an invective against the peace. Sir
William Young contended, that when a standing army was
deemed essential to the preservation of peace, it was pro¬
per that the people should be informed of the state of af¬
fairs which justified such a measure. Lord Castlereagh
remarked, that our grand object, from the commencement
to the close of the war, had been the establishment of ge¬
neral security ; and that the gradual extinction of jacobin
principles, and the gradual restoration of order and tran¬
quillity, had been given as sureties for the peace. With
regard to the territorial acquisitions of France, they might
eventually become of infinite importance; but they were
not pregnant with immediate mischief, and could only
be the sources of distant danger. Mr Addington de¬
sired not that the treaty should be praised; he had never
regarded it with sentiments of exultation, nor lavished on
it panegyric ; he was content that the honour of the coun¬
try was unsullied by the measure which had been adopt¬
ed. He acknowledged that the territorial acquisitions o
France could not be viewed without regret; but there
were events which we could not control, and dispensa¬
tions in which we must acquiesce; and he should rejoice
to see the resources of this country economized by Pea£e’
Mr Sheridan treated the subject with some gaiety. ^
said he supported the peace, because he was convince
that ministers could obtain no better; their predecesso
BRITAIN.
IS i of had left them to choose between an exoensivp k . . 511
3& f™i,less 'rar> a."d a.hoUow’ Pf''“us PeaceP He ’attacked on the foIKs dlv^ Thehei 28ft'1 °f Ji!”e’ and dissolved Keign of
^ the new ODDOSitiomsts. who Bari Koon     .1   unowing any. 1 he elections which immediately George III
te sinp-nlar  • • V _
   — /   » ^cacc. ne attackea
the new oppositionists, who had been supporters of the
former administration, and demanded, for what did we «-o
to war? Why, to prevent French aggrandisement: Have
we done that ? No. Then we are to rescue Holland • Is
that accomplished ? No. Brabant is the sine qua non • Is
it gained ? No. Then come security and indemnity • Are
they obtained? No. The late minister told us, that the
example of a jacobin government in Europe, founded on
the ruins of a holy altar, and the tomb of a martyred mo¬
narch, was a spectacle so dreadful and infectious to Chris¬
tendom, that we could never be safe while it existed, and
could do nothing short of our last effort for its destruction.
For these fine words, which had at last given way to se¬
curity and indemnity, we had laid out near two hundred
thousand lives, and nearly three hundred millions of money
-and had gamed Ceylon and Trinidad. But one grand
sti’a^odedh^Xhibitevi.s*nSular ^^c^cleAf'an*adndn^
ation which avoided interfering in the choice of thf»
onhe oM i7en-I T-e “enibere !»>d Mends how!
nents,°were t0gether ™h th- »PP<"
The effect of the change of ministry had by this time
the nJ6*7 f6118:517 felt °Ver the Wh°le of the isla"d- During
the preceding ten years the minds of men had, in a greater
the fear of T’i ^ kept * • & ®tatG of constant alarm from
and from fhe S and,con!Piracules gainst the government,
lnd f[om ,the apprehension that a most dangerous disaf¬
fected party was at all times ready to burst forth into ac¬
tion, and that the British constitution was only preserved
act amlT1 -e susPension of the hlbeas corpus
act and other legislative restraints, aided by the extreme
consolation "remained/ Bonlpifo w^ ^ °f their ^ "n repre” -
of jacobinism ; the champion of jacobinism was to £1 oft tf PerS°T HenC6 SOciet^ existed under a
a parricide ; the child of sin was to destroy his mother • he oridn-fllf f f • aPPrehen®10n and distrust; and persons
bad begged pardon of God and man, piously restored bE nS 7 ^ Wa1' Suffered in aI1 dePart-
shops with the salaries of curates, and penitently extorted infnnsidt? M T’ and 1eVeiy ^uarter of the country, no
of them a solemn oath to turn spies and informers in his had now of .Polltlcal persecution. Allthis
favour. It had been said, that France must have colonies to nenal 5ed. awa3r- Ibe new ministers suffered the
be afraid of war; that that is the way to make Bonaparte E inn IaWS quietIy t0 exPire’ and the co»-
love peace. He has had, to be sure, a rough military edu- the anefont depe?d f°r saPPort upon its own strength and
cation; but if you put him behind the counter alittle he no troifbfo ahontT008 °f a^; they gave themselves
will mend exceedingly. When he was readinn- tho trLtv 1 Tb e abou1t tbe general sentiments of the people with
he thought all the names of foreign places Rmdirherr/ sPeculatl^e subjects, and seemed desirous to con-
Chandernagore, Cochin, MartL^aSSo^ No S —eTtf ,ha °,f 11,6 State- The
thing; they are so many traps or holes to catch thi« /hat ^he fears and anxieties which for-
fellow in, and make a merchant of him. At this moment7 awa/hkpTf ab°Ut t le S-afety ,°f the constitution passed
nobody in Britain knew who was minister, as the present tutinns nf a,dream ; a universal attachment to the insti-
mimsters continued to identify themselves with the fof tfo. hc he c1°untryjFung up; and political animosi-
mer. Of the late min.W h7 di 1/fl 3.the * es’ beinS no longer fed by alarms artfully excited by
the irovernmpni woro ^ J
mhed H°f ^ ]a-a m1lnister’ he said ^at none more ad-
fommd tS Sp!endld talents than he did- If ever man was
He had nnfVerffitre t0 hls C0untl7> be was that man.
3ad n° Iaw’1,ttle’ ^eun, petty vices ; he had too much
Li ^te:.-S.dtt'en_ts’“ set.his mi"d »p«» rf
° —s''1 aidims, aruuny excited by
t le government, were, as if by a sort of enchantment, ap¬
peased and forgotten. l
With regard to the effects of peace upon the British
and French nations, these promised at first to prove fa¬
vourable to the general interests of humanity. The French
had successfully defondprl thpiv   _ i •
bands, stars, and titles ; he was not^of a nature tobTthe had^h16 t0 th^general iniereStS of humanity. The French
tool and creature of any court. But great as were his ta- ih5 saccessfu,1y defended their own independence, and in
lents, he had misapplied them in the^politics of this conn" will ^ assai ed tbose by whom it had been menaced,
try; he had augmented our national dS and d Hnn nf a PefrSGVennf eTgy as ^cured to them a por^
our population. He had done more to atidge om ndvi othP, h FT ^ the Bntish nation ; whiJst’ the
M crown at the expense .? the' h.ad bl;?n.s“
Mn of the overtures made by the firsfcoSnfVrTC' Ca™ over t!> Brib>in • a”d multitudes of pe!'
'"January 1800, appeared ,0 have led tortat state of af Xh h! ^ •B,itai" t0 visit a
fairs which rendered peace so necess Jv Ttn iFff T T *1 had.ofhle years excited, in so remarkable a degree,
painful sacrifices whirh h;a ™ " G ? J as toJust fy the the attention of all the nations of Europe, and had been
3 for the aUainment ^ifereof68^!!!1^* arf6!11 adV1Sed t0 the "T6 of,SUch -traordinary transacts On this re"
edby Lord Hawkesbury was “P' r1 te"denc>' of‘he » abandon their ani-
jonty. 0ur^ was cailled by a very great ma- mosities, a system of commercial intercourse might have
During this session of oarliampnt iFp . .i66” 1’earedi 9^, a nature much more simple and perfect
operation of finance consisted nf3 th imPortant than that which had been created by Mr Pitt’s treaty
on income, which gave great satisfaction^Indeed6 ?nd there is no reason to believe that any disposition ex-
wbo e conduct administradon^onchicted thlnZ/ T r ’T the part °f the British government, to stand aloof
a. degree of moderation anrEdencflfoh 7^ W ' T™ °r t0 aV°id’ for 4 Political reason, the ex-
eibated towards them the minds of the rmhfie nC7i fension of our commerce with that country. Such an in-
occasions they defended the form^ • -P b • °n f11 tercourse would have proved favourable to France in every
attacks of the7oiroPPositio^ anT inmlnf ^ ^ P°SSibIe Wa^ II w°ald have enabled her people to de^
supported by a veryPcLsiderabfe number nfTbe 167 T™ ^ ,considerahle assistance from the capital of British
f ^at administratmn, including- Mr Pitt At ummbeis merchants, which would have been rapidly and liberally
bme they did not annenr ..r, ^ •^t Se same advanced towards promoting the culture of their most
'onnections with the membereo'f fhenlT*61^ '"v p0 'pCal y,aluabit productions; and even in a political point of view
members of the old opposition. Par- France must have been aggrandised by such a connection.
-
512
BRITAIN.
Iteign of What she wanted was a navy to defend her colonies, and
George III. to enable her to cope with Britain in the event of a future
war. an(j this advantage she could only obtain by means
of commerce, more especially with Britain.
But it soon appeared that a man may be qualified to
lead armies successfully to battle, to overrun provinces,
and to attain the envied title of a conqueror, who at the
same time possesses but a moderate portion of magnani¬
mity, self-command, or knowledge of the maxims of sound
policy and the best interests of nations. The French go¬
vernment, instead of seizing the opportunity thus alforded
of encouraging the people to become commercial and ac¬
quire wealth, and seeking to form a maritime power by
opening their ports, and holding out to Britain a commci-
cial treaty arranged on liberal principles, shut their har¬
bours more closely than during the most violent period of
the war. Vainly fancying that in this way they would
enable their own manufacturers to rival those of Britain,
they in fact only excluded their wines from the British
market; and by thus losing a sure and ready mode of at¬
tracting riches to their country, they prevented the acqui¬
sition of capital by enterprising individuals, and ruined
the very industry which they intended to encourage and
promote. They idly thought that they were in this way
limiting the trade of Britain, which, having all the rest of
the world open to its efforts, could not be injured ; and, in
truth, by their narrow views and illiberal policy they only
injured themselves. By similar miscalculation, or from a
restless spirit of ambition, the French government sought
aggrandisement by those efforts of violence which are only
tolerable in the midst of war, but which in peace justly ex¬
cite the jealousy and indignation of mankind.
One of the first enterprises of Bonaparte, in consequence
of the peace, was an attempt to reduce under his power the
island of St Domingo. During the revolution that great
and fertile island had suffered the most severe calamities,
which had terminated in the emancipation of the negroes ;
and the latter had formed themselves into a sort of regu¬
lar government, at the head of which was one of their
own race, Toussaint-Louverture, a man of humanity, and
possessed of considerable talents. Reports were circu¬
lated in Europe that he wished to render St Domingo
independent of France; but of this there is no proof, and
it is probable that his chief offence consisted in the gene¬
ral estimation and personal consequence to which he had
attained, and that the despotic spirit of Bonaparte could
brook no appearance of independence or rivalry in any
part of the French territory. Nor was it unnatural that,
under a military government, force should have been em¬
ployed in preference to any method of conciliation. At
the end of the year 1801 an army of twenty-five thousand
men was sent to St Domingo; and as single ships and
small squadrons continued to sail during the winter, load¬
ed with troops, it is believed that nearly forty thousand
men were employed in what might be called the first divi¬
sion of the expedition. The accounts of their proceed¬
ings are very defective; but, from all that has transpired,
the conduct of the French appears to have been extreme¬
ly disgraceful. The negro chiefs having refused uncon¬
ditional submission, they were attacked, and defeated in
several battles; and disunion, as usual, following disaster,
Toussaint was at last induced to enter into negociation.
The terms of the treaty were concealed; but, as he was
still at the head of a respectable force, it is believed that
not only the possession of his personal freedom, but the
undisturbed enjoyment of his property, was secured to
him, and that his followers were promised a full indemnity.
This occurred in the beginning of May 1801. The French
general, Le Clerc, brother-in-law of the first consul, no
sooner found the negro chief in his power, and the tran¬
quillity of the colony apparently re-established, than he keig;
committed one of the basest acts of treachery that ever George
disgraced a government. The abdicated general was ac- ''■"V'l
cused of a conspiracy, though it was evident that from
the period of his submission to that of his seizure he had
not had time to meditate, much less to organize, such a
measure ; and on the 12th of May Toussaint and his whole
family were put on board a frigate, and shipped off for
France, where he soon died of a broken heart in a prison.
The negroes perceived that they were deceived and betray¬
ed ; and as an attempt was made to reduce them again into
a state of slavery, after they had enjoyed freedom for seve¬
ral years, no doubt could remain as to the real object for
which the expedition had been fitted out. The chiefs who
had been prevailed on to desert Toussaint, and whose de¬
sertion had led to his surrender, now justly fearing that
they were destined to share the miserable fate of their de¬
luded associate, betook themselves to flightthe whole
island revolted ;—pestilence came in aid of these avengers
of tyranny and falsehood;—and the miserable instrument
of the first consul’s cruelty fell himself the victim of the
climate. After a series of horrors and atrocities, even
darker and deeper than those which blacken the memory
of Robespierre, Marat, St Just, and Carrier, and which will
for ever remain a disgrace to the French character, the
republic had to regret the loss of sixty thousand of her
best troops, in a vain attempt to subdue a colony which
might, with temper and humanity, have been conciliated
and retained.
In Europe the conduct of the French government was
scarcely less arbitrary. The whole fortresses of Pied¬
mont were dismantled, and that country was ultimately
annexed to France; and the duchy ot Parma and Pla¬
centia was treated in the same way. Meanwhile the Swiss,
whose form of government had been altered in imitation
of that of France, wished to restore the ancient constitu¬
tions of the cantons, under which their ancestors had
prospered during so many ages. But their present lea¬
ders, who had risen to power under the protection oi
France, solicited the interference of Bonaparte in their
favour; and he accordingly sent a numerous army against
Switzerland, and, notwithstanding the remonstrances o
the British court, placed the sovereignty in the hanus ot
his own dependents or adherents. After all their stiugg es
for freedom, the French nation also submitted to a con
firmed military despotism. When Bonaparte assumed the
appellation of first consul, it was under the declaration
that the office, in terms of the constitution then promul¬
gated, was to endure for only ten years. But this consti¬
tution was now altered, and the assent of the people being
demanded to a new one, by. which Bonaparte was to re^
main consul for life, and even to possess the power 0 no
minating his successor, suffrages in favour ot this me
sure were obtained to the number of between three a
four millions. The event was celebrated with the gre '
est magnificence in Paris ; and addresses of congra u a
were presented from the different courts of the con
of Europe, and even from the emperor of Germany.
These transactions could scarcely fail to be notice
Britain, and to become the subject of animadversion i ^
public newspapers. In fact the unprincipled am 11 ^
public newspapers, in xaci uie ^
Bonaparte, and the degraded character and sta e
French nation, formed topics of frequent discussion
public journals, and were criticised with unexamp
verity. Even the personal character ot the.firS 0ften
was not spared ; and it cannot be denied that he w ^
libelled in the grossest manner. Bonaparte api ^
have early become sensitive and irritated on
The English, owing to their political freedom, 1 a ^
boasted of their superiority as a people over
BRITAIN.
Ee i
Geo
of slaved neighbours of France; and the first consul, no
Iir‘ doubt, dreaded lest the vanity of his subjects should be
^ wounded by continual representations, coming from the
free press of England, of the degraded state into which it
was alleged they had fallen. A great degree of irritation
was thus produced in the French government against Eng¬
land ; and the first consul even went so far as not only to
prohibit the importation of English newspapers into France,
but to demand from our government that the best bul¬
wark of British freedom should be destroyed, by imposing-
restrictions upon the liberty of the press. He was even
weak enough, through the medium of the French official
journal, to commence a contest of argument, eloquence,
and vituperation, against the writers of English newspa¬
pers. But in such a warfare he could not faif to be beaten ;
because they had nothing else to do but to write; and be¬
cause the obscurity of their situation as individuals ena¬
bled them to inflict deep wounds without fear of reprisals.
Newspaper writers also had much to gain by the contest,
and certainly could wish for nothing more favourable to
their interests, than to be enabled, during a dull, monoto¬
nous period of peace, to render their lucubrations interest¬
ing, and to amuse their readers by engaging in a paper war
with Bonaparte. These circumstances, however, added
to the restless ambition of this wonderful person, and his
obvious want of discernment as to the true interests of
France, or of patience to pursue them, left but little reason
to hope that the peace so recently concluded would be of
any long duration.
The new parliament assembled on the 16th of Novem¬
ber, and Mr Abbot was chosen speaker of the House of
Commons. On the 22d, his majesty, in a speech from
the throne, after congratulating the country on the abun¬
dant harvest, remarked, that the state of the manufac¬
tures, commerce, and revenues of the united kingdom was
flourishing beyond example; that the loyalty and attach¬
ment which were manifested to his person and govern¬
ment afforded the strongest indication of the just sense
entertained of the numerous blessings enjoyed under the
protection of our happy constitution; that, in his inter¬
course with foreign powers, he had been actuated by a sin-
cere disposition for the maintenance of peace ; that never¬
theless he could not lose sight of that established and wise
system of policy by which the interests of the other states
were connected with our own, or be indifferent to any
material change in their relative condition and strength;
that his conduct would be invariably regulated by a due
consideratmn of the actual situation of Europe, and a
watchful solicitude for the permanent welfare of his
peop e, and that he would not fail to adopt those means
ot security which were best calculated to preserve to his
uhjects the blessings of peace. In both houses the usual
daaress was agreed to unanimously and without debate,
i ou.*: ^118 time Colonel Despard, and six persons of
_ Tr.aju’ weie executed for high treason. Despard was
„] ns m^n’ an^ good family. Having long been under
r,- • C0? inement during the late administration, on sus-
mpnfH i° e.nt;er^a‘ni-ng criminal designs against the govern-
hnU i 118 lmaFlnat'on, while under seclusion from society,
]ihPi.n^Com.e inflamed nearly to madness; and after his
n i 10n’ ln consequence ot the habeas corpus act being
»Ser suspended, he had associated with a number of
werp PerSi0?S’ he had induced to imagine that they
thp °f overturning the government and altering
effem nstltutlon- They accordingly took an oath to this
Dari; ’ n aSlee>d to attack the king at the meeting of
acenprT- ’ t0 seiz.e ^e Tower and the bank, and to incite
ed anrlH ln-SUn'eC-^°n’ ^uttheirwild scheme was discover-
Were convTcted'ancf executed!61118 bein^ Pul1^Proved> theT
vol. y.
513
In the meanwhile some difficulties occurred in theexe- Iteio-n of
cut,on of the treaty of Amiens. The British ministry had
avoided engaging in a quarrel with Bonaparte on account ^  
of his continental usurpation, because they found no power
willing to join them in resisting him; but his restless am-
bition induced him to endeavour to lay hold of the island
of Malta; and his impatient spirit prevented his conduct¬
ing the plan in such a manner as might have enabled him
to avoid suspicion and insure success. That island was
destined by the treaty to be intrusted to the order of St
John of Jerusalem. Without waiting till the British had
abandoned it, Bonaparte instantly set on foot negociations
wuh the different countries to which the knights of the
order belonged, to procure the abolition of the order, the
confiscation of its revenues, and the prohibition of the fu-
ture enrolment of knights, and their departure for Malta
And having accomplished these objects, he required the
British government to deliver up the island to a grand
master, appointed, at his instigation, by the pope; or to
the king of Naples, who was to receive possession, in the
first instance, for behoof of the knights. Strictly speak¬
ing, there was thus no longer any order of Malta to de¬
fend the island ; and as the king of Naples was at all times
at the mercy of France, the evacuation of Malta by the
British troops would, in the actual posture of affairs, have
been equivalent to the transferring it to the latter power.
Ihe British ministry had submitted to the late continental
acquisitions of France from want of means to oppose them*
but they resolved to oppose the seizure of this island!
wmch may be considered as the key of the Mediterranean,
because the superiority of the British fleet enabled them
successfully to do so. This determination appears to have'
greatly perplexed the vehement and irritable mind of the
first consul. No successful resistance had hitherto been
offered to any of his continental enterprises; and as the
attempt now made to refuse delivery of the island to the
king of Naples, and the nominal grand master of the order
of St John, could only be justified by accusing him of hav¬
ing acted fraudulently against the spirit of the treaty, so
an acquiescence on his part in the retention of the island,
contrary to the express stipulations of the treaty of
Amiens, w-ould have been equivalent to a confession of
guilt. In this situation he found himself detected in a de¬
ceit which he was unwilling to acknowledge; whilst, at
the same time, he suffered the additional mortification of
having sacrificed his reputation without any profit in re¬
turn, the irresistible power of the British navy render¬
ing it impossible for him to seize Malta by force. In this
dilemma, a conversation occurred between him and the
British ambassador Lord Whitworth, which, as the for¬
tunes of Bonaparte have been so extraordinary, it may be
worth while to record, in the terms in which it was re¬
ported to the British court. In a letter to Lord Hawkes-
bury, dated the 21st February, Lord Whitworth says: 
‘ I received a note from M. Talleyrand, minister for
foreign affairs, informing me the first consul desired to
converse with me, and that I would come to him at the
Ihuilleries at nine o’clock. He received me in his cabinet,
with tolerable cordiality; and after talking on different
subjects for a few minutes, he desired me to sit down, as
he himself did on the other side of the table, and began.
He told me that he felt it necessary, after what had pass¬
ed between me and M. de Talleyrand, that he should in
the most clear and authentic manner make known his sen¬
timents to me, in order to their being communicated to
his majesty; and he conceived this would be more effec¬
tually done by himself, than through any medium what¬
ever. He said that it was a matter of infinite disappoint¬
ment to him, that the treaty of Amiens, instead of being
followed by conciliation and friendship, the natural effects
3 T
514 BRITAIN.
Reign of of peace, had been productive only of continual and in- overturn it. He said, that if he had not felt the enmity Reijn
George III. creasing jealousy and mistrust; and that this mistrust was of the British government on every occasion since the George r
now avowed in such a manner as must bring the point treaty of Amiens, there would have been nothing that he
to an issue. He now enumerated the several provocations would not have done to prove his desire to conciliate;
which he pretended to have received from England. He participation in indemnities as well as in influence on the
placed in the first line our not evacuating Malta and Continent, treaties of commerce, in short, any thing that
Alexandria, as we were bound to do by treaty. In this could have given satisfaction, and have testified his friend-
he said that no consideration on earth would make him ship. Nothing had, however, been able to conquer the
acquiesce, and of the two, he had rather see us in posses- hatred of the British government, and, therefore, it was
sion of the Fauxbourg St Antoine, than Malta. He then now come to the point, whether we should have peace or
adverted to the abuse thrown out against him in the Eng- war. To preserve peace, the treaty of Amiens must be
lish public prints ; but this, he said, he did not so much fulfilled ; the abuse in the public prints, if not totally sup-
regard, as that which appeared in French papers published pressed, at least kept within bounds, and confined to the
in'London. This he considered as much more mischie- English papers; and the protection so openly given to his
vous, since it meant to excite this country against him and bitterest enemies (alluding to Georges, and persons of that
his government. He complained of the protection given description) must be withdrawn. If war, it was neces-
to Georges, and others of his description, who, instead of sary only to say so, and to refuse to fulfil the treaty.”
being sent to Canada, as had been repeatedly promised, The result of this conversation, and of some circum-
were permitted to remain in England, handsomely pen- stances in the conduct of the French, was, that on the 8th
sioned, and were constantly committing all sorts of crimes of March, the following message was addressed by the
on the coasts of France, as well as in the interior. In con- king to the House of Commons. “ His majesty thinks it
firmation of this, he told me that two men had within necessary to acquaint the House of Commons, that as very
these few days been apprehended in Normandy, and were considerable military preparations are carrying on in the
now on their way to Paris, who were hired assassins, and ports of France and Holland, he has judged it expedient
employed by the Bishop of Arras, by Georges, and by to adopt additional measures of precaution for the securi-
Duthiel, as would be fully proved in a court of justice, ty of his dominions. Though the preparations to which
and made knowm to the world. He acknowledged that his majesty refers are avowedly directed to colonial ser-
the irritation he felt against England increased daily, be- vice, yet as discussions of great importance are now sub¬
cause every wind (I make use as much as I can of his own sisting between his majesty and the French government,
ideas and expressions) which blew from England brought the result of which must at present be uncertain, his ma-
nothing but enmity and hatred against him. He now jesty is induced to make this communication to his faith-
went back to Egypt, and told me, that if he had felt the ful Commons, in the full persuasion, that while they par-
smallest inclination to take possession of it by force, he take of his majesty’s earnest and unvarying solicitude for
might have done it a month ago, by sending twenty-five the continuance of peace, he may rely with perfect con-
thousand men to Aboukir, who would have possessed fidence on their public spirit and liberality, to enable his
themselves of the whole country, in defiance of the four majesty to adopt such measures as circumstances mayap-
thousand British in Alexandria. That instead of that gar- pear to require, for supporting the honour of his crown,
risen being a means of protecting Egypt, it was only fur- and the essential interests of his people.” On the motion
nishing him with a pretence for invading it. This he would of Mr Addington, the house voted an address, agreeing
not do” whatever might be his desire to have it as a co- unanimously to support the crown in the measures propos-
lony ; because he did not think it worth the risk of a war, ed. It speedily appeared that the preparations which had
in which he perhaps might be considered as the aggressor, been alluded to in the king’s message were extremely tnn-
and by which he should lose more than he could gain, ing indeed. Bonaparte had obliged the Spaniards to cede
since, sooner or later, Egypt would belong to France, to liim the sovereignty of Louisiana; and an armament, with
either by the falling to pieces of the Turkish empire, or about four thousand troops, was novv preparing to leave
by some arrangement with the Porte. As a proof of his the ports of Holland to take possession of the territory
desire to maintain peace, he wished to know wdiat he had thus acquired. The government of the United States op¬
to gain by going to war with England. A descent was the posed this measure ; and the state of Kentucky sent notice
only means of offence he had, and that he was determined to the president that ten thousand volunteers had ^n10.'
to attempt by putting himself at the head of the expedi- ed themselves, and were resolved, with or without the ai
tion. But how could it be supposed, that after having of the union, to resist the settlement of the French in their
gained the height on which he stood, he would risk his neighbourhood. Meanwhile Bonaparte, who probably ha
life and reputation in such a hazardous attempt, unless no serious intention of effecting such a settlement, so a
forced to it by necessity, when the chances were that he for a sum of money to the United States of North nie
and the greatest part of his expedition would go to the rica the territory of Louisiana; a country inhabite y
bottom of the sea. He talked much on this subject, but many independent tribes of savages, and to which, upo
never affected to diminish the danger. He acknowledged the principles of natural justice, neither he, nor the p
that there were a hundred chances to one against him ; niards, nor the Americans, had any right. But the in a 1
but still he was determined to attempt it, if war should be ants of Europe, and even the Transatlantic race of u
the consequence of the present discussion ; and such v/as ropeans, had now for some ages been accustomec o ^
the disposition of the troops, that army after army would gard all foreign countries as unoccupied property, w ^
be found for the enterprise. He then expatiated much on they might seize and transfer to each other, withou ^
the natural force of the two countries. France with an gard to the natural inhabitants, whom they consi ci^
army of four hundred and eighty thousand men (for to as beings of a subordinate race and character. Acc ^
this amount it is, he said, to be immediately completed), ingly this transference of Louisiana excited no suipr18
all ready for the most desperate enterprises ; and England Europe. ^ f Com*
with a fleet that made her mistress of the seas, and which Meanwhile, as the king’s message to the House ^
he did not think he should be able to equal in less than mons, already mentioned, evinced a determination
ten years. Two such countries, by a proper understand- part of the British government to prefer a new wa
ing, might govern the world, but by their strifes might than suffer Bonaparte to carry further his ambition [
BRITAIN.
De i »f
lie. HI
515
t
jects, tliG mind of that extiaordinary person seems to have worth presented the ultirmtnm nf f-l-io t? i
been wrought up to an extraordinary degree of irritation, which was in substance tW th* V e,Britlsh government, Iteign of
In his palace he affected to use all the forms of the ancient LgageTo X no'TpTo idon to ilT g0^rni?e"t sh?uld ^IIL
French court At the Htwing-room where he was wait- of L^mpedosa to his majesty by k“ fh^T^sf
ed upon by the whole ambassadors of Europe and by a cilies; that, in consequLeVthe pS’ent state Tthe
numerous assemblage of persons of high rank from all island of T nnmerleco nic. * i l,?86111 ?ta.te ol the
countries, he could scarcely observe the ordinary forms of sion of the island of Molt s l01-1 rernain in posses-
civility to the British ambassador; and Lord WhiZrth Zmade bv hTm as S^e ^
in a dispatch dated the 14th of March, which was after, dosa as a naval station, after which'perTo^theisIL stedd
be given up to the inhabitants, and acknowledged as an
independent state; that the territories of the Batavian
republic should be evacuated by the French forces with¬
in one month after the conclusion of a convention found-
in a dispatch dated the 14th of March, which was after¬
wards communicated to parliament, gave the following ac¬
count of the behaviour of the first consul on one occasion
at the court of the Thuilleries :—
“ He accosted me evidently under very considerable
agitation. He began by asking me if I had any news ed on the nrinein1p« fi • S10n.0t a canventl0n i°und-
from England? I told him I had received a letter from Etruria nnrl tlw> il r ns project; that the king of
Lord Hawkesbury two days ago. He immediately said, acknowledged by hisZestv • 'thaTswiZIf
‘ And so you are determined to go to war.’ ‘ No ’ I renlied • evarnafeH tl/ r i r ^ 1 la? ^Wltze.^and should be
<we ace L sensible of ,he advitages of peace? Wetve Zi?shL d “ed^ Z IZZZZZf
rar/ustfrsL^^etv^dTo^jr*^
,t.' ‘But you wish to carry it on for fifteen years longer, island of Malta until Serthe^x'phS ^terye^The
and you foice me to it. I told him that it was very far proposed stipulations rplotiup flio i; c
from his majesty’s intentions He then proceeded to Count Italian and Ligurian republics, and the" kin- of TirdinhT
swoid, I shall be the last to sheath it. They have no re-
gaid to treaties, henceforth they should cover them with
black crape.’ In a few minutes he came back to me, and
resumed the conversation by something personally civil to
me. He began again, ‘ Why these armaments ? Against
what are these measures of precaution ? I have not a
single ship of the line in the ports of France ; but if you
wish to arm, I will arm also. If you wish to fight, I will
fight also. You may perhaps destroy, but you will never
intimidate France.’ ‘ We wish neither the one nor the
serted together.
I his ultimatum having been rejected, war was announ¬
ced on the 16th of May, by a message from the king to
the two houses of parliament; and on the 21st of May a
declaration, justifying this measure, appeared in the Lon¬
don Gazette. As the statements contained in this docu¬
ment exhibit a detail of the public acts alleged to have
occasioned the renewal of the war, it may be proper to in¬
sert a few of its leading paragraphs.
“ A® soon as the treaty of Amiens was concluded, his
Other. It is our desh-P tn HvpXT™ a 1"~ X r ,°UU11 “s ueaiY or Amiens was concluded, his
ic^is out (lesue to live in good understanding majesty s courts were open to the people of France fnr
. ^ You must regard treaties then. Confusion to every purpose of legal redress. All sequestrations were
with her. ‘ You must regard treaties then. Confusion to
those who have no regard to treaties: (‘ malheur a ceux
qui ne respectent pas les traites !’) they will be respon¬
sible for it to all Europe.’ He was too much agitated to
make it advisable for me to prolong the conversation. I
therefore made no answer; and he retired to his apart-
ment repeating the last phrase. It is to be remarked,
lat all this passed loud enough to be heard bv two hun-
orecl peopJe who were present; and I am persuaded that
taken off their property; all prohibitions on their trade,
which had been imposed during the war, were removed;
and they were placed on the same footing, with regard to
commerce and intercourse, as the inhabitants of any other
state in amity with his majesty with which there existed
no treaty of commerce.
“ To a system of conduct thus open, liberal, and friend¬
ly, the proceedings of the French government afforded
|.l * 4 . miv* a am pciauaueu uiai ry, uie proceed]
nriptTTi ^0t a S]ing 6 P6,1'8?11 wll° did not f’eel the impro- the most striking contrast. The prohibitions which had
as o/dPcp11S aiK t-he »OUd Want of diSldty as wel1 been p!aced on the commerce ofhis majesty’s subjects
mean time ‘1’! dur“« *he enf?rce? "ith *?cr««ed strict-
mean time m-pcncrUsU i n 7 »   ueeu emorceu witn increased stnet-
theliteml BonaPartAe s.tdl insisted uPon ness and severity. Violence has been offered in several
filment of the treaty of Amiens. He appears instances to their vessels and their property; and in no
tohavpflnfiproriT- lYIi NY y . , . insumces 10 tneir vessels and their property; and in no
not venturpT d mS,ff that the Bntlsh ministry would case has justice been afforded to those who may have
Pacific disposition^ wtle account of Their been aggrieved in consequence of such acts; nor 1ms any
him to SI \ We , known; they had suffered satisfactory answer been given to the repeated represen-
without Zag£ein hoSlV TT UP°n the,Contin/nt tations made by bis majesty’s ministers or ambassadors at
consist ofmefwhn h . ™ understood to Pans. Under such circumstances, when his majesty’s
had only held oThnT6 ! T leaders of any Pa;ty> but subjects were not suffered to enjoy the common advaT
adminisVation ^ T 38 fPP?rters of ^Ir P^.s J.ages of peace within the territories of the French repub-
tain by the pv TT f 7 iaf ibeen °ud ^ accusfd ln Bri“ be and the countries dependent upon it, the French go-
tion,ofwantTfTI f rs’,and hy of the oId °PP0S1- vernment had recourse to the extraordinary measure of
apparent tampnlT S-f1i1K 'iVaii^ °i sPint’ an account of the sending over to this country a number of persons for the
H seems likplu tl8 1 'V i11C 1 o le^ md recentiy acted, professed purpose of residing in the most considerable sea-
they would ,2; Tf • ’ mt BoVaParte Presumed that port towns of Great Britain and Ireland in the character
good temnpr T c glVC Wa^ ^ 118 demands* Hut the of commercial agents or consuls. These persons could
effect of rmiein fU°rbearanCp i administration had the have no pretensions to be acknowledged in that character,
inducin- in o if- W SI)lllt. 0 I]16. Hritish nation, and of as the right of being so acknowledged, as well as the pri-
gage in*^ 31 proportion of the people, a wish to en- vileges attached to such a situation, could only be deriv-
o O a war against a man tirnnm f ^ o f l’  _
gage in a war • r r V PcuP,t;> u on- vueges attaclied to such a situation, could only be deriv-
an odious usiirn^31118^ man wb°m ^bey now detested as ed from a commercial treaty, and as no treaty of that de-
fu • . urper. I hus encouraged, administration rnsp enrinfirm n C in nviofnnnn V»»ci w-k n ..
in their dpmTT' ^bus en^ouraged, administration rose scription was in existence between his majesty and the
r demands; and on the 12th of May Lord Whit- French republic.
516
BRITAIN,
Reign of “ There was consequently too much reason to suppose
George III. that the real object of their mission was by no means of
a commercial nature; and this suspicion was confirmed,
not only by the circumstance that some of them were
military men, but by the actual discovery, that several of
them were furnished with instructions to obtain the sound¬
ings of the harbours, and to procure military surveys of
the places where it was intended they should reside. His
majesty felt it to be his duty to prevent their departure
to their respective places of destination, and represented
to the French government the necessity of withdrawing
them; and it cannot be denied, that the circumstances
under which fhey were sent, and the instructions which
were given to them, ought to be considered as decisive
indications of the dispositions and intentions of the go¬
vernment by whom they were employed.
“ If the French government had really appeared to be
actuated by a due attention to such a system, if their
dispositions had proved to be essentially pacific, allowance
wrould have been made for the situation in which a new
government must be placed, after so dreadful and exten¬
sive a convulsion as had been produced by the French
revolution. But his majesty has unfortunately had too
much reason to observe and to lament, that the system of
violence, aggression, and aggrandisement, which charac¬
terised the proceedings of the different governments of
France during the war, has been, continued with as little
disguise since its termination. They have continued to
keep a French army in Holland, against the will and in
defiance of the remonstrances of the Batavian govern¬
ment, and in repugnance to the letter of their solemn
treaties. They have, in a period of peace, invaded the
territory and violated the independence of the Swiss na¬
tion, in defiance of the treaty of Luneville, which had
stipulated the independence of their territory, and the
right of the inhabitants to choose their own form of go¬
vernment. They have annexed to the dominions of France,
Piedmont, Parma, and Placentia, and the island of Elba,
without allotting any provision to the king of Sardinia,
whom they have despoiled of the most valuable part of
his territory, though they were bgund by a solemn en¬
gagement to the emperor of Russia to attend to his inte¬
rests, and to provide for his establishment. It may indeed
with truth be asserted, that the period which has elapsed
since the conclusion of the definitive treaty has been
marked with one continued series of aggression, violence,
and insult, on the part of the French government.”
With regard to Malta, the declaration proceeded to
state, “ that when the French government demanded its
evacuation, several articles of the treaty of Amiens re¬
specting it remained unexecuted. The tenth article had
stipulated that the independence of the island should be
placed under the guarantee and protection of Great Bri¬
tain, France, Austria, Russia, Spain, and Prussia. The
emperor of Germany had acceded to the guarantee, but
only on condition of a like accession on the part of the
other powers specified in the article. The emperor of
Russia had refused his accession, except on the condition
that the Maltese langue should be abrogated; and the
King of Prussia had given no answer whatever to the ap¬
plication which had been made to him to accede to the
arrangement. That the fundamental principle upon which
depended the execution of the other parts of the article
had been defeated by the changes which had taken place in
the constitution of the order since the conclusion of the
treaty of peace. It was to the order of St John of Jeru¬
salem that his majesty was by the first stipulation of the
tenth article bound to restore the island of Malta. The
order is defined to consist of those langues which were in
existence at the time of the conclusion of the treaty.
The three French langues having been abolished,' and a Reij;
Maltese langue added to the institution, the order con-Geor
sisted therefore at that time of the following langues, viz. ^
Arragon, Castile, Germany, Bavaria, and Russia. Since
the conclusion of the definitive treaty, the langues of Ar¬
ragon and Castile have been separated from the order by
Spain, and part of the Italian langue had been abolished
by the annexation of Piedmont and Parma to France.
There is strong reason to believe that it has been in con¬
templation to sequestrate the property of the Bavarian
langue, and the intention has been avowed of keeping the
Russian langue within the dominions of the emperor.”
The French were also accused of having instigated or
effected the whole of these changes, and of thus having
rendered it impossible to fulfil that part of the treaty; and
it was further remarked, that from a report published by
an accredited agent of the French government, Colonel
Sebastiani, it appeared that France entertained views hos¬
tile to the Turkish empire, the integrity of which had
been expressly stipulated, and that this rendered the re¬
tention of Malta more necessary. The behaviour of the
first consul to Lord Whitworth at his audience was also
noticed, together with some other offensive occurrences;
and it was observed that “ his majesty might add to this
list of indignities, the requisition which the French go¬
vernment have repeatedly urged, that the laws and con¬
stitution of this country should be changed, relative to
the liberty of the press. His majesty" might likewise add
the calls which the French government have on several
occasions made to violate the laws of hospitality, with re¬
spect to persons who had found an asylum within his do¬
minions, and against whose conduct no charge whatever
has at any time been substantiated. It is impossible to
reflect on these different proceedings, and the course
which the French government have thought proper to
adopt respecting them, without the thorough conviction
that they are not the effect of accident, but that they
form a part of a system which has been adopted for the
purpose of degrading, vilifying, and insulting his majesty
and his government.”
Administration were now placed in a very singular si¬
tuation. Mr Fox, who opposed the war, proposed that
an attempt should be made to prevail with the emperor
of Russia to mediate a peace, upon the supposition that,
if his mediation was rejected by France, we might be able
to secure an alliance with him; and to this proposal ad¬
ministration acceded; but although Mr Fox opposed the
war, almost the whole of the other members of the old
opposition, including Mr Sheridan and Mr Tierney, strong¬
ly approved of it, while Mr Pitt and the rest of the ex¬
ministry joined in the opinion. As Bonaparte had threat¬
ened to attempt an invasion, the parties out of power laid
hold of this circumstance to excite alarm, and industriously
represented the actual ministers as men of moderate ca¬
pacity", unfit to be intrusted with the defence of the empire
in a perilous crisis. Mr Pitt and his colleagues, in their
speeches in parliament, represented the nation as in clanger
of being instantly invaded by an innumerable host of expe¬
rienced troops, who could not be expected to delay more
than a few days the attempt to land upon our shores; the
members of the old opposition held precisely the same lan¬
guage ; and the views of both probably were in some degtee
to terrify the country to call for their services, as men o
greater energy than the present rulers. The militia, bo
ordinary and extraordinary, were called out; a new bo y
of troops was ordered to be raised by ballot, under 1
appellation of an army of reserve; and corps of volunteer
were formed throughout the whole island. An ac ^
parliament was also passed for calling out, in case o
tual invasion, the whole male population of the king o >
I of
III
III.
BRITAIN. gi7
in classes according to their age or their situation in life; make those efforts nml i • i u ,
and to meet the expense of these different armaments, and the safety of the Hmnlom ■ th-G llonour and ®eign of
of the augmentation of the navy, the income tax was re- critical coninnet?,re 'n 1 at t'"s ,mPorta”t
stored will, certain modifications. SeLa .‘‘the 8 ' l? aUe?t.,°" has principal- —T
The administration thus found their adversaries, unlike no opportunity lias bcenS'ost of nrd ■° mte.l'nal se<rurlty>
an, former opposition, striving with emulation to do their the Ern Xeseio'nTof Th?efn:mr^lXr„? St
work for them, and to strengthen government by new ar- Lucie Tobao-n St Pim-ro ivi- ^ i panels ot ^t
aments of every kind. The consequence was, that dur- ments of Demirara and EssequYboTha™ surtenderel to
ing the ensuing autumn, ministers seemed to become per- the British arms Tn "ri f c of • a,
plexed by the multiplicity of business, in their hands/and which tae^ab,e\e^S t'^tf^rrde"8 th^
to entertain doubts about the propriety of some of the utmost promptitude and zeal have been displayed by he
measures in winch they had embarked. The plan of rats- officers employed in those services, and by my forceLct-
tng such numerous bodies of troops by ballot, while sub- ing under their command by sea and land. In T, eland
stitution was at the same time permuted to those upon the leaders and several inferior agents in the late traito-
whom the ballot fell, became a most unequal mode of rais- ous conspiracy have been brought to justice, and the pub-
mg an army for the defence of the state, as it tel upon lie tranquillity has experienced no further interruption1* I
persons not accordmg o their means, but accord,„g to indulge the hope that such of my deluded subiecte as Lve
their age. But tt was attended with one good effect, that swerved from their allegiance Je now convinced of E
as the bod.es of volunteers raised by permission of govern- error; and that havin| compared the advantages they
men enjoyed an exemption from certain ballots, this ope- derived from the protection of a free constitution, with the
0“® w,‘ ’ tlle fP1”1 of the country, as a sufficient condition of those countries which are under the dominion
premium to induce gieat multitudes of persons to enrol of the French government, they will cordially and zeal-
tliemselves for the purpose of acquiring the military exer- ously concur in resisting any attempt that wly be made
against the security and independence of my united king¬
dom.” ^ &
cise. Ministers at times hesitated to receive the numerous
bodies of volunteers who offered themselves ; but as they
afterwards departed from this reluctance, nearly four hun¬
dred thousand men were trained to the use of arms, ex-
dhe usual address to the throne was unanimously car¬
ried, though Mr Fox complained that nothing had been
i „• . .... , .  ’ ‘ cwwug.t a.,,., xua. uumpmmeu mat noimnsr nau Deen
c usive of the regular army, the militia, and the army of said respecting the state of our negociations with Russia.
reserve.
In the meanwhile the ports of France were closely
blockaded, and the foreign possessions of the French
seized; while the only step of retaliation in their power
to exert consisted in seizing the electorate of Hanover,
which they plundered unmercifully. Bonaparte offered
to give up Hanover as the price of Malta; but his offer
was refused.
The most inconvenient circumstance to Great Britain,
I he debates in parliament during the present session were
by no means interesting. In the course of the winter, the
French government continued to repeat with much confi¬
dence their threats of invasion, and the people of Great
Britain remained in daily expectation that a landing would
be attempted. But nothing of any importance took place.
Bonaparte travelled repeatedly from Paris to the sea-coast,
and back again to Paris. It was announced that a body
of guides had been formed to conduct the invading army
• • y. , ' . .—    ’ iiciu ween iuiuicu iu uunuuci me nivaumg army
arising out of those political transactions, consisted in the after it had landed in England; and the generals and ad-
great embarrassment occasioned to persons engaged in
commerce, which proved the cause of numerous bank¬
ruptcies. Towards the close of the former war trade had
found out for itself regular channels ; and, in particular,
die port of Hamburg had become the great store-house
mirals by whom the expedition was to be conducted were
said to have gone to their respective posts. Nothing how¬
ever occurred, excepting the sailing from one French port
to another, under the cover of land-batteries, of small par¬
ties of flat-bottomed boats, which, at times, evaded the
P V 1 l' ^ o ^ ^^nat uuttuiiJCU UUclto, WllICll, ell UlIILlSj tJVdLieU lilt:
or British merchandise, from which, as a neutral state, it vigilance of the British cruisers, though they were fre-
was distributed amongst the countries engaged in the war. quently captured, driven ashore, or sunk,
the conclusion of a treaty of peace produced the daily
expectation of a renewal of the intercourse with France,
and therefore put a stop to the circuitous trade by Ham- CHAP. XVIII.
burg. But as no place was substituted instead of the
fatter, a suspension of operations in some manufactures reign of george hi.—resiemption of hostilities.—
occurred; and when these difficulties were coming to a war with France and her allies.
c ose, the renewal of the war produced a new uncertainty
<dlanncls in which the European trade would here- Parliamentary Proceedings Change of Ministry, and return of
atter now. The difficulty was increased in consequence Mr Pitt to power—Military Events—Occupation of Hanover,
of the invasion of Hanover bv the French and their ex- —Boulogne Armament—Internal Defence—Volunteer Sys-
cjuding the British from the navigation of the Elbe, while tem.-Nava1 Operations. Colonial Conquests-Spain declares
the Inttor i'vwI, * < • *i i • ^ War against Britain.—Battle of J rafalgar, and Death of .Lora
wot. their turn blockaded the river with ships of Nelson.—Continental Affairs in 1805.—Surrender of General
Mack and his Army at Ulm Austrians and Russians defeated
at Austerlitz Parliamentary Proceedings—Session of 1805—
Charges against Lord Melville—Illness and Death of Mr Pitt,
23d January 1806 New Ministry, called “ All the Talents.”
—Act for a Limited Term of Military Service—Budget.—
Trial and Acquittal of Lord Melville—New Parliament—
Lord Henry Petty’s Plan of Finance—Abolition of the Slave-
Trade Catholic Belief Bill—Fall of the Grenville or Fox
Administration Observations on the Ministry of 1806.—The
Ministry of 1807, or Perceval Administration—Events of the
War Naval Actions in 1806—Negociations at Paris—Failure
of these Prussia War between that Power and France—
Battle of Jena, and subsequent Military Operations in Poland—
Battles of Evlau and Friedland—Treaty of Tilsit, 1st J uly 1807-
—Expedition to Copenhagen—Buenos Ayres—Whitelock’s Di-
war, and thus excluded all the world.
arliament assembled on the 22d of November. In the
speecn from the throne his majesty said,—“ Since I last
^ l5ar^amenb has been my chief object to carry
n o effect those measures which your wisdom had adopt-
G or defence of the united kingdom, and for the vi-
frous prosecution of the war. In these preparations I
Jive been seconded by the voluntary exertions of all ranks
th — P,e(?lde’ hia manner that has, if possible, strengthened
pro*1 ^ aiimS t0 conhdence and affection. They have
ro that the menaces of the enemy have only served
louse their native and hereditary spirit; and that all
ei considerations are lost in a general disposition to
518
BRITAIN.
Reign of
George III.
sastrous Expedition—Battle of Maida—Threatened Attack on
Constantinople Sicily—Sweden—Portugal and Spain—Bat¬
tle of Yimiera Convention of Cintra.—Sir John Moore’s Cam¬
paign His Advance and Retreat—Battle of Corunna—Ses¬
sion of 1808 Local Militia—Orders in Council—Session of
1809 Charges against the Duke of York—Changes in the
Cabinet Campaign of 1809—Battle of Talavera—Attack on
the French Fleet‘in Basque Roads—Movements of Austria.
—Expedition to the Scheldt—Session of 1810—Walcheren
Expedition Committal of Sir Francis Burdett to the Tower.
 Scottish Clergy and Judicature Acts—Campaign of 1810 in
Portugal and Spain—Battle of Busaco—Subsequent Opera¬
tions Advance of Massena—Lines of Torres Vedras—Re¬
treat of the French under Massena—Battle of Barrosa.
The parliamentary proceedings in the summer session
of 1803 were remarkable, as indicating the existence of
three or four distinct parties, amidst an almost general
concurrence in support of the war. These parties were,
first, that of the ministry and their usual followers; se¬
condly, that of the Grenvilles and Mr Windham, who had
all along blamed the peace of Amiens, and predicted that
it would prove a mere truce ; thirdly, that of Mr Pitt and
Lord Melville, who, after approving that peace, had, on
the continued aggressions of Bonaparte, become ardent
supporters of war; and, fourthly, that of Mr Fox, with a
part of the old opposition, who were of opinion that the
war might have been avoided. But the last were so far
from being numerous, that a motion, made on the 23d of
May, to express the concurrence of parliament in the war,
was opposed by a minority of only ten in the Peers and
sixty-seven in the Commons. A subsequent measure, in
the same spirit, namely, an act for arming a large part of
the population, was carried in July by a great majority;
and similar ardour was evinced in submitting anew to war
taxes, particularly to a five per cent, income-tax. After
the adoption of several other measures of a like descrip¬
tion, and a most interesting session of nine months, par¬
liament was prorogued on 12th August.
The next session opened on the 22d of November, and
discovered the same alacrity for the prosecution of the
war, mixed, however, with a growing opposition to minis¬
ters. Mr Pitt had, from the beginning of the war, fore-
borne to commend them, and, since the failure of a nego-
ciation to bring him into office, had assumed a language
occasionally hostile. He continued to support their pro¬
positions for the public defence, and frequently improved
them in their progress through parliament; but he dis¬
claimed all personal connection with ministers, and at last
treated them as incapable of originating any measure of
vigour or utility. This disposition could scarcely fail to be
turned to account by those busy intermediaries, who find
means to combine the efforts even of opposite parties for
the purpose of getting into power. On the 15th of March
Mr Pitt, aware of the side on which the public was most
alive to alarm, brought forward a motion for an inquiry
into the management of the navy. On this occasion,
severe as was his language in regard to Lord St Vincent,
then at the head of the admiralty, he received the sup¬
port of the opposition, and had on his side a hundred and
thirty votes against two hundred and one. From this
time forward the strength of ministers was visibly shaken.
On the 23d of April Mr Fox brought forward an eagerly-
expected motion on the defence of the country, in which
Mr Pitt joined, with great animosity against the ministers.
On a division, government had a majority of fifty-two,
which, in a second debate, on the 25th of April, was re¬
duced to thirty-seven. Soon after this, ministers resign¬
ed, and Mr Pitt, called to the royal presence, was desired
to form an administration, exclusive, however, of Mr Fox.
This peremptory order, and Mr Pitt’s too ready acquies¬
cence in it, proved the source of the greatest difficulties.
The Grenvilles had recently so connected themselves with Eeigr:
Mr Fox and his friends, that a separation would have beenCkorgi ;
altogether dishonourable ; and their united strength, join-
ed to the occasional support of Mr Addington’s adherents,
was the cause, during the remainder of the session, of very
strong divisions against the new ministers, particularly in
the Commons. Their chief measure, entitled the Addi¬
tional Force Bill, was carried by only two hundred and
sixty-five to two hundred and twenty-three. The session
soon afterwards closed, but not without passing a corn bill,
evidently intended to dispose the landed interest to submit
to the new taxes, and prohibiting the importation of fo¬
reign wheat whenever our own should be at or below
sixty-three shillings the quarter.
On the continent of Europe, the only great operation
was the invasion, or rather occupation, of Hanover, to
which allusion has already been made. War having been
declared by us on the 18th May, the French troops ad¬
vanced from Holland, and entered the electoral capital by
the 5th of June. To attempt resistance would have been
folly; but in a season when soldiers were so much wanted
in England, and so great an expense was incurred in train¬
ing them, it was matter of regret that the Hanoverian
troops, in number about fifteen thousand, should not have
been marched down to the coast, and embarked in a body,
instead of being disbanded and obliged to pledge them¬
selves not to serve against France until exchanged.
On the side of France the aspect of war was displayed
in a great encampment at Boulogne, and in the dispatch,
from all the ports along the coast, of flotillas of boats to
join the armament preparing in that central rendezvous.
These petty convoys had instructions to tempt our crui¬
sers to attack them, and to draw them, at fit occasions,
under the fire of land-batteries ; and they were sometimes
successful in doing so. The main object of Bonaparte
was to excite alarm ; a course which, however politic to¬
ward some countries, was certainly ill judged in regard to
one where the executive power, in its inability to coerce,
often seeks support in the apprehensions of the public.
The general impression of dread facilitated the measures
of defence, and led to the volunteer system, which was
carried to an unparalleled extent. Never did a country
exhibit so many of the middle and higher classes under
arms as England and Scotland in 1803; and never did in¬
dividuals in these stations make more personal sacrifices
for the object of national defence. The result was effec¬
tual to as great a degree as the situation of the individua s
permitted. The volunteers made as near an approach to
regularity of discipline as was practicable in the case o
men full of ardour, and submitting for a season to the re¬
straint of military service, but necessarily devoid of expe¬
rience in the field. The error lay in carrying volunteer¬
ing too far; for the system ought never to have been a-
lowed to extend to a length that absorbed no inconsi en¬
able part of the time and money of men whose lives were
too valuable to be indiscriminately exposed, and w os
proper aid to the public cause was the tribute of their i -
dustry. The volunteer system was of real use only in ^
far as it promoted cordiality in the common cause, an ^
by assuring the maintenance of tranquillity at home,
abled government to dispose of the regulars in the e ■
The plan of collecting flotillas of boats, from eas
west, in the central depot of Boulogne, was continue ^
Bonaparte, during two years, from the middle ot
that of 1805. A great parade was made of the nu ^
of troops ready to embark, and of the determma
encounter all hazards; but there was no eftcien fx
by ships of war, until the spring of 1805, when t ie s &
of squadrons for the West Indies took place, cai*
Rochefort, and afterwards from Cadiz. These, i
I
If1
*
BRITAIN.
• n 0f culated, might excite alarm for our colonies, and induce
eorge IH-o-overnment to send thither a portion of the men of war
hitherto reserved for home defence ; after which the ha¬
zardous attempt of a descent might have entered seri¬
ously into the calculations of the French ruler. That it
did so at this time was positively affirmed by him in con-
519
Nelson. The hostile fleet soon after set out on its home- Reign of
waul voyage. Intelligence to that effect was opportunely George III.
received by Lord Barham, then at the head of the admi- 1 ‘
laity; and a fleet, detached to cruise on their supposed
track, had the good fortune to fall in with them on 22d
July. An action took place; two sail of the line, Spanish
versations held with English gentlemen in the island of ships, were captured; night terminated the conflict; and
Elba, and afterwards in that of St Helena ; but these con- though it might have been renewed on the succeeding
.. days, an unfortunate indecision on the part of our admiral
Sir Robert Calder, allowed the enemy to escape. They
soon afterwards repaired to Ferrol, whence they sailed
with augmented force, and reached Cadiz.
To watch them there, or to engage them on their coming
out, was now an object of the highest moment; and it was
to Lord Nelson that this important trust was committed.
Joining our fleet off Cadiz on the 20th September, he
avoided keeping in sight, and even dispensed with the
aid of six sail of the line, which he sent to a distance along
the coast; judging that the enemy, when apprized of their
absence, would be induced to come out. Accordingly, the
combined fleet left Cadiz on the 19th of October, to the
number of thirty-three sail of the line, eighteen French and
fifteen Spanish, commanded by Admiral Villeneuve, and
early on the 21st came in sight of the British fleet, consist¬
ing of twenty-seven sail of the line, off Cape Trafalgar,
about half way between Cadiz and Gibraltar. The enemy,
convinced that their former defeats at sea had been owing
to the want of concentration and mutual support, now
formed a double line, every alternate ship being about a
cable’s length to windward of her second ahead and astern,
so that any of our ships, attempting to penetrate, would
be exposed to the fire of two or of three antagonists.
Nelson, while yet distant, perceived their arrangement, and
understood its object. It was new, but he was satisfied
that no concentration in the open sea could prevent our
vessels from coming to close action with their opponents,
in which case the result could not long be doubtful. He
consequently made no alteration in his previous plan,
which was to make the order of sailing the order of battle,
the fleet being in two lines, with an advanced squadron
of eight of the fastest sailing two-deckers; but directed
the fleet to advance to the attack in two divisions, one of
which, under Admiral Collingwood, intersected that part
of the enemy’s line which gave it nearly an equal num¬
ber of ships to encounter; whilst Nelson, with the other
division, acted on a similar plan, feuch was the only ge¬
neral manoeuvre in this great action. By our superior sea-
versations were marked by sundry misrepresentations ; for
he attributed the non-execution of the attempt entirely to
the threatened coalition on the Continent, and would not
acknowledge that it was impracticable ;—a matter of nau¬
tical calculation, when our government kept our channel
fleet at home, instead of sending it, as he had anticipated,
to the West Indies.
Such was the aspect of the war during two years, in
which our naval superiority led to an easy conquest of
several of the Dutch and French West India colonies.
St Lucie surrendered on the 22d of June 1803 ; Tobago,
on the 1st of July ; Demerara and Berbice, on the 23d of
September; and Cape Town, the last spot in the French
halfof St Domingo, occupied by French troops, capitulated
to the Blacks on the 30th of November. Next year w^as
taken the small island of Goree, on the coast of Africa,
and soon after the important Dutch colony of Surinam.
On the other hand, we were not successful in our attempts
on the French flotillas on their ow n shores. One of these
was directed against a convoy on the coast between Flush¬
ing and Ostend ; another, on a larger scale, and very differ¬
ent plan, was pointed at the Boulogne armament, which it
was proposed to blow up by catamarans; an attempt no less
unsuited to open and generous w arfare than the torpedoes
of the Americans. Fortune was more favourable to us in
encounters with the enemy in the open ocean, where, in
the early part of 180-1, a striking proof of the effects of
intrepidity was given in the case of a fleet of merchant¬
men from China, which beat off, or at least deterred from
action, a French squadron under x\dmiral Linois, consist¬
ing of a ship of eighty guns and three frigates.
The war hitherto had been wdth France and Holland
only; but a new power wras now to be added to the list of
our antagonists. Spain had been allowed by Bonaparte
to avoid participating in the contest, on condition of pay¬
ing a large annual contribution ; a condition so contrary
to real neutrality, that for some time past our government
had kept a vigilant eye on the expected arrival of her
treasure ships from America. A small squadron of four
frigates, sent out to intercept these valuable supplies, met, manship, and our ships 'eeping ih ai c ’ , t
on the 5th of October 1804, a Spanish squadron of a similar some cases a local superiority; u § i -t j •
number proceeding towards Cadiz; and the Spanish com- of the fight was a con ic o s up , working the
modore refusing to surrender, an engagement ensued, at- sion in our favour was owing o phanire of position
tended with the capture of three of the Spanish frigates, guns to that dexterity in a"
and the explosion of the fourth, accompanied with the and that confidence o success^ ^ jogs amounting
joss of many lives. This decisive act, approved at home force in a lug i sta e o n ' causeci by the riflemen
by the advocates of vigorous measures, was productive of to sixteen hundred men, P mode of warfare,
the worst impressions in regard to our national honour both in the enemv s nggmg, an » ^ officers, but can
Spain and her colonies! and led soon afterwards to a which may deprive
declaration of war bv that nower have little effect on the geneial issue ot a connict
Bonaparte was now provided with additional means of fighting began at noon, be“me ™,.s. the case
threatening our distant possessions. A squadron of five an hour, and lasted from two to three hours,
sad of the line escaping from Rochefort, landed a body of of a few ships it
nearly four thousand men on the island of Dominica, and by half-past oui u ciuciv. L“Xr , ^ ]10 was mortally
bnmed the chief town ; the island of St Kitt’s escaped purchased by ^ deaU^ mi7en.top of the
Wlth paying a contribution and the loss of some
'■■iiettiening our distant possessions. A squadron or nve cm »um, “yy .-a ]nncrpl. w an firing was over
sad of the line escaping from Rochefort, landed a body of of a few ships it continued l^r, but a ""g ^
nearly—  ’ *   — minica, and by half-past four o clock ™ wasI mortally
’s escaped purchased by the, dca ^ ^ f.-on/the mizen-top of the
r-v-5 cc wnuiuuuun aim me mss m su...c merchant- wounded by a mus .e a , riflemen, and expired
But this was only a prelude to the arrival of a Redoutable, by on^,theNeSnS 0f the line struck;
Juch more formidable fleet, which, to the number of just as the action c - after the action, wrecked
'giteen sail df the line, French and Spanish, reached the but unfortuna e y gc cessitated the destruction of
est Indies in the end of May, and spread alarm through- part of om pi i^’ were preserved ; and four more,
fn th.e,lslands; an alarm not dispelled till the arrival of a others. Foui sai, ’ fteal-.admiral Dumanoir, were
force inferior by nearly one third, but commanded by Lord which had escaped, undei Real
520
BRITAIN.
Reign of met on then' northward course, on the 2d of November,
George III-and captured off Cape Ortegal, by a squadron under -Sir
Richard Strachan.
But upon the continent of Europe the course of public
events was very different. The year had been usheied in
by a letter of Bonaparte to our sovereign, containing pa¬
cific expressions couched in general terms. An answer
was given, not by the king, but, according to diplomatic
usao-e, by our minister for foreign affairs, to the rrench
minister in the same station, expressing a similar wish for
peace, but adding, that it was incumbent on us to consult
our allies, particularly the emperor of Russia. The French
ridiculed the assertion of our being on confidential terms
with that court; but Russia had in fact begun to listen to
the proposal of forming a coalition against France on an
extensive scale. The basis of this compact was a treaty
sio-ned at St Petersburg in April. Russia, Austria, Swe¬
den, Naples, all acceded to it, and hopes were entertained
of the co-operation of Prussia. Bonaparte, apprized of
this, affected to be absorbed in arrangements for imme¬
diately invading England, but secretly prepared to mai ch
his troops from Boulogne to the Rhine. . After tin owing
on the Austrians the odium of aggression, by allowing
them to attack Bavaria before he acted, he proceeded to
execute a plan singularly adapted to the overweening con¬
fidence of his opponent, General Mack, who by this time
had traversed Bavaria and advanced to Ulm. By execut¬
ing forced marches, and violating part of the neutial tei-
ritory of Prussia, Bonaparte reached first the flank, and
soon afterwards the rear, of the enemy, who clung with
blind pertinacity to the position of Ulm. The result to the
Austrians was a series of checks in the field, and event¬
ually the surrender, by capitulation, of more than thirty
thousand men. The road to \ienna was thus opened to
Bonaparte. Fie marched thither, crossed the Danube,
proceeded northward, and at Austerlitz, on the 2d of De¬
cember, displayed his military combinations in all their
lustre, gaining over the Austrians and Russians, with forces
not superior, a victory which compelled Austria to imme¬
diate peace ; and thus by one blow broke up the coalition.
Before the opening of the session of 1805, an over¬
ture, suggested, it is said, by the sovereign personally, was
made to Mr Addington ; and, after some discussion, it was
accepted, Mr Addington receiving the presidency of the
council for himself, and corresponding situations for his
frifends. With this support ministers met parliament; and
in one of the first great questions the approval of the war
with Spain obtained the concurrence of three hundred and
thirteen votes against a hundred and six. In subsequent
divisions, the majorities, though less decisive, were consi¬
derable, until the 6th of April, when Mr Whitbread brought
forward a most interesting discussion on the tenth report
of the commissioners of naval inquiry, which implicated
Lord Melville. This question, debated in a full house,
produced a division of two hundred and sixteen against two
hundred and sixteen, when, after a most anxious pause,
the resolutions moved by Mr Whitbread were carried by
the casting vote of the speaker. I his led immediately to^
the resignation by Lord Melville of his office of fiist loid of
the admiralty, and was followed by the erasure of his name
from the list of privy counsellors. Some time after, his
lordship was, at his own desire, heard before the House
of Commons; and whilst he acknowledged that temporary
irregularities in the appropriation of the public money had
taken place when he was treasurer of the navy, he dis¬
claimed, on his honour, the alleged participation in the
profits of Mr Trotter, who had acted as his paymaster.
But the expectations of the public were raised, and a pro¬
secution, in some shape or other, was indispensable. A
motion for an impeachment before the Lords, made by Mr
Whitbread, was lost by two hundred and seventy-two to Itei| 0f
a hundred and ninety-five; but the Addington party jom-Georf ai
ing opposition in a motion for a criminal prosecution, the ^ ^
latter was carried by two hundred and thirty-eight against
two hundred and twenty-nine. Lord Melville and his
friends, dreading this more than an impeachment, found
means, by a sudden division of the house, to lescind the
vote to that effect, and to decide on an impeachment be¬
fore the Lords. And parliament was prorogued after giving
ministers a vote of credit to the extent of three millions, to
be applied, if necessary, in subsidies to continental powers.
The proceedings against Lord Melville made a deep
impression on Mr Pitt, and deprived him of his only effi¬
cient coadjutor, at a time when, from the magnitude of his
public cares, he was more than ever in want of support.
The consequent fatigue and anxiety made severe inroads
on a constitution naturally not strong. His indisposition
became apparent in the early part of wintei, and, on the
meeting of parliament, it was understood to ha^e reached
a dangerous height. His death took place on the 23d Ja¬
nuary’ 1806. A motion, brought forward a few days after,
to grant a public funeral, and to erect a monument to the
late excellent minister, excited much discussion. Mr Fox
paid a high tribute to the financial merits of his great
rival, which, in fact, were extremely questionable; but he
could not join in ascribing the epithet of “ excellent” to
measures which he had so often opposed. Mr Windham
also opposed the vote ; and the Grenvilles chose to be ab¬
sent. Still the motion was carried by two hundred and
fifty-eight against a hundred and sixty-nine. Fo a subse¬
quent proposition for a grant of L.40,000 for the payment
of Mr Pitt’s debts, no opposition was made.
The public attention was now fixed on the approaching
change of ministry. The king, in concurrence, it is said,
with the death-bed recommendation of Mr Pitt, sent for
Lord Grenville, desired him to form a ministry, and made
no opposition to the admission of Mr Fox into the cabinet;
but he is said to have expressed a desire that the Duke
of York should retain the office of commander-in-chief.
The new administration was formed on a broad basis,
comprising the friends of Lord Grenville, those of l->
Fox, and those of Lord Sidmouth. But hardly had they
entered upon office when circumstances occurred wlncli
placed in a striking light the different conduct of men
when in and out of power. Lord Grenville thought nt to
hold the incompatible offices of first lord and auditor ot
the treasury, and the chief justice was admitted to a seat
in the cabinet, whilst Mr Fox consented to come forvvaut
as the vindicator of both.
The defence of the country against the great military
power of France being still the most anxious considera¬
tion, the first measure of a comprehensive nature wa
brought forward by Mr Windham, whose station in ne
new ministry was the war department. It propose!
repeal of Mr Pitt’s additional force bill, and a for im¬
proving the regular army, by substituting a kmitedfora
unlimited term of service, and by granting a sma
of pay after the expiration of the prescribed term,
propositions, brought forward in the end o . P11 ,
ginning of May, were warmly opposed: they Passed’/ V.
ever, by a great majority in both houses, and won ,
less, have londueed materially to the improvement of our
army had they received a fair trial; but the succeetog
ministries sought, during the whole war, to pio
ments for life. In France, since 1817, the nde ^
scrupulous about the character of recruits, to g J se
no bounty, but to limit the period of service, and ^
the pay after the expiration of the speci e , • prussia
same principle, differently modified, prevai s
and in Austria.
BRITAIN.
eign of Of the budget, the most remarkable feature was an in-
,rge III-crease of the property-tax from six and a half to ten per
cent., the odium of which ministers sought to lessen by
the appointment of a board of auditors to examine the
long-standing arrears in public accounts. In regard to
trade, the principles of this ministry, though little under¬
stood, and even disliked by the great majority of merchants,
were entitled to much attention. They attempted to in¬
troduce into our practical policy some of the doctrines of
Dr Smith, doctrines which Mr Pitt had studied in his
early years, but to which circumstances had not allowed
him to give an extensive application. The letter of our
navigation laws forbade all intercourse between our colo¬
nies and other countries ; but our West India colonies were,
in time of war, so dependent on the United States for pro¬
visions, that it had been customary wdth the island gover¬
nors to take on themselves the responsibility of infringing
these acts, and to obtain regularly a bill of indemnity
from parliament. Mr Fox now brought in a bill termed
the American Intercourse Act, the purport of which was,
to authorize the governors of our colonies to do, during
the remainder of the war, that which they had hitherto
done from year to year, and to dispense with any applica¬
tion for indemnity. This bill, moderate and politic as it in
fact was, met with keen opposition in parliament, and with
still keener out of doors from the shipping and commer¬
cial interests. It passed into a law; but it was denounced
as a glaring infraction of our navigation code, and contri¬
buted, more than any other measure, to shake the popula¬
rity of ministers.
The trial of Lord Melville before the House of Peers be¬
gan on the 29th of April 1806. The charges against him,
little understood by the public at large, related to an in¬
fraction of his official duty, not as a member of the cabi¬
net, but in his early and inferior station of treasurer of the
navy. These charges may be comprised under the fol¬
lowing heads: That he had allowed Mr Trotter, his pay¬
master, to take the temporary use and profit of sums of
money lodged in the bank for the naval expenditure ; that
he had himself participated in such profits; and, finally,
I that he had applied certain sums of the public money to his
private use. All participation in the speculations or pro-
ht of his paymaster his lordship positively denied, but he
521
time earned his offers of concession considerably farther Reign of
than the public had supposed, there prevailed so general George IN.
a distrust towards him, that Mr Whitbread stood almost ^^
alone in the opinion that the negociation ought to have
been continued. After some renewed discussions on Mr
YYindhams military measures, Lord Henry Petty, then
chancellor of the exchequer, brought forward a plan of
finance, which, assuming the expense of the current year
as equal to that of subsequent years of war, professed to
provide, without new taxes, for a contest of fourteen years
or more. This plan contained an anticipated calculation
of the loans necessary for several years to come, and sup-
posed that a sum equal to ten per cent, on each loan
should be appropriated from the war taxes, of which five
per cent, should serve to pay the interest of the loan, and
the other five per cent, form a sinking fund, which, by the
operation of compound interest, would redeem the capital
in fourteen years ; leaving the whole ten per cent, again
applicable to the same purpose should the war continue.
Ihat this plan possessed, no more than those of Pitt or
Vansittart, the merit of increasing the productive power
of our revenue, has been already shown by Dr Hamilton
in his well-known Treatise on the National Debt. Its me¬
rit, had it been tried, would have been found to consist,
as that of such plans generally does, in a support, perhaps
a temporary increase, of public credit. It may even be
questioned whether the same ministry, had they continued
in office, would have restricted themselves to a limited
expenditure in 1808, when the Spanish struggle called
forth such a burst of national enthusiasm. There cannot,
however, be a doubt that they would have avoided the
orders in council, which, by depriving us of the unseen
but powerful aid of neutral traffic, gave the first great blow
to our bank paper, and consequently to our public funds.
llie bill for the abolition of the slave-trade was now
brought forward with all the weight of government sup¬
port, and carried by triumphant majorities; in the Lords
by a, hundred to thirty-six, in the Commons by two hun¬
dred and eighty-three to sixteen. This prompt termina¬
tion of a struggle of twenty years showed how easily the
measure might have been carried had not Mr Pitt declin¬
ed to give it ministerial support; a course suggested to
him probably by a dread of offending the West India
A 7   r ^ ne “nil piooaoiy oy a dread of offending the West India
L 10 nnn dged a T-T7 .aPPr°Priation of the sum of planters, but founded in a great measure on misapprehen
forbade lirntJ rLIV0' Th™** 10TUr PubllC duty S1°n’ sinCe the most resPectable part of that body, die pro-
torbade him to reveal. The trial closed on the 12th of prietors oflong-settled Estates, were far from being adverse
)eacnment had hepn pvtpndprl tr* tn the*  ^ .1
June. The articles of impeachment had been extended to
t e number of ten, and on all of them there was a majo¬
rity o peers for his acquittal; but whilst in regard to the
charge of conniving at stock speculations by Trotter, or
converting the public money to his private use, the ma¬
jorities vvere triumphant, the case was otherwise in regard
0 is lordships permitting an unauthorized appropriation
a e public money by I rotter, and receiving from him
deTtr^^ J°ans’ ^16 records of which were afterwards
Though the present parliament had completed only four
essions, ministers determined on a dissolution, doubtless
om a wish to have the benefit of the government influ-
Ce ln tbenew elections. They knew their weakness at
in F ’r™ aattered themselves that a decided ascendency
.,nrJ.a! iament would enable them to press, with greater
^nce> measures for which they could not boast the
ia concurrence of their royal master. For the time
exrif16 neW e^ect'on fhey chose the moment of national
tho T,fment caused by the recal of our ambassador from
p renc 1 capital. T he first debate in the new House of
ami Ini118 r<;to the abortive negociation for peace;
somp 10uSj1 fbe publication of the official papers excited
voi,SU^USe’ and showed that Bonaparte had at one
to the abolition, calculated as it was to prevent that super¬
abundance of produce which to them is the most serious
of evils. This proved the last important bill of the Gren¬
ville ministry, whose removal from office took place very
unexpectedly, in consequence of a difference with the so¬
vereign about the Irish Catholics.
I he bill which produced this sudden change was intro¬
duced by Lord Howick on the 5th of March, and entitled,
A bill to enable his majesty to avail himself of the services
of all his liege subjects in his naval and military forces in
the manner therein mentionedthat is, by their taking
an oath contained in the bill, after which they should be
left to the free exercise of their religion. Here, as in the
case of the American intercourse with the West Indies,
the intention was less to introduce a new practice, than to
permit by law what was already permitted by connivance.
The draught of the bill had been previously submitted to
the king, and returned by him without objection ; but the
royal attention was more closely drawn to it on its introduc¬
tion into parliament, and on a vehement opposition from
Mr Perceval, who described it as part of a system of dan¬
gerous innovation, and as a precursor of the abolition of
all religious tests. The king now intimated his disappro¬
bation of the bill to ministers, who endeavoured to modify
3 u
522
BRITAIN.
Reign of it, but still without succeeding in rendering it acceptable
George III. to their sovereign. They then felt the necessity of with-
'■'-'■'•Y''-' drawing the bill, but inserted in the cabinet minutes a
declaration, reserving to themselves two points : the liber¬
ty of delivering their opinion in parliament in favour of
the proposed measure, and of bringing it forward at a
future period. This minute was unfortunately couched
in terms too positive, if not disrespectful to the king, who,
always tenacious on the Catholic question, and never pei-
sonally cordial with Lords Grenville and Howick, insisted
that they should pledge themselves in writing never to
press him again on the subject. Ministers declining to
comply, the king consulted with Lord Eldon about foim-
ing a new ministry, and, receiving a ready assurance of
the practicability of such a measure, refused to listen to a
modified acquiescence with his late order, offered rather
tardily by Lord Grenville. Ministers gave up the seals of
office on 25th March; and next day the change and the
causes which led to it were fully discussed in parliament.
A short adjournment now took place, after which there
occurred some remarkable trials of strength between the
two parties. An independent member, Mr Brand, with
reference to the conditions on which the ministry had
come into office, made a motion, that it was contrary to
the duty of members of the cabinet to restrain themselves
by a pledge from advising the king on any subject. This
motion produced a very long debate, but was lost by two
hundred and fifty-eight against two hundred and twenty-
six ; while a corresponding motion in the Lords was lost
by a hundred and seventy-one to ninety. A subsequent
proposition, to express the regret of the house at the re¬
moval from office of so firm and stable an administration,
was lost by two hundred and forty-four against a hun¬
dred and ninety-eight; and it became apparent, that in
parliament, as at court, the fall of the Grenville ministry
was decided.
It remains to make a few observations on their conduct
when in office; and here an impartial inquirer will not be
long in discovering that both their merits and demerits
have been greatly exaggerated. Their war measures prov¬
ed unimportant, particularly in the point which, in the
then ardent state of the public mind, superseded all others
—the annoyance of France ; and the result was, an uncon¬
sciousness in the greater part of the people of what was
really valuable in their views and conduct. Yet Mr Fox
brought to the department of foreign affairs an intimate
knowledge of continental politics, and an exemption from
national prejudices, far, however, from being accompanied,
as the vulgar supposed, by an indifference to our national
interests. Lord Grenville, if naturally less conciliating,
and less fitted for grand views, possessed a practical know¬
ledge of business, and had become aware in retirement of
the various errors which had arisen from a too early intro¬
duction into office. They had a liberal feeling towards Ire¬
land and the United States ; and though by no means luke¬
warm in their resistance to Bonaparte, they all held the im¬
practicability of making any impression on his power by
force of arms, until the occurrence of some combination
of circumstances which should justify a grand and united
effort. In what manner they would have acted had they
been in power when the general insurrection in Spain burst
forth, the public have no means of judging ; so different is
the language, and even the feeling, of politicians when in and
out of office. Several of their measures, such as the intro¬
duction of the lord chief .justice to a seat in the cabinet,
and the assent to the appointment of such a commander
as Whitelocke, were singularly ill-judged. To place Lord
Grey, and after him Mr T. Grenville, at the head of the
admiralty, was to declare to the public that professional
knowledge was unnecessary in that high station, as if its
effects had not been most beneficially displayed in the ad- Ite of
ministration, short as it was, of Lord Barham. Finally, Geo? m
their intemperate declaration in the cabinet minute of the ^ 'w'
12th of March evinced a strange miscalculation of their
strength, when put in opposition to the personal will of the
sovereign and the existing prejudices of the public. The
result was, that their fall caused no regret to the majority
of the nation, and that the errors of their successors excit¬
ed no wish for their recal.
Of the new ministry, the efficient members were, Mr
Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer; Mr Canning, mini¬
ster for foreign affairs ; Lord Castlereagh for the war, and
Lord Liverpool for the home department. One of their
first measures was a prorogation of the parliament, follow¬
ed by a dissolution, which gave them, in the elections, the
advantage so lately enjoyed by their predecessors, with
the further advantage of an alarm, strangely excited in the
public mind, on the ground of popery. The new parlia¬
ment met on the 22d of June, and, after passing the bills
requisite for the army, navy, and other current business,
was prorogued on the 14th of August.
The alternation of fortune by sea and land was so great,
that 1806 had hardly commenced when fresh successes
were obtained over the French navy. A division of the
Brest squadron, after landing troops in the Spanish part
of St Domingo, was overtaken by a superior force, and
three sail of the line captured and two burned. Admiral
Linois, returning from India, was captured in the Maren¬
go of eighty guns; and, at a subsequent date, of a squa¬
dron of frigates detached from Rochefort for the West
Indies, four fell into our hands.
It was under these circumstances that a negociation for
peace was for some months carried on at Paris. It began
in consequence of an overture from Talleyrand, eagerly
embraced by Mr Fox ; and Lord Yarmouth, who happen¬
ed to be under detention in France, was made the first
medium of communication and conference. In its more
advanced stage, the negociation was intrusted to Lord
Lauderdale ; and at one period, namely, in September, the
conciliatory tone of the French inspired a hope of peace;
a hope soon disappointed, when it was found that the
offers of Bonaparte were followed by the demand of Sicily,
and that, whilst professing an ardent wish for peace, he
was extending his usurpations in Germany, and secretly
preparing to subvert the power of Prussia.
The humiliation of Austria left Bonaparte at liberty to
direct his manoeuvres, both diplomatic and military, against
her northern rival. Affecting great indignation at the
friendly disposition shown by Prussia, in the preceding
autumn, towards the coalition, he demanded the cession of
a portion of her territory in the south-west, and, in return,
transferred to her Hanover, in the hope of kindling the
flame of discord between her and England. The Prus¬
sians accordingly entered Hanover; the local government
making no resistance, and our cabinet taking no retaliatory
measure, except the detention of vessels bearing the Prus¬
sian flag; a measure adopted, not in the spirit of hostility, but
to satisfy popular clamour in England. The discussions e
tween Prance and Prussia continued during the summer o
1806, and, from the blind confidence of one party, e
artifice of the other, assumed at last a serious aspect,
was declared ; the battle of Jena deprived Prussia of he
army, her capital, and her fortresses; and her court was
gitive in the north of Poland, ere there had been time to
send, or even to concert the sending of succours rom »
land. The Grenville ministry, less eager than their pre '
cessors to embark in continental war, confinei e
to sending a general officer, Lord Hutchinson, to .,
sian head-quarters, and to the grant of a hmite
For some time the difficulties of the country, an
ignof resistance of the Russians, particularly at Eylau, encou-
l -geUI- raged the hope of arresting the progress of Bonaparte • but
W this hope was disappointed by the battle of Friedland’and
still more by the approximation of the court of Russia to
that of France.
BRITAIN.
523
reached England, the popular notion that Buenos Avrp<s p • «•
would prove a great market for our manufactures, indued GeorSm
government to take measures for completing theVCv con-
Lth Aod'hough the inhahitants soon fuse and drove
out the feeble detachment under Sir Home Ponham an
armament, which arrivpfl in iuni7 i c ’
The treaty of Tilsit excited alarm, less from its sneci- armament whi Tnder Slr Home PoPham, an
fic provisions, than from the probable consequences of the mand of sTr S m, JanuaiT 1807> under the com-
co-operation of the contracting powers. Among these forced town SiZe\A^mUty’ attacked the str<>ngly
some persons reckoned, or pretended to reckon the em,in’ i • i t0 °! Monte Video, and carried it by assault
ping against us of the Danfsh navy! atrce of ii^ S I vet Pat ski“ a"d galla/try BM
of the line, not manned or ready for sea, but canaWe nf fn i 7 d‘fferent [ate awaite(l «ur next enterprise,-an at-
being fitted out without a great sacrifice. The ministry officer'whnfi1108 P!a.nned General Whitelocke, an
„nen7 , Aue m‘uistry officer wholly unfit for this or any other kind of sendee
Uur troons. eio-fii : Ai  .
of 1807 founded their claim to public faviur on aTystem
of vigour,—on a course altogether opposite to the cautious
calculations of their predecessors. No sooner were they
apprized of the treaty of Tilsit, than, without waiting for
its effect on the Danish government, they determined on
the as yet unexampled measure of taking forcible posses¬
sion of a neutral fleet. A powerful armament of twenty
thousand troops and twenty-seven sail of the line, prepar¬
ed ostensibly against Flushing and Antwerp, was directed
to proceed to the Sound, there to await the result of a ne-
gociation opened at Copenhagen. This negociation was
intrusted to a special envoy, who represented the danger
to Denmark from France and Russia, and demanded The
delivery of the Danish fleet to England, under a solemn
stipulation of its being restored on the termination of our
war with France. The Danes, justly offended at this pro¬
posal, and aware that their agreeing to it would expose
them to the loss of the continental part of their territory,
refused: our envoy returned on board our fleet: our army
was landed, and Copenhagen invested by sea and land,
while a part of our fleet cut off all communication between
the continent and the island on which it stands. After a
fortnight passed in preparations, a heavy fire was opened
on the city, and continued during two days with very great
ettect. A capitulation now took place ; the citadel, dock¬
yards, and batteries were put into our hands, and no time
was lost m fitting out the Danish men of war for sea All
stores, timber, and other articles of naval equipment, be¬
longing to government, were taken out of the arsenals,
embarked, and conveyed to England.
Jhrw Xpedltl°i110. p0Pe.n,lagen excited much discussion
i erence of opinion in England, particularly when it
was avowed that ministers had no evidence of an intention
in Russia to coerce Denmark, and still less of a disposition in
enmark to give way to such coercion. The only tenable
ground was, to acknowledge at once that the Danes had
given no provocation whatever; that their conduct had
been strictly neutral; but that they would evidently have
een unable to defend themselves had Russia and France
WU against them. Still it was extremely questionable,
havp ^ We-’ 7 wai d a contingent annoyance, should
rmrm,tted a preSent aggression- The success of our
nodtmr/ <;0asiderJng ollr nav?! superiority, the insulated
ted nf i fn CoPenhagen> and its unprepared state, admit-
relict °[ no drbt- ?ut this was not “H- There
odium tii and more important considerations; the
natW hat,^uld ,be thus excited against us in the Danish
whirb ,f<an i ,tkat Gos^r. aPProximation of Russia to France,
nower 0Uf-d bard y Pad t0 follow so open an affront to a
ments KhTSic! ^ ** ^ ^ political arrange-
to^nf^6 ofGood HoPe surrendered in January 1806
PonLm "r111 S6nt frr EnSland- After this, Sir Home
ventured t 10 c1omma”deci the naval part of the expedition,
of trovernm ma^e’ Wlt l0ut tbe sanction or even knowledge
although nneint’ fn a“empt on. Buen°s Ayres. Our troops,
and occnni tbousand in number, effected a landing,
ccupied the town. Intelligence to this effect having
n ^ aiiy utnei Kina or service.
Our troops, eight thousand in number, were, under every
disadvantage, successful in some parts; but failing in
ei s, the result was a negociation, and a convention that
weshouU withdraw altogether from the country, on the
condition of our prisoners being restored
But in another part of the world, and against an ene¬
my in general far more formidable, our arms had been
attended with success. Naples had been engaged in the
coalition of 1805, with a view to assail the French on the
side of Lombardy ; but an Anglo-Russian army, landed for
that purpose, Imd been prevented from marching north¬
ward by the disastrous intelligence from Germany. They
were subsequently re-embarked, the British withdrawing
to bicily, and I alermo becoming once more the refuge of
t ie Neapolitan court. That court, eager to excite insur-
rection against the French in Calabria, prevailed on Ge-
eral Sir John Stuart, in the beginning of July 1806 to
lead thither a detachment of our troops. They landed
and soon after received intelligence, that at Maida, distant
only ten miles from our encampment, was a French corps,
a heady equal to our own, and hourly expecting consider¬
able reinforcements. Our troops marched to attack them
on he morning of 4th July, and at nine o’clock drew near
to then position, which had a river in front. But General
iiegmer, who commanded the French, having received his
leinforcements the preceding evening, and seeing that our
small army was unprovided with cavalry, caused his men
to march out of their camp, and advance to charge us on
the plain. Our force, including a regiment landed that
morning, was nearly six thousand; that of the enemy above
seven thousand. The French, who knew our troops only
by report, marched towards them with great confidence
not expecting them to stand the charge. Our line, how¬
ever formed, faced the enemy, and advanced; the forward
movement of the opposing lines lessening the intervening
distance in a double ratio. On a nearer approach the
enemy opened their field-pieces, but, contrary to the usual
practice of the French artillery, with little effect. Not so
the British ; for when our artillery opened, every shot
told, and carried off a file of the enemy’s line. The lines
were now fast closing, being within three hundred yards
distance, and a fire having commenced between the sharp¬
shooters on the right. At this moment the enemy seem¬
ed to hesitate, halted, and fired a volley. The British line
also halted, returned the salute, and having thrown in a
second volley, advanced at full charge. The enemy, ap-
parently resolved to stand the shock, kept perfectly steady,
till, intimidated by the advance, equally rapid and firm, of
an enemy whom they had been taught to despise, their
hearts failed, and they faced about and fled, but not in
confusion. When they approached within a short dis¬
tance of their second line, they halted, fronted, and open¬
ed a fire of musketry on our line, which did not follow up
the charge to any distance, but halted to allow the men to
draw breath, and to close up any breaks in their forma¬
tion. They were soon ready, however, to advance again ;
and the order to charge having once more been given, our
brave troops rushed forward to the onset, the enemy, as
t
524
BRITAIN.
Ueisn of before, making a show of determination to remain firm.
George III. But their courage again failed them ; they would not stand
the shock; and giving way in greater confusion than be¬
fore, their first line was thrown upon the second, and both
became intermingled in great disorder. Seeing himself
thus completely foiled in his attack on the front, ant
being driven back more than a mile, Regnier now made an
attempt to turn the left flank; but this was defeated by
the British second line, which, refusing its left, opened
an admirably directed and destructive fire, which qmc
ly drove back the enemy with great loss. Their ettorts
were equally unsuccessful against the right of our line,
which also charged in the most gallant and decisive man¬
ner, and the field of battle remained entirely in our pos¬
session.1 The French loss in killed and wounded was
upwards of two thousand; ours only between three hun¬
dred and four hundred. This brilliant exploit produced
the evacuation of part of Calabria by the French, but had
no other result; our small force returning soon afterwards
to Sicily.
Our next operation in the Mediterranean was an unsuc¬
cessful menace of the Turkish capital, i hat court refus¬
ing to enter into our plans of hostility to Trance, our am¬
bassador withdrew, and re-entered the Straits of the Dar¬
danelles with a squadron of seven sail of the line, exclu¬
sive of frigates and bombs. They suffered considerably m
passing the narrow part of the straits, between the ancient
Sestos and Abydos, now called the castles of Romania and
Natolia. Anchoring at a distance of eight miles from Con¬
stantinople, our admiral, Sir J. Duckworth, threatened to
burn the seraglio and the city, but in vain. The Tuiks
continued adverse to our demands, and employed the in¬
terval, wasted by the British commander in useless ne-
gociations, in strengthening the formidable batteries of
the Dardanelles. It soon became indispensable therefore
to withdraw, and to repass the straits ; but this was not
accomplished without a considerable loss in killed and
wounded, the cannon at the castles being of great size,
and discharging granite balls, one of which, weighing
eight hundred pounds, cut in two the mainmast of the
Windsor man of war. A descent made soon after in Egypt
was equally unfortunate. A detachment of troops landing
at Alexandria, occupied that town, but suffered a severe
loss at Rosetta, and eventually withdrew, on the Turks con¬
senting to give up the prisoners they had taken. Peace
was soon after concluded with the lurks, and our opera¬
tions in the Levant were confined to the capture of the
Ionian Islands from the French. Zante, Cephalonia, Ithaca,
and Cerigo, were taken by a small expedition in 1809, and
Santa Maura the succeeding year.
On the side of Sicily, our commanders, though pressed
by the court of Palermo, refused to make descents on Ca¬
labria, which could lead to nothing but partial insurrec¬
tions, followed, on the return of a superior force, by the
death of the most zealous of our partisans. We took, how¬
ever, in June 1809, the small islands of Ischia and Procida,
near the coast of Naples ; and, in the autumn of 1810, re¬
pelled an attempt of Murat to invade Sicily. A body of
nearly four thousand Italians, who had landed on this oc¬
casion, were driven back with loss ; a failure which, join¬
ed to our decided naval superiority, put an end to all at¬
tempts of the kind.
The hostility of Russia consequent on her connection
with France produced a menaced invasion of Sweden, now
our only ally in the north. To aid in repelling it, Sir John
Moore was sent to Gottenburg with a body of ten thou-
crest of the British position, with great fury and loud >
and, forcing in our skirmishers upon the line®’ artiiiery,
summit; but, shattered by a ternblefire of the ^
breathless from their exertions, and riddled 7
of musketry from the fifteenth regiment a ia P
distance, they were vigorously charged in froi < ^ in
and overthrown.2 Equal success attende
sand men. This force did not land; but the general, re- Ren 0f
pairing to Stockholm, entered into communications with Geor II
the king, and had the mortification of finding that prince w
wholly incapable of rational conduct, and bent on projects
which would necessarily involve the sacrifice of the British
troops. On this he lost no time in returning to Gotten¬
burg, and soon afterwards brought back the armament to
England, to be employed on a more promising service.
The influence possessed by Bonaparte over Spain had
long inspired him with the hope of overawing Portugal,
and of obliging that country to dissolve her alliance with
England. To this hope the humiliation of Germany, and
his new alliance with Russia, gave double strength ; and,
in the latter part of 1807, the most peremptory demands
were made on the court of Lisbon, lo part of these, im¬
plying the exclusion of British merchantmen from the har¬
bours of Portugal, compliance was promised ; but the de¬
mand of confiscating English property, and detaining the
English resident in Portugal, was met by a decided refu¬
sal. A French army now marched towards Lisbon, and
threatened openly to overthrow the house of Braganza;
but the latter, after some momentary indications of inde¬
cision, took the determination of abandoning their Euro¬
pean dominions, and proceeding to Brazil. This spirited,
and by many unexpected measure, was carried into elfect
in the end of November, and Lisbon was forthwith occu¬
pied by French troops. A few months afterwards occurred
the transactions at Bayonne, and the general declaration ot
hostility by the Spaniards to Bonaparte. Our cabinet now
determined to postpone all other projects to that of a vigo¬
rous effort in Spain and Portugal. With that view, an ar¬
mament of ten thousand men, collected at Cork, and said
to be intended for Spanish America, sailed in July for the
Peninsula, and offered its co-operation to the Spaniards in
Galicia. They, however, thought it best that we should
confine our aid to Spain to arms and money, directing our
military force against the French army in Portugal. Ac¬
cordingly, our troops, after passing an interval at Oporto,
were landed to the southward, in Mondego Bay, where,
after receiving the co-operation of another division ot
British, and of a few Portuguese, they proceeded on their
southward march towards Lisbon. The first actloiis .ta0
place with French detachments at the smalltown of Obidos,
and at Rorica. Neither was of much importance: the
French, inferior in number, retreated ; but their commanu-
er at Lisbon Avas Junot, an officer trained in the school ot
revolutionary enterprise, and disposed, like most ot ms
brethren at that time, to make light of British land force..
He determined forthwith on assuming offensive operation ,
advanced from Lisbon, and reaching the British army on
the 21st of August 1808, attacked it in its position at tne
small town of Vimiero. The force on either side u
about fourteen thousand men. The Trench marc
the onset in columns, with their wonted confidence,
they had to encounter an enemy equally firm with
mans or Russians, and far superior in discipline, eq p
ment, and activity. The principal column ofth® e“ £
headed by General Laborde, and preceded by a m
of light ttoops, mounted the ftce of the .. forming ^
1 Stewart’s Sketches and Military Service of the Highland Regiments, vol. ii. p. 265 et seqq- 2d edition.
* Napier’s History of the Peninsular War, vol. i. p. 213.
BRITAIN.
of
III
other parts of the line, and the loss of the enemy was three
thousand men and thirteen pieces of cannon. The object
now ought to have been to follow up our success, before the
French had time to recover themselves, and fortify the al¬
most impenetrable mountains on the road to Lisbon. In
vain did Sir Arthur Wellesley urge this, first on Sir Harry
Burrard, who had now taken the command, and next day
on Sir Hew Dalrymple, who arrived and replaced him. Re¬
inforcements were daily expected; and, till their arrival,
neither of these officers could be persuaded to incur ha¬
zards for the attainment of an advantage which, from their
unacquaintance with localities, they were not competent
to appreciate. A precious interval was thus lost. The
French occupied the passes, opened their negociation in a
tone of confidence, and obtained, by the treaty called the
Convention of Cintra, a free return to France on board of
British shipping. The ministry, though disappointed, de¬
termined to defend this convention ; judging it indispen¬
sable, partly from the communications of Sir Hew Dalrym¬
ple, more from its bearing the unqualified signature of Sir
Arthur Wellesley, who was, even then, their confidential
military adviser. The public, however, called for inquiry;
ministers felt the necessity of acceding; the three gene¬
rals were ordered home from Portugal; and, after a" lono-
investigation, and divided opinions, the chief error was
found to consist in stopping General Ferguson in the
career of victory, when about to cut off the enemy’s re¬
treat to Lisbon, and in the loss of the twenty-four hours
which followed the battle of Vimiero.
The public disappointment at the convention of Cintra
was soon counterbalanced by gratifying intelligence from
die Baltic. Bonaparte, whose plan was to subjugate all
hurope, by making one nation instrumental in overawing
another, had sent the Spanish regiments in his service
into Denmark; but he could not prevent their receiving
intelligence of the rising spirit of their countrymen, and
the vicinity of a British fleet happily facilitated their eva¬
sion, Ten thousand Spaniards were thus brought off, and
carried, with their arms, stores, and artillery, to ioin the
standard of their country.
Meantime the command of our troops in Portugal was
vested in Sir John Moore, and arrangements were made for
movmg them forward into Spain. But from the badness
o the roads, it was necessary to advance in tvvo divisions
one marching due east, and another north-east; while a
further force, which had arrived from England at Corun¬
na, was instructed to hold a south-east course. The lateral
msions received, in their progress, orders to adapt the
nection of their march to existing circumstances; but
ie result was, that both converged towards the central
division, conducted by Sir John Moore in person.
n their march our officers had an ample opportunity of
wi nessing the fallacious and exaggerated impressions en-
tertamed in England with regard to the supposed enthusi-
.• 11 0 1t le Spaniards. They saw a country wretchedly cul-
ivated and thinly peopled ; a nation hostilely disposed, in-
pfl^ki ° r ^re.nc^’ but unaccustomed to exertion, and in-
• ; e combination. Instead of recruits, supplies of pro-
sf °°S’.or °®er® of vpluntary service, all was inactivity and
sirilf 110in ’ and’ the general poverty, our commis-
la^ ^reat difficulty in obtaining provisions. Another
TU l°.Urce of Perplexity was the want of information,
fnn J113 1VeS’ Aether in the civil or military service, were
STrant aiKJ. credulous to be capable of detecting ex-
l atlon’ or of distinguishing truth from falsehood ; and
most °bbged to judge for themselves under the
most contradictory rumours.
berau ^00r? reached Salamanca on the 13 th of Novem-
and s™tretv1't le Spaniards had been defeated at Burgos,
after apprised that a French corps was advancing
to Valladolid, within sixty miles of his front. In this situ-
ation he received from Madrid the most urgent solicitations
to advance thither with his army, either in whole or in part.
Fie knew the ardour of his country for the cause of Spain
and directed his movements in the view of complyino- as
ar as should be at all advisable, with the representations
pressed on him; but day after day the intelligence be¬
came more discouraging. At last, the fall of Madrid, as¬
certained by an intercepted letter of General Berthier re¬
moved every doubt, and left him no other plan but that of
uniting his three divisions, and determining on a retreat;
but, as his army was now augmented to twenty-five thou¬
sand men, he determined, if possible, to strike a blow
against the detached French army under Soult, stationed
at some distance to the north-east. With this view, our
troops advanced on the 11th of December towards the
small town of Sahagun, and a partial action, which took
place between the opposite vanguards, was to our advan¬
tage; but intelligence arriving that Bonaparte was direct-
ing, by the passes of the Guadarama, a superior force on
a point in rear of the British, it became indispensable to
make a prompt and uninterrupted retreat. Bonaparte
pressing forward with his vanguard, reached our rear at
Benavente, saw, for the first time, British soldiers, and wit¬
nessed a cavalry action, in which several squadrons of his
guard were very roughly handled, and their commanding
othcer, Lefebre Desnouettes, made prisoner. Meanwhile
boult, marching by a different road, hoped to cross our line
of retreat at Astorga ; and the Spaniards having abandoned
the position which covered the access to that town, it re¬
quired both prompt and skilful exertion to enable our army
to occupy it before the enemy. Here, pressed as we were,
it became necessary to destroy a great part of our camp
equipage. Our army was ahead of the enemy, but had be-
jore it a long and difficult march over the mountains of Ga¬
licia. I he weather was severe, provisions scanty, the inha¬
bitants cold and unfriendly; while privations and disap¬
pointment .relaxed the discipline of our soldiers, who call¬
ed loudly to be led to action, as the close of their distress.
Retreat, however, was unavoidable; and, in this state of
suffering and insubordination, the army performed a march
of moie than two hundred miles; the general keeping in
the rear to check the French, who followed with their
usual audacity. At Lugo, about sixty miles from Corunna,
ciicumstances seemed to justify our awaiting the enemy,
and fighting a general battle. Our soldiers repaired with
alaciity to their ranks, but Soult did not accept the chal¬
lenge, and the retreat was continued. It closed on the
12th January 1809, having been attended with the loss of
many men, from disorder, and the sacrifice of many horses,
from want of forage, but without losing a standard, or sus¬
taining a single check in action. On the 13th, 14th, and
15th, the sick and artillery were embarked on board our men
of war; while the troops remained on shore, to await the
enemy, and to cover the reproach of retreat by some shin¬
ing exploit. Ihis led to the battle of Corunna. On that
day our position was good on the left,-but very much other¬
wise on the right; thither, accordingly, 4the French pointed
theii strongest column, and thither also Sir John Moore
repaired in person. He directed the necessary movements,
first to obstruct, and afterwards to charge, the advancing
enemy. These orders were gallantly executed, and the
attack of the French repelled ; but our lamented general
received a wound, which soon after proved mortal, from a
cannon ball, that struck him on the shoulder, and knocked
him off his horse. Subsequent attacks, first on our centre,
and next on our left, were equally foiled; and, in the
evening, we occupied an advanced position along our whole
line. Enough having now been done for the honour of
our arms, the embarkation was continued on the 17th, and
525
Reign of
George III.
520
BRITAIN.
Reign of completed on the 18th, after which the whole set sail for
George III. England.1
 ' The session of 1808 was opened on 31st January by a
speech of uncommon length, which enlarged on the Copen¬
hagen expedition ; our relations with Russia, Austria, and
Sweden ; the departure of the royal family of Portugal to
Brazil; and our orders in council respecting neutrals.
The chief debates of the session related to these subjects.
The Copenhagen expedition was much canvassed, as un¬
provoked by Denmark, and incompatible with the honoui
of England. Still that measure received the support of a
great majority, Mr Ponsonby s motion for the production
of papers relating to it being negatived by two hundred
and fifty to a hundred and eight, and a similar motion
in the House of Lords by a hundred and five to forty-
eight. Even a motion for preserving the Danish fleet, to
be restored, after the war, to Denmark, was negatived in
both houses.
The volunteer system had, since 1804, been greatly re¬
laxed, and the country evidently stood in need of a more
constant and efficient force. The Grenville ministry, ad¬
verse to the volunteer system, had determined to let it
fall into disuse, and to replace it by a levy of two hundred
thousand men, to be trained to act, not in battalions, but
separately, and as irregulars, on the principle that local
knowledge was the chief recommendation, and a continu¬
ance of previous habits the proper exercise, of such a force.
The new ministry, however, pursued a different course,
and passed an act for a local militia; a body which, with the
exception of the officers, was composed of the lower orders,
pledged to regular training during one month in the year,
and subjected to ail the strictness of military discipline.
Such of the volunteers as chose were to remain embodied;
the total of the local militia was about two hundred thou¬
sand, and the mode of levy was by a ballot of all persons,
not specially exempted, between the age of eighteen and
thirty-one.
The orders in council were frequently discussed dur¬
ing this session, but they were as yet imperfectly under¬
stood either in their immediate operation or in their con¬
sequences. Unfortunately for the advocates of modera¬
tion, Bonaparte now lost all regard to justice, and com¬
mitted the most lawless of all his acts, the seizure of the
Spanish crown. Indignation at this atrocity, and a firm
determination to support the Spanish cause, were mani¬
fested by men of all parties, among whom were remark¬
able, as habitual members of opposition, the Duke of Nor¬
folk and Mr Sheridan ; the latter making, on this occasion,
one of the most brilliant speeches of his latter years.
The session of 1809 was opened on 13th January by a
speech declaring a decided determination to adhere to the
cause of the Spaniards, notwithstanding the failure of the
1 The following masterly defence of the necessity as well as the conduct of this celebrated retreat, is extracted from Napiers
tonj of the Peninsular Tf^ar, vol. i. p. 525. . . , move of discip-
“ Lord Bacon observes, that ‘ honourable retreats are no ways inferior to brave charges, as having less of lonun , g
line, and as much of valour.’ That is an honourable retreat in which the retiring general loses no trophies in ng ’ being se-
charge without being broken, and finally, after a severe action, re-embarks his army in the face of a superior ene y creditable,
riously molested. It would be honourable to effect .his before a foe only formidable from numbers, but it is mtimte y an(i
when the commander, while struggling with bad weather and worse fortune, has to oppose veterans with inexpt i r.
to contend against an antagonist of eminent ability, who scarcely suffers a single advantage to escape him during 8 boast 0£
ous pursuit. All this Sir John Moore did, and finished his work by a death as firm and glorious as any that ant q y ^ fault
“ Put to Lord Bacon’s test, in what shall the retreat to Corunna be found deficient ? something in discipline, pei P ’ ^ wen
does not attach to the general. Those commanders who have been celebrated for making fine retreats were in ni, forthat,
acquainted with their armies ; and Hannibal, speaking of the elder Scipio, derided him, although a brave and s , his’command
being unknown to his own soldiers, he should presume to oppose himself to a general who could call to each i achieveany
bv name ; thus inculcating, that unless troops be trained in the peculiar method of a commander, the latter can ^hen tbe su-
thing great. Now Sir John Moore had a young army suddenly placed under his guidance, and it was scarcely u , ^ theref0re,
perior numbers of the enemy forced it to a retrograde movement under very harassing circumstances ; lie na mer’its is to be
to establish a system of discipline; and it is in the leading events, not the minor details, that the just criterion
sought for.”
campaign, and the retreat of our army under Sir John h n()t
Moore. The intelligence that arrived soon after the death Get ?ni,
of that commander drew from the house a unanimous ''•-v/
eulogy of his character, and regret for his fall. There
still prevailed, both in parliament and the public, a strong
attachment to the Spanish cause ; and, in the various mo¬
tions made by the opposition to censure ministers for mis¬
managing our armaments, or ill planning our operations,
the minority seldom exceeded a third of the members
present.
But the attention of parliament and the public was
withdrawn even from this interesting question, and ab¬
sorbed by the charges against the Duke of York, brought
forward by Colonel Wardle, on evidence given or procur¬
ed by Mrs Mary Anne Clarke, a forsaken mistress of the
duke. Ministers, unaware of the extent of the proofs,
brought the inqyiry before the house instead of referring
it to a committee, and a succession of singular disclosures
were thus made to parliament and the public. Of these
the most remarkable were produced by the friends of the
duke persisting in examinations begun under an impres¬
sion of his entire innocence. It is hardly possible to de¬
scribe how much this subject engaged the public attention
during the months of February and March. Of the influ¬
ence of Mrs Clarke in obtaining military commissions from
the duke, and of her disposing of them for money, there
could be no doubt. The question was, whether the duke
was apprised of this traffic ; and though he might not be
aware of its extent, there seems hardly room to doubt that,
in certain cases, he suspected its existence. The debate
on the collective evidence was uncommonly long, being
adjourned from night to night, and exhibited a great differ¬
ence of opinion on the part of the speakers. Several re¬
solutions, varying in their degree of reprehension, were
proposed; and though those finally adopted condemned
only the immorality of the connection formed by the duke,
without asserting his knowledge of the pecuniary abuses,
the result was his resignation of the office ot commander-
in-chief.
The success of this investigation prompted an inquiry
into other abuses, particularly the sale of East India ap¬
pointments, and disclosed a negociation of Lord Castle-
reagh to barter a nomination to a Bengal writership, for
the return of a member to parliament. The house de¬
clined to proceed to any resolution against his lordship,
or to entertain a motion relative to the interference of the
executive government in elections. A bill for parliamen¬
tary reform, brought in by Mr Curwen, was not directly
opposed, but so materially altered in its progress as to be
nugatory when it passed into a law. The further business
of the session consisted in the annual votes for the public
service, and in motions by Sir Samuel Romilly, on a sub-
BRITAIN.
of iect which has been but lately followed up with efFect thp
HI-amendment of our criminal law, by lessening the severity, evening bv three^emWnt f • S®cond attack, made in the Iteign of
but insuring the application, of punishments. fu] u.,? b s o^1^antry> was at first success-George III.
The failure, in autumn, of the expedition to the Scheldt tish troons Th^°n ^ b/ .a division of Bri-
and the resignation of the Duke of Portland when on the this fiilnre 't V1?3111 b.ody of the French, surprised at
verge of the grave, led to the disclosure of a remarkable M Lk tlmv adevl‘cTt,en“{ ^ ?ornin8 '» the
secret ia cabinet history-the attempts made, during fire to’the ti of ?be Cl,ed.,thr0l,!;h a dettructive
several months, by Mr Canning, to obtain from the Dukf non and worS f tl -ng |rou.nd’ aPProached our can-
„f Portland the removal of Lord Castlereagh from the™ Pushed 1™™! -'Sf £Tn °f Selz,n« tllem' wl‘™ »ur line
department, on the ground of incompetency to the station with o-rpnh i ^ ^ ba^oneh and drove them back
On making this mortifying discovery, the comnW of Tl STl°T: ^ now determined to
Lord Castlereagh was, not that his brother rninist," should bring a' musaof^lrT ' “r the Position> and t0
think with slight of his abilities, but that, during all the Britfsh left A tn TT, 'he f™1,1 and flank of the
time that he laboured against him, he should hav^e main- aftprnnnn n ri ^eneral at.tack took place at four in the
tained towards him the outward manner of a friend. This consisted Vfthr p ?°^S 1 against the height now
led to a duel, followed, not by serious personal injury, but thousand men C^Zr^f °r fb°Ut eiShteea
by the resignation of both ; causing, in the ministrv a firch ,r • • ’ ^10ssing the ravine in their front, the
blank which, to all appearance, could be filled only bybnng- shot- buTits Z ^Yf nheight .amidst vol]eys of grape-
ing in the leaders of opposition. An overture to this ef fatP ’nn^ ? ^ T feU’ a nUmber of' officers shared his
feet, whether siucere or ostensible, was made by Mr Per now made 1 ft™6 una™idabIa- N» attempt was
eeval. Lord Grenville, ou receiving it, came to LoSdou made „u ftstft -‘'t tT6”0,? ” fro.nt: a^cks were
Lord Grey, more indilferent about office, answered it from left indee 1 )*’ Jut a11 were ineffectual. The
Ids seat iZ Northumberland ; but both declared a dete^ IflZt ’ T! ‘he British position; but
mination to decline taking part in the administration so check tLrVudadtvinthis'IZf'3'6 T"1"’ Served t0
long as the existing system should be persisted in Mar rpnpwnl nf d ln tlns quarter, and to prevent the
quis Wellesley, who Ll gone as ambLador to the Spa" ffne Sir AnhurTXslfh Pt th? Part of our
msh junta, now returned, and was invested with the secre- vision fVillattp’A Yrp!!!i J uaVlng ob1s.erved a Freneh di-
taryship for foreign affairs. Mr Perceval was annoinfpr! hv t atte »), preceded by grenadiers, and supported
premier; and the new ministry, feeble as they^e e In aea Zt ST ft °b , g ‘ c,aVa'%’advandng “P th"''allay
conriction that our safety lay in a vigorous prosecution of cava,* conristl^fr t^en^d ^ Saglt^
Our failure in the campaign of 1808-9 was far from di<j- InmnZ T?rman bussars’ I"0 charge the head of these co-
couraging our government from new efforts. Austria was’ moved off aTa^ZZ ob®yed; the brigade
preparing to attack the allies of Bonaparte in Germanv • v T i jf ’ d !ncreasing lts speed as it ad-
and the Spaniards, though repeatedly beaten in closp np’ m ’ G beadJong against the enemy; but in a few
tion, continued a destructivewarfare in “he shaneTf in-' ™ rTe„, hi'. ““aT" t,le “nk af a clef' ”hid' not
sulated insurrections. Sir Arthur Wellesley was accord fnin «n C * a d,stance- The French threw themselves
ingly sent with a fresh army to Lisbon, and General Beret commanding thp ^ C°l0nel Arentschild5
ford with a commission to discipline the Portuguese forces exclaiming 8“ I wthToT PromPtly reigned up,
They found the French threatening Lisbon in two direr- InnST?! k Wlll„n°i T young ™cnsand it
tions; from the east, with a powerful force under Virtor- the ? been well if the twenty-third had followed
from the north, with a less n^mr/ous body undL S "7 ' ' exPenenced veteran- But English
Sir Arthur Wellesley advanced Zinst the lattm- ^ Jas to be restrained. The twenty-third
near his rear guard on the hankZf iLn 4t i’ d ^ de W1 ,d y d°Wn lnto the hollow; men and horses fell
sisiiii
ed a junction with a S^h a^vTookX hSh ff fr0ni each side’ and with inex-
mination of moving for ZZin thZ’irec tion Zm^ Ff88 V^6nCe UP°n a briSade of French chasseurs in
the valley of the Tarns T1,p vJr d ectl0n of IVIadrid by the rear. The combat was fierce but short. Attacked by
ments Jthe army c?f Victoj and H?p Sent/emforce- Vlctor « Poli8b Oncers and the Westphalian light horse,
at Talavera de la Rpvn* Z’ ? the opposing forces met exposed on both sides to the fire of the squares of in-
near the small river Alberche^The1 British1 fn° 1 & Ia?US’ fantrT’ and engaged with the chasseurs in front, they
teen thousand md c 1 B jltls,h forcf was nine- were at length broken ; and those who were not killed or
sand; the French army amountpdZ^ 8 above dlirty thou- taken escaped behind a Spanish division, leaving behind
thousand men Lord wShngtonwasCdistlsS’flf" ab°Ut Y the nUmber which went into a^ion. But, how-
discipline of his idlmc f gton was too distrustful of the ever unfortunate in its circumstances, the desperate furv
but he saw no imprudencrin Trvbi^afatV-16- °! ^ t™8* aPPalled the Frencb> and effectually checked
chance of a defensive action SfaBnSnt ^imi?ro’ the their advance on a point where the chances of success
strong ground on the nVhr hpZ T £ 7 f Pan'ards on were otherwise much in their favour. This battle, which
less strong but vet favoZhlp nn .Upied ^ltb tbe British a was one of hard, honest fighting, reflected little credit on
the army thus posted the French^ T °n i ^ fi t’ A^ainst tbe generalship of either party. The loss on both sides was
of 27th July, drivimr in n^r Fdvo dV£!tnCed/n afte™aon cinusually severe ; that sustained by the British, in the
an eminence on ouiAeft This em^nPnZV"!344^^ tw<? .d1a>.s’ %hting> amounting to upwards of six thousand
Position, would hive Wn uZc i t ,e k.ey .of the in killed and wounded, and that of the French to about
Bonaparte wlili , f- ^assailed from the beginning by seven thousand four hundred.
a single battalion sent against ilTJ riflecorps ar]d Notwithstanding this dear-bought success, it became
against it by Victor were speedily necessary for the allied army to retire; the French divi-
523
BRITAIN.
Reign of sions in the north-west of Spain having united and begun
George III. to march in a direction which would soon have hi ought
w-s.-w' tiiem on our rear. Our army crossed the Magus at Arzo-
bispo, and held a south-west course till it reached Bada-
ios, where it remained during the rest of the year, in a po¬
sition which covered that fortress, and showed the Spa¬
niards that we had not abandoned their cause, however
dissatisfied with their co-operation, and convinced ot the
impracticability of combining offensive operations with such
allies. . ,
While by land the fortune of war was thus chequer¬
ed, at sea the French experienced nothing but disasters.
Eight ships of the line in Brest, eluding our blockade,
sailed southward to Basque Roads, near Rochefort, where
they were joined by four sail of the line from that port.
Our fleet blockaded them in their new stations; and pre¬
paration having been made to attempt their destruction
bv fire-ships, Lord Cochrane sailed in with these dreadful
engines on the evening of the 11th of April 1809. Our
seamen broke the boom in front of the French line, dis¬
regarded the fire from the forts, and, after bringing the
fire-ships as near to the enemy as possible, set fire to the
fusees and withdrew in their boats. The French, sur¬
prised and alarmed, cut their cables and run on shore.
Four sail of the line that had accompanied Lord Cochrane
attacked them, and though the main body of our fleet was
prevented by the wind and tide from coming up, the re¬
sult of our attack, and of the effect of the fire-ships, was
the loss of four sail of the line, and one frigate burned or
destroyed. At a later period of the year a French con¬
voy of three sail of the line and eleven transports, proceed¬
ing from Toulon to Barcelona, was attacked and destroy-
ed by a division from Lord Collingwood’s fleet.
Doubtful as was the aspect of the great contest in Spain,
it employed a large portion of Bonaparte’s military esta¬
blishment, and revived the hope of independence in Ger¬
many. Prussia was too recently humbled, and too closely
connected with Russia, at that time the ally of France, to
take up arms ; but Austria was unrestrained, and thought
the season favourable for a renewal of the contest. Her
troops took the field in April, and invaded Bavaria under
the Archduke Charles, but were worsted at Eckmuhl, aftei
a series of the most splendid military combinations, and
Vienna was a second time entered by Bonaparte. His
impatience to attack the Austrian army on the north side
of the Danube led to his failure in the sanguinary battle
of Aspern, and necessitated the advance of almost all his
regular troops into the heart of Germany, at a distance of
several hundred miles from the coast. But the battle of
Wagram at length decided the fate of the campaign, and
placed Austria again at the feet of France.
Of the naval stations exposed in consequence of the
withdrawal of the troops, by far the most important was
Antwerp, situated on a part of the Scheldt of as great
depth and as accessible to ships of the line as the Thames
at Woolwich. From Antwerp to the mouth of the Scheldt
is a distance of about fifty miles. The first fortified towiR
on coming in from the sea, is Hushing, the batteries of
which, though formidable, are not capable of preventing
the passage of ships of war through a strait ot tlnee miles
in width. Our armament, consisting of nearly forty sail
of the line and thirty-eight thousand military, was the
most powerful that had ever left our shores. It crossed
the narrow sea with a fair wind; and, in the morning of
the 30th of July, the inhabitants of the tranquil coast of
Zealand were astonished by an unparalleled display of men
of war and transports. Our troops landed and forthwith
occupied Walcheren and the islands to the north. No
resistance was offered except at Flushing; but our com¬
mander, the Earl of Chatham, showed himself wholly in¬
capable of discriminating the causes of success or failure B,
when he stopped to besiege that place. It ought only to Ge
have been watched, whilst the main body of the troops ^
should have landed in Dutch Flanders, on the south of
the Scheldt, and marched straight to Antwerp, which,
even with artillery, might have been reached in a few
days. The French, never doubting the adoption of this
plan, and conscious of their weakness, had moved their
men of war up the river, beyond the town, previous to set¬
ting them on fire. But a delay of a fortnight took place
before Flushing, and time was thus given to the enemy to
strengthen the forts on the river, and to collect whatever
force the country afforded. Still, as an attack by water
was not indispensable to success, there yet remained a
chance ; ten days more, however, were lost; the relinquish¬
ment of the main object of the expedition became thus un¬
avoidable ; a»d the only further measure was to leave a
body of fifteen thousand men in the island of Walcheren.
There, accordingly, they remained during several months,
suffering greatly from an unhealthy atmosphere, and doing
nothing except destroying, on their departure, the dock¬
yards of Flushing. Never was a gallant force more grossly
misdirected ; the choice of our general was as unaccount¬
able as the choice of Mack in 1805 ; and the historian, were
he to reason from the inferior numbers of the enemy, might
pronounce this expedition as inglorious to our arms as the
battles of Poitiers and Agincourt were to our enemies of a
former age.
The session of 1810 opened on the 28th of January, and
the leading subject of debate was our unfortunate expedi¬
tion to Walcheren and the Scheldt. A motion leading to
inquiry was carried after a close division, namely, a hundred
and ninety-five to a hundred and eighty-six; and the in¬
vestigation was conducted chiefly at the bar of the House
of Commons, a secret committee being appointed for the
inspection of confidential papers. The Earl ol Chatham,
and other officers concerned in planning or conducting the
expedition, were examined. The inquiry lasted several
weeks, and disclosed, clearly enough, the imbecility ot
our commander; but the speeches of the opposition were
pointed, not against the management of the expedition,
but against its expediency as an enterprise; not against
the general, but the cabinet. In this they were not second¬
ed by the majority of the house. On the policy or im¬
policy of the expedition being put to the vote, the former
was supported by two hundred and seventy-two in oppo¬
sition to two hundred and thirty-two ; and even the less
tenable ground of keeping our soldiers in an unhealtiy
island for three months after relinquishing all idea ot an
attempt on Antwerp, was vindicated by two hundred an
fifty-three votes against two hundred and thirty-two, a
decision too remarkable to be forgotten, and w llcl J‘a_s
since stamped this with the name of the Walcheren Fa-
liament. The only ministerial change consequent on tne
inquiry wras the removal of Lord Chatham from his s
in the cabinet, and from the master-generalship of ne
ordnance ; but this was in consequence of pnvate y ^
livering a statement to the king, professing to vin
himself at the expense of Sir Richard Strachan an^
navy. The resolution adopted on this occasion was,
the house saw with regret that any such corn|nul^lc ,
as the narrative of Lord Chatham should have been m
to his majesty, without any knowledge of tie o
sters ; that such conduct is highly reprehensible, an
serves the censure of the house. «
The exclusion of strangers from the gaffe y ,g_
house during the Walcheren inquiry gave use
cussion which, though at first ummportan , s » °
much of the public attention. A Mr John Gab Jo^
well know n among the demagogues of the age,
BRITAIN.
:;n of
0 ell]
time president of a debating club, animadverted on th* ^ i m . . 529
House of Commons in a handbill, in a style which induced west and th'eTaius rT fHreadth’ 1fving the sea on the Reign of
the house to order his commitment to Newgate. A few mountainn * th® east’ the ground is extremely George I IK
weeks after, Sir Francis Burdett brought in a motion for ocennie,] ? ’ f accessi^e onIy hy passes, which were
his liberation, on the broad ground that the house had no the strengthhi°PS &v by bat]tei;ies- Massenafelt all
right to inflict the punishment of imprisonment in such a made lumt f Uus position, and the repulse at Busaco
case. Baffled in this way by a great maloH^lirTaneis geous iimund^'iT °f " SeTd fnC0Unte? on disadvanta-
wrote and printed a letter to his constituents, denying this petuoJs band« n0W f°r the fil'St tirae that the im-
power, and applying contemptuous epithets to the houses the armies rem f- B°1naparte. stoPPod short in their career;
This imprudent step provoked a debate, which ended in a months dm-.nTwl f, °.Ppos!te Tto each other above four
resolution by the House of Commons to commit Sir Fran- ^ned f^ In ^ whlch'\me the Pencil were greatly strait-
cisto the Tower. The speaker issued his warrant; mad of blcuTunde^
the serjeant at arms carried it to the house of Sir Francis of the sea spd TT ^ France» whilst the command
but withdrew on a refusal of Sir Francis to obey. S sena ner fstld f abundance the British. Still Mas-
day the serjeant repeated his demand, accompanied by his operadons wkh the a? h,s hoping to combine
messengers; but the populace had by this time assembled the south eisV nf V ^ J °f fe°ult’ then advancing from
m crowds near the baronet’s house, and prevented his re- tunate hav^l f,,Spfln,; an. arrfy which was but too for-
moval until an early hour on the 9th, when the civil officers camn on rhe h , cbt;f aad taken by surprise a Spanish
burst into his house, put Sir Francis into a carriage and had beenInt i °f ^^uaduma. A number of boats
conveyed him to the Tower in the midst of several regi- co-onerate uMh ^ R T M?sse,na to cross the Tagus and
ments of horse. Sir Francis brought actions against the tellmenre n bUt m t le beginni«g of March in -
speaker and other officers; but they fell to the ground by ed ffom Frmi t h & C°nVOy of biscuit ]ong expect-
non-suits, and he continued in Confinement during the re^ There wal not an end b>- tbe Gueri]las-
mainder of the session. & . at> now an encl to all offensive projects, and there
Among the further acts of this session were two which of retreat. It began on the
regarded Scotland; one for the increase of the smaller of either m-m ’ ,le.Britlsb Showed; and the movements
church livings, of which none in this part of the kin«-dom mirahl ^ army, during a very long march, afforded an ad-
are now under L.150; the other relative to udickTpro” ^ rul“ ®f»w- Our advance
ceedmgs, and reducing the heavy expenses caused b/the mnte l,!!!;^ , “ Fre"<:h were frequently obliged to
compulsory extract of office papers.P The court o/ses- their best ^ P°Sltl0n ,to anot^er; but they kept
sion had been previously divided into chambers by an act affordim? no nnPS ^ ^ rear’ collected ln solid bodies, and
passed in 1808; and the trial by jury in dv.1 causes was a n,on,if f 1 Pf f t0 °Ur, The retreat lasted
introduced into Scotland by an aVtffi- ISir CaUSGS WaS LTer^fSnffin08 T,neK thenf°rreSS’ °f Almeida’ tbe
W e turn with impatience from the banks of the Spfiplrlt tn ,'n r*- " le F lencb, however, were soon again
a scene more honorable to our arms On-toops “d f Cd‘n" “'b ““ fld,V!,nCCd l° reIieVe A1"’ei‘ta »f
hir Arthur Wellesley, now Lord Wellington had passed tool Vdl ha(i>f0'; begun the srege. The chief fighting
the winter in the interior of Portugal, moving northward ed F.f.ff f h® d an,d. f"' °f Ma>’> "ear a calif
as spring advanced, but delaying active operations Of taken h„S If PIo.nor-w "ch was reP«>frdly taken and re-
fensive war was unsuited to our situation and the French Aim' i’d 1 a Vf611" e.fforts were ultimately ineffectual, and
awaited reinforcements from the north . f “ WaS f'1 lts fate' Tlla chief part of the garri-
termination now was to make Massena penetrate h,to Pm' flTTf’ l0.Und means '0 escaPe R a nocturnal march,
tugal, and to expel those auxiliarLs wr„ were tl e mafn' wafthe feet f S°Uth ” rather tke of Spain
spring of the obstinate resistance experienced i n c • ° Very aC.tlve °Peratl0ns. A body of Spa-
Spain. The first enterprise of the French armv^was the nmo 1 an.t FntIsb’ marchmg northward from Gibraltar, ap-
siege of the frontier fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo which bv th^F1SOath‘western ^tremity of the hne occupied
surrendered on the 10th of July. The next obfeer nf p (^ encb troops engaged m tbe blockade of Cadiz,
tack was the Portuguese fortress of Almeida General Graham commanded the British, and on 5th March,
invested in the end°of July, aTd t^en unffirtu^ ^ near t0 tbe close of a loaS ™rch
soon, in consequence of the explosion of Hip J ° 7 ^ h^received intelligence of the advance of a French
Soon after, the French army, nofa fbrmtlible boT ml * h TT °f Ba-’-ay-hich he had just
vanced into Portugal, Lord Wellino-tnn rptRIr, u’r . t ’ l)e Jb,e. tbe P0Slti°n> be immediately coun-
them, but determined to embrace the first onnnrfimR °r f e,rmaijcb^d bis corps, and had proceeded but a short way
Siting on favourable ground. This occurred when^np whp11 !e.oand himself unexpectedly near to the enemy,
spying the highest ridge of the moumain of B.T^p T whof,leZh(hvis!0^ was seen ascending the hill of Ban£
rectly in face of the enemy. The Frenda alwnv, T l " ^ °od 011 the plain within cannon-shot.
Gous, and not yet aware of the firmness 0^/!^' ° was wholly unadvisable; an immediate attack
niarched up the mountain; one divisibn reLhp^ tL f"’ therefore determined on by General Graham, though
0 tlle ridge, where they were immediately attacked hv°^ Tbrnf01 C< )y S’Paniai'ds, and inferior to the enemy,
corps of British and Portuguese and driven A bat ey opened agmnst the right division of the French
^und. In other parts the fame resdt foTLeeT f tbT "onsiderable loss, but they continued to ad-
Je French reached the top The Toss on m,? S T'1! Charge with fche ba^onefc drave them back with
thousand men, that of the enemy between two nml & great.1faa§hter- With the other division on the ascent of
thousand. Massena desisted from further otmdl 16 T t0? place a Slmdar conflict with a similar is-
turning the flank of our posSon by” mountain S W T ' b?th SK 68 f°Ugbt with courage> and both sustained a
Jogton, instead of heading the efemT^ folumm ^ TTf SS; ^ °f the British Was above twelve hundred,
Jebouched from the defile retreated^in thpTlfrp f 1 % fnd that 0l the enemy nearly double. The action lasted an
Llsbon, till he reached the ground whirl, bp 1 T10” ^ h?Ur and 3 ha f; our success was owing partly to the effect
determined to occupy aTZrel Ve raf t FZ" “"/fS> b“,t more t0 lhe fi™ness of the troops, who
cover that capital. ^ edras, in order to showed themselves determined rather to fall than yield.
I L « J « ^ A IA /A 1 1 4> 4-1-* .    A * 1 A • ~
m^^roccm
vor. y“ck of c°™try to the north of Lisbon is
not
xciiuei laii man yield.
About the same time, but at a distance of two hundred
miles to the north of Cadiz, the important fortress of Ba-
3 x
i
BRITAIN.
dajos fell into the hands of the French. This painful in¬
telligence reached Lord Wellington when following up the
retreat of Massena; and no time was lost in detaching a
body of troops to the south of Portugal, to enable Marshal
Beresford to advance and'form the siege of Badajos. ri his
called from the south the army of Soult, twenty-three thou¬
sand strong. On their approach Marshal Beresford raised
the siege of Badajos, and prepared to meet the enemy with
a force numerically superior, but of which only seven thou¬
sand consisted of British troops. Soult quitted Seville on
the 10th May 1811, but Beresford remained in a state of
uncertainty till the 12th, when he commenced raising the
siege. On the 13th he held a conference with the Spa¬
nish at Valverde, where it was agreed to receive battle at
the village of Albuera. The 14th was spent in a variety
of movements ; and in the morning of the 15th the British
occupied the left of the position of Albuera, a ridge about
four miles long, having the Aroya Val de Sevilla in rear,
and the Albuera river in front. This position was now
occupied by thirty thousand infantry, above two thousand
cavalry, and thirty-eight pieces of artillery, eighteen of
which were nine-pounders; but a brigade of the fourth
division being still absent, the British infantry, “ the pith
and strength of the battle,” did not amount to seven thou¬
sand. The French had fifty guns and above four thou¬
sand veteran cavalry, but only nineteen thousand chosen
infantry; yet being of one nation, obedient to one discip¬
line, and animated by one spirit, the excellence of their
composition amply compensated for the inferiority of num¬
bers. Soult examined Beresford’s position on the evening
of the 15th, and having learnt that the fourth division
was left before Badajos, and that the corps of Spaniards
under Blake would not arrive before the 17th, he resolved
to attack the next morning. We shall now adorn our
pages with the incomparable description of this conflict,
given by the great historian of the peninsular war.
“ The hill in the centre, commanding the Valverde road,
was undoubtedly the key of the position if an attack was
made parallel to the front; but the heights on the right
presented a sort of table-land, trending backwards towards
the Valverde road, and looking into the rear of the line
of battle. Hence it was evident that, if a mass of troops
could be placed there, they must be beaten, or the right
wing of the allied army would be rolled up on the centre
and pushed into the narrow ravine of the Aroya: the
Valverde road could then be seized, the retreat cut, and
the powerful cavalry of the French would complete the
victory. Now the right of the allies and the left of the
French approximated to each other, being only divided
by a wooded hill, about cannon-shot distance from either,
but separated from the allies by the Albuera, and from
the French by a rivulet called the Feria. This height,
neglected by Beresford, was ably made use of by Soult.
During the night he placed behind it the artillery under
General Ruty, the fifth corps under Girard, and the
heavy dragoons under Latour Maubourg; thus concentrat¬
ing fifteen thousand men and forty guns within ten mi¬
nutes’ march of Beresford’s right wing, and yet that ge¬
neral could neither see a man nor draw a sound conclu¬
sion as to the real plan of attack.
“ The light cavalry, the division of the first corps under
General Werle, Godinot’s brigade, and ten guns, still re¬
mained at the French marshal’s disposal. These he formed
in the woods extending along the banks of the Feria to¬
wards its confluence with the Albuera; and Godinot was
ordered to attack the village and bridge, and to bear
strongly against the centre of the position, with a view
to attract Beresford’s attention, to separate his wings, and
to double up his right at the moment when the principal
attack should be developed.
“ During the night Blake and Cole arrived with above Re^Cy
sixteen thousand men; but so defective was the occupa- ■>;
tion of the ground, that Soult had no change to make in
his plans from this circumstance, and, a little before nine
o’clock in the morning, Godinot’s division issued from the
woods in one heavy column of attack, preceded by ten
guns. He was flanked by the light cavalry, and followed
by Werle’s division of reserve, and, making straight to¬
wards the bridge, commenced a sharp cannonade, attempt¬
ing to force the passage; at the same time Briche, with
two regiments of hussars, drew further down the river to
observe Colonel Otway’s horse.
“ The allies’ guns on the rising ground above the village
answered the fire of the French, and ploughed through
their columns, which were crowding without judgment
towards the bridge, although the stream was passable
above and«below. But Beresford, observing that Werl6’s
division did not follow closely, was soon convinced that
the principal effort would be on the right, and therefore
sent Blake orders to form a part of the first and all the
second line of the Spanish army on the broad part of the
hills, at right angles to their actual front. Then drawing
the Portuguese infantry of the left wing to the centre, he
sent one brigade down to support Alten, and directed
General Hamilton to hold the remainder in columns of
battalions, ready to move to any part of the field. The
thirteenth dragoons were posted near the edge of the
river, above the bridge; and, meanwhile, the second divi¬
sion marched to support Blake. The horse artillery, the
heavy dragoons, and the fourth division, also took ground
to the right, and were posted ; the cavalry and guns on a
small plain behind the Aroya, and the fourth division in
an oblique line about half musket shot behind them. This
done, Beresford galloped to Blake, for that general had
refused to change his front, and, with great heat, told
Colonel Hardinge, the bearer of the order, that the real
attack was at the village and bridge. Beresford had sent
again to entreat that he would obey, but this message was
as fruitless as the former; and, when the marshal arrived,
nothing had been done. The enemy’s columns were, how¬
ever, now beginning to appear on the right, and Blake,
yielding to this evidence, proceeded to make the evolu¬
tion, yet with such pedantic slowness, that Beresford, im¬
patient of his folly, took the direction in person.
“ Great was the confusion and the delay thus occasion¬
ed, and ere the troops could be put in order the French
were amongst them. For scarcely had Godinot engaged
Alton’s brigade, when Werle, leaving only a battalion of
grenadiers and some squadrons to watch the thirteenth
dragoons and to connect the attacks, countermarched with
the remainder of his division, and rapidly gained the rear
of the fifth corps as it was mounting the hills on the right
of the allies. At the same time the mass of light cavalry
suddenly quitted Godinot’s column, and crossing the river
Albuera above the bridge, ascended the left bank at a
gallop, and, sweeping round the rear of the fifth corps,
joined Latour Maubourg, who was already in face or Burn¬
ley’s squadrons. Thus half an hour had sufficed to render
Beresford’s position nearly desperate. Two thirds or tie
French were in a compact order of battle on a line per¬
pendicular to his right, and his army, disordered and com¬
posed of different nations, was still in the difficult ac o
changing its front. It was in vain that he endeavoure
to form the Spanish line sufficiently in advance to giv
room for the second division to support it; the Hen
guns opened, their infantry threw out a heavy muske y>
and their cavalry, outflanking the front and charging r
and there, put the Spaniards in disorder at all poin s>
a short time the latter gave way, and Soult, thinking
whole army was yielding, pushed forward his co u >
ency. while his reserves also mounted the hill, and General Rutv
^ placed all the batteries in position. 7
“ At this critical moment General William Stewart ar¬
rived at the foot of the height with Colonel Colborne’s
brigade, which formed the head of the second division.
The colonel, seeing the confusion above, desired to form
ov nf KaffIo ^*■ ~  a* .1
BRITAIN.
53!
the eS h firp d ?y;n Ammunitlon failed, and, as Itegencv.
the English fire slackened, the enemy established a column
in advance upon the right flank; the play of Dickson's
artillery checked them a moment, but again the Polish
lancers charging, captured six guns. And in this desne-
late crisis, Bereford, who had already withdrawn the thir-
in order of battle previous to mounting ’the ascent • but teenfhdrn eret?rd’w., ,ad already withdrawn the thir-
Stewart, whose boiling courage overlaid^his judgment led Hamilton^Portif^ ^ .banks.of t!,e river’ and brought
up without any delay in column of comnaniet and ^a«lllton s Portuguese into a situation to cover a retro-
V !. coraVam^ and at- grade movement, wavered ! destruction stared him in the
tempted to open out his line in succession as the batta-
lions arrived at the summit. Being under a destructive
fire, the foremost charged to gain room; but a heavy rain
prevented any object from being distinctly seen, and four
regiments of hussars and lancers, which had passed the
right flank in the obscurity, came galloping in unon the
rear of the line at the instant of its development, and slew
or took two thirds of the brigade. One battalion only (the
thirty-first) being still in column, escaped the storm and
maintained its ground; while the French horsemen rid¬
ing violently over every thing else, penetrated to all parts.
In the tumult a lancer fell upon Beresford, but the mar
7; oiaicu imuin tne
tace, Ins personal resources were exhausted, and the un¬
happy thought of a retreat rose in his agitated mind. Yet
no order to that effect was given, and it was urged bv
some about him that the day might still be redeemed with
the fourth division. While he hesitated, Colonel Har-
dinge boldly ordered General Cole to advance; and then
riding to Colonel Abercrombie, who commanded the re¬
maining brigade of the second division, directed him also
to push forward into the fight. The die being thus cast,
tinued^rd aCquiesced’ and this terrible battle was con-
“ The fourth division had only two brigades in the field •
shal, a man of great strength, putting his spear aside cast the nnH Pn ? 1 dlvisl0n bad two brigades in the field ;
him from his saddle ; and a shiTt of ^ind blowing a^de^e bv^Sir ^ 7“' HarT‘ *he
mlst and smote, the mischief was perceived from the plains and tentw Srd T;,MyerS’-and comPosed °f seventh
by General Lumley, who sent four squadrons out uponTe feer GeS .1 rr?8^entS’ jVaf Ca'led t,'e fuzi-
lancers and cut many of them off. * mrwo i ’ /jenera^ ^°ie directed the Portuguese to
so^at^stet'Sf&lptn^r,-^ Su" me^
“ mS toe ^ f"''016 ^ “8 ™ ^ "ZfFoZA
would not follow, and the man went back Zin on beZ pant of °f French> “"d ^ rem°
released. In this crisis the weather, which had ruined ormiml “ brl.=’ade eou!d, 110 lonff« maintain its
Colborne’s brigade, also prevented Soult from seeino- the were riflh f • C TaS beaPed Wltb carcasses, the lancers
whole extent of the field of battle and bp still 1^5 i ^ G G d g furi°usly about the captured artillery on the
heavy columns together, ffis cavalry^ indeed beean to anTo?^ f ,'hC h!"’ and °“ thc lower sl»P“ “Vnish
hem in that of the allies ; but the fire of the horse artillerv vnllevc ■ Vef,lmynt m rillu1,Lia yrror were exchanging
enabled Lumley, covered as he was tw tho i i* c .1 7 • 1 T ’ beb,ad all, General Hamilton’s Portuguese, in
Aroya, and supported by the fourth division to check them tol^bTT *7™ heigh,tS above the bridSe> appeared
WilHai^Stewart^who^adEscaped1 fh^ charge^f Bie lari-
cers, was again mounting the hill with General Hmudit ’ 1 1 tj ^abattabon of the Lusitanian legion under Co¬
brigade, which he broufht on wlflh VTyp Hoagbton s lonel Hawkshawe, mounted the hill, dispersed the lancers
buf instructed by his previous nfisfbrtune^in a I^stpmen?e, Th *hf C,artUred ®U"S’ a”d “PPe“red »" the S
l^t TheUiierr pT^raSfX ^ exactly as Abercrombie passed8 it
Soul, that “tS'ylttbe’wot C°nVinCed ln“Sue!>a pliant line, issuing from the midstof the smoke,
Dil“o7PK«S£yriif:lrtiD8onthert ^nma!'t<uad"p"
of the second^ viskmcam^up on’thelefb rnTdlwo Sp^ish Sr^r8 e"1’ Pressing o/wards to aTasTured
1°!P* a1t last moved forward. The enemy’s infantry then a storm of fir7a,nd the,n VOmi,tinS forth
recoilpd ! m°Ved foi™d* Tbe enemy’s infantry then
er vtL ’76 l°0n yec,0venn^ renewed the fight with great-
chareeifsh than before; the cannon on both sides dis-
muSl 0WGr- °f grape at half range? and the Peals of
the Hoc/ 7Gre ^ee88^01 and often within pistol shot; but
tie nnri 0r^at.10,n tbe French embarrassed their bat-
r bllcu vuimung rortn
a storm of fire, hastily endeavoured to enlarge their front
while a fearful discharge of grape from all their artillery
whistled through the British ranks. Myers was killed ;
Cole, and the three colonels, Ellis, Blakeney, and Hawk¬
shawe, fell wounded ; and the fuzileer battalions, struck by
the iron tempest, reeled and staggered like sinking ships.
"o, and the British fine would not yiewTem one tach rf ^171 ^ re,eIC<1 and ?ta8gCTed like sinki"g shiPs-
Pound nor a moment of time to open their ranks Tllfr Sk y and Z, recovenng> they dosed on their ter-
t£!ldn? was» however, fierce and dangerous. Stewartwns „„d * .‘P?”®*1
d“go'-ous. Stewart was
slab nn7fivC0 ^e Duckworth of the forty-eighth was
wounds wifi!6 ^abant Houghton, who had received many
feU and died in the act of cbecr-
furv Tni * , Ttdltbe stru^Ie continued with unabated
than W i7G I1"! 1S’ twenty'two other officers, and more
that had m Undred P1611 out °f five hundred and seventy
and the n7Un Gd- the hil1’ fel1 in the fiftj-seventh alone,
ther regiments were scarcely better off; not one
and majesty the British soldier fights. In vain did Soult,
by voice and gesture, animate his Frenchmen ; in vain
did the hardiest veterans, extricating themselves from the
crowded columns, sacrifice their lives to gain time for the
mass to open out on such a fair field ; in vain did the mass
itself bear up, and fiercely striving, fire indiscriminately
upon friends and foes, while the horsemen hovering on
tbe flank threatened to charge the advancing line. Nothing
could stojj that astonishing infantry. No sudden burst of
532
BRITAIN.
Regency, undisciplined valour, no nervous enthusiasm, weakened the
stability of their order; their flashing eyes were bent on
the dark columns in their front; their measured tread
shook the ground; their dreadful volleys swept away the
head of every formation; their deafening shouts over¬
powered the dissonant cries that broke from all parts of
the tumultuous crowd, as foot by foot and with a hoi rid
carnage it was driven by the incessant vigour of the at¬
tack to the farthest edge of the hill. In vain did the
French reserves, joining with the struggling multitude,
endeavour to sustain the fight; their efforts only increas¬
ed the irremediable confusion, and the mighty mass giv¬
ing way like a loosened cliff, went headlong down the as¬
cent. The rain flowed after in streams discoloured with
blood, and fifteen hundred unwounded men, the remnant
of six thousand unconquerable British soldiers, stood tri¬
umphant on the fatal hill!
Lord Wellington reached the army some time after the
battle of Albuera, and determined to renew the siege of Ba-
dajos. Breaches were made in the walls, and two attempts
at assault were hazarded (6th and 9th June), but in vain ;
the advance of the French army from the north, in con¬
cert with that of the south, necessitated the raising of the
siege. Here ended the active operations of the year. Our
army remained some time encamped in the cential paitof
Portugal, after which Lord Wellington marched northward
and threatened Ciudad Rodrigo, but retreated before a su¬
perior force collected by the French.
CHAP. XIX.
the REGENCY.—WAR WITH FRANCE.
The Regency.—Campaign of 1812.—Battle of Salamanca.—Conse¬
quences of this victory Session of 1812—Overtures to the
Opposition Orders in Council—Session of 1812-1813—
Princess of Wales East India Charter—Campaign of 1813—
Operations in the east of Spain.—Failure of the attempt on
Tarragona.—Operations in the West—Battle of Vittoria—
Siege of San Sebastian—Battles of the Pyrenees—Invasion of
France Battles of theNive, Nivelle, Orthes, and Toulouse—
Session of 1813—1814.—General Pacification and Settlement of
Europe Origin of our differences with the United States of
America Suspension of Neutral Trade—War declared 18th
June 1812 Naval Operations—Operations in Canada—Ame¬
rican Campaign of 1813.—Affair at Sackett’s Harbour.—-Cam-
paio-n of 1814 Operations on the Lakes—Operations in the
central parts of the United States.—Attack on New Orleans.—
Peace Ruinous effects of the war—Session of 1814-1815.—-
Corn Laws Return of Bonaparte from Elba—Effects of this
extraordinary attempt—Military Operations—Campaign in
the Netherlands Battle of Quatre Bras—Battle of Ligny—
Battle of Waterloo, and Overthrow of Napoleon—-Advance of
the Allies, and Second Treaty of Paris—Reflections on the
War Session of 181C—Loss of the Property-Tax Bill—
Battle of Algiers Session of 1817—Suspension of Habeas
Corpus.
The session of 1810-11 opened in November 1810, more
early than was intended, in consequence of the mental in¬
disposition of the king. Repeated adjournments, however,
took place in the vain hope of a recovery, and it was not
till the 20th of December that resolutions for a regency
were moved in both houses. They formed the chief sub¬
ject of discussion during the ensuing month. Their prin¬
cipal characteristics consisted in the restrictions imposed
on the prince for the succeeding year, during which he
was not permitted to confer the rank of peer, to grant an
office in reversion, or even a place or pension, except dur¬
ing the king’s pleasure; whilst the management of the
royal household was vested in the queen. Resolutions so
obnoxious to the prince called forth a strong opposition;
and a motion that the royal power should be conferred on
him without restriction was supported by two hundred Regs
against two hundred and twenty-four. But the divisions W-
in favour of ministers became stronger after the question
of the regency was settled, and great part of the session
passed without any contest between government and the
opposition, the latter considering the present arrangement
as temporary; an opinion in which they were confirmed
by the language of the regent, who entered on his func¬
tions by declaring, that he continued ministers in office
solely from a feeling of filial respect. Among the succes¬
sive topics of discussion were the county meetings of the
Catholics in Ireland, and the steps taken by government
to repress them ; an act to authorize government to send
English militia into Ireland, and Irish militia into England;
and finally, the re-appointment of the Duke of York to his
office of commander-in-chief; a step which excited some
surprise, but received the decided support of parliament,
a motion made to censure it being negatived by two hun¬
dred and forty-nine to forty-seven. But the most anxious
topics of parliamentary and public attention were the dis¬
tress of trade and the state of our paper currency. To¬
wards the relief of the former, an issue of exchequer bills
was authorized under certain limitations; and to support
the credit of the latter, a law was passed which, when join¬
ed to former enactments, had nearly the effect of making
bank-notes a legal tender.
The campaign of 1812 commenced very early, Lord Wel¬
lington investing Ciudad Rodrigo on the 8th of January.
The siege was pressed with activity, and a breach being
made, the town was carried by storm on the 19th of Janu¬
ary, though with a great loss, particularly in officers, among
whom was General Mackinnon. So prompt had been our
operations, that the French army approaching to the relief
of the place would not at first believe the news of its cap¬
ture. Soon afterwards Lord Wellington turned his forces
to the south, and invested Badajos, already the scene of
such obstinate contests. Here, also, the operations were
pressed with great rapidity, that they might be brought to
an issue before the arrival of the French army from Cadiz.
On the night of the 6th April, Badajos was attacked on
several points by escalade ; but we were repulsed in every
direction except at the castle, which was fortunately car¬
ried ; and as it commanded all the works, the consequence
was the surrender of the town next day, after a siege which,
short as it had been, cost us very nearly five thousand men.
Secure on the south, Lord Wellington now marched to¬
wards the north, and detached Sir Rowland Hill to make
a sudden attack on the French station at Almaraz, where
the bridge over the Tagus served as the chief military com¬
munication between the northern and southern army. ®
expedition was successful, the entrenchments being stoim
ed and destroyed. Lord Wellington now marched against
the French army in the north, commanded by Marmont,
and reached Salamanca on the 16th of June. The torts in
that town being taken after some sharp fighting, the Irene
retreated to the Douro: but being soon reinforced, resum¬
ed the offensive, and obliged our army to retreat in its tur-
These movements continued several weeks, Lord VVeiung-
ton being obliged to yield ground to his opponent, u rea
to attack him on the commission of any material
Such an opportunity at last occurred on 22d July, nea
lamanca, when the French, rendered confident y ou
tinned retreat, extended their left, and presentee an P
ing, which was instantly seized by their vigilant adv J
Columns were sent forward against the enemy s . .
centre; the former succeeded completely, the latter m
much opposition. Great gallantry was shown, anc
loss sustained on both sides.^ At last the Fren egg
and right were both driven from the field. ieairvjoin*
prevented our making prisoners, but a body of cava ^ j
BRITAIN.
-ncy. ing in the night, the hostile rear-guard was attacked next namely, the clair™ ^ i* i .
morning, and obliged to surrender. Our loss was about cil, and the over-issue of m C0Un"
three thousand British and two thousand Portuguese ; that tion the corresnondmrp paper. With this explana-
of the enemy in killed and wounded was at least equal ed unchan Jed ,in dZ ^ ^ Z ™inistrJ Proceed-
and we took between aix and seven thousand priJeS Lord nve?p„„rs^eedeT^^^^^
The British force in the field was twenty-two thousand. rected by the nrincc to m Z ^ l station, and was di-
The consequences of the victory of Salamanca were the lesley and Mr Canning ThiZTJ MarqT Wel"
nravinsr him tn annm'nt an -x....- 6 ’
the 12th of August by the allies; the abandonment by the
French of the works constructed at vast expense against
Cadiz; the evacuation of Andalusia, Grenada, and all the
south of Spain. But as this loss of territory was not attended
by a loss of troops, it became incumbent on Lord Welling¬
ton to prepare against a vigorous attack from forces that
were rapidly concentrating. He made repeated attempts
to take the castle of Burgos, and the military stores col¬
lected there; but this fort, defended by a strong garrison
and a vigilant commander, General Dubreton, Wffled all
our efforts, and proved the cause of a considerable sacrifice
of lives. Meantime the approach of Soult from the south,
and of the army that had fought at Salamanca from the east’
obliged Lord Wellington to adopt the alternative of retreat.
He began his march on the 20th of October, and proceed¬
ed westward, in a line nearly parallel to the Douro, taking
above three weeks to recross the country to the scene of
his victory at Salamanca. There, united with General
Hill, and at the head of fifty thousand men, he remained
on ground lately so propitious, hoping that an opportunity
might offer to attack the enemy/ though now increased, .•nqulrvTas in Itu ted „T[he mot ^n Tm r5’, *
strong for attack, and the interval afforded him by Lori gave the eS
Wellington was diligently employed in pushing forward a prevailing disposition to cling to those mea ures'wten
detachments to cut off our communications with Portugal, the accession of Lord Liverpool to the leSa Si™ in
!"dlSf enSa^le; a,;d here> araid?‘ llas'y cabinet produced their‘repeal, tho^h urfortuSe ^
marches, and a scarcity of five days, there occurred scenes
of insubordination which recalled all the disorders of our
march to Corunna, and drew from Lord Wellington a most
severe censure in general orders. Fortunately, similar pri¬
vations on the side of the French prevented them from
making many prisoners, and, on 20th November, on the
frontier of Portugal, was closed this eventful campaign.
The session opened on the 7th of January, and the early
discussions related to arrangements for the royal household,
too late to prevent the American war.
. 1 hough parliament had sat during five years only, the
victory of Salamanca and our other successes in Spain af¬
forded ministry a favourable opportunity for appealing to
the people. A dissolution was proclaimed on the 29th of
September ; and on the 30th of November the new parlia¬
ment was opened by the regent in person, who spoke for the
first time from the throne. Our partial reverses in the close
of the campaign in Spain, and the murmurs of Marquis
and a motion by Mr Brougham to exclude the droits of Wefele^nd^ ^
admiralty from the cml hst. In this he was unsuccessful; cial contributions to the peninsl, contes^ere
antqSiL 4eeastaterfdrrerd0n-I’h LOrd f°r by tl’e cheerin? intelligence from Russia, from which Bo-
P .1 qr y t(Jtlle ®tat;e 0b^re^antl> with a view to admitting naparte was now retreatino-with tremendous loss In thp
measures nf the eTJrnt 0f POlitiCal rightS- The next progress of the session the attention of the Imuse L
breakZo - ^orJeHee V h T" m °, ^^i aSainstfram^ Public was strongly excited by an appeal from the Princess
pressedZtlmloss of ^ Nottingham workmen, of Wales to parliament, demanding an investigation of her
L„ S_ed %thVOSS of the American market, and the con- conduct. This led to a motion for a copy cff the report
sequent fall of wages, had carried to an alarming length.
. ® public attention was soon after engaged by ministe¬
rial changes. Marquis Wellesley finding himself unable
0 ead the cabinet, or to prevail on his colleagues to ex¬
tend the scale of our operations in Spain, resigned in Feb¬
ruary the secretaryship of foreign affairs, and was suc¬
ceeded by Lord Castlereagh. The restrictions on the
power of the regent now drawing to a close, consistency
required an overture for the admission into office of the
eaders of the opposition, intimate as they had been in for-
mei years with his royal highness. This prompted the
tJ ^n.own letter of the 13th February from the prince to
e uke ofTork, professing a wish to unite with the pre-
en ministers “ some of those persons with whom the early
of T S 1 Pnbhc life had been formed.” The answer
°rds Grey and Grenville explained their reasons for
cc ining a union with an administration differing so much
delivered by the noblemen charged with the inquiry of
1806; and this motion being negatived, the result was the
publication in the newspapers of a succession of papers re¬
lating the whole transaction. These papers, however in¬
dicative of want of discretion on the part of her royal
highness, produced, on the whole, an impression in her
favour, as unjustly attacked in her honour. The most in¬
teresting debates of the session related to the Catholic
question, and the renewal, with important changes, of the
charter of the East India Company. The new charter,
granted for twenty years from 1814, reserved to the Com¬
pany the exclusive trade to China, but laid open to the
public, with slight qualifications, the trade to all other
parts of the East. Among the minor proceedings of the
session were an act for lessening the endless delays of
chancery, by appointing a vice-chancellor; and an act,
which, if it did not enforce clerical residence, held out a
praying him to appoint an efficient administration, was*3car¬
ried by a hundred and seventy-four against a hundred and
seventy. ibis most unexpected vote necessitated a se¬
cond overture to the opposition, the management of which
was committed, first to the Marquis of Wellesley, and
afterwards to Lord Moira. It now seemed highly proba¬
ble that the opposition would come in; yet the negociation
entirely failed, in consequence partly of existing animosi¬
ties, partly of the stiffness of Lord Grey, partly! perhaps,
of a sepret reluctance in the court to admit the opposition.
-L01 ds Liverpool and Castlereagh remained in office with
all the benefit of a declared readiness on their part, and of
an apparent unreasonableness in the demands of opposition.
ihe most urgent question now before parliament was
the continuation or repeal of the orders in council. The
distress of the manufacturers had become general, and
had led, among the lower orders, to commotion and riot;
among the higher, to petitions to parliament complaining
0 ,°1U1 Pertinacious adherence to these orders as the cause
. th.e loss °(the great market of the United States. An
from th • WIU1 ““ auimmstrauon anxering so mucii wliicli, it it did not enforce clerical residence, held out a
em in the most important points of national policy, strong inducement to it, by obliging incumbents to increase
BRITAIN.
534
Regency, the stipends of their curates. After granting ministers a
liberal vote of credit, parliament was prorogued on the 22d
of July, amidst a general hope of favourable intelligence
from the Continent; Spain being nearly delivered from the
invaders, and the Germans having risen with ardour to as¬
sert their independence.
The campaign of 1813 opened in the east of Spain, by
an attack on the allied army under Sir John Murray, sta¬
tioned not far from Alicant. The ground it occupied was
strong, but the length of the position, two miles and a
half, made Suchet, who commanded the French, conceive
the hope of penetrating it at one point or another. In this,
however, he was foiled with a loss of from two to three
thousand men ; this being the only check of importance re¬
ceived by that commander in ail his campaigns in Spain.
Soon after this success, our army was engaged in the
bold plan of proceeding by sea to Catalonia, and besieging
Tarragona. The wind proved favourable ; the main body
was landed near Tarragona; and a detachment succeeded,
by great exertion, in taking Fort St Philip on the moun¬
tain called the Col de Balaguer, which blocked the nearest
road for the arrival of the French from the south. Suchet,
however, lost no time in marching northwards; and our
general, Sir John Murray, considered his force, which was
chiefly Spanish, as unable to withstand the French. He
therefore embarked and returned to Alicant, a measure
which incurred censure, but appears fully justified by cir¬
cumstances, and still more by the conduct of his successors
in the command.
Suchet, though successful on this occasion, soon found
himself unable to retain his extensive line of occupation.
The battle of Vittoria brought a new enemy on his rear,
and obliged him to withdraw, first from Valencia, and sub¬
sequently as far as Barcelona. Our army now advanced
by land, and resumed the siege of Tarragona, with the
power of retreating, not, as before, by sea, but on the coun¬
try behind; an alternative to which a second advance by
Suchet soon compelled our new commander, Lord William
Bentinck. The French, however, unable to occupy an
extended position, blew up the works of Tarragona and
retired. Our army advanced anew, but was again checked
and obliged to draw back, exhibiting a striking proof of
the impracticability of opposing an active enemy with a
mixed force, of which the Spaniards formed a large pro¬
portion.
We now turn to the western part of the peninsula, the
field of the commander-in-chief, and of the far larger portion
of our force. Lord Wellington, averse to open the campaign
till every part of his troops was ready to co-operate with ef¬
ficiency, did not move from quarters till after the middle
of May. He knew that he would have much ground to
traverse, retreat being evidently the policy of the French,
weakened as they were by the recall of twenty-five thou¬
sand veterans, who had been feebly replaced by a body of
conscripts. Lord Wellington was now, for the first time,
at the head of a superior force, which he wielded with
consummate skill. The strength of the enemy lay in the
line of the Douro, which they expected to defend with ad¬
vantage, so far at least as to make us purchase dearly its
acquisition; but all this was prevented by Lord Welling¬
ton making his left division cross the river on the Portu¬
guese territory, and advance along its northern bank; whilst
he and Sir Rowland Hill, at the head of separate corps,
marched, after several feints, in a diagonal direction, so as
to support this movement, and effect a junction in an ad¬
vanced position. The French, threatened with being taken
in the rear, evacuated one town after another, and, even
at Burgos, declined to fight on ground where late recol¬
lections would have been so animating; they continued
to retreat, increasing from time to time their numbers by
the garrisons of the evacuated towns, until at last they took Reg; v
a position at Vittoria, a town in Biscay, near the north-east Wv,.
frontier of Spain.
The position of the French extended from north to south,
and was of great length. Their left rested on heights;
part of their centre also occupied heights, and their right
was near the town of Vittoria. The Zadorra, a stream of
considerable size, but crossed by several bridges, ran near¬
ly parallel to their front. Both armies were numerous, par¬
ticularly that of the allies. It was the first time that near¬
ly forty thousand British had fought together in Spain.
Lord Wellington acted on the offensive throughout, and
began active operations by taking possession of the heights
near the extreme left of the enemy. This was easily ef¬
fected ; but their importance being soon perceived by the
French, a strong effort was made to recover them; and an
obstinate contest took place, but the British on the heights
repelled every assault. Under cover of these heights our
right wing advanced and took a village (Sabijana) in front
of the enemy’s centre. It was in vain that the French at¬
tempted to retake this village. The centre of tKe allies
crossed the river near it, and the centre of the French
withdrew from their position, retreating to the town of Vit¬
toria. At first this retreat was effected in good order; but
an alarming account soon reached the French from their
right. That part of their position had been defended by
the river and two tetes-de-pont; but the troops of our left
wing had taken, first the heights commanding these forts,
and soon after the forts themselves, baffling every effort of
the enemy to retake them. The great road leading to the
north was thus in possession of the allies; hence general
alarm and confusion spread throughout the French army.
Their reserve was hastily withdrawn from its position, and
pressed, with, the whole army, along the only remaining
road to the eastward ; abandoning all their artillery, their
ammunition, and their baggage. The loss of the battle was
imputed by the French to Jourdan, whom Bonaparte, in
a luckless hour, had allowed his brother to substitute for
Soult, and who here, as at Talavera, was too late in dis¬
covering the importance of commanding positions. The
loss in men was not particularly severe ; that of the allies
in killed and wounded was under four thousand, and that
of the French probably not much greater. The tempta¬
tion afforded by the plunder of the baggage prevented our
troops from making many prisoners; but the spirit of the
enemy was shaken, and the loss of their artillery and stores
obliged them to retreat across the Pyrenees.
The next operation of consequence consisted in the siege
of San Sebastian, a frontier fortress of great importance,
which the French made the most vigorous efforts to relieve.
Their army, provided anew with ammunition and cannon,
advanced under the command of Marshal Soult, and, after
some sharp actions, drove back the British corps posted
in the passes of the Pyrenees. Our troops retreated to
the vicinity of Pamplona, where, on the 27th, and stil
more on the 28th, they sustained a succession °f
tuous attacks from the enemy. On the 29th L°r“ e
lington resumed the offensive, drove the French trom
their position, strong as it was, and obliged them to retrace
their steps through the Pyrenees. Our loss in these actions
was about six thousand men in killed and wounded; a
of the enemy was still greater, exclusive of about four tno -
sand prisoners. ,
At San Sebastian we had been repulsed in an as*au
the 25th of July; the siege was continued, an“,ahna1J!p
sault, on the 31st of August, led to the capture 0 , ’
though with the loss of two thousand five hundre
The further operations were, the entrance of our anny
the French territory on 7th October, the capitn a 1. .
Pamplona on the 26th, and a general attack on the p
BRITAIN.
ency. of the French near St Jean de Luzon 10th Novpmhpr aAov , , 535
^ which they retreated across the Nivelle. But this moun- froraDenmark tf^ co“Pu]sory transfer of Norway Regency,
tainous country afforded a number of positions, and our bated in both^nn^r^' T ia • ^estion was wai™ly de- 1
next task was to drive the enemy from behind the Nive a the House oJ I nr^ yi V a “otlon.relative to it, made in
large river flowing northward from the Pyrenees. This mon ^ Grey ln a sPeech of uncom-
was partly accomplished on the 9th of December; but on a-ainst a hundred anTfift ^ S^.P°? of eighty-one votes
several succeeding days the French, commanded by Soult, the session werp^alf6611' 1 10 furlher Proceedings of
made impetuous attacks on the allied army, all anticipat- rest himiVSIf ? ^ddress’ Pra/ing the regent to inte-
ed by Lord Wellington, and all repulsed with heavy loss abolition of tl 1 r/0WerS f°r a P^^P1 and Seneral
Still the rains of the season, and tl!e size of the mountain fon t^L 10^000 n^th5 " VOte,of L-400’°00- m addi-
streams, retarded our operations. In January 1814 our of Wellington f fthe,Preceding year, to the Duke
army made some further progress, and, on the 25th of Genornk Sr u d u-n^8’ j Ut °n a far sma,ler scale, to
February, attacked the French in a position near Orthes raLed to ‘ K ^ ^eyesford5 who were now
behind the Gave de Pau, another large river flowing S Sent „f r ?, onn88'' ^ F/mCeSS of WaIes 11 Wie¬
the Pyrenees. This attack was successful; and the retrZ We L™ W?S made-
of the French was followed by the desertion of a number test which amved at, tlle Penod when’ after a con-
of their new levies. Soult’s army now drew back not in a termod « wQ .aS re§ards Eng]and and France, may be
northerly, but easterly direction, to join detachments from rendition f-0? twenty years, Europe was restored to a
the army of Suchet in Catalonia. At Tarbes on th-^ C0.ndl.tlof whlch promised long-continued peace. The
of March, the fighting was of short duraticwTf but t^sanguU KrirlTJvfennt fa °f a"d
nary battle took place at Toulouse on the 10th of Anril. o T7- 0 688 .Vienna ^ 1815> were as follow:—
battle attended with a loss to the allies of nearly five thou with" dieadlv0'101’?'801''’^ ?ithin ller former territory,.
sand men, which as well as a great sacrifice of ^ 00 the fe luiShed nTail fo d 0f^•SaV0^’cV,,icI,•’ h<Wever’
part of the French, might have been nrevpntpd hod 0n,.r . a bluis.necl ln lo!5 to the king ot Sardinia.
intelligence arrived of the overthrow of Bonaparte and the withTts^V^Tr^ .Lorabardy’ and added it Venice
change of government at Paris. *onaParte, and the with its adjacent territory, possessing thus a population of
The causes of this great change will be fully explained Fnnrp’^nd mi .I8’ b^in& very nearly eflual to that of
under another head. They are but partly to be found In poSed fa 1792 7 8reater than that which she
wwlimi^roved^xfa^m^y^njurious^oth118^1 tt fi^nts the^rT WaS, ‘ieC'ared ,! «reat feteal - before
and military establishment of Bonaparte, hispowerw^so Xe^tv dttrlT^'T’distinCti°n thata
great, that nothing could have shaken it hut n o 5 th Pi tty districts and principalities were incorporated into
sudden catastrophe. From the moment tha he lo t ht Sf fX’8UC1 ^ Bavra’. Wirtemberg, Hesse-CasseU
armies in Russia, there existed substantial Joumk fnr Hesse-Darmstadt; and with the further distinction/that
hope ; and after the accession of Austria to the coalition of inflimn 0W}n<! lmPeria llead> but an understood division
there was little reason to doubt his overthrow The re’ th.^reat Powers’ Austria being
sources of France continued indeed unreservkly at fas' Se ^rovre l' f S°Uth’and Pr,us£iaof thenorth- n>esf
disposal; and the dread of a counter-revolution o-L* I • fi Progie®s,ve advances towards consolidation; and to
the support of the majority ofTnatfan^o'ng^isgusted with rf unS a still devoid
his domineering spirit and never-ending- wars But- fit t i ^ j- ? °T ln debberation, but not altogether so
preponderance of Military means was ir®rtibie in vain Bus? ,'SUaS ,‘l8 Prede«s^s at Hatisbon.
did he struggle against it in Saxony in 1813 and in Cham ofh, ‘f3 Lll'ri- ,,G i'rcsent age .suftercd no reduction
pagne in 1814. His partial successes served onlv to »x‘ f he.r. errltOTft but has proceeded fa a regular course of
cite a temporary illusion; and the occupation of Paris hJ J1®1- Power’. thJ0Ugh ]ess colossal than is vul-
the allies proved, like its possession bv siippp««i\ r ^ ^ai y suPPosed, has received a substantial addition by the
in the revolution; decisK therte Jf FraZ ^ TwnTT “r F "'and a"d °f'he S.«at« Pa« of Poland!
The cheering expectations with which parliament sens, of r 1 ■dS of w lat once .was Prussian Poland, and a part
rated were hannilv real.Vnd In th0 parliament sepa- of Galicia, were formed m 1815 into a kingdom, which
and parliament re^issemlfled^n the^tli rff M h0ueVer.’ haS reCentI^ been overthrown. g ’ hlCh’
the knowledge that the victor!” *Lefasfa £^0^7,8 P^on the other hand, has exhibited a striking
independence of Germany and enabled nnr\li; ^ f t lG ®xaifPle tbe mutability of political greatness. Raised
the throne of the iisuS Th” d °ar aIhes t0 shake by the talents of Frederick II. to a rank above her real
that at such a juncture every exerdon fi°Pini(?ni 8treKngth’ bat making after his death successive additions
or military, should be ^ t0 ber territ0r^ b^ tbe dread of her ar™^ aad by diplo-
of the Continent. All the proposTiois of mird^rr31106 C0rabinatl0ns» sbe saw the whole fabric overturned
adopted; and on the 17th of Novemhpr I a- WerC Bonaparte in one fatal campaign. From 1807 to 1813
ed to th; 1st of M^ch evLeX dm hnn1!^ flT"' ^^ 10nS C°ntinUed ci^umscribed, and her popula-
that period the advance of fl1(/ ir i hope that before tion hardly exceeded six millions. But the arrangements
would lead to a g^nerafpacffication ^This'rpssn^f°* Cri V8lt t0 her a third of Russian Poland and a
hy sound calculation wll i u S S resu!b.Justided valuable tract of country on the Lower Rhine; and her
the Prussian andT:, delayed by the precipitancy of population is now above ten millions,
and their allies • sn H ‘onsel9uent cliecks received by them Of her colonial conquests from France Eno-land retain
ofMarcl aZXed ^ dif2Ttnta’°n ^ ed T°bag0’ St Lucie’ and tbe Isle of^
at that date Yord CasfWe?1? k "d’ assembllag confirmed also our possession of Malta and the CapeP Of
Continen^the busines^ tran^cted^fbirln ^ abSenti 0n ^ ^ ^ Dutch 8ettl—ts, Surinam and Java w'Se re-
was of inferior interest Next come toe? ?t0red ; but Demerara’ Berbice, and Essequibo, contain-
corn trade, the budget of the teT nnr) dlscas81.ons the lag a number of British settlers, were retained; the mer-
sure for the preserve tmn y ’.aad an addltlonal mea- chants of Flolland, however, enjoying certain privileges of
neral pacification had by this ^ re ^ ge’ Wltb these colonies. On the continent of Europe we
rangements ofrninistor Jafforde^ittlf^nnenhf ’/nd t-ie av' fffected a long-desired, though (as the event has shown)
ministers attorded little opening for ammad- insecure measure, the union of the seven Dutch and ten
536
BRITAIN.
Regency. Belgic provinces into one kingdom. The latter, in their
'w-v-w' detached state, presented too tempting an object for France,
and would have proved the cause of repeated wars, in
which England, from her interest in the independence of
Holland, and her dread of invasion, could hardly fail to
participate.
The losses of Denmark rank among the most painful
' ‘ To
consequences of the wars of the French revolution,
strip that pacific and inoffensive kingdom, first of its navy,
and next of a kindred country, governed by the same so¬
vereign during four hundred years, were acts that called
forth the regret and condemnation of every unprejudiced
observer. The transfer of Norway was opposed by the
inhabitants; and we add with regret, that our navy was
ordered to take part against them by blockading their
ports. At last the affair was terminated by a convention
pronouncing the union of Sweden and Norway under the
same sovereign, but reserving to the latter her separate
constitution. Pomerania was transferred from Sweden to
Prussia, and Denmark received a small territory to the
south of Holstein.
Sweden had enjoyed during many years the advantage
of neutrality, and, like Denmark, increased gradually her
shipping and trade. Deviating from this in 1805, and
becoming a party to the coalition against France, she was
saved from hostilities by the rapid overthrow of Austria;
and Pomerania was not attacked until 1807, when Gusta-
vus IV. chose to refuse peace at the time when he had
not the support of a single continental ally. This and
other acts of madness led to his deposition in 1809; and
the year after, Europe saw with surprise the nomination of
Bernadotte as the efficient head of the Swedish govern¬
ment. This choice, attributed at first to the interference
of Bonaparte, was due, it seems, to the personal exertions
of Bernadotte himself. The acquisition of Norway, and
the introduction into Sweden of various improvements by
an active-minded foreigner, are advantages of magnitude,
and calculated to form some counterpoise to the loss of
Finland and the increased danger from Russia.
Spain and Portugal preserved their territory unaltered ;
both had received rude shocks from the invader, but in
both the reign of superstition and indolence seemed so
firmly fixed as to bid defiance to political change, whe¬
ther introduced by mild or by harsh means. The events
of 1820, however, have shown, that in Spain there exists
that sense of the abusive nature of their institutions, and
that desire of reform, which in France produced the revo¬
lution ; while in Portugal, notwithstanding her degraded
condition, results ultimately favourable may be expected
from the natural course of events.
Switzerland, without being made a province of France,
had been obliged to furnish a military contingent in the
wars of Bonaparte. The arrangements of 1814 maintain¬
ed her as a federal state, but with nineteen cantons instead
of thirteen; an increase derived, not from extended ter¬
ritory, but from the independent form acquired by certain
’ districts, such as the Pays de Vaud, incorporated former¬
ly with the original cantons.
The king of Sardinia was restored to Piedmont, and his
other continental possessions, with the addition of the ter¬
ritory of Genoa.
The country of all Europe most likely to profit by the
occupancy of the French was Italy. The substitution of
an efficient government for the feeble administrations of
Naples and Rome, the diminution of superstition, the in¬
crease of industry, the extirpation of robbery on the high
ways, and the new modelling of the military establishment,
were all objects of the highest importance. To these was
added a hope of blending all the states of the peninsula
into a common union ; a union most ardently desired by
the Italian nation, and calculated, above all things, to pre¬
serve their country from war and the intrusion of foreigners.
The selfish policy of Bonaparte, whose object was merely
to extract from every country the utmost possible supply
of revenue and recruits, prevented the adoption of this
grand measure, until the re-assumed sway of foreigners,
in particular of the Austrians, removed it to an indefinite
distance, and reinstated the territorial divisions of Italy
on the footing of 1792, with the exception of the repub¬
lics of Venice and Genoa.
The royal family of Naples remained in Sicily during
1814 ; but Murat was not recognised by the Bourbons, and
dreaded, with reason, that the allies would deem their task
incomplete if they did not restore the crown of Naples to
the ancient family. He armed in self-defence, and no
sooner did he hear of Bonaparte’s entrance into Lyons,
than he advanced against Lombardy, and called upon all
"the Italians to unite in the assertion of their national inde¬
pendence. But his troops were unable to cope with the
Austrians ; after some partial successes they were obliged
to retreat; and finding, in some sharp actions on their own
territory, the continued superiority of their opponents, the
eventual result was, the dispersion of the Neapolitan army,
and the surrender of their capital on the 22d of May. The
royal family now returned from Palermo to Naples, and re¬
sumed their sovereignty. Murat then escaped to Toulon;
but, after the second return of the Bourbons, he proceeded
to Corsica, and conceived the wild project of landing in the
Neapolitan territory at the head of a feeble detachment,
in the hope of being joined, like Bonaparte on returning
from Elba, by thousands of his ancient followers. He dis¬
embarked in Calabria, but was forthwith attacked by the
inhabitants, taken, and shot by order of the royal family,
who were thus left in undisturbed possession of the crown.
Turkey was no party to the treaty of 1814, but remain¬
ed on the footing on which the treaty with Russia in 1812
had placed her. Stationary in an age of change, and in¬
flexible in her adherence to traditionary usages, she saw
the French revolution pass without sustaining any injury
from it; or rather she was indebted to it for a relaxation
in the shocks to which the European part of her empire
is exposed from Austria and Russia. The peace of 1790
had been preserved uninterrupted by Austria; that of
1791 was infringed by Russia by only one war, viz. from
1807 to 1812. The temporary occupation of Egypt by
the French, and the more permanent establishment of
England in the Ionian Islands, have had no effect on the
interior of the Turkish empire.
We must now proceed to record military operations
conducted in a very different quarter, and involving con¬
siderations very distinct from those which animated the
contest on the continent of Europe. The United States
of America continued on friendly terms with us during
several years after the beginning of the war of 1803. There
existed discussions, and of rather a serious nature, between
the two countries, particularly in regard to the practice ot
our naval officers of impressing American seamen on sus¬
picion, or pretended suspicion, of their being British sub¬
jects; but these contests were happily confined to diplo¬
matists. Meantime the navigation of the Americans was
in a course of rapid extension; for their neutral flag en¬
abled them to act as carriers to the continental bellige¬
rents, and, in particular, to convey to Europe the produce
of the French and Spanish West Indies. The depression
of our West India trade in 1805, though the unavoidabe
result of too great a growth of produce for a system o
monopoly, was attributed to the successful rivalship of t ie
Americans in the continental markets. Mr Pitt was assai
ed by our ship-owners, and prevailed on to take measures
which obliged the Americans to forbear the direct passage
r 52
sjencj.
across the Atlantic, and to give such cargoes a neutral
character by carrying them in the first instance to their
own ports. The Grenville ministry maintained what Mr
Pitt had done, and went no farther; but they were suc¬
ceeded by men actuated by different views. A parliamen¬
tary committee, appointed in June 1807 to inquire into
the distress of our West India colonies, received evidence
calculated to strengthen an impression already very gene¬
ral, that a total stop ought to be put to the conveyance of
French or Spanish colonial produce in neutral bottoms
No sooner did the successful termination of the Copen¬
hagen expedition give popularity to the system of vigour
than we issued the orders in council of November 1807
the object of which, however disguised, was to put a stop
to neutral traffic, except when carried on by license from
our government; thus assuming the power of restricting or
extenuing that traffic as we should find beneficial to our
interest, or rather, as we should imagine to be beneficial
since, in questions of commerce, the real is frequently far
different from the anticipated result.
In this^ explanation of these ill-understood orders, we
exclude from the motives of ministers all participation in
that jealousy of America which actuated so many of our
countrymen. We consider them as acting from conviction
as seeking in this measure only a source of benefit to our
commerce, and of annoyance to our enemies in Europe •
yet, even with these qualifications, the orders in council
have contributed more than any other measure in the pre¬
sent age to the distress which afterwards afflicted our coun¬
try. 1 heir first practical result was a suspension of the
navigation of the Americans by a general embargo im¬
posed by their own government; and this preliminary mea¬
sure was in a few months succeeded by a non-intercourse
act, which continued in operation above a year, during
which our exports to America were greatly reduced, and
our manufacturers distressed to a degree that ought to
Have served as a warning of the consequences of a further
contest with our best customers. In 1809, in consequence
ot a temporary arrangement, the intercourse was resumed,
and exports from England to America took place to a great
amount. Lut the offensive part of our system was soon
afterwards revived ; the Americans were prevented from
trading with France, Italy, or Holland, and the only con-
ci mtory answer given by our government, was a promise
o recall our orders in council whenever the Americans
Mould obtain from Bonaparte the repeal of his Berlin and
Allan decrees. Tins repeal was in some measure obtain-
a m isiu, but nothing could wean our ministry from their
eCti0ni f°r W^at .they accounted a grand political mea-
, and those who inspect the official communications of
j •governments, will see with surprise the expedients
del, /d’.,andA the.promises held out, to gain time and to
inipnt^ le-^roermans, while, in fact, there never was an
tlan recalling the obnoxious decrees. The Ameri-
rpvi0 i ed exPhcitly1 to recall all hostile edicts “ if we
their nn r °r j8/.’” !?ut not being complied with,
faotnrp -1' S Wieie dedmtively shut against us, and our manu-
in mi S rec‘aced to great distress ; a distress pourtrayed
n colours unfortunately too impressive in the parliamen-
naid Kr,So°Vhe °rders m counciI> printed in the early
surp« ni ^Ut no cbange could be effected in our mea-
rmfii • accession of Lord Liverpool to the first mi-
too lain W^en a rePeal took place, but unhappily
infpllln. ’ 16 Americans having declared war before this
the imn^r fou d reach them. From this time forward
charw 13 narrator finds it his duty to transfer the
g aggression from England to America. We had
BRITAIN.
now a minister aware of the evil tendency of our orders in
council, and prepared to make reasonable concessions to
the Americans; whilst they, heated by the contest and
attnbuting the change to the dread of losing Canada re¬
fused our offers of accommodation. ’
The naval conflicts in the first year of the war were of
a nature greatly to surprise the public, accustomed as it
vias to our almost uninterrupted triumphs at sea. The
Guernere frigate was captured on 19th August 1812, by
on the 25thUnf0O^TriKan ; and the Macedonian
| *he Tr - o/October by another American frigate call¬
ed the United States. If these losses could in any degree
e attributed to the fault of our officers, no suclf charge
could be brought in the case of Captain Lambert of the
Java, a brave and intelligent commander, who, after a
dreadful conflict, was obliged, on the 29th of December
to strike to the Constitution. In this, as in the preceding
actions, the real cause of failure lay in the disproportion
s xtvth£h; th\Guemdre havinS only tw° hundred and
s x bIp Mp “fi11’ -ler an1tagl0nist four hundred and seventy-
six, the Macedonian only three hundred, the United States
^r^redan S!Venitytight- Even the Java’ though
a large frigate, had only three hundred and sixty-seven
men, her opponent four hundred and eighty. The inequa¬
lity in weight of metal was still greater, each of these Ame-
tlm WlgawS haVlng originally intended for a ship of
the line. _ No sooner did the two nations meet on an equal
1st im’q "ti116 th • C.hesaPeake and Shannon, June
st 1813, than the superiority was found to rest with us.
ie operations by land were offensive on the part of
the Americans, and directed to the conquest of Canada,
which the frontier adjoins their northern states, extend¬
ing m a long line from south-west to north-east. The
boundary consists in a great measure of water, being form¬
ed partly by the immense lakes Erie and Ontario, partly
by the course of the St Lawrence. On the south-wesl
part of this frontier a body of two thousand three hundred
mermans, regulars and militia, advanced in July 1812
from the small fort of Detroit. Their operations, at first
successful, were soon checked by a British detachment-
retreat became unavoidable, and our troops assuming the
?mi"S1ceAln their ta™’the resu3t was the surrender, on the
16th of August, of the whole body of Americans and of
the fort of Detroit. Not discouraged by this failure, ano¬
ther detachment of Americans assembled near Niagara •
but, after a sharp action on the 13th of October, were
obliged, like their countrymen, to surrender. A further
attempt, on the part of the Americans, to force the Nia-
gm-a frontier on the 28th November was likewise unsuc¬
cessful ; whilst, in a different quarter, at a distance of near¬
ly three hundred miles to the north-east, the advance of
their main body to Champlain proved ineffectual, the pre¬
parations on our side necessitating their retreat. Lastly
a detachment advancing, in January 1813, in the hope of
retaking Fort Detroit, were themselves attacked by a Bri¬
tish division, and obliged to surrender.
These repeated failures were the result, not of a deficient *
activity or courage, but of impatience and insubordination,
the restraint of discipline being ill suited to a nation that
acknowledges no master. But, in the next campaign, the
Amei leans took the field with augmented forces and an
improved plan of action. A strong division crossing Lake
Ontario, landed on the 27th April at York, the chief town
of Upper Canada, and took it, with its stores and part of
the garrison. A check was indeed given to them in a very
different quarter, on the Miami, a river falling into Lake
Erie ; but next month a strong body of Americans pene-
3 Y
VOL. y.
1 Letter from Mr Monro to Mr Foster, 2Gth July 1811.
538
BRITAIN.
Regency, trated the Niagara frontier; and an attempt made by the
British on Sackett’s harbour, a port in Lake Ontario, fail¬
ed through the misconduct of the general. Still the pro¬
gress of the American main body into Canada from the
Niagara was obstructed, and checks experienced by them
in a way that clearly demonstrated the inexperience of
their troops. They forbore, therefore, to advance by land,
and directed their efforts to a naval superiority. On Lake
Erie, the more remote of the two from our Canada settle¬
ments, this superiority was acquired in September, after
the capture of our petty squadron under Captain Barclay;
and the consequence was our abandoning the more dis¬
tant posts in Upper Canada. On Lake Ontario the naval
contest was long maintained; and an attempt made, in
November, by a strong division of Americans, to descend
the St Lawrence in small craft, and to threaten Montreal,
was rendered abortive by the activity of our troops. Tha
campaign was then closed by our opponents without mak¬
ing any serious impression on Canada, though their force
exceeded twenty thousand men. On our part, the cam¬
paign terminated by taking Fort Niagara by surprise, and
repulsing, near the small town of Buffalo, a corps of two
thousand men brought forward to check our advance. The
town was burned in retaliation for a similar excess com¬
mitted by the Americans.
The inclemency of an American winter suspended hos¬
tile operations for some months. The first exploit of con¬
sequence in next campaign took place on Lake Ontario,
and consisted in an attack by a British division and squa¬
dron on Fort Oswego, which, with its stores, fell into our
hands. In the beginning of July an American division,
five thousand strong, crossed the Niagara, already so often
traversed, and obliged the opposing force to retreat. But
the opportune arrival from Bourdeaux of some regiments
which had served in France soon enabled our troops to make
a stand ; and on the 25th of July there took place an action
more obstinate, and better sustained on the part of the Ame¬
ricans, than any that had yet occurred in the war. They
were finally repulsed, but the loss was heavy on both sides.
Some time after, a sally made by the garrison of Fort
Erie against a detachment of British entrenched in the
vicinity, though at first successful, was eventually repulsed.
But a very different result attended an offensive enter¬
prise, on a large scale, attempted by us on the side of
Lake Champlain. For this purpose our commander, Sir
G. Prevost, assembled all his disposable force, amounting,
with the reinforcements from Europe, to nearly fifteen
thousand men, crossed the American frontier, and march¬
ed southward to attack Plattsburgh, a fortified town on
Lake Champlain. The attack on the land side was com¬
bined with that of a flotilla, consisting of a frigate and
several smaller vessels, which, coming within sight on the
11th of September, engaged an American flotilla of near¬
ly equal force. Unfortunately our commanding officer
was killed, and our flotilla captured; a check which,
though in itself of no great moment, induced our general
to make a sudden retreat. This retreat, in the face of so
inferior an enemy, was altogether inexplicable, and ex¬
cited general surprise and disappointment. With it closed
the operations on the side of Canada, each party having
entirely relinquished the idea of offensive war.
As long as there remained a hope of treating with the
Americans, our government had avoided offensive opera¬
tions, and kept the command of our fleet in that station
in the hands of Sir John Borlase Warren, an officer who
joined diplomatic to nautical habits. At last, however, it
became necessary to replace him by one whose spirit of
enterprise was more conformable to the impatient ardour
of our navy. Admiral Cochrane arrived, and lost no time
in concerting an attempt on the American capital, by sail¬
ing up the Patuxent, destroying a flotilla in that river, and Rej; Cy.
landing a military force under Major-General Ross, which ^
attacked the American division posted to defend Wash¬
ington, drove them from their ground, and entered the
capital in the evening. Here private property was re¬
spected ; but of the public buildings there were destroyed
not only the arsenal, the dock-yard, and the war office, but
the houses of the senate and representative body, the resi¬
dence of the president, and the bridge across the Potow-
Our troops, being few in number, retreated soon
mac.   r~7 0 —
after; and embarking anew, proceeded against Baltimore,
where they landed, drove the defending force of the Ame¬
ricans from their position, and approached the town. But
the entrance to the harbour being closed by a barrier of
sunk vessels, co-operation on the part of the navy was im¬
practicable, and our troops were re-embarked without any
loss of consequence, except that of their commander Ge¬
neral Ross. A better result had been obtained in an ex¬
pedition against Alexandria, a trading town on the Potow-
mac, whence a quantity of stores and shipping was brought
away. Success also attended an expedition in a very dif¬
ferent quarter, namely, in the river Penobscot, at the north¬
ern extremity of the United States, adjoining the British
province of New Brunswick. Far different was the result
of an expedition on a larger scale, directed against New
Orleans. Our troops disembarked from the Mississippi,
repelled an assault by the Americans, moved forward, and
came within six miles of the town, where they found the
enemy posted behind a canal, with a breast-work in front,
and their right flanked by the Mississippi. After a fort¬
night passed in mutual preparations, a night attack was
at^last determined on; but, unexpected difficulties re¬
tarding it till day-light, the fire of the Americans from
behind their breast-work was pointed with unerring aim,
and proved extremely destructive. In the short space of
twenty minutes, our three principal officers, and nearly two
thousand privates, were killed or wounded ; and though,
on the opposite side of the river, our attack had been suc¬
cessful, it was determined to relinquish the expedition, and
re-embark the troops. This distressing failure was poor¬
ly compensated by the capture of Fort Mobile, the last
land operation of the war. At sea, our final exploit was
the capture of the American frigate President, of mty-
four guns and four hundred and ninety men.
The peace was signed at Ghent, on the 24th of Decem¬
ber 1814, and its terms afforded a curious exemplification
of the futility of warlike struggles. The territorial pos¬
sessions of both countries were, with a very trifling ex¬
ception, left on the same footing as before the war; anil
not the slightest notice was taken of the questions which
had most strongly excited the spirit of hostility on both
sideS5—neither of the impressment of seamen, a point so
important to the Americans, nor of the limitation ot the
rights of neutral traffic, a topic so often urged among us.
The United States, in no respect a manufacturing coun¬
try, purchased from us merchandise to an extent annua
ly increasing, and which, in 1807, had reached the amoun
of L.12,000,000 sterling. Every addition to their capital,
every year that they passed in peace and prosperity, m
creased their value to us in a commercial sense; win e ev a
blow given to their productive funds necessarily opera
in diminution of their purchases and payments, flu ,
from acting on these impressions, the ministry o
eagerly seized the opening given them by the vio ence
Bonaparte to assail the trade of America, and issuefl,
November, those orders which “ prohibited all
tercourse from a neutral port to trance, oi her n
states, unless the neutral vessels intended for such vcv » g
touched first at a port in the British dominions, an P ,
duty.” This singular measure was vindicated, no
rency. in itself, but as a trespass on neutral rights justified by the
W previous trespasses of the French government. It would
it was argued, distress that part of the Continent subject
to Bonaparte, and excite discontent against his govern¬
ment ; but the real motive was to cramp and control the
trade of neutrals. That the Americans would not submit
to such humiliating conditions, our government was well
aware; but it knew also that they had neither army nor
navy, and would not, at least for several years, resort to
the alternative of war. So far our calculation was correct •
but the question of national advantage we entirely mis¬
conceived. For what was the practical operation of these
restrictive edicts ? The trade of the Americans with the
Continent was suspended, and the remittances formerly
made to us from the sale of their goods—remittances not
overrated at four or five millions a year—were made no
more. Our bank paper fell, more from that than from any
other cause, into a discredit which occasioned a loss of
twenty, thirty, and eventually nearly forty per cent, on all
subsidies and other government expenditure on the Con¬
tinent. The mercantile insolvencies in America which
followed the orders in council recoiled, in a great degree
on England, whose exporting merchants were the chief
creditors of the bankrupts. Next came the burdens and
the havoc of war; and of every million of American capital
thus diverted from productive industry, the half at least
was lost to the British manufacturer. But this was not all •
the suspended intercourse, and the subsequent appeal to
arms, induced the Americans to attempt to manufacture
for themselves. I his for several years excluded our
goods; and when, upon the return of peace, British mer¬
chandise was poured into the United States, at prices so
BRITAIN.
>39
admissible when our own should be at or below eighty shil- Regency,
ings. Resolutions to that effect were moved on the 17th '
ebruary, and a bil founded on them was soon afterwards
brought in. It still experienced opposition, particularly
from Mr Baring and others, who argued that the limitation
price ought not to be permanent, but subject to a gradua¬
ted abatement during a series of years, till at last the corn
tiade should arrive at that unrestrained state so essential
to commerce at large. But notwithstanding these argu¬
ments, and a tumultuous opposition without doors, the bill
was carried by large majorities in both houses of parlia¬
ment. 1
But from discussions of internal policy, the attention of
parliament was suddenly directed to a more urgent topic ■
we mean the return of Bonaparte from Elba, and a notice of
an immediate augmentation of our forces. An address to
the regent, in support of this augmentation, was carried by
great majorities; and a subsequent motion by Mr Whit-
bread, to prevent our interference for the reinstatement
ot the Bourbons, was lost by two hundred and seventy-
three against seventy-two. Finally, the addresses in ap¬
probation of the treaties with the continental powers were
supported by Lord Grenville, Mr Grattan, and other op¬
positionists ; the numbers in the Lords being a hundred
and fifty-six against forty-four; and in the Commons, three
hundred and thirty-one against ninety-two. The further
proceedings were an approval of the treaty of peace with
America, and of the very questionable transfer of Genoa
to the king of Sardinia. The session was concluded by a
repeal of the law for fixing the price of bread in London
by assize.
The ratification of the peace with America had not been
UPIVOM •ffrirv'* 4-V. ~ *.1    n .i .
low as to defy competition, the consequence’ particularlv vp™ 6 r,ac hCatli°n ° ,e P,eace with America had not been
in the year 1819, was a scene of gen^TSsolv^ncv in tlm ^ thfJ>the*^o™ of the Atlantic, when Bo-
States, which once more recoiled with the most distressing aParte returned from Elba and raised in Europe a fresh
effects on the British creditor. AlltZZTLeresult^ ^ He ^ntUred t0 land with a foice barely
a policy bad in every point of view, and which neither simnl?01 hls persona! safety in a march, and to
had nor could have any decisive influence on the grand Ernn t for WIth the opposite ranks. The
contest in Europe. 1 grand Flencb soldiers are fond of glory, and their attachment
We now return from this necessary digression to tbo ievived at }he S1ght of their leader. They first refused to
ordinary course of our narrative! Parliament assemh ed bPP0Se’ ^ afte^ Presfed forward to join him; and
——— - Parliament assembled he proceeded m a rapid and unresisted march to the capi-
on the 18th November, and, after the transaction of some
embodied re aitlVe Chledy ^ keeping the English militia
onS 9d Prfservi"g the Peace of Ireland, adjourned
arv a Jd December' Ihey met again on the 9th Febru-
S00n after calIed on t0 discuss a most im-
p rtant department of home policy, namely, the corn laws.
of ro?n°fPeC thn re-Urn °f peace’ and large imports
tion of ^ ?ontment’ had early excited the atten-
the snrimr land®d mterest; and a committee, appointed in
commenrT ° iPad .made a report to parliament re¬
wheat nt e prohibition of foreign corn, except when
wieat at home should be at or above the very high price
£ „»*“ I"11 fiVe s.hill‘nSs ‘ha quarter. L pgr„’’eed!
the sons e !.u^ect t(?ak Place that session, and next year
against °f 116 Pub 1C Was 80 unequivocally declared
tion ;nSreXtraV^Sant Pr0P0Slti0.n> that a great reduc-
solutinne n lsPensable’ an(ij on bringing forward the re¬
allow tho ^0nnecte.d Wltb tbe subject, it was proposed to
should h«lrn<P0rtatL0ri °f f°reign wheat whenever our own
limit ann at j°r a^°.V^ eigbty-seven shillings. Still this
titinn«PPeared ^0° blg 1 ’ tbe debates were warm ; the pe-
ing thp^gainSt 116 num.erous ; and, ministers suspend-
cotn,lSUPir’ tbe, main Part of tbe question was in
autumn PpCe ad-laurned to next year. In the summer and
Periencpd°^ uad|!"went a great fall, and the farmers ex-
of thp p, -a UCh dlstress ; the consequence of which, and
tees wa/fW6 glven before the parliamentary commit-
bill in a red government determined to support a corn
i on a rpa R , uctciiunieu 10 supporc a corn
uced scale, foreign wheat being rendered in-
tal. Ought England to participate in the coalition formed
to expel this intruder, and to reinstate the Bourbons? On
t iib question there existed, either in parliament or the
public, very little difference of opinion ; so great was the
enmity inspired by Bonaparte, and such the dread of in¬
cessant war under his sway. Our ministry soon took their
determination; our continental allies were unanimous in
the cause; and not a day was lost in preparing for the in¬
vasion of France. The Netherlands, it was evident, would
be the first scene of operations. Thither the Prussians
pressed with all the ardour inspired by recent wrongs and
a present desire of vengeance; thither were conveyed
from England troops, ammunition, and stores, with all the
dispatch afforded by the undisputed command of the sea.
By the end of May or beginning of June the Prussian and
British force in the Netherlands was superior to any that
could be mustered by Bonaparte. It was not till the se¬
cond week of June that his disposable force, to the num¬
ber of a hundred and fifteen thousand men, was collected
in fiont of the allied line. This was effected with great
secrecy and dispatch. He joined the camp on the 14>th,
and caused his troops to march early on the 15th, driving in
successively the Prussian outposts at Charleroi and Fleu-
rus. From the point whence he marched to Ligny, the
Prussian head-quarters, the distance was thirty miles; to
Brussels, the head-quarters of Lord Wellington, was near¬
ly twice as far; and all Bonaparte’s hope rested on fight¬
ing his opponents separate and unsupported. Intelligence
of the first movements of the French reached Lord^Wel-
540
BRITAIN.
Regency, lington in the afternoon of the 15th, and made him forth-
with prepare for the march, which, however, he delayed
until the arrival of a second courier from the Prussians,
and of advices from his own outposts, which should show
whether there was any serious attack on other points. In
the evening accounts arrived which left no doubt that the
mass of the French army was directed against the Prus¬
sians ; and orders to march were in consequence issued
in all directions, so as to reach even remote stations be¬
tween three and four in the morning. Our troops be¬
gan their march from almost every point at day-light, all
moving on to Quatre Bras, a spot where four roads meet,
and distant seven miles from Ligny. After marching be¬
tween six and seven hours, several of the divisions stopped
to take rest and refreshment; but they were hurried from
their unfinished meal by dragoons dispatched to accelerate
their advance, for Lord Wellington had by the way're¬
ceived intelligence of the rapid approach of the French.
Proceeding promptly with his escort, he had time to reach
the head-quarters of the Prussians, and to learn from their
impatient commander, that, without knowing the num¬
bers of the French, or their plan of attack, he was deter¬
mined to accept battle on that day, and upon the ground
which he then occupied. Lord Wellington had no con¬
trolling power. All he could do was to lessen the pressure
on his allies, by pushing, as much as possible, such part
of the French as might be opposed to the British. This
interview took place between one and two o’clock; and
his lordship, returning forthwith to Quatre Bras, found the
French tirailleurs already in possession of the wood which
skirted and commanded the road. Immediate orders were
given to drive them out, a task which devolved on the
highlanders arriving from Brussels, and the guards from
Enghein, each after a march of twenty-five miles. They
succeeded in expelling the French; but the want of ar¬
tillery and cavalry, neither of which came up till late at
night, prevented them from pushing forward with effect.
Fresh bodies of the French were now seen advancing ; and,
on the other hand, regiments of British successively reach¬
ed the ground. The conflict spread, and was maintained
with great gallantry on both sides, but with hardly any other
plan than that of fighting straight forward. At first the
French possessed considerable advantages, and their caval¬
ry, charging rapidly through the fields of rye, a grain which
grows in Flanders to a great height, came unexpectedly
on some of our battalions, which suffered severely in conse¬
quence, but fairly repelled their antagonists. As our re¬
inforcements came up, the superiority was progressively
acquired by us. The French were driven back, and Ney,
who commanded, sent to order up a body of twenty thou¬
sand men, which had arrived within three miles of Quatre
Bras ; but the answer was, that they had countermarched to
Ligny by order of Bonaparte. They were soon afterwards
ordered back, but were unable to join Ney until nine at
night, when the fighting had ceased, and the field of action
x'emained in possession of the British. The force engaged
on either side did not exceed twenty-five thousand men.
Our loss amounted to about five thousand ; whilst that of
the French appears to have been considerably greater.
Both sides fully expected a new battle the next morning.
The British, by the arrival of all their divisions, now formed
a large army. The French, still strangers to the firmness
of our troops, attributed their failure to accidental causes,
and declared that their cavalry had been repulsed, parce
quils riavaient pas franckement aborde Vennemi.
Meanwhile there had been fought at Ligny a battle on
a larger scale, and with greater preparation. On the slope
of a rising ground, which, however, was much exposed, a
Prussian army, of no less than eighty thousand men, await¬
ed the attack of Bonaparte. The fighting began between
two and three o’clock, by the French gaining possession Reg :v,
of the village of St Amand, on the Prussian right. To re- Wy J
occupy this village Blucher made repeated efforts; and it
was during one of the most furious of these that Bona¬
parte is understood to have ordered round the corps, the
absence of which was so bitterly regretted by Ney. The
battle now raged fiercely along the whole line. The masses
of Prussian infantry drawn up on the slope were much thin¬
ned by the French artillery ; but in the village of Ligny,
which was repeatedly taken and retaken, the slaughter
was peculiarly great. Such was the course of the engage¬
ment till the evening at half-past eight o’clock, when the
French reserve, marching forward in columns, obliged the
Prussians to leave the long-contested field. Their loss on
this dreadful day was little short of twenty thousand; that
of the French exceeded ten thousand.
Next day Bonaparte adopted the plan of detaching under
Grouchy a body of thirty-four thousand men to follow the
retiring Prussians, whilst, with the mass of hisforce, seventy-
one thousand in number, he turned against the British, in
the hope of fighting a battle at the head of superior num¬
bers. Lord Wellington knew not the retreat of his allies
till morning, when a similar measure on his part became
indispensable; but as his army was in the best state, and
as the Prussians had just received a reinforcement, retreat
was necessary only until reaching a position favourable for
fighting, and for awaiting the co-operation of his allies.
Waterloo, he well knew, presented these advantages: his
march thither met with no annoyance from the French;
and the only fighting which took place on the 17th was at
Genappe, in a cavalry action begun by our rear-guard. Bo¬
naparte following with his van-guard, reached the ground
opposite to our position, and in the evening ordered a par¬
tial cannonade to ascertain if we occupied the latter with
an intention to remain. Concluding in the affirmative, he
began arrangements for a battle ; and next morning he
continued under a similar impression, although in his army
there was a general belief that we would not venture to
await their onset. At ten o’clock he perceived by his
glass, in march at a great distance, a corps which he im¬
mediately concluded to be Prussians. Ihis necessitated
his posting a body of above eight thousand men on his
right to receive them; a disposition which deprived him
of his numerical superiority, and caused the battle of W a¬
terloo to be fought between equal or nearly equal forces. It
began soon after mid-day by an attack on the post of Hou-
goumont, a chateau or country-seat in front of our right,
surrounded by an orchard. The possession of this point
would have favoured the approach of the French to oiu
right wing; but though they drove us from the orchard,
all their efforts proved ineffectual against our troops, a de¬
tachment of guards, stationed in the building and within
the court wall. This attack, though very obstinate and san¬
guinary, was in the eye of either commander only a prelude
to the great onset in the centre, which commenced towards
two o’clock, being planned by Bonaparte, and conducted
by Ney, whose station during the action was in the mg
road leading straight to our centre. Our army made htt e
show, the battalions being formed in squares, and pai }
concealed from view by the sinuosities of ground; w i
between each square there were openings sufficient to en¬
able the battalions to deploy into line, as weff as to attor
our cavalry space to advance and charge. ^ ^
were further placed en echiquier, like a chess-board, so
the enemy’s cavalry, in venturing through an 0Penin^’ j
posed itself to a fire in front from the opposite squaie,
to a double flank fire from the squares which it had P ‘
Yet this firm array did not appal the French CL”ra . J-
who, confiding in past successes and in the pio ^ f
their armour, repeatedly tried the deadly experi
incr-
BRITAIN.
attack. Never was the impetuosity of the French more cher likely to act with discretion „n.l •
conspicuous, and never was it more effectually opposed, sonallv at p , s and 111 remaining per- Regency,
whether we consider the firmness of our troopsfthe itS t°ent ™fdiutor hT.?, ?f„keeP'n?,>>ear to his impa-
ment of our general, or the efficiency of our artillery/ The 16th and retreated on /! e'e”"" fi81,tlDg »n the
only ground gained by the French was the central point of forces won7d W h 7 'i or,t,fteen mi^, the allied
La HayeSamteand the space immediately in front of our their numbers „ b b i ““petely m co-operation; and
line,-the whole being attended, said Ney, by a carnage deprived Bona„„r en„fr “ ^ th?USand' would h1"'*
the most dreadful he had ever seen. Meanwhile Bonl- From W.3 f °l,eV-er}' ,chan,ce of success-
parte watched anxiously the moment when a partial breach an almost ,‘,„i ,°0 t0 1 a.ris’ tlu? ai-lva,|ce of the allies was
Sr disorder in our line Should afford him a favourable 0p. the toture 'bv OZF d 77'’! marl<ed 0" 0ur Part
pottuaity of at,aching, with his reserve. Ney repeateSfy
pursuit of the enemy. On one occasion (the 2d of Julyj
near Versailles), a corps of French cavalry re-asserted
their claim to fame, and taught the Prussians the hazard
ot a precipitate advance; but the success was partial, the
nnwtW011! °f ParnS £navoidable> and resistance hopeless,
ow that almost all Europe was pouring her armies into
the French territory. Hence the second treaty of Paris
concluded after many vain appeals to the generositv of the
a ims, and which burdened France with Srfturions t
the amount ot nearly thirty millions sterling, exclusive of
the support of an allied army on her frontier. This armv
TEtnpereur. We are now come to the decisive part*of was reduced1817° in llU]ndre1d and thousand men,
the battle, that part in which, till now, whether at Ma- and withdrawn in the end of PUS wlm^hT tll011lsand’
rengo, at Austerhtz, or at Ligny, success had uniformly pect of continued tranouillitv on L r r bare the as‘
attended the charge of a fresh and numerous corps. By The time is scarcelv vm T ’ i „^on.tln?nt"
what means did it fail at Waterloo? The answer is that calm irnmnisditv nf i • ? 1 ainved for viewing, with the
but A* m.re‘
»:!d^^d,7‘>>eapp™a&S; Pilose who kfow tZiSZTZjofZ French'nS
at that time, their general wish for peace, and the reduced
condition of their army, can have no doubt that the efforts
which subsequently poured forth such a host of combat-
r— ^ -  0 ....... ...» xcov-ivc. lepeatetuy
intimated an expectation of great success, but could re¬
port no positive advantage, even after the double charge
made by the imperial horse guards at five in the after¬
noon. It became, however, indispensable to act, and Bona¬
parte could hardly doubt that the long-continued conflict
must by this time have greatly weakened our line. Ac¬
cordingly, between six and seven o’clock, the imperial
foot guards, to the number of nearly thirteen thousand
were drawn from behind the ridge which had hitherto
covered them from our fire; directed to advance along the
high road leading to our centre ;'and harangued by Bona¬
parte, whom they answered with reiterated cries of Five
moved round an additional force from his left to his
centre, and directed our battalions to deploy from their
squares into a line four deep. Its formidable aspect, and
umphed nor would a military adventurer, like Bonaparte,
charge by the guards. Their ranks, however, were ra¬
pidly thinned, for the fire from the British line was much
more extensive and destructive than that of the columns
of the enemy It was now that the duke perceived the
approach of the Prussian main body, and ordered a ge¬
nera forward movement; the French retired, at first
slowly and m good order; but seeing that behind them
an was ta mo-
have had the means of acquiring an ascendency. Louis
XVI. might have been brought to the scaffold, and republi¬
can visions might have prevailed for a season ; but the eves
of the people would have been opened to the blessings of a
constitutional monarchy much earlier than when threaten¬
ed with invasion, and obliged, in self-defence, to throw un-
all was falling into confusion the Trill 1^ i T invasion’ a^ obliged, in self-defence, to throw un-
son train cutting ^rfrace^ WaS‘ due P0^ 7° ‘he hand*, of their new rulers. The first great
•o S-r the high-road SttpruS’s “tST,? A-1;792’ ™ 7 a« of V
o gam the high road to which the Prussians were fast ad
ancing, the retreat soon became a rout. Our troops ad¬
vanced over the field of battle, crossed the hollow beyond
it, and towards nine at night reached the ridge occupied
fill /reTh ,StaE durinS the day* Their task was now
Tm, oT V16 Prussian® were left to pursue the flying
- y* be loss on our side amounted to thirteen thou
txia and 1 russia ; but of the continuance of the continental
war after 1 /95 we were almost the sole cause. Belgium
and Holland had, it is true, fallen into the hands of France,
and to recover them was an object of the highest interest •
but in attempting this, our ministers made no adequate al¬
lowance for the jealousies, the prejudices, we may add the
sand men • thai “‘“V “m Leen ™ou- incapacity, of the governments whose aid was indispensable
thelorcausedtv ihl p C1 0pPTd t0 US’ exclusive of to success- In 1803 circumstances had become extremelv
This great halt e disXvendS’noaSr °Ut tw!nty th1ousafd* embarrassing. France was confirmed in the possession of
was formed and H ! wlTT manoeuvring; the plan the Netherlands and Italy, and at the disposal of an ambi-
attacks and nhll f , aS a succession of impetuous tious ruler, who studied in peace only the means of fur-
commamlm )stlnate repulses; but the talents of either ther encroachment. What course was our eovernmeni t
•r^r4ToT;ri::%^,rslyff?Aayed;7^ fo"o,v? wfe*hey,oc„„,“pr:at7t“°
other in never nermiftinl tL ?! ? 7 ’rcc’,lh‘1! oul' tvul,tual safetJ “> the progressive extension of our re-
them from tiiefi Zund ™ 6°” f f‘S tr00p,3 f° 7d fomces ani1 .the improvement of our army; or were they
pJan. BonanflrLg deviate from a defensive to resort to immediate war, and present, by our declared
‘way his supS ca^aTrv1 o efl^° TT5 ^ a rallying Point to otljpower’s ? 7 In experlen-
«mdly, as aPconseauo Tp nf i? J In, !e aC IOn h and’ Sel Ced govf nment would have preferred the former ; the mi-
his guards who ilinn i fi US’ ?r eung the advance of mstry of 1803 adopted the latter, not from views of am-
at a particular point hid Pen^trate our lme bition, but from yielding to that popular impulse, which it
when unsupnorLd L n d T T6 °f fam?g a ,vlctory would noh however, have been impracticable to guide and
bf' S^n WaPP and1were besides likely to control. As to the course of the war, it was, during the
be
hattfo Lord winfn~f^ar"gUard t0 t,heir own army* In the first two years, a contest without decided succesl on either
ror. On ti. e ilnSton appears to have committed no er- side. T 1 ‘ 1
ror- On the precedlTdavTT8 r° TT comm,tte^ n° fr- ?^ae- h] its third year, an ill-conducted coalition gave to
preceding days his fault lay in supposing Blu- France that superiority which was to be expected in the
542
BRITAIN.
Regency, case of a great military power directed by a single head.
Such, in a further degree, was the result of the continental
operations of 1806 and 1807. In 1808 Spain occasioned an
unexpected change in the calculations of politicians, and
showed, in an encouraging light, the power of popular re¬
sistance ; still its effects, aided even by our military means,
produced little decisive of the grand objects of the war.
We were proceeding with great zeal and gallantry, but
without any definite hope or object, when^ a catastrophe,
as little expected by ourselves as by the French, entirely
changed the aspect of affairs, and made it incumbent on
us to omit no exertion, financial or military, to redeem the
independence of Europe. The success was complete ; but
it was not till the close of the struggle that we became
aware of the amount of the sacrifices which had been in¬
curred in its prosecution.
Parliament met on the 1st of February, and, after some
business of minor importance, proceeded, in March, to dis¬
cuss the interesting question of our military peace esta¬
blishment. The navy had been reduced with sufficient
promptitude ; but there seemed, on the part of government,
a disposition to keep the army on a scale neither required
by the general tranquillity of Europe, nor justified by our
financial means, which exhibited several symptoms of de¬
cline. Yet a motion for so moderate a reduction as ten
thousand from the proposed number of land forces was
negatived by two hundred and two to a hundred and thir¬
ty ; and, in long debates which ensued relative to the army
estimates, ministers carried every point, and were likely to
keep up the whole upon an expensive scale ; when, on the
18th of March, after a long and animated discussion, the
question of continuing the property-tax, modified to five
per cent., was decided against them by a majority of thirty-
seven ; there being two hundred and thirty-eight against
two hundred and one. This signal and unexpected defeat
necessitated a relinquishment of the war malt-duty, and a
general reduction of expenditure, which we should have
in vain expected from the reason or reflection of our rulers.
Another measure of importance was the regulation, af¬
ter a long investigation, of the civil list, on a footing which
was adopted as a standard in the beginning of the present
reign. This was followed by acts for the consolidation of
the English and Irish exchequers, and for the exemption of
the bank from cash payments during two years ; and, final¬
ly, by an act for striking off a new silver coinage. Among
the minor proceedings of the session may be mentioned a
grant of L.60,000 a year to the Princess Charlotte and her
husband, with a provision, unfortunately too soon required,
of L.50,000 to the latter in the event of her demise.
This year was distinguished by an important naval ope¬
ration, namely, the attack upon Algiers. A project had
been submitted to the sovereigns assembled at Vienna in
1814, and at Paris in 1815, for the expulsion of the Turk¬
ish militia from the Barbary states; but the representa¬
tives of the cabinet of London opposed this proposition, on
the pretext that the existence of these states had been
guaranteed by treaties; and as the scheme for expelling
the Turks had been coupled with an absurd proposal to
replace the janissaries with the conventual and military
order of the knights of Malta, the success of the English
opposition excited no regret.1 It was generally agreed,
however, that an end ought to be put to Christian slavery.
This was a necessary consequence of the principle which
had been adopted and promulgated relative to negro sla¬
very ; and England, which had procured the recognition
of the one, undertook the honourable task of effecting the
other. But the measures at first resorted to were by no
means adequate to the accomplishment of the end in view,
and of course failed. An attempt was made to mediate
between the regency of Algiers and the kingdoms of Sar¬
dinia and Naples; and Lord Exmouth, with a fleet of twenty-
six ships, of which six were of the line, was employed to
superintend this negociation. His Lordship accordingly
appeared before Algiers in the month of April 1816; the
dey yielded; and peace was re-established between these
powers “ en favorisent 1’avarice du gouvernement Alge-
rien.” But all of a sudden the English government as¬
sumed a higher tone, and transmitted orders to Lord Ex¬
mouth to demand of the dey, first, the immediate libera¬
tion of all Christian slaves; secondly, restitution of the
sums which had been paid by the courts of Naples and
Sardinia for the ransom of such of their subjects as had
been dragged into slavery; thirdly, the renunciation for
ever of the practice of reducing to slavery the subjects of
the Christian powers of Europe; fourthly, an obligation
to treat the subjects of Hanover on the same footing and
in the same manner as those of Great Britain.
The situation of Lord Exmouth was disagreeable and
embarrassing; inasmuch as he was called upon to present,
in the month of May, conditions altogether different from
those which had been tendered and accepted in the month
of April immediately preceding. But the die was now
cast. Omar Pasha indignantly rejected the new proposi¬
tions which the admiral was commanded to submit to
him ; and having assembled a general divan, obtained the
concurrence of the tchiorbagis, the odobachys, and the
yoldaches, who rent the air with their ferocious cries, de¬
claring that they would rather perish than submit to pro¬
positions so humiliating. Pressed by the admiral, how¬
ever, to give a distinct and categorical answer, the dey
had recourse to finesse. He was a subject, he said, of
the Ottoman Porte. The question at issue was one of
the highest importance, and could not be resolved in a
definitive manner by him and the militia of Algiers. It
was therefore indispensable that he should take the or¬
ders of the grand seignior respecting it. Lord Exmouth
was not deceived by this specimen of Algerine diplomacy.
He knew that the pasha was a man of resolution as well
as of address; that he was certain of the support of his fu¬
rious and fanatical subjects; and that his sole object was
to gain time in order to prepare for the conflict which,
he foresaw, was impending. However, he affected to be
for the present satisfied with the dey’s answer, and with¬
drew to Gibraltar, ostensibly to wait for the decision of the
Porte, but in reality for definitive orders from his own go¬
vernment. The latter had already decided on its course.
A powerful squadron was accordingly fitted out a
Portsmouth, and dispatched to Gibraltar to reinforce e
admiral, who, after its arrival, had under his orders v
sail of the line, two of them three-deckers, five frigates0
the largest and second class, five sloops of war, four bo
vessels, five gun-boats, furnished each with a '
pound carronade, and a dock-yard sloop converte in
fire-ship or explosion vessel; in all twenty-five ship
vessels of war. At Gibraltar six Dutch friga es,
the orders of Vice-admiral Van Gapellen, reques
1 Speaking of this scheme, Colonel Juchereau de Saint Denys remarks, “ C’etait mettre le fanatisme Catholiqu ? lementde-
tisme Mahometan ; c’etait suhstituer a une classe oisive et improductive, une classe dgalement ennemie du tra la|ion entiere-
pourvue d’industrie. C’etait d’ailleurs un acte du pure demence et cruaute que de vouloir fame gouverner une pp ^ leg enne.
ment Mussulmane par des moines militaires qui n’avaient ete cre'es que pour combattre perpetuellement et a 0 . e'chos parn»
mis du nom Chretien, et particulierement les disciples de Mahomet. Cependant ce projet absurde avait pu trouve
les diplomates du congres de Vienne.” Pp. 118, 119.
rs
^ L
■ncy. join the British fleet in the approacliing attack, and pro-
bably had stations assigned them, although it does not ap¬
pear in the very precise and masterly order of battle given
out by Lord Exmouth. The fleet arrived before Algiers
on the 27th of August 1816. The wind was favourable
and a light breeze enabled the ships to take the positions
which had been assigned to them. Lord Exmouth then
transmitted his ultimatum to the dey. It embodied in
substance the propositions presented in May, and required
an immediate answer. None whatever was returned. The
decision of the question was left to the arbitrement of
battle. The fleet instantly weighed, and, led by the fla«-
ship, Queen Charlotte, of a hundred and twenty guns
came to anchor within pistol shot, or rather less, of the
batteries on the Mole, and those situated towards the
western part of the town. The Queen Charlotte anchor¬
ed across the entrance of the port, so as to take in flank
and reverse such of the batteries as were furthest ad¬
vanced, and she was supported by the Superb and Im¬
pregnable, which were directed to anchor as close to her
as possible, to be made fast to each other, and hove too-e-
ther in order to concentrate their fire. The Albion had
orders to supply the place of either of the two last men¬
tioned ships that might be thrown out; and, in case of
both getting their places, to present her broadside against
a flanking battery of three guns, and enfilade the northern
part of the works by throwing part of her fire upon the
upper tier of the light-house battery. The Dutch appear
to have taken their station on the left, in order to produce
a diversion by commanding the exterior batteries and forts
of the eastern part of the place. All these movements
were executed with that admirable order and precision
which distinguish the operations of the British navy, and
also without opposition. _ The dey, it is said, wished to
avoid the reproach of being the first to commence hostili-
ties; and it has been thought that this capital fault contri¬
buted to decide the fate of the action. But this is a mis¬
take Had the Algerines opened their fire on the ships
as they approached, the casualties might have been more
numerous, but the result would have been the same.
cei uru t]le Bnt1?11 llne of attack had been completely
established, two shots were fired on the flag ship from
flh,AgTibattCry °/ the Mo,e- The in8tai’t ‘aw the
flash of the guns, Lord Exmouth gave the word “ Fire
away my lads, and the cannonade immediately became
general. Ihe battle commenced at three o’clock in the
a ternoon, and continued without any intermission until
shi'c ln. .1^e^eninSj when a land breeze springing up, the
nec^r6^ anchor’ and gained an offing, to prepare, if
was n °r 3 rene'?1 of the attack* Wh‘le the combat
marlnL 6r lSti a ?etachment of English seamen and
„ " S ^ntered the harbour amidst a murderous fire of
Bea.nd musketry, and succeeded in setting fire to and
Sc?™8/116 .Wh<;h °.f the Algerine flee?; an event
Alpipra at .e .a leir,hle impression on the population of
then f ’ !n fact competed its demoralization. They
had ilTi WiMt a formidable and daring enemy they had
cave J! 'ardlhood t0 contend withal; and horror soon
of the / 1 k d.esPair‘ The deJ durst not risk a renewal
his unnn^Tfi^a’ ^Ut neXt da^ 0f August) gave
hours L lfiCdi as1enJt t0 the propositions which, twenty
terms tlvT’ scorned even to entertain. The
were first^the tT i E^n?.0!Jth had the glory to dictate
ture Jrf’ f,1.16 tata! abolition of Christian slavery in fu-
in the tf°n; y-’the lmmediate liberation of all slaves with-
ever nation Tp68 and dePenden.cies of Algiers, of what-
tbe hands; mJght be; thirdly, the restitution into
which S u He Erlgll?h udmlral of the various sums
year hv n •?-en paid since tke commencement of the
y Christian powers for the ransom of their subjects
BRITAIN.
543
dragged into slavery; fourthly, an indemnification to the Regency
English consul for the losses he had sustained, and an
apology by the dey in the presence of his ministers and
officers for the indignities which the consul had suffered
in being arrested and detained in prison during the battle.
This was followed by the conclusion of a treaty of peace
with the Netherlands, by which all arrears were discharged,
and that country ceased to figure among the tributaries
of Aigmrs. Such were the results of this memorable
battle, winch, to use the words of Sir Charles Ekins
P' 304\“ b°re the character of a crusade
n behalf of Europe, rather than on the part of Great Bri-
am a one, which excited a prodigious sensation through¬
out all Christendom, and which was believed to have put
a final stop to Barbary piracies and depredations.”
A general want of work and reduction of wages conti¬
nued during the year, subjecting the lower orders to great
distress, and exposing them to the arts of designing de¬
magogues. Large assemblages, particularly in Spafields,
oo place previous to the meeting of parliament; and
on the day of its opening (the 28th of January) the regent
was insulted on his way to the House of Lords. A secret
committee of each house was soon afterwards appointed
to examine papers in the possession of government, said to
bear evidence of serious projects of insurrection ; and each
made a speedy report, declaring the existence of very dan-
geious societies. I here was in these reports a strain of
confident allegation, unaccompanied by specific proof or
temperate reasoning, which brought to recollection the
declamatory state papers of the French revolution, and
gave the reports the appearance of documents framed to
disseminate alarms, and justify extreme measures. They
engaged, however, the serious attention of the house, and
the resul t was a bill for the suspension of the habeas cor¬
pus act during the current session of parliament; a mea¬
sure carried in the Lords by a hundred and fifty to thirty-
five, and in the Commons by two hundred and sixty-five to
a hundred and three. Towards the close of the" session
a second report from the secret committees produced an
act for continuing the suspension of the habeas corpus to
the 1st of March 1818.
The continued want of work, and the distress of the lower
orders, led to an act for authorizing the issue of exche¬
quer bills to persons finding employment for the poor.
Hie same causes inducing the public to call loudly for re¬
trenchment, the opposition, on the 25th of February, took
the sense of the House of Commons on a motion to reduce
the number of the lords of the admiralty, and mustered
a hundred and fifty-two votes against two hundred and
eight. As an offering on the part of government to the
prevaihng demand for retrenchment, an act was passed for
abolishing the two sinecure offices of justice in Eyre.
Mr Abbot, who had filled the office of speaker of the
house since 1802, finding himself incapable, from conti¬
nued indisposition, of performing its arduous duties, sent
in his resignation, and was succeeded by the Right Ho¬
nourable Charles Manners Sutton. Mr Abbot was forth¬
with raised to the peerage by the title of Baron Colches¬
ter; and, on the 6th of June, a vote passed the Commons
for settling on him a life annuity of L.4000.
. 1 arliament was opened on the 27th of January under
circumstances which indicated that the want of work and
the distress of trade, though still considerable, were less se-
nous than in the preceding year. A secret committee,
appointed anew by each house, reported to that effect;
and on their recommendation was brought in a bill to
indemnify persons, chiefly magistrates, who had acted in
apprehending and detaining individuals suspected of trea¬
sonable practices. This bill was not carried without con¬
siderable opposition.
544
BRITAIN.
Regency. The death of the Princess Charlotte having caused a
--w blank in the succession to the crown, the marriage of the
royal dukes became a subject of consideration; but the
provision for any increase of expenditure was exposed to
difficulty, as well from the distress of the public, as from the
near approach of the time when the members were to meet
their constituents. A motion made by ministers to grant
L.10,000 additional to the Duke of Clarence was not suc¬
cessful, an amendment for reducing it to L.6000 having
been carried by a hundred and ninty-three to a hundred
and eighty-four. Votes, equally restricted, were passed
in the case of the Dukes of Kent and Cambridge ; and an
attempt to obtain a similar grant to the Duke of Cumber¬
land, who had been several years married, was negatived
by a hundred and forty-three to a hundred and forty-six ;
but a provision of L.6000 a year was made for the duchess
in case she should survive him.
Among the transactions of this year was a'grant of
L.400,000 to Spain, as a compensation for losses attend¬
ant on an early abolition of the slave-trade by that power.
Certain acts were also passed for the humane treatment
of negroes in our sugar colonies. The bank exemption
act being about to expire, Mr Vansittart brought in a bill
for continuing it another year, on the ground that the loans
now contracting in England for France and Prussia car¬
ried capital out of the country, and prevented the bank,
for a time at least, from diminishing its paper circulation.
Mr Brougham having, early in the session, brought in a
bill for investigating the abuses of public charities, it was
referred to a committee, and, after some discussion in the
Commons, passed to the Lords. There it encountered
opposition from Lords Eldon and Redesdale, and was
returned to the Commons with material alterations; the
commissioners charged with the inquiry being limited in
their powers, and restricted to charities connected with
education. The act, however, passed in this state, and
the labours of the commissioners, like those of the com¬
mittee on the education of the poor, have been productive
of much public advantage. The session was closed on 10th
June by a speech from the regent, containing a notice,
not only of the prorogation, but of the dissolution of par¬
liament ; a measure which for many years had been an¬
nounced by proclamation.
The new parliament met on the 14th of January 1819,
and on the 21st proceeded to business. The demise of the
queen having taken place during the recess (on the 17th
November), one of the first measures was to vest the cus¬
tody of the king’s person in the Duke of York, who, very
imprudently, under the circumstances of the country, de¬
manded and received from parliament an annual allowance
of L.10,000 for discharging an act of filial duty. This
formed a striking contrast to the conduct of the Marquis
of Camden, who, possessed of the lucrative sinecure of
teller of the exchequer, relinquished L.9000 a year of it
to the public; a sacrifice noticed in honourable terms in a
vote passed in parliament on the occasion.
Such was the addition made to opposition, by an election
under circumstances of general distress, that several mea¬
sures were carried in this session against ministers ; in par¬
ticular, a motion on the 2d of March, by Sir James Mac¬
kintosh, for a revision of the criminal code, where the
numbers were a hundred and forty-seven against a hun¬
dred and twenty-eight, and a motion for a committee on
the state of the Scottish burghs, carried by a hundred and
forty-nine to a hundred and forty-four. In the division on
the grant of L.10,000 to the Duke of York, the opposition
mustered a hundred and eighty-six votes against two
hundred and eighty-one. But the impression excited by
these successes was greatly enfeebled by a motion, which
arrayed on one side all the strength of government and
that of the neutral party. We allude to Mr Tierney’s ft
motion for an “ inquiry into the state of the nation,” which ''■«
was negatived by three hundred and fifty-seven to a hun¬
dred and seventy-eight; a division evincing that, though
disposed to co-operate with opposition occasionally and
for specific objects, the neutral party had no wish for a
change of ministry. Encouraged by this success, Mr Van¬
sittart came forward with the bold proposition of new
taxes, to the extent of L.3,000,000, on the ground of a
sum of that amount being absolutely necessary to give
efficiency to the sinking fund. Of this sum the chief part
was expected from an increase of the duties on malt, spi¬
rits, and tobacco; but part also was to be derived from a
tax on foreign wool (6d. per lb.) ; a most singular impost
in a country where the exportation of manufactured wool
forms a main branch of the national industry. Ministers
were conscious of its injurious tendency, but were ob¬
liged to bring it forward as an equivalent to the landed
interest, for the fresh burden exacted from them in the
malt-duty.
The further debates of the session related to the Catho¬
lic question and the resumption of cash payments. In the
contest pending at this time between Spain and her Ame¬
rican colonies, ministers took part with the mother coun¬
try, so far at least as to discourage by act of parliament
the enlistment of our officers and soldiers on the side of
the insurgents. In the preceding session L. 1,000,000 had
been voted for building additional churches and chapels
for the established religion in England; and this year
L. 100,000 was appropriated for a similar purpose to the
established church of Scotland. The last act of the ses¬
sion was a grant made in July, of the limited sum of
L.50,000, to be shared by government among persons set¬
tling on particular conditions at the Cape of Good Hope.
This was the first pecuniary aid given by government to¬
wards emigration, which is accounted by some the only
remedy for our overstock of labourers and manufacturers.
The revival of commercial activity in 1818 proved un¬
fortunately of short duration. Distress returned towards
the end of that year, and assumed an aggravated aspect
in the course of 1819. This produced popular assem¬
blages, and led, on 16th August, to an unfortunate scene
at Manchester, in which the interference of the yeomanry
cavalry to disperse a very numerous meeting of the people
was productive of loss of life to a number of persons, and
of bodily injury to a great many. The irritation excited
among the lower orders by this proceeding, and by the con¬
tinued pressure of poverty, led to the dissemination of a
spirit of discontent and insurrection which necessitated
the assembling of parliament on the 23d November. The
speech of the regent, as well as the discussions of both
houses, were directed to this painful subject; and the
alarm excited among the aristocracy, joined to other con¬
siderations, having finally detached the Grenville part}
from the opposition, the latter now mustered in less for¬
midable array. On the division for an amendment upon
the address to the regent, the numbers were a hundred
and fifty against three hundred and eighty. .
Several bills were afterwards introduced by minister!,
for the prevention of disturbances. These consisted in im¬
posing a tax on the petty publications circulated amon8
lower orders; impeding the circulation of libels; aut on
ing the seizure of arms; and forbidding military trammg
seditious meetings. These bills produced long and anim
ed debates ; but the most considerable division on tne
of opposition, namely, that for limiting the act a8a!ns , 0f
ditious measures to three years instead of five, consis
only a hundred and fifty votes against three hun
twenty-eight. A motion of a more comprehensive
for a committee on the state of the country was neg
:ncy. in the Lords by a hundred and seventy-eio-ht to forty
^ seven ; m the Commons by three hundred and ninety-five
to a hundred and fifty. J
After transacting this and other business of an urgent
nature, parliament adjourned ; but was soon after brought
together by an event which, however conformable to the
course of nature, was not at that time expected, namely,
the death of George III. The day after the demise, agree¬
ably to established usage, both houses met, and took the
oath or allegiance to the new sovereign. On the 2d Feb
ruary they adjourned till the 17th, the day after the inter¬
ment of Ins majesty. On that day both houses voted an
address of condolence to the present king, after which
they proceeded to transact such business as was pressing
and might, according to law. havp nrmt;„.,^i A .1. ■
BRITAIN.
545
hopes of the Catholics" but « ^
severe,gn to their claims induced these m isters to dis"
suade a direct discussion of the question in Siamenf'
under an assurance that they would do whatever should
be otherwise practicable for obtaining the removal of dis
& J ,T,,Abi" 0Abmary I8°7' -S caused
a ferment in fLI ?renv,lle ™'"^try, and excited such
y 1. ■■  out., uusmess as was pressing it whollv m i - o‘n; against the Catholics, as to render
and might, according to law, have continued to s't during vera vew, 6 t0 bnng forward lhe question for se-
six months ; but ministers judged fit to resort to a disso? T„ 1809 the CoM, r • .
lution. Another election now took place under circum- meetings b„ A aC,|COmm,'ttee ln Dubiin public
stances of general distress. The new parliament met on tliio,, ,?. ’ b r confine<> ibemselves to preparing a new ne-
the .1st April, and was opened on tile 27th by George and soimht't.A"'' yea.r they ",ent niucli farther,
IV in a speech declaring his anxiety for strict economy, pe "^s dlnld lf 'mp°fTg attilude’ Proposing tha
but regretting that the state of the country was sucli ns n„?l 'l, ,. 0111 be deputed by each county to Dublin
to admit of no reduction of the military force. dntv if™ “'m a" assembIy. charged not only with the
lie peace of Amiens at first gave hopes of the improve- me/sure.sThrlA P,etl,'°"s '“parliament, but of taking
meat of Ireland by the introduction ofBritish industry and Cathoiic bodv Ihff6 tbe Se"eraI grievances of thf
capital; but these hopes were soon clouded by the reimw Pnl i T ,h secretary tor Ireland, Mr Welleslev
ed contest of 1803. In that contest the public in England Se sheriffs of rnUt'-8 deSlgn-’ addressed circular letters to
and Scotland joined with almost unexampled zeal; but tionof the nrnnn^Wl’ yequirin" tllem to prevent the dee-
Ireland was less cordial, although it would be altogether sons takino-nA^ d df eSate®’ and even to arrest all per-
erroneous to connect with any political party wheflmr Prl . tak n^ Pait in such elections. But this order appear-
Cathohc or Protestant, the miserable insurrection of !he place^i/whiclf M^W 0Pg°*ition’ and a debate^ook
23d of July 1803. A plot to seize Dublin, almost as ex- as the Cad olio Y J* i^- 6 exPlained’tha^ so long
travagant as that of the Cato Street conspiracy in Lon- thevha^ rereGpd ^ ProceedinSs to petitioning^
don, was framed by a few infatuated individuals • and in i l eceived no interruption ; but that the delegates
the tumult, which burst forth with great violence but with P d n S° mUch farther, and that a body, unde? the
feeble means Lord Kilwarden, the^ht^sdce, unW fyTnDublbS11^!0/had ^bledteek!
Fly ost his life. A party of military soon dispersed the sun ori flip 10 T™8 ° Parliament. The house
rabble; and of their leaders, most of whom were afterwards nnK J the ,meas]ure adapted by Mr Wellesley Pole,
apprehended and executed, the only one entitled to no ‘ i I. PPJ0Ved J .16 proceedlngs of the Catholics. Still
bee was Robert Emmett, a young Ln whose eduento cLto , of ti,!”6[1 fv TT" n0t ‘•"('a™'™bl“ to the dis!
ami talents ought to have placed him above such desne- l,i,lvrn ,’" ,c;al cla,ms> on account of tile laurels
by martial law. tr^inS rebels , Tbe same fate attended its discussion next spring
The encouragement so generally given to the voluntpor h™, if/ r eUr e’aps.ed ; and ln the session of 1813 it was
system m England and Scotland /as not extended to Ire- pectSg MrTmn^11 m°re co™bination an^ better pros-
Lnd, from a dread of embodying indiscriminately a ronnlp pff • * i Giattan7 supported by a part of the Cabinet,
°f whom so great a proportion were disaffected. The w o- resoWfn e assent of house to several preliminary
manry, however, or select volunteers of Ireland, were very be removal ‘ tbe Cath°]ic disabilities ought to
umerous, being about eighty thousand • and thpv In3 k* i L second T’ Ibat tbe Catholic clergy should
been highly instrumental in putting down’the unfortunate Ilfme /fmse ves bT °at.h hold no correspondence with
insurrection of 1798. In addition to these, Ireland requir- two comrf ^ eC<;les?f'cal business; and, thirdly, that
a body of our regulars and militia amounting to nearly the lovoltv^f011^8 bboUid be aPP0'uted for examining into
fifty thousand men as a defence against invasion a o-uaf. !, fnl7P,er1S.ons ^ommended as deans or bishops
antee of public tranquillit}% and a check on illicit distflla f, e Catholics. I be time occupied in these dis-
hon and smuggling. The return yielded by Ireland in the" thX7wfS .C0?siderable’ aild gave occasion to the Ca-
j ape of avenue was small, but her supply of recruits to ral of tho 7 .Iie and testify their dissent from seve-
our army and navy was very considerable y ° reC' UltS t0 Id ,°if|h! Provisio"s> particularly from that which restrict
The suspension of the Imbeas corpus act continued in fli t c»rt“P»ndence with Rome. The knowledge of
]v0o, a year remarkable as the first in which the Catholic ,nd d‘ssatls[actlon "'ade a deep impression on parliament,
Sue“,“» was submitted to parliament It wal broS a"d 8“^ a turn to the question which induced the sup^
fotward in the Commons by fc Fox ”n the Vlers hi S P t JS °f Ml t0 " itbdraw it for that session. 1
Crenville; and curiosity was strongly excited h, re™ d of tlm ZTV,*” unfortl,,natlr,y g1"’® farther evidence
u;HMr Prltt’ Wh° had lately accepted office without carrfL Th/ f f per and union among the Catholics.
'*« P««at mTn0 " T • f Catbaba bHl’»P by ‘b“ Britisl"
V0L- V. 0 umenc was against their ment. The intemperate proceedings of the Catholic board
3 z
546
BRITAIN.
Regency, now led government to dissolve that body, and declare its
meetings contrary to law.
These dissensions prevented the question from being
submitted to parliament in 1814. Next year it was brought
forward by Sir Henry Parnell, not by iVir Grattan, who
declared that an unconditional grant of the demands of the
Catholics was not to be expected, and that, without culti¬
vating a spirit of conciliation, they never would succeed.
The motion was lost by a great majority. In 1816 it was
again brought before parliament, but in two distinct peti¬
tions, of which the more temperate, introduced by Mr
Grattan, received the support of a hundred and forty-one
against a hundred and seventy-two.
In the year 1817 the question was proposed by Mr
Grattan, with the same views as in 1813, and supported
by two hundred and twenty-one votes against two hundred
and forty-five. The disappointment caused by this failure
was soothed not only by the large minority, but by a very
substantial concession, obtained soon after, on the proposi¬
tion of ministers, namely, an act to enable Catholic officers
in the army and navy to attain rank nearly on the plan
proposed by the Grenville ministry in 1807. In 1818 the
Catholic question was not agitated; but in 1819 the tone
of that body having become more conciliating, Mr Grat¬
tan’s motion for taking it into consideration was supported
by two hundred and forty-one votes against two hundred
and forty-three. Further details of the progress of this
great measure towards a successful conclusion will be given
in the course of the narrative.1
There is another subject which deserves a particular
notice in this place, more especially as it is connected with
an event of deep and lasting interest. We allude to re¬
form in the representation of the people. For several
years anterior to 1816, the question had been but little
agitated, and seemed to be abandoned to occasional de-
claimers and mere pot-house politicians. But the general
distress which prevailed during that and the following
years, with the discontent consequent on the privations to
which the working classes were exposed, redirected their
attention to a subject which they had too long lost sight
of; and as it seemed obvious that the pressure of taxation,
added to the evils occasioned by a transition from a state
of war to a state of peace, formed the principal obstacle to
the development of our resources, and the expansion of Reg; y,
the productive powers of industry, an opinion began to ^ j
gain ground among the people, that the evils under which
they suffered would never be materially mitigated, much
less effectually cured, until a reform had been effected in
our system of representation. One of the first symptoms
or manifestations of the revival of an interest in this ques¬
tion was afforded by the Spafields meeting, which took
place on the 2d December 1816 ; and although the tumult
and violence in which that assemblage issued produced
considerable alarm, and brought no little discredit on the
cause, yet the defeat of government in the state prosecu¬
tions which followed, the continued pressure of distress,
and, above all, the invincible truth that the people were in¬
adequately represented, and that they experienced many
of the evils of the worst government under one held forth
as the best, served to overcome every disadvantage, and
to keep alive the interest which had previously been ex¬
cited. The Spafields riots were soon forgotten; and al¬
though no overt manifestations of any consequence took
place during the two following years, still the conviction
of the necessity of parliamentary reform continued to gain
ground, and the cause began to find advocates in quarters
where it had previously been regarded with indifterence,
if not with aversion. Reformers, though agreed in prin¬
ciple, were indeed much divided in regard to detail, or
rather as to the extent to which the principle ought to be
carried; and extreme doctrines began to be openly and
boldly promulgated by many persons, who about the year
1819 received the appellation of radical reformers, and
were at this time regarded with affected contempt, but
with real terror, by the partizans of the existing system.
But neither this diversity of views, nor the dread which
many persons entertained or pretended of radical theories,
retarded the progress of the cause, or prevented it from
daily gaining new converts. On the 12th of July 1819
Birmingham ventured on the bold experiment of electing
a legislatorial attorney to represent that great town in the
House of Commons; and on the 16th of August follow¬
ing took place that memorable meeting at Manchester,
already mentioned as accompanied with such disastrous
results.
Such were the final acts of 1819, and of the reign of
J The following table exhibits, in a synoptical form, the times and results of the parliamentary discussion of the CathoUc Ques¬
tion from 1805 to 1819 inclusive.
1805   
1806  
1807-8-9 
1810 
1811 
1812, April 21...
July 1....
1813, Feb. 25...
March 9...
May 11...
  13...
  24...
House of Lords.
Motion for taking into consideration the Petition of the Irish Roman Catholics
Not brought forward, in consequence of Mr Fox’s advice.
Not brought forward.
Motion for a Committee of the whole House 
The same 
The same   
For taking it into consideration next year 
For a Committee of the whole House      
For leave to bring in a Bill for removing disqualifications, &c.
For a Select Committee  
A Motion against the Bill negatived    
A Motion (by the Speaker) for omitting the words in the bill, “To sit and
vote in either House of Parliament” 
{Not debated in the Lords this year.)
Not brought forward.
For a Committee of the whole House..... 
For consideration next year 
For a Committee of the whole House 
Not brought forward.
For a Committee of the whole House.
49
68
62
102
125
178 129
154
121
174
126
86
59
72
1
124
109
83
215
235
264
186
187
245
25
336
213
146
300
106
224
119
235
203
247
2
212
104
63
85
129
40
67
48
42
nof George III. The public conduct of this monarch, and the
elj. tendency of the political principles by which it was eovern-
ed, the reader will judge of for himself, from the narra¬
tive of the events of his reign ; as to his private and do¬
mestic character, it is admitted on all hands to have been
highly respectable. He was distinguished for probity and
a sense of religious obligation ; in his habits aid maimers
he displayed equal moderation and simplicity; his disno-
sition, though unyielding, was benevolent; and both as a
husband and a parent he was highly estimable. His in¬
tellectual faculties, originally of no high order, were ner-
manentiy clouded by the constitutional malady which ex¬
hibited itself at an early period of his life ; he adhered
with invincible obstinacy to the maxims of government
instilled into his mind by his early instructors; and he
cherished an attachment to the church of which he was
the head, that amounted to a species of blind and blun¬
dering bigotry. Yet he loved and patronized the fine arts,
pai ticularly music and painting ; he collected a noble lib¬
rary; he had a taste for agriculture and some of the me¬
chanic arts; and he was at once plain and unpretending
in his manners; all which circumstances go very far in
Up rnfh0? 3 cmS* and the Penal laws against
the Catholics formed the things which, next to his own
family, he was most attached to ; and his scruples of con¬
science long stood m the way of national justice.
CHAP. XVIII.
BRITAIN.
547
REIGN OF GEORGE IV.
ASitL0K?n7gI^rASpm!,-ling °f Parliament—Message
SnsairLv IthSw !i~^a?-an?ent di»solved._Cato Street
-j f j tlewood and his Accomplices seized, convict-
the Proceedings against the Queen-State of the Countrv
Dispatch to our Missions Abroad-Earl GreyTMotfonr
Deohm!trOCeedin5SiCOn,nected with it—Motion relative to the
fairs M^Plunkett’s AT S°ngfress Maybach—Internal Af-
Question caVS Rpf w1-011 Co“mittee on the Catholic
-Defea ed FPaatamentary Lambton’s Scheme:
Johnll^llF.oSev0epUV-eTR^0lUtionS Pr°P0sed b-v Dord
Mr Hump’s pm f t l-Cr ProJects—Grampound disfranchised 
humanize th^n ^ ^ ?^0Uir °f Iletrenc-'hment—Attempts to
ciation—DisL^rTthe^ ^ d^eat1d‘~FnnStitUti0nal ASS0-
nulation Atress ot the Agncultural and Manufacturinjj Po-
SniDe7thTrnt Rrwfedings in Parliament—Corona-
menceme^t of01822UeeSe«1rORnp p~^ate °f Aftairs at the com-
rection Act md ?,"~S ® of Parliament—Ireland—Insur-
sures of Severity8 In?810" Hab^a® Corpus—Other Mea-
pularity 77hp r'“i r “rreCtl0nar:yr SPirit unsubdued—Unpo-
sellTMotLihlivr0rrTiLieUitena,nt,~Ilefbrm~I^ord ^hn IlJis-
the Influence of cnPr Ug iam s ProPose(i Resolution respecting
Bifl for ifm a/— Crown—Burgh Reform—Mr Canning’!
mons but t.hrndmiSSIf°n °i Cat,lolic Peers passed by the Com-
—Reductitm^of^thf^xr111 thw Derds.-—Finance—Retrenchment,
the Naval and Milit aVp Per ^ents—Scheme concerning
—Measures for the RpP P,ensions carried, but rendered abortive!
Affairs-ReDea of the exiflng Distress—Commercial
donderry Chfnf ^ P^ws—Death of Lord Lon-
—Reform V A m \he Administration—New Government,
fairs ofSoFn lErF^if T eIa-10nS,-Congress of verona—Af.
tution AnnointmenfhiAVaS10n and 0verthrow of the Consti-
ppointment of Commercial Agents to the New South
of Taxes. Keigi, „f
land—The Catholic Association—The Catholic TW n
at Uie cape ot Good Hope—Domestic Affairs Meeting of
Sat™eonThfoat 10il-C AsSOAciation—Bil1 for suppressing if—
the fflliefFg, rUble<it~Association reconstituted—Bill for
the Relief of the Catholics introduced—Two subordinate Bills
—Declaration of the Duke of York mi.p tkh j /5 .
Commons, but thrown out in the Lords State ofT^F^6
Eepon of the Committee of the L^-O^Pro^Snes-
ill for the Protection of Masters and Workmen against Com
binations—Modification of the Colonial System carried bv Mr
Huskisson—Details—Reduction of Taxation Consequences
-Aff frs on82P6C 18fp-General Panic aad Distress!
a Is 01 I o-so—Meeting of Parliament State of the Conn
Note HeasVrf.S bjr alleviating the general Distress Small
of ?lrc!llatTlon—Opposition of Scotland to the Destruction
Wished maAdvanee^U’r7|C'V•~r®uc5essfu^—Branch UankTesta-
-ljEu5om l t„ ,l,o rCf,“USe eGo,”da and other Soourities.
uiscussions as to the Cause of the late Panic Emiorotion
on™ mThu^0118 ’T-the iSilk Manufacturers amfShip.
Trade Tb^uW ^88011 S tnuniPhant Reply—System of Free
Burmese War n Bl.SCUSS10" thereon—Termination of the
.ion of F.,^ '
Ireland by the Catholic Association Defident Cror.
of r„.in £,?1 reif !,he
iariiament—Lord Liverpool struck with Apoplexy—Mr
Canning s Interviews with the King—He receive! the Roval
Commands to reconstruct a Cabinet—Consequent Negociabons
-Combination against Mr Canning—Cabinet formed—M?
Canning joined by the Whigs—His Ministry irresistible—
Mr Canning s Death—His Character as an Orator and States-
man—Succeeded by Lord Goderich Dissolution of Mo n
Si.fi c -o , • Muskrsson—Foreign Policy of Britain
State of our Relations with other Powers Porinfril c
»f LondonAS^rffilsg.'Sh;
the Contest between the Ottoman Porte and the Greeks Battle
if f a'Alin?;~1Gsil!tS °f thls Action—Expressions applied to
a Cabinet—Finance Committee Government
Annuities—Error in regard to them—Settlement of the Corn
Fffhr7 nf^r?ir0mile,~Sta4e of the Conimurl Daw Courts—
aSs si c Brougbam~RePeal of the Corporation and Test
hf a M? £ Bcrd s Motion on the Catholic Claims carried
Resolmfnn I /ik0f aix—Motlon in. the Lords to concur in the
Resolution of the Commons negatived—Proceedings of the Ca¬
tholics Mr Fitzgerald defeated in Clare—Mr O’Connell re-
turned for Clare—Re-assembling of the Catholic Association
CandidJE11 P T'F?r7eedhlgS--Pledges t0 be ProP°sed to
G ?ddaF—Paff Ieuds among the Peasantry hushed—
Clubs—Genera! Organization—Mr Dawson’s Speech at Der-
lfv.,r1lr°tifSnintK Asc'<;nd.ency—Measures—Orange Lodges 
Brunswick Clubs—Divisions in the Cabinet on the Catholic
Question—Opposition of the King—Duke of Wellington’s
Letter to Dr Curtis—Recall of the Marquis of Anglesey—
i ee ingo ariiament.—Catholic Question recommended in the
Speech from the Throne—Catholic Association denounced 
w! Educed for putting it down—Association dissolves it-
seif—Biff p^sed—Committee on the Civil Disabilities affect-
iug Datholics.—Mr Peel’s Speech in proposing it Nature of
the Measure proposed for the relief of the Catholics Charac¬
ter of the Debates—Large Majority in the Committee Dis-
cussion m the Lords—Relative Division in 1828 and 1829. 
Royal Assent given to the Relief Bill—Disfranchisement of the
Irish Forty-shilling Freeholders—Injustice of this Measure 
Parliament prorogued—State of the Country—Character of
tlie Administration—Parliamentary Reform—Assembling of
Parliament in 1830—Sir James Graham’s Resolution—Ya-
543
Reign of
George IV.
BRITAIN.
rious Motions and Proceedings.—Cry for Reform daily in¬
creasing Death and Character of George the Fourth.
violence of their language had added to the ministerial IteiLf
party, already numerous among the wealthier portion ofGeo?: iv,
George III. closed his career on the 29th of January
1820. He had been so long withdrawn from the eyes of
the world, that the event.could scarcely be called the ter¬
mination of a reign. rlhe prince who succeeded him on
the throne had virtually discharged all the offices of king
for nearly eight years. Ihe same line of policy continued
to be persevered in, as nearly as events permitted; the
same ministers continued to manage the affaiis of state ;
the prosperity of the country received no sudden shock nor
increase ; and public opinion went on to form itself, with¬
out experiencing any sudden impulse. Ihe customary
bell, which announced by its monotonous clang that a king
had been gathered to his fathers ; the sorrow, real or af¬
fected, of personal friends ; a slight alteration*in the tenor
of writs ; and some unimportant changes in the arrange¬
ments of office, were the only indications that a new leign
had commenced.
The ministers, as a matter of form, resigned their places
the day after the death of the old king, but were all of
them immediately reinstated. It is the law and custom of
the country, that if no parliament be in existence at the
death of the king, the last immediately revives, and con¬
tinues to sit for six months, unless dissolved at an earlier
period by the new monarch. If a parliament, however, be
in existence but not sitting at the time, it assembles witn
the least possible delay. The House of Commons met, on
the present occasion, about noon of the 31st of January,
and the Lords a little later in the same day. At this
meeting no business was transacted beyond the simple
ceremony of taking the oaths of allegiance. Some addi¬
tional members were sworn next day, when the house ad¬
journed till the 17th of February. This was done in con¬
formity with the uniform practice of parliament on the
demise of a king to suspend its operations until after the
funeral.
On the day appointed both houses again met; and by
this time ministers had fully resolved upon the course they
were to pursue. Messages from the king were presented
by Lord Liverpool to the Peers, and by Lord Castlereagh
to the Commons. The tenor of both was the same. Ihe
king felt persuaded that the House of Lords, and his faith¬
ful Commons, sympathized with the late loss which he and
the nation had sustained. He reminded them that the
melancholy event imposed upon him the necessity of sum¬
moning a new parliament within a limited period ; intimat¬
ed his opinion, that in the present state of public sentiment
it was expedient to take this step without delay; and re¬
commended to the Commons to adopt, and to the Lords
to concur in, such measures as might be found necessary
to provide for the public exigencies during the interval
which must elapse between the dissolution of the old and
the opening of a new parliament.
The reasons assigned by ministers for thus precipitat¬
ing the assembling of a new parliament were in themselves
quite satisfactory. The quantity of business before the
legislative bodies was so great, that it could not possibly
be completed within the prescribed period. The assizes
would take place during its continuance, and render the
absence of many members necessary ; while the cares and
bustle of an approaching election would distract the at¬
tention of all. Notwithstanding the weight of these argu¬
ments, the opposition discovered, or affected to discover,
another reason for the resolution which had been taken of
dissolving parliament immediately. Ihe unpardonable as¬
sault upon the people at Manchester during the preceding
year, and the subsequent policy of ministers, had deeply
exasperated a large body of the lower orders; and the
the community, all the timid and wavering adherents of'
opposition. That party saw, therefore, in the attempt to
precipitate a general election, the desire of ministry to
obtain a parliament returned at a moment when the influ¬
ence of fear had materially swelled their majority, and se¬
cured, by the prospect of a long career, against that popu¬
lar influence which uniformly exercises greater control
over the members in proportion as an appeal to their
constituents approaches.
In the desultory opposition, however, which was offered
to the course recommended in the king’s message, Mr
Brougham was the only speaker who ventured to take this
ground. The rest of his party, both in the Lords and the
Commons, discussed the question as one of form and pri¬
vilege. Lords Lansdown, Grosvenor, and Carnarvon, in
the&upper house, and Mr Tierney in the lower, while
they admitted the dissolution of parliament to be regu¬
lar and constitutional, objected to the recommendation to
provide for it, as savouring of dictation, and infringing the
liberty of the legislature. The ministerial party, however,
strengthened as it had been by its accession of numbeis,
was too strong to be resisted. Bills were introduced, con¬
tinuing the mutiny act and the marine mutiny act until the
24th of June. Certain sums of money were voted towards
defraying the expenses of the army and the extraordinary
civil charges. And in addition to these, two hundred
thousand pounds were granted “ towards satisfying such
annuities, pensions, or other payments, as would have
been payable out of the consolidated fund of Great Lii-
tain, or out of the civil list, in case the demise of his late
majesty had not taken place before the 5th of April 1820.
This grant is in no other way remarkable than as having
afforded the first opportunity of introducing a discussion
which was destined to engross almost the whole atten¬
tion of parliament during that year. The opposition, un¬
derstanding that in this sum of two hundred thousand the
queen’s allowance was included, made a stand to have an
express provision made for her. The resolutions were,
however, agreed to without any alteration in their form.
When carried to the House of Lords, they experienced
some further opposition from Lord Lauderdale, on the
plea that the power which had been assumed by the
House of Commons, of appropriating the supplies and au¬
thorizing the payment of pensions otherwise than by the
constitutional method of passing the appropriation bill, was
an infringement on their lordships’ privileges. This ditii-
culty was met by Lord Liverpool, who moved an amend¬
ment, “ that this house, from the state of public business,
acquiesce in the resolutions of the Commons, although no
act may be passed to give them effect.’ These necessary
arrangements having been completed, parliament was dis¬
solved in the usual form on the 29th of February, and a
new one summoned to meet on the 23d of April.
In the mean time government was beginning to learn
by experience the effects of attempting to repress by ar¬
bitrary enactments the public expression of popular tee ¬
ing, in the growth of those dark and sanguinary p °
which are ever the consequence of violent attemp s
stifle complaint. Arthur Thistlewood, a man o *esP<\
table connections, and originally of some property,
who, by his own profligate habits, had been reduce ‘
state of abject poverty, entered into a conspiracy, w
few others of like desperate fortunes, to overturn
  l. /~\ttt*o r-Jon wftci trt SP1Z6 tne OPP
lew UtllClO Ui  ' . , nor-
government. Thistlewood’s plan was to seize i P ,
tunity of the late king’s funeral, when it was exp c
that all the military would be engaged at W "lds°b , s<
themselves masters of London, and plunder 1 1
Having, by the license they held out, attiactec a
BRITAIN. , ,0
of force of the needy and discontented to rally round them wWW ^ . , 04t^
IV.he proposed to establish a provisional government, and endeavoured to ofm!,,istCTS- IWgn of
T,r, j A ^ ■ ,v- V  : . mem, wnether with or wit
It.he proposed to establish a provisional government, and endeavoured to break the foree'ef"® m""!;1" ,1"III5Iers> itoign of
pS send to the sea-ports, to prevent all gentlemen from leaving encourio-mo-    i' 1, . ce °f public discontent byGcorgelv
England without passports. The more sanguinary bruStf month of w„ Pi ■ explosions. In the course of thi 1
of his uneducated companions in part overruleddiim ft in arms ini mni’M00"5'1 T'v ot the l>eoPle rose
was resolved to assassinate the ministers, when assembled doS I v PlV ? ‘".“m ^sIl‘re- These demonstra-
at a cabinet dinner at Lord Harrowby’s. WMe oTe party more fi, mt to ,"S hoMer5 °P Prol*rty, attached them
-Vveize the two'pS
and, to strengthen the impression, the most severe mea¬
sure authorized by the late laws was likewise awarded to
bSTfX Hfcpmi‘liter® ,anSUaSe hiS diS“PI>ro-
The events to which we have hitherto adverted served
either to indicate the strength of the ministry or to in-
ciease it. Ihe elections to the new parliament left them
WLiicia vvt.iu to beize me two pieces
of cannon in Gray s-inn Lane, and the six pieces in the
artillery ground. Emissaries at Hyde Park were to in¬
tercept any messenger dispatched to Windsor. A body
of conspirators were to cross the Thames and take the
telegraph, to prevent any communication with Woolwich.
The Mansion House was fixed upon as the seat of the
provisional government. ^ A few disbanded soldiers had
been induced to join in the plot; a motley assortment of mnrlfin tlv 16 electl?n.s t0. the new parliament left then
aims had been pivided; an? aXio?" of hlTdLT alttle dis
J t ci iHULiCJ' dOOUI lllieiJl 01
aims had been provided; and proclamations were written
out in the name of the provisional government, for the
purpose of being stuck up on the walls.
The conspirators were as deficient in caution as their
plot was in any reasonable likelihood of success. They
were surprised in the garret or hay-loft in Cato Street
wheie their meetings were held, on the evening of the
23d of February, the same on which the massacre of the
ministers was to have been perpetrated. After a despe-
late resistance, in which one police-officer was killed, and
several severely wounded, the greater part of the band
were apprehended. Ihistlewood and some others were
not secured till next day. A few of the more cowardly
turned kings evidence, and the guilt of the conspirators
was clearly established. Five of them, Thistlewood the
originator of the plot, Brunt his lieutenant, Ings, who was
t- i jaVe ^ ^cretary to the provisional government,
tiad, ana Davidson, a man of colour, were ordered for
execution, and suffered the penalty annexed to treason
on the 29th of April.
solution of the old/ But a discussion wYs Spending over'
lem, winch threatened to task their powers to the utmost,
ihe dispute between the Prince and Princess of Wales
was a matter of very secondary importance compared with
that between the king and queen of England. The hatred
Inch Geoige IV. entertained for his consort was invincible.
He had relinquished his early principles and most inti¬
mate friends, rather than struggle with a party which he
found firmly established in power; he had conformed to
the system of policy they had adopted, without suggesting
one modification ; he was contented that the course of
national exertions should be controlled and guided by other
minds ; but Ins passive disposition left him the moment
the question was urged of conceding even the external
resemblance of respect to the queen. Her name was
omitted m the liturgy; the utmost anxiety was displayed
to avoid, if possible, making any parliamentary provision
for her as queen; the common civility of announcing to
her the death of her father-in-law, who was moreover her
b ood relation, was not observed ; and she was given to un-
discover^any ?amifincitiZU^the° plT'TeTy ^Tb’ ^ Return ^England! she"
peradoes stood alone. Thistlewood had, a short time be
tore Ins arrestment, made a tour through the manufactur¬
ing districts of England and Scotland. There can be
no doubt that he had endeavoured to engage the radical
pany in some undertaking equally violent with that for
nf iqiq suffei'ed.’ but mo.re extensive. About the close
181J, or early in 1820, a messenger was dispatched to
nistlewood from Leeds, to assure him that he need look
lor no assistance from the country in his attempt. The
pinion of his want of success in the attempt to stir up the
vorkmg classes to co-operate with him, is further corrobo-
nfv ^ ^ coarse manner in which he affirmed to one
ns associates, that “ no one who was worth ten pounds
was worth any thing for the good of this country.”
Still, although even the discontented portion of the com-
U. ‘ y urned with disgust from projects of assassination,
inere was mnr.K n: n .1 * , ’
1 • m i J ** • ctiiU. til l.cl be*
vend inefiectual negociations on the part of those friends
o the loyal disputants, who feared the consequences of a
public agitation of the question at issue between them
she landed at Dover in the month of June. Her journey
to London was a triumphant progress; and her reception
there by the populace most enthusiastic.
On the Gth ot June, the Earl of Liverpool in the Peers,
and Lprd Castlereagh in the Commons, presented a mes¬
sage from the king, recommending to the immediate at¬
tention of these bodies^ “ certain papers respecting the
conduct of her majesty since her departure from the eoun-
tiy. . Ihe Lords, after slight discussion, referred the com¬
munication to a secret committee. The same course was
adopted by the Commons, but after a more violent debate.
Her majesty’s friends had in that house touched upon the
subject even before the dissolution of the old’ parliament.
there was m„nK ; ti r • • p , assassination, subject even before the dissolution of the old’ parliament
»«brd YnnYY f " ‘'I'P08!110" 0‘ lower orders to Lord Archibald Hamilton had complained of the
whose ausoiees r a?Plelle.n,slon t0 the ministers under stitutional dictation to the church of Scotland on the point
and passed into t law ThraunYil3^ h0™ mfrotdu“d of Paying for the queen. The resolutions by which atom-
iflof-L. t0 ,a.laYV-. J-hioughout the manufacturing porarv sunplv was votprl tn tho l-mrr Pori
dist-rlr.f Sf>i int° ,a. avv* throughout the manufacturing
The '.v ‘e„w,°.rklnS classes were associated in unions,
nrpn 'einter °f 1118 sketcb remembers in the autumn of the
sion 1 nguyear t0 have accidentally overheard a discus-
neiofyi? 1 ? Prett3r numerous body of weavers in the
seempr^T 'i001 i°^ ^^asg°w. The prevailing sentiment
trimll, ° ^e’ !hat ^le interests of the rich were diame-
vvas nr Posed to those of the poor; and the conviction
handPidtty ^eneral,y expressed, that a time was near at
nverfp,-|1£n t1'0! relative positions of the parties would be
lersprla in , 18 sta^e affairs spies were liberally dis-
irough the disaffected districts; and these men.
X ^ o -   1  A VV illvjil cl LCII1-
porary supply was voted to the king had not been allowed
to pass without the question being asked, in what manner
the interests of the queen were to be secured. Now the
storm burst in its full strength on the heads of ministers.
Not a few members declared, that without examining wit¬
nesses, they were convinced of her majesty’s innocence by
the line of conduct which the government had pursued.
The guilt or innocence of Queen Caroline is a question
of very subordinate importance in an outline like the pre¬
sent. It deserves attention merely because of the influence
it exerted upon the public mind, and its effects upon the
subsequent course of events. Now that the excitement of
550
BRITAIN.
Reign of the contest has subsided, few, we believe, would assert her
George IV. innocence ; but if ever suspicious conduct was susceptible
of an apology, it was in her case. Viewed as a private in¬
dividual, the king had no right to complain of her behaviour.
The allegation that the honour of the country was at stake,
was a transparent disguise, through which his obstinate
indulgence of a private pique, at the hazard of national
tranquillity, was clearly discernible ; while the ministers,
who were servile enough to pander to this royal self-will,
disgraced themselves for ever ; and that this was the feel¬
ing of the wealthy, as it was of the poorer classes, is evi¬
dent from the narrow majorities which an administration
so strong on every other question commanded in behalf
of their bill against the queen.
A brief sketch of the proceedings in the House of Lords
will suffice to show the character of the prosecution. On
the 5th of July Lord Liverpool presented a bill of pains
and penalties against the queen. Her petition to be heard
by counsel was presented the same evening, and refused.
On the 6th her majesty again petitioned the house, re¬
questing, that if their Lordships were resolved to refuse
her a hearing at that stage, and likewise to refuse a list
of the witnesses to be adduced against her, they would at
least allow her counsel to state at their bar the nature of
her claims. This request was in so far complied with, that
Messrs Brougham and Denman were heard relative to the
mode and manner of the proceedings to be had upon the
bill, and the time when these proceedings should take
place. Their arguments were ineffectual. A list of wit¬
nesses was refused. The bill was ordered to be read a
second time, and evidence to be led during its second
reading. The proceedings commenced on the 17th of
August, and were continued, with scarcely any intermis¬
sion, till the 4th of November. On that day the Lords
resolved that the bill should be read a second time, by a
majority of twenty-eight, in a house of two hundred and
eighteen. The divorce clause was warmly attacked in the
committee, but finally retained by a majority of sixty-
seven in a house of a hundred and ninety-one. When
their Lordships came to divide upon the question of the
third reading, it was still carried in the affirmative, a hun¬
dred and eight voting for, and ninety-nine against it. Lord
Liverpool immediately announced, that, looking to the
narrow majority and the temper of the country, he had
come to the determination not to proceed further with the
measure. He accordingly moved that the bill do pass that
day six months.
During the trial repeated attempts had been made by
the House of Commons to put a stop to the proceedings.
Ministers, unable to parry the reiterated and vehement at¬
tacks directed against them, had recourse to repeated ad¬
journments. No sooner had the bill been thrown out than
the House of Lords adjourned to the 23d of November, to
which day the House of Commons at that time also stood
adjourned. There was a call of the house for that day,
and Mr Brougham having communicated to the speaker
that a message would be sent down from the queen, sug¬
gested at the same time his taking the chair at one o’clock,
in order that there might be an opportunity of receiving the
message before the meeting of the Lords. At one o’clock
about a hundred members, chiefly of the opposition party,
were present, but the speaker did not appear. He was un¬
derstood to be closeted with Lord Castlereagh. At length
he entered the house, and exactly at two the reading of
prayers concluded. Mr Denman immediately rose and an¬
nounced that he held in his hand amessage which the queen
had commanded him to present to the house. Before he
could proceed the deputy usher of the black rod entered.
His appearance was the signal for uproar. “ Mr Den¬
man !” “ Withdraw!” were vociferated from fifty throats.
pounumg many eAceneuL ; o
their practical application, came to the conclusion that tn
was no harm in inquiry, but great danger in action,
the motion of Mr Baring, a similar committee was appom •
ed by the Commons on the. 5th of June. The firs
of Lord Lansdown’s committee was presented on tne
of July. It was confined to an inquiry into the state
the timber trade, and an investigation of the means _
improvement. A motion made by Lord Milton
evening in the House of Commons, for repea ing ., .
on the importation of foreign wool, was negatived
a division. r . for
The distress was not confined to the manu , uonpath a
the table of the House of Commons groaned b
The usher summoned the house to attend the lords com-
missioners in the House of Peers. Amid the surrounding Gee. jy
clamour he was inaudible; nevertheless the speaker rose,
and, accompanied by Lord Castlereagh and the chancellor
of the exchequer, followed, amid cries of “ Shame !” both
from the opposition and ministerial members. The speaker
on his return declared the house adjourned to the 23d of
January.
Respecting the rank injustice of the proceedings against
the queen there cannot now be two opinions. She was
attacked by an anomalous procedure, which was neither
trial nor bill of divorce. The pains and penalties inflicted
by the bill were such as could not have been extended to
any other English subject. The law of England guarded
every other woman in the kingdom against such a mea¬
sure. Again, by adopting the mode of procedure by bill, her
prosecutors escaped the necessity of furnishing her with a
list of witnesses, and thus crippled her defence. Lastly,
by allowing the measure to drop after the third reading
had been carried, the ministers clearly established that the
personal degradation of the queen was all they sought for,
and that the vindication of the national honour was a mere
pretext. In what other instance was that iron administra¬
tion known to pause out of respect to public opinion ? The
effect of the proceedings upon the power of the ministry
was twofold. It distracted the attention of the country
for a time, and men ceased to brood so incessantly over
their distress ; but, on the other hand, it swelled the ranks
of opposition, and embittered its tone of feeling.
Amid these stormy discussions, in which the remotest
districts keenly participated, the more vital interests of
the country were comparatively neglected. Still the uni¬
versal stagnation of business, and the consequent suffering
of all classes, did not admit of their being entirely neglect¬
ed. A petition from the merchants of London, presented
by Mr Baring, elicited an animated and instructive dis¬
cussion of the causes and remedies of mercantile distress,
but without leading to any result. The subject was re¬
sumed on the 11th, when a petition was presented from
Birmingham, but with as little effect. On the 16th Lord
Stanhope called the attention of the Lords to the distress
of the working classes, and moved for a committee “to
inquire into the best means of giving employment to the
poor, especially in the manufacturing districts.” Lord Li¬
verpool exposed in the most lucid manner the visionary
nature of the schemes suggested by Lord Stanhope, and
the motion was negatived without a division. The Mar¬
quis of Lansdown’s motion on the 26th, for a committee
to inquire into the means of extending the foreign com¬
merce of the country, which was agreed to, drew from
Lord Liverpool an exposition of his views of commercia.
policy. He insisted upon the necessity of adopting a com¬
prehensive system, and adhering to it; remarked that the
fewer laws there were, the better; disapproved of the views
adopted by those who represented the interests ot e
farmer and the manufacturer as adverse; and, alter pro
pounding many excellent principles, and protesting agaiM
BRITAIN.
II 1 of load of agricultural petitions. Mr Holme Sumnpr t ^
^iV-on the 30th of May, that they be referred to a select com’ for'thph^ Bn?uSh£?m m°ved for leave to bring in a bill Reign of
Hp mittee t0 examine and report on them. The interests of He stated thnfT110" °f the.poo1r in England and Wales. Georfe IV.
the country gentlemen were at stake, and, notwithstand dn Jrl H there were, in the endowed and unen-'  
ing the earnest opposition of ministers, a majority of twen- drJd and fiftv!fivl Hngland’, T™8 of educating six hun-
ty-nine determined in favour of a committee. Mr Baring whole child^of J ;aU8?nd1ch,Idren ? and that taking the
moved an adjournment of the house, in order that thf nf th* ^ i f i - klnSd?rn as one n>nth or one tenth
committee might be appointed at a time when there was than one fn t011’^118 provi8]°n would suffice for no more
a full attendance. Mr Robinson (president of he bolrd from til ^^i ^ Y^enth of their number- Eut
of trade) proposed next evening, with a view to neutralize be de5tl!i ^ fift^five thousand ^ to
tlie effect of Mr Sumner’s motion, that the labours of the schools w Wo th166 thousand who were ^ dames’
committee should be restricted to devising means for the which woT,M r! earnt nuext ^ nothing; a deduction
prevention of frauds in striUnn-     -r, lc.ou*dreduce the number educated to one sixteenth
Previous to the establishment of schools under the Bell
and Lancaster system, it was only one twentieth. There
were three thousand five hundred parishes in England
differentSCh0°r* /he ProPartion educated varied in the
was fo,md T ‘“■£r°n?.""e f0"}1-8;11,'1' to ono eighth. It
^ ‘csLiicLeu to uevising means for the
prevention of frauds m striking the averages under the
corn laws of 181o. Ihis motion was carried by a maioritv
of a hundred and twenty-three. When Mr*H. Sumner
presented the report of the committee on the 8th of July
he complained of the narrow limits within which the in-
quines of the committee had been restricted, and express- was found °ne fort^sl.xth to one eighth. It
ed his conviction, that unless much more was done for the tion r C1?me, kePf. Pace Wlth the want of educa-
agncultural interest, the difficulties under which it labour- foundatfo! nf gK S 1 embraced four objects;—the
ed must ultimately prove overwhelming. Mr Western ,fh.00.ls ; tbe fPPomtment and removal of
added, that the committee had recommended a new mode of the old at 1^1SS10n ,0^ scholars ; and the improvement
of taking the averages, but that it was one whfoh would of schods in thT According to the ratio
rather facilitate than retard the opening of the ports Lht h,!nd” ^ ,°f DeV0]n’the totaI outfit wouId be
. The only other important discussions in parbamentdur- ofC^land , ^thrSa?drrds; accord^ ^ that
mg this agitated year regarded parliamentary and finnn i b and’ 0I?1y four hundred thousand pounds. The
cial reform, and the education ofPthe poor. To the^rst" The^ o^nnT6 averaSe a hundred thousand pounds.
——J ■’ - ~ P- - tne hlSt .lh,e.T 0 ha,Vlng been aSreed to, Mr Brougham brou-ht
in his bill on the 8th nf b "“o11*'
mentioned head belongs the fate of a bill passed by the
Comnaons for suspending the issue of writs to four boroughs
convicted of corrupt practices, and which was allowed to
fall to the ground in the Lords, not having reached a se¬
cond reading at the time when parliament was dissolved.
Lord John Russell s bill for the disfranchisement of Gram-
?7n?dpi\!r read th^ brst and second time on the 9th and
17th of May. Lord Castlereagh and Mr Canning attack¬
ed with much inveteracy the clause which proposed to
transfer the franchise to the town of Leeds, on the ground
that this would be “ to admit all that had been urged on
the question of parliamentary reform.” On the 25th of
May Lord Archibald Hamilton called the attention of the
| °nTi theab8urd and unjust system by which, in Scot-
"d’ he/‘ght of1v°t*ag bad been detached from the pos¬
session of the soil. He intimated an intention of submit¬
ting a measure to restore the franchise to the real land-
Z7%?Trg/hejrV°‘eS t0 aI1 such as now possessed
! made’ hvM61 r^6 heifd °f finance we nia7 class the attack
made by Mr Brougham on the droits of admiralty. In
e oquent speech he demonstrated that the property
coan!fo !m th!fc fund by the Crown was unwarranted by the
dan^erous t0,tbe Iib.erties of the subject, since
nirati l ad n° contr°l over it; an inducement to the
piratical commencement of hostilities, without a declara-
fann1 Wai ’ and burdensome in the highest degree. Mr
"•umpnfg T at ^reat ^ongth, but adduced only one ar-
to a mn’ The system of the civil list was more adapted
govern!^103 /!nStltUtjT than that of the American
anv n • cou d be» ?nd be would not be induced by
tranmnCUniairy itemPtatl0n t0 tbe sovereign, to strip off
danger? ThlCu Were neither costly to the people nor
andffo • the constltution.” Sir James Mackintosh
Bronal? ®mi.nent ‘^embers of the opposition argued on Mr
onlv o l?1 S Sldf °f tile (lues.ti?n at g^at length; but the
cellnr nf ti sPeaker tbe ministerial party was the chan-
ing nnt- . 16 e^he(iuer, who contented himself with point-
L.-l discrepancies of opinion among his antago-
iVlr Brougham’s motion was Met lw o 3 „
nisfs Tvr I? , i , * upunuii among ins antago-
Wdred MdTgfS m0ti°" ^ l0St by “ maj°rity ofa
'f™ MW arrived at the last topic which we indi-
he atten!fVmg11! thTe,course of the year 1820 occupied
ention of the House of Commons. On the 28th
in his bill on the 8th of July.
During the closing months of the year the queen con¬
tinued the great object of attention, and the press labour-
ed mcessuntly to keep up the excitement. The Whigs
and reformers, encouraged by the popular feeling which
was thus excited against ministers, again put themselves
in motion. Meetings were held in different parts of the
country, at which strong resolutions were adopted respect¬
ing the necessity of a reform in parliament. In this tem¬
per of the country the legislative session of 1821 com¬
menced on the 23d of January.
The opening speech from the throne was eminently
vague and unsatisfactory. The only allusion to the revo¬
lutions m Spain, Portugal, and Naples, consisted of an as¬
surance that the country continued at peace with foreign
powers, and an expressed determination, should the events
in Italy lead to hostilities, to preserve this country from
participation in them. The truth was, that Lord Castle¬
reagh had committed himself with the allied sovereigns
more than the spirit of the country could tolerate; and the
only course left open for ministers was, to profess a strict
neutrality, even between opposing principles. About the
opening of the session a circular dispatch to his majesty’s
ministers at different courts, disavowing, on the part of
Great Britain, any participation in the plans of the allies,
dated the 19th of January 1821, was communicated to
both houses. This document was by no means satisfac¬
tory to the opposition. Lord Grey moved, on the 19th of
ebruary, for the production of all the communications be¬
tween the British government and that of Naples relative
to the late occurrences in that kingdom. The noble earl
maintained that “ England, by assuming the tone of neu¬
trality at the moment she did, gave her tacit approbation
to the conductof Austria.” The ministers asserted the right
of an independent nation to regulate its own government,
but admitted the case of Naples to be an exception. The
Earl of Liverpool affirmed, that the document already sub¬
mitted to the house afforded sufficient evidence of the good
faith of government towards Naples; and the motion was
ultimately negatived without a division. Lord Grey’s mo¬
tion was followed up by one on the part of Lord Lansdown
on the 2d of March. His lordship proposed to thank the
king for laying before the house copies of the dispatch to
552
BRITAIN.
Reign of his majesty’s ministers at foreign courts; to express the sa-
George IV. tisfaction felt by the house at his majesty’s refusing to par-
ticipate in the designs of the allied sovereigns; and to in¬
timate its earnest hope that his majesty would exert his
influence with the allied powers to prevent or repair the
consequences of measures which might eventually disturb
the tranquillity of Europe, and which threatened the inde¬
pendence of sovereigns and the security of nations. Lord
Liverpool condemned the principles of the allies ; but
maintained that England had no right to prescribe a rule
of conduct to Austria, and that it was .unwise to remon¬
strate when we were not prepared to enforce our sugges¬
tions by arms. The result of the debate was a majority of
forty-seven in favour of ministers. A like series of hostile
attacks were made almost simultaneously upon ministers
in the House of Commons. The motion of Sir James Mac¬
kintosh for the papers called for by Lord. Grey was made
and negatived on the 21st of February. The only novelty
in the ministerial defence was Lord Castlereagh’s asser¬
tion, that the declaration emitted by the allied sovereigns
assembled at Troppau did not contain their final deter¬
mination. The event has not borne his lordship out in
this assertion. The motion was negatived by a consider¬
able majority. The pretext laid hold of for resuming the
discussion in the Commons differed from that of Lord
Lansdown. Sir Robert Wilson moved, on the 20th of
March, for the production of a letter from the English am¬
bassador Sir William A’Court to the Neapolitan minister for
foreign affairs, in which it was declared that England in¬
tended to remain neutral, unless interference “ should be
rendered indispensable by any personal insults or danger
to which the royal family may be exposed.” Sir Robert
maintained that the right claimed to interfere if the royal
family of Naples were exposed to personal insult or dan¬
ger, was incompatible with the rights of independent na¬
tions. Ministers contended that the interpretation of Sir
William A’Court’s letter was strained and unjust. The
motion was subsequently withdrawn. Here the matter rest¬
ed till after the breaking up of the congress of Laybach.
The final declaration of its members, that “ useful or ne¬
cessary changes in legislation, and in the administration
of states, ought only to emanate from the free will, the
intelligent and well-weighed conviction of those whom
God hath rendered responsible for power,”—and that they
regarded “ as legally null, and as disavowed by the prin¬
ciples which constitute the public right of Europe, all pre¬
tended reforms operated by revolt and open hostility, —
was regarded by the whole English nation as directly con¬
demnatory of its constitution, and subversive of the inde¬
pendence of all nations. Mr Hutchinson attacked minis¬
ters on the 20th of June for their tame acquiescence in
the monstrous doctrines promulgated by the despots of the
Continent, and proposed an address to the throne, calling
upon the king to assume an attitude of more determined
opposition to the introduction of new principles into the
laws of nations, which, if acted upon, “ would not only
prevent the establishment of all rational liberty, but tend
to render perpetual despotisms of the worst kind.” The
motion was negatived by a large majority, on the ground
that the circular of the 19th of January sufficiently ex¬
pressed the views entertained on these points by the Eng¬
lish nation. A yet stronger indication of the feeling of
the country on this point was given to ministers next day,
when one of their most influential and strenuous support¬
ers, Mr Stuart Wortley, in moving for copies of the declara¬
tion issued by the courts of Russia, Prussia, and Austria,
and of the circular dispatch published at Laybach on the
12th of May 1821, called upon the house to express strong¬
ly and markedly its disapprobation of the principles ad¬
vanced in these documents. Lord Londonderry (Lord
Castlereagh had by this time succeeded, on the death of IU iof
his father, to the paternal title) opposed to this motionGec:i.iy;
his never-failing answer, that it was unnecessary. “ The ^
declaration of the 19th of January had announced to the
world our dissent from the principles acted upon at Trop¬
pau and Laybach, and no good could result from engag¬
ing in a war of state papers.” Mr Wortley’s motion was
accordingly negatived. The only other discussions re¬
specting the foreign policy of Britain which occurred du¬
ring the year 1821 were, an address from both houses of
parliament to the throne on the state of the slave-trade,
agreed to without the sanction of ministers, but likewise
without any active opposition on their part; and Mr Hume’s
motion for inquiry into the conduct of Sir Thomas Mait¬
land, the lord high commissioner of the Ionian Islands,
which was negatived.
The speech glanced at the internal affairs of the nation
in a manner quite as unsatisfactory as that in which it
treated foreign relations. Several branches of manufactures
and commerce were said to have improved, and the amount
of revenue to have increased, avowedly from new taxes.
The speech concluded with an expression of confidence
in the popular attachment to the king’s person and go¬
vernment, and an exhortation to preserve respect for es¬
tablished institutions. The opposition, still much inferior
in numbers to the ministerial adherents, but strong in its
reliance upon the popular feeling, and encouraged by the
wavering allegiance of the country gentlemen, whose suf¬
ferings had led them to doubt the infallibility of the party
to which they had hitherto adhered, made no hostile de¬
monstrations upon the moving of the address, which, as
usual, was a mere echo of the speech.- It scarcely allow¬
ed, however, a day to elapse before it commenced a series
of attacks upon the whole system of ministerial policy.
The session of 1821 was one of unintermitting hostilities
directed against ministers in every department, the admi¬
nistration preserving in almost every instance the attitude
of defence.
The first question started by the members of opposi¬
tion was one of constitutional reform. V> ith considerable
tact they selected one, upon the merits of which the mi¬
nisterial phalanx, nay the cabinet itself, v/as known to be
divided in opinion, namely, that of Catholic emancipation.
By this arrangement they secured a prospect of disturbing,
in some measure, the harmony of their adversaries, and at
the same time exposed themselves to less unanimous hos¬
tility in the opening of their campaign. Mr Plunkett moved,
on the 28th of February, that the state of the laws affect¬
ing Roman Catholics be taken into consideration by a com-
mittee of the whole house. Mr Peel stood, forward as
the champion of the party opposed to concession, and tne
members of that party mustered in strength; but the mo¬
tion was carried by a majority of six. .On the 2d o i arc
the house accordingly resolved itself into a committee o
the purpose of taking into consideration the Catnouc
claims. Mr Plunkett was prepared to prosecute ins aa-
vantage, and submitted six resolutions for the adop ion
the house. Their purport was, that such parts o
oaths required to be taken by persons qualifying 0
enjoyment of offices, franchises, and civil rights, as .
ly disclaimed a belief in the speculative rehgtous op
of the Roman Catholics, ought to be repealed,
word “ spiritual,” which occurred in the oaths of P
macy, should be declared to import mere y , rees
kings of this realm should govern all estates an &
committed to their charge by God, whether t lev b ^
clesiastical or temporal, and restrain, with tlie c , an(}
the stubborn and evil doer;” that the act o P .ng
explanation should be accompanied with sue i rv.
and regulations as might be found necessary o
m of
relV
BRITAIN.
ing the Protestant succession to the crown ami j 553
ing inviolate the Protestant episcopal church of Ireland Jnd corrupt^n. The first resolution was lost by a maiori R • f
and the church of Scotland. The resolutions were agreed seventy nme°m’ 'Y h°US,e co"8isting of two hundred andGeo^e it
to proforma, and leave given to bring in a bill founded J " members: the others were negatived with
on them. Mr Peel declared his determination re opptf Ztle'ZT V'% ™ie ^4 the tlstn
the measure ,n all tts stage, Mr Plu^ ett digestJhis ^ «; G‘ «*»-
curing of the independence of parliament' His 01^™
o con,,nUe to the great officers of government their seat
in the house, but tn , .. ovats
, . . ‘ , 7=es,‘ iVAr -Rmnkett digested his
scheme into two bills, the one containing the civil the
other the spiritual arrangements, which ft was proposed
to nass into a law. Thpv ^ 1 I .
to pass into a law. They were read a first time, without fn dm 1! ^ grGat °fficers of government their
discussion, on the 7th of March. An attempt was made fiftv n h0USe’ bUt, ^ ^xclude cIerks and underlings. Of
on the part of the opponents to concession, aided by some wTnf6 Pe,’SOnS h° d,ng seats in the house at the plea-
discontented members of the Catholic church, to repre! T1 is mrfdVernment I,e.ProPosed ^ exclude twenty-nine,
sent the measure as odious to the class of the community May TorTZl^Z^ the reSt* 0n the 10th of
whose enfranchisement it contemplated, but without suc^ luce tho fin f 3 iHamilt°n made an attemPt to in-
cess. Various amendments, calculated to defeat the oh- take inm -d P- ^ ltself that * would next session
ject in view, were proposed by Messrs Bankes, Peel and counties n^81^10^ the -State of ^presentation in the
(joulburn, but successfully combated. Sir John New staneed of S.cotland, but without success. .The only in-
CbrfM 7Vlng the Commitment of the bills on the duid^ t^laose nfd °f ref°rm WaS at a11 succe^fol
26th of March, gave notice of his intention to move their for hf dfiffri P fi • * 118 Se^°n’ Was the Passing of the bill
ihdation ; and on the 28th his motion was submitted IZt dlsf,a"ch,sement °f Grampound. Even this slender
agreed to. The consolidated fiill ed ,vict?ry was incomplete in itself The hill. «« t JZT
,., . 7 o-     mo luifimon to move their
consolidation; and on the 28th his mr,f;r,w , u . e , .   -vj.xa.iM
and agreed to. The consolidated bill, not wi tit “in dim! bvthlc ^ inC0mPlet%in itself- The biillas agreedlo
the strenuous opposition which it encountered from the plndIvaTdeT8’ t,rfnferred the franchise which Gram-
h.gh church party within the house, and latterly from tl e elZtnJl drCiared t0.have forfeited to Leeds, vesting the
Catholic clergy without, passed the Commons 1 the 2d a L 20 l^lv T renting houses
of April by a majority of nineteen. It was accordillv Tnl l?3 7rd L!verPool moved in the House of
carried to the House of Lords and read a first time with tfi 1 lnstead °f giying two representatives to Leeds
out any debate, but ultimately thrown out on the 16th of priViTele^nf°Uly ° ^ 8h°uld in future be allowed the
April upon the motion that it be read a second time hv tPn f four- The amendment was agreed
a majority of thirty-nine. d tlme’ t0 ^ and fhe House of Commons decided that the measure
The support given by the house to this effort for the State’ WaS not to be rejected.
rehefof the Catholics, and the loud cry of the country for thill l086 tW0 ?reat constitutional questions were
parliamentary reform, encouraged opposition to Zo 7o nZ 7 COntes.teld> Mr Hume kept up L continual fii-e
question, upon which every rational hope of amelioration battery with'IheT^t ' SfSt7 finance- He opened his
m church and state depended. Mr Lambton was first In tl J h firSt introduotion of the estimates. When
the field. He submitted a plan of reZm to the consi- teZoTZtf Wer\iatroda-d, he directed the at
deration of the House, the very evening that the r t,0n ^le, l0"Sfc t0 t*16 enormous augmentation of the
rehefMil was rejected by the Lrds gTt“iuefud Ead reTe„°f f’6 a™y °n.il'e Peace -ta^lishmeut which
tures of the measure which he contemplatedPwerePthe H' rZinf placersince 17J92’ and the corresponding in-
imtation of the duration of parliament to three years • tfi a . ^ exPendlture 5 ancl proposed that the resolution
extension of the elective franchise to all nersnns ’ recommended by the finance committee of 1817 of an
;ng property, however small bZ^e, whZTo^fr bS *~poL$e
0 taxation; and the abolition of rotten boroughs The at !° f i 7 7 8haUld be adoPted- The motion was ne-
tendance was thin and the debate langu^afthough ad Ttho L daUn!ed by defeat’ Mr Hame returned
journed on the first evening. It was resumed on the^tfi mnti ^ k °n n ^ Productlon of the navy estimates. His
bu abruptly terminated by a manmuvre of the ^nilte’ ZZ T t0 that which he bad brought forward
jl party. Mr Lambton and his friends were rather late nles Zw t0 tbearmT; and’ resting upon the same princi-
°1 appearing, and their antagonists takino- h.Ivq t ' c ^ e8’ 11 Wa,S not Pressed t0 a division. A motion bv the
their absence, instead of prosecuting thekdifcussion called mZ g®nt,(;mCn’u0n the Production of ordnanceZti-
f»r thevote, and thus defeated the wish of re refo4i re mfllr re",^' Ef Ur8e?- ^ addi‘io" t0 “ si.
go into committee. Such a stratagem was more worthv ofn 71 fi , • 1 made °n the former occasionsJ a transgres-
not of mischievous school-boys than of men deliberation- 7 thl.8 dePartme"t °P the orders of tbe bousG was
upon the interests of the empire • vet the skilful ' 1 e.?Va ^ unfortunate. In his resolutions respecting a pos-
conllfl^'kf re.su,t ^le tuimsteriaipresrsucceeded'for^a tlZXZ 'he COlleC,i"" <>f ,he '-d and a^sesCd
considerable time in alienating the pZic cZfiiWp !v7 1 I he was .more successful. The ministers did not
Mr Lambton, and neutralising his utility in parliament t7 rZf ‘7’ aS thcT had tbe year before, with a di-
fPP°®ltlan were disappointed by thisZsult but not de ;nC n.eSa^lve i but suggested a reference to a committee,
ated-L°rd John Russell re-introduced the subiect no Ifit h wblcb Mr Hume acquiesced. The chancellor of the ex-
9tb of May, in a more indefinite shane evlra 7 V 7e^Uer brouSbt forward the budget on the 1st of June
7;n.f ^darod, on the ocaision of Mr Lambton’s motZ8 amou"t of suPP]y be estimated at L.20,018,200 ;
for ey,7re read>' t0 entertain the genera quesTon of h i? Z? means/t L-20,031,569. He sought to make
reform, although they obiected tn tfi? C1! a* <!uestlon of h appear that a reduction often millions had been effect-
proposed. Lord John proposed for the TdnZnrTTr ^ °n the nati°nal exP-diture since 1820. Mr Hume
tC 7* resolutions> declaratory of the corrupt state of tionsZ^ ^ l11SlP08t, and recaPitulated, with new illustra-
?h boroughs as should in fntnrn fia ,°f a11 salai:ies aad alfowances; and the exercise of a vigi-
l s \ T r s \ 4-l-v x-v      A * 1 f* . 1
lle consideration of tfin fill a ^ 6 sarne1.comrnittee lection of the revenu
acb boroughs as should fi! f T°C ^ °f Pro?eed,ng against of all salaries and all.
vol, y. u uie be convicted of bribery lant superintendence
7 w VjI WX Cl
over the expenditure of the country,
4 A
554
BRITAIN.
Reign of especially in everything connected with the military esta-
George IV. blishment. The ministry, in order to avoid the disagreeable
necessity of adopting a suggestion from Mr Hume, moved
an amendment, differing from the original motion in no¬
thing but its more courtly tone, and its vagueness of ex¬
pression. A resolution similar to Mr Hume’s was sub¬
mitted to the Peers by Lord Darnley on the 2d of July,
and evaded in the same manner. During the time that
this extended plan of financial reform continued to be
pressed upon a reluctant ministry, the country gentlemen
were busy striving to shift as large a proportion of the
national burdens off their own shoulders as possible. Mr
Western attempted to introduce a bill for repealing the
additional duties imposed on malt in 1819; and Mr Cur-
wen succeeded in obtaining a repeal of the tax imposed
on horses employed in agriculture.
All attempts to shake the attachment-of the majorities
in both houses to the ministry, or give such a voice to the
nation as might deprive its supporters of their seats, having
failed, the ameliorations in our legal institutions so warmly
desired by all friends of humanity and justice made but slow
progress. Their bigoted adversaries still maintained an
ascendency in the cabinet. Sir James Mackintosh brought
forward three bills ;—for abrogating capital punishment in
certain cases of forgery, and in cases of stealing in dwell¬
ing-houses, and on navigable rivers. The first, after having
been thrice read in the Commons, was thrown out, in con¬
sequence of a manoeuvre of Lord Londonderry on the ques¬
tion that it do pass. The second and third were carried
through the lower house, but thrown out in the Lords.
Another attempt to humanize the criminal code was made
by Mr Martin of Galway, who introduced a bill for allow¬
ing the benefit of counsel to persons accused of felony; but
on the second reading it was negatived without a division.
Mr Kennedy directed the attention of the house to the faulty
mode of constituting juries in Scotland ; but the hostility
of government and the Scottish law officers to any im¬
provement was so marked, that he forbore to press his mea¬
sure for remedying the defect. Sir John Newport submit¬
ted a series of resolutions to the House of Commons, com¬
plaining of the dilatory proceedings of the commission ap¬
pointed in 1815 to inquire into the state of the English
courts of justice. The resolutions were negatived, the
ministers taking upon themselves the defence of their no¬
minees. Although the party in power thus strenuously
opposed in parliament every modification of the laws, their
adherents out of doors hesitated not to appoint officers not
recognised by the constitution, to watch over the strenu¬
ous enforcement of the law of libel. An association was
formed in London on the 12th of December 1820 for the
purpose of suppressing seditious publications; and bills of
indictment were preferred by the law agent of this body
against several booksellers. Mr Brougham took an oppor¬
tunity of directing the attention of the house to its pro¬
ceedings ; insisting strongly on the dangerous character
of men associated to prosecute individuals selected at the
discretion of political prejudice. He contended, likewise,
that such a union had a tendency to destroy the imparti¬
ality of juries. The subject was again brought before the
house by Mr S. Whitbread. No conclusion was come to ;
but the society, after being thus held up to public reproba¬
tion, languished and died.
The attention of the house was this year again directed
to the continued distress both of the agricultural and manu¬
facturing population. The committee appointed in 1820
to investigate the mode of striking the com averages, re¬
ported immediately upon the sitting of parliament. In
consequence of the recommendation contained in the re¬
port, a bill was introduced on the 26th of February, by
which considerable changes were effected in the then ex¬
isting system. Their general object was clearly to calcu- Re
late the averages so as to diminish them in apparent Gee;
amount; in other words, to raise the importation price. ^
Not contented with this arrangement, the country gentle¬
men made another and successful attempt on the 7th of
March, to obtain the appointment of a committee to take
into consideration the petitions relative to the distress of
the agricultural interest. The committee reported, on the
18th of June, that the agricultural suffering was mainly
owing to the change in the currency; that it would de¬
crease as contracts, and prices, and wages of labour, as¬
similated themselves to the new value of money ; and that
considerable progress had already been made towards this
desirable consummation. All interference on the part of
the legislature was deprecated. Mr Curwen suggested
the imposition of a duty on the transfer of stock, and Mr
Baring adverted to the expediency of allowing the bank to
pay either in gold or silver; but neither of these gentle¬
men pressed the adoption of any measure. With a view
to alleviate the depressed state of commerce and manu¬
factures, committees were appointed by both houses to in¬
quire into the regulations affecting our foreign trade, and
how far benefit might accrue from modifying them. The
Lords’ committee reported on the 11th of April, confining
its attention to the advantages likely to be derived from
an extension of the Asiatic trade. All the suggestions of
the report were consequently in a great measure at the
mercy of the East India Company. The report submit¬
ted to the Commons by their committee related to the
intercourse with the Baltic, and was followed up by a
resolution declaring the expediency of diminishing the
preferences given to the colonial timber trade over that
from the north of Europe, allowing that of Russia and
Prussia superior advantages over the timber of Norway.
This paltry advance in liberality was with difficulty carried
into a law. A more important step, suggested by the com¬
mittee, was the leave granted by the house to introduce
bills for the amendment of the navigation laws ; a measure
which was allowed to stand over till next session.
While these important debates were agitating the le¬
gislature and the country, the monarch was engrossed
with the childish pageantry of his coronation, and pleasure
excursions to Ireland and Hanover. All three entai e
a great expense upon the country, and not one of them
was rendered conducive to any useful purpose.^ Devolv¬
ing upon other shoulders the cares of state, George
would have led a life of unalloyed ease, but for that thoin
in his side, the queen. Her safety once assured, and an
allowance settled upon her by parliament, she natuia y
ceased to have any interest for the public, which ia
been led to espouse her cause from a conviction ot tne
injustice with which she had been treated, not from any
personal attachment, which her character was but u! qua¬
lified to inspire. She made one last desperate e“01 ,
regain her notoriety, which wras rapidly subsiding at i
time of the coronation ; but failing in her attempt, she w
seized with such chagrin that she soon afterwards * •
Her death in some measure re-awakened the national sy
pathy; and an attempt on the part of the mimsteis o
terfere with an expression of respect to her remains
creased the unpopularity of the sovereign.. ^
The aspect of affairs at the commencement ot i
was stormyr in the extreme. Ihe distresses o g
culturists continued unmitigated ; and meetings o
and landholders, clamorous for assistance, were
every county. One called for corn laws, anot ier ^
abolition of tithes, and another for a reduction o ^
tional debt. Each thought his own remedy sutnmeu,^
refused to listen to the suggestions of otheis. 1 more
matters were still worse. The distress there was
J
BRITAIN.
„ of overwhelming than in England, owinff to a redundant no- m , ^55
^V.pulation, and the absence of any variety of employments, powde^ the seco^dlmnof?01'1^’ SeiZed armS 0r Sun- ^ign of
^ The pressure of tithes, ever odious to the Irish peasant, imnortation of T d S-V-ere restrit:tions on the George IV.
as a tax levied for the support of a heretical churdi and manufec urint TthZ int° Irdand> on '
of an unjustly apportioned local taxation, bore down the on the removal If thom f 68 ln f16 country» and also
population, and embittered their spirit. Men’s minds bills passed through hnT/p 006 ^ t0 another- The
were, moreover, even in times of prosperity, alienated by The addhJnn.l b p68 'Tlthout observation,
bitter theological feuds. The increasing strictness of the go^lfexeldsedTvTLTSr611 b3r- these acts w ere vi-
precautions taken by government against smuggling had trict in whfrbTnn r7?- fHsh Sovernment- Every dis-
dnven many lawless men into the mountainous district ly proclaimed The o^mlence occurred was immediate-
m the northern baronies of the county of Cork, and in bodies nf 1 T coun^ry Tas Patrolled by large
Kerry; and there, accordingly, the most extensive” and fbflhe n .rnnlfJf, SPeoial sessions were held
seemingly organised devastations were perpetrated. The tion At rn t ^Puttl"S the ]aws into immediate execu-
flame, it is true, broke out at intervals over the whole of dred andsivtv.f m thiere calendar °f three hun-
Ireland, but in that district was its head-quarters. sentence oi d^ L °TI erS’ f ffhT received
TTrvdor    c ot death. I he regular assizes soon followed, at
- . . V ■■ “V, xec LCIS.
Under these inauspicious circumstances parliament as¬
sembled on the 5th of February. In the House of Com¬
mons, the ministerial party, which had never quite re¬
covered the secession of Mr Canning from office at the
time of the queen s trial, was strengthened by the appoint-
1 • i • • i ciooiZ/Cb boon lOiiOWPfl at
wliich similar scenes were repeated. The most worthless
testimony was lightly credited by terrified jurors. But all
this vigilance, although it succeeded in rendering resistance
to the constituted authorities less daring and systematic
faded to give peace to Ireland. The cou„tryTontTu„ed
ment of Mr Peel tube home secretary. In both houses its to rZ/rf^h'0- The c„u„tryJco„ti„ued
numbers had been increased by an amalgamation with the its sphere of action h AfZ?’ ■a'’d f extende<1
Gienville party, some of whom accepted of office. and the nio-hts l f s sP1Ing advanced, however,
The theme most emphatically dwelt upon in the speech and ff ” ^ °UtraSes diminished in number i
from the throne, and first submitted to^he attention of bv a viniW t epSUed’ f companied in many places
parliament by ministers, was the state of Ireland Lord dent d e p' ^eVer’1t,:e result of bad and' insuffi-
Castlereagh and his coadjutors had only one remedy for The humam-fv If F 7 i Td the Sp!nt of insnbordination.
the disturbances of that country-coercion. Two bills tionYw^f 7i , gi-and TaS awakened, and great exer-
vyere immediately introduced into the Commons, and with Liserv had ^ ^ s"fferers’ but not until their
the most indecent haste hurried both thro^r that hma 7 ^ aIm0St exceeded what human nature, if un-
and the Peers, receiving the royal absent on the U th of Fe! On Te Sth^fTf^l ^ °f
bruary. The first contained a re-enactment of the insur- burn nrnW ; f i 7,3 bd lntr(?duced by Mr Goul-
rection act, empowering any two justices to cause an ex thp t,le duration of the insurrection act, and
traordinary session of the peace to be held! and the iul' 1823 Tf"1^ tbe ^beaS COrpus’lil1 the lst of August
tices, when assembled in such session, to the numbenf teen votfaiffi^^^ Only seven-
seven m a county and three in a city to sio-nifv to thp rnmw &a,ust the principle of the measure in the
lord-lieutenant their opinion that the county wa in ! \ df 10 the H?USe °f Lords il was suffered to
state of disturbance, assigning at the same time their rea of po' m°S w,tkout remark. A more permanent measure
sons, and praying him to proclaim it Thl ™i r f clon was introduced at the same time. By the con-
which the^ord-lieutenant was^mpowerefOo is^^warned nott 2 T’ empowerkl to ap-
the inhabitants of the disturbed^district after a certatn f ’ 7 ]'airant under his own hand, a chief constable
% to remain within their homes Etween sunset IfS bv hirLT0"5';-0'' i''18*0" °f “ bar0"^ a"d squire
sunrise. After that day any justice of place or on v nE- cEstlhlK 72°” tbe c°nnty magistrates to appoint
son authorized by his warrant, might enter into anv house hirrnv ’V't'E sub'fonstabl^ at the rate of sixteen to a
in the proclaimed district between one hour afte/sunspt with; 7'f 16 maSlstrates did not obey the proclamation
and sunrise, and give orders for thrapEehension rfsuchE "staYlltimT/fthe'“rd;ii7te"a"t -as to appoint
the inhabitants as were found absent These ilnno- with * ? constables himself. The chief constable was to have
all persons found out of their abodes betwe™ tlreMme L 100 If h“-.<‘“d,V^ry not exeeeding
.i1;‘turi’ wtYfrrrtfseven/ebT S >v~insaYu™ferMdEgi^ Lt;
aaspendedtheIXas corpus ac^ TheoT ’ S'S a"d T eXceedinS L-S00 A ka“ opP-aiEn
acts was limited to the first „f'a ? p1? 0 l’"1' 'vas offered to tins enactment. It was alleged that it en-
epposition arraved anainst these , , ‘c talIed ™ enormous expense on the country; that it was
went, but. not r,umer ,2 ' l, enactmen s was vehe- unconstitutional, and would prove ineffective. Thesear-
tdeir acqu^eaeen^bv^'helr10^2 t,mld. Whigs palliated guments received additional weight from the quarter
Of Lord Wellesley who wa, .wT'd l“ “ ci'arac.ter -hen“ they eame. Mr Charles Grant, a strenuois par-
other measures were shortlv tlZan of.n1linisters’ and who had governed Ireland for three
through parliament bv theHth 7frS Wlth S[eat prudence and popularity, was the person
an act to indpirmif n 11 ^ Bareli. The first was who urged them with most energy. The utmost conces-
vember preceding 2d W ln’ sul1ce t lfc ffrst °tNo' S10n> however, that could he wrung from ministers was the
precetung, had, with a view to the preservation of omission of some of the most obnoxious details.
55G
lieign
George
BRITAIN.
of Notwithstanding all these rigorous enactments, the in-
IV. surrectionary spirit began to show itself again as the win-
^ ter came on. It was, however, kept within narrow limits,
and the clamour of Orange partizanship effectually drown¬
ed its noise. A revision of the magistracy had been be¬
gun, and almost completed during Mr Grant’s secretary¬
ship. The task was one of infinite labour, and its com¬
pletion required both time and caution. The new list was
completed by the end of 1820, and the commissions issu¬
ed. The change proved great. In seven counties alone
no fewer than two hundred noblemen and gentlemen had
writs of supersedeas directed to them. The whole fury of
these parties was directed against Lord Wellesley. On
the 4th of November his lordship yet further offended
the zealots of the Protestant ascendency, by his preven¬
tion of the annual insult offered to their Catholic country¬
men. The press teemed with libels-against his person
and government; and when he appeared in. the theatre
on the 14th of December, he was received with every ex¬
pression of dislike, and some manifestations of violence.
Amid the anxious discussions on these local disturbances
and their remedies, which engrossed the legislature, the im¬
portant question of a general reform of the representative
system continued to be forced upon its attention. Peti¬
tions on that subject were presented from most of the
large towns and important counties of the empire. On
the 29th of April, accordingly, Lord John Russell moved
in the Commons, “ that the present state of the represen¬
tation of the people in parliament required the most se¬
rious consideration of the house.” His lordship did not
propose any specific plan, but indicated one or two which
mioht be worthy the attention of the house. Mr Can¬
ning took upon himself the burden of opposing the motion,
and, referring to his approaching departure for India, con¬
cluded in these words a tissue of splendid declamation.
“ That the noble lord will carry his motion this evening,
I have no fear ; but with the talents he has shown him¬
self to possess, and with, I sincerely hope, a long and
brilliant career of parliamentary distinction before him,
he will no doubt renew his efforts hereafter. Although I
presume not to expect that he will give any weight to ob¬
servations or warnings of mine, yet on this, probably the
last opportunity which I shall have of raising my voice on
the question of parliamentary reform, while I conjure the
house to pause before it consents to adopt the proposition
of the noble lord, I cannot help conjuring the noble lord
himself to pause before he again presses it upon the coun¬
try. If, however, he shall persevere, and if his perseve¬
rance shall be successful, and if the results of that success
shall be such as I cannot help apprehending, his be the
triumph to have precipitated these results, be mine the
consolation, that to the utmost and latest of my power I
have opposed them.” Mr Canning seems to have had a
prophetic consciousness of the approaching dissolution of
that system to which he had yoked himself; a conscious¬
ness justified by the division. Only a hundred and sixty-
four voted for Lord John’s motion, and two hundred and
sixty-nine against it; but the ranks of the minority were
swelled by the heirs of the noblest families in Britain,
whose talents and energy promised an immense accession
of force on every future occasion. This attack was fol¬
lowed up on the 24th of June by another, in the form of
a resolution, proposed by Mr Brougham, “ that the in¬
fluence of the crown is unnecessary to the maintenance
of its due prerogatives, destructive of the independence of
parliament, and inconsistent with the good government of
the state.” The mover intimated, on the conclusion of his
speech, that he considered his resolution, it adopted by
the house, as nothing less than a pledge to parliamentary
reform. A languid debate ensued, which terminated in a
negative being put upon the motion by a large majority.
The party attached to parliamentary reform in Scotland
received this year an accession in consequence of the con¬
temptuous indifference with which Lord Archibald Hamil¬
ton’s measure for removing the abuses which had crept into
the administration of royal burghs was refused a hearing.
The only attempt made this year in favour of the Ca¬
tholics was Mr Canning’s bill for the admission of Catho¬
lic peers to the right of sitting and voting in the House of
Lords. The idea of this measure was exactly suited to
the calibre of Mr Canning’s mind, showy and unsubstan¬
tial. The bill passed the Commons, but was of course re¬
jected by the Lords.
The most serious opposition against which ministers
were this year called to contend, was in the matter of fi¬
nance. Mr Hume renewed his detailed attacks upon
every item of the estimates and budget, and, although he
failed in effecting any immediate change, kept alive the
public attention, and rendered government more cautious
and attentive. In other efforts Mr Hume and his coad¬
jutors were yet more successful. Ministers announced,
as the whole amount of their projected alleviation of na¬
tional burdens, the repeal of the malt tax, which produced
nearly a million and a half per annum. W ith a view to
force them to do what they refused to undertake spon¬
taneously, Mr Calcraft on the 28th of February brought
forward a motion for the progressive repeal of the salt
tax, by taking off one third of the duty in each of the
three succeeding years. The motion was lost by a ma¬
jority of only four in favour of ministers. Next day they
received a still more effectual lesson. In a discussion of
the expenses of the admiralty office, Sir M. W. Ridley
moved a reduction of two thousand pounds in the vote,
the amount of the salaries enjoyed by the two junior lords
of the admiralty. These two useless offices were conse¬
quently abolished by the votes both of Lords and Com¬
mons, although ministers continued to defend them vehe¬
mently to the last. A similar defeat was sustained by
government on the 2d of May, when, in despite of every
exertion, an address to the king was carried, praying him
to abolish the office of one of the postmasters-general.
In its other attempts to enforce retrenchment the opposi¬
tion was unsuccessful; yet so well had its partial success
worked upon the apprehension of ministers, that the
amount of taxes repealed during the course of the session,
notwithstanding their original declaration, may be esti¬
mated thus:—
Annual malt duty £1,500,000
Salt tax    1,300,000
Leather tax  300,000
Tonnage duty  150,000
Irish window and hearth taxes  250,000
%nof
Gt- ieiv
£3,500,000
But the severest wound received by the financial reputa¬
tion of ministers was inflicted by the hands of the chan¬
cellor of the exchequer. Mr Vansittart undertook two
great financial operations ; the one with a view to dimmisn
permanently the charge of the public debt, the othe,L “
diminish part of the annual expense of government. I
first was the reduction of the navy five per cents, to to
per cent. Some objections were stated to the manner
which this object was proposed to be attained ; bu
advantage was too apparent, and Mr Vansittart s Pla”
tained the assent of parliament. His other scheme,
ever, proved a singular failure. The amount of nava
military pensions was about five millions annua, y.
chancellor of the exchequer proposed to provide to
branch of public expenditure by granting to eerta'n
tractors a fixed annuity for forty-five years; in re
which they were to pay into the public treasury such a
sum in each of the forty-five years as should upon calcu-
lation be sufficient to pay the pensions that should then
be m existence. The scheme was, in other words, to
contract now for annual loans to be advanced to eovern-
nient in each of the next fifteen years, and to be repaid
by a gradually increasing annuity, to commence at the
end of fifteen years, and continue for thirty years from
that time. This new mode of loan was improvident and
gioss.y unjust, as tending to throw the whole load of the
burden on posterity. It was attacked by Mr Ricardo and
Mr Brougham with the most biting sarcasm, but never¬
theless most pertinaciously forced, with the whole strength
of the ministerial phalanx, through both houses. A fate
awaited it, however, compared with which Mr Brougham’s
withering sneer was gross flattery: not one capitalist could
be found to engage in the contract. The prudence of the
monied men saved the minister from the effects of his
own imbecility. He again submitted his scheme to the
House of Commons in a form so modified, that the only
objection to which it was liable was its intricacy and coii-
fus.on. 1 his, however, was considered necessary to the
honour of the financier.
The continued distress of the agricultural interest oc¬
cupied the attention of parliament to a yet greater extent
than m the preceding year. At the commencement of
the session Mr Brougham submitted a resolution to the
House of Commons, declaratory of the necessity of afford¬
ing relief to the agriculturists by the removal of taxes. The
motion was negatived, upon the declaration of Lord Lon¬
donderry that ministers had a plan of their own to propose.
Ihis plan his lordship developed on the 15th of February
when moving for the production of some financial docu¬
ment,. The remedies which it contemplated were the
repeal of the malt-tax, already noticed, and a loan to the
agricultural interest by means of exchequer bills. In order
to clear the way for an exposition of this measure, the mar-
quis moved, on the 18th of February, for the renewal of
the agricultural committee. This body laid its report be-
ore the house on the 1st of April, and the same day three
different schemes were submitted for the relief and pro¬
tection of farmers and landlords. Lord Londonderry pro-
exctaueTh-ll a m!!1,0n t0 the ag^lturists by means of
inrr nf^K b S’ Un<?er certain circumstances; the open-
g of the ports to the importation of foreign grain when-
dst a3bPriCKe 0f British exLTd a^ci-
Z Z: ? • e fubJectl0n oi the foreign grain thus ad-
m ted to certain duties. Mr Ricardo proposed no loan,
specified°nricp° rthe.Ports’ ™hen British corn reached a
tfes anfi fu ’ 1° foreign grain, subjected to certain du-
to fori bounty or drawback on the exportation of corn
Lined Sn CTtrie/\ Mr Huskisson’s resolutions con-
ftirn whil r? 6 St,ate °f the British agriculturist,
was logical!meth?tl off coming to his assistance
of the nrohL ' i HlS plan Was a gradual repeal
permanent If C0Irn la^, and the establishment of a
Position of7 7 t,ade in.foreign gram, subject to the im-
Quentlv wit 1 l6 dUt,eS* Lord Londonderry subse-
agricufturisN M hpS Pr^P0Sal t0 extend a loan to the
of them ha ' iJr,.Blcaido Wlthdrew his resolutions, two
ported w rff7en7 t0 the scale of dutics upon im¬
ported .and the drawback upon such as should be
final £ h n£ been adoPted by Mr Huskisson. The
of May ^ f 0n?mons took PIace on the 7th
protecfino i . lh<?mas Lethbridge proposed a series of
cultural nml ’ Iacludlng almost every species of agri-
epivarl „ produce, down to apples and pears, which re-
- & cvejy bpecies or agri-
ceived a 17177 ,(1°Wn t0 apples and Pears’ which re-
conjoinprl 7 6 suPPort from a small minority. The
were likewise Utl°nS- ofJMrTHuskisson and Mr Ricardo
negatived. Lord Londonderry’s resolu¬
tions were agreed to; and a bill founded upon them na«
kfne’entere^’a protest Wpich Laudefdale and PEr8:
as there was on this point less diffeSee ^pinit flJe
debates were less noisy. The mania fhr i 1 •
fsit" aT,S! 'y^h f begu" "T,seTCs“laearl8v "
this year C The Col’n'8^’ !7,d its first check,
rr, ^ , ‘ ^.be Luiombian bonds received the first shock
The depression of Spanish stock followed. A series of
panics convulsed every money market in Europe The
puce of all foreign stocks fell rapidly, and thousands were
ruined or impoverished by the change. NevenheLTs^t
appeared, by returns from the manufacturing districts pro
cuied by the secretary for the home department and kid
S3
were fully employed0.11 The pkrLLnounced'b/MrWaL
effect by means of five acts! The firs/repeakd all ,h“
c s affecting navigation and commerce iiassed by British
paihaments previous to the enactment of the navigation
CseUofethe arle? e' T,he Sec<,''d thegS
clause of the navigation law, which enacted, that no
g ods of the growth, product, or manufacture of Asia
Africa or America, shall be imported into England, but
in such ships as do truly belong to English people and
aie navigated by a master and three parts English mari-
tie7nf fe f°Urth’ wh!ch enacts tllat no goods or commodi-
s mlMf°Tgn fr°Tth’ Production, or manufacture, which
£ be brought into England otherwise than hi ships
bu It and navigated as above, shall be shipped from any
other place but the place of their growth, production, o^
manufacture, or from those parts where they can only be
or usually have been brought; the eighth, which relates
to the importation of goods from Turkey and from Russia •
the twelfth and fourteenth, which relate to the importa¬
tion of goods from the Levant, from Spain, and Portugal,
and their dependencies; and all acts from the time8 of
Lharles II. downwards, which stood in the way of the pro¬
visions contained in the third act. This statute establish¬
ed the principle of the old navigation laws, but with im-
portant modifications. Foreign ships were allowed to
bung enumerated goods from any port in Europe, provid-
ed the ship belonged to the port in question. The ships
of Holland, so long the objects of a pitiful jealousy, were
allowed the same privileges with those of the rest of
£?Pew G0£-0f any C0Untry or Place in South America
or the West Indies, belonging to, or which had belonged
to 8pain, might be imported direct from the place of
growth, m ships of the country. No importation was per-
mitted from any port where British ships were not admit¬
ted The fourth act regulated the trade between the
Lntish possessions in America and the West Indies, and
other places in America and the West Indies ; and the fifth
between the same colonies and the rest of the world. The
object of the two last-mentioned laws was to benefit the
W est India planter. An attempt was also made by go¬
vernment to induce the East India Company to permit
ships measuring less than three hundred and fifty tons to
participate in the private trade to India. But the Com¬
pany stood upon its charter, and refused to comply unless
the full rights of British registry were extended to India
built ships, and East India sugars for home consumption
admitted on equal terms with those from the West India
colonies. Mr Hume drew the attention of the Commons
on several occasions to the exorbitant consular fees, which
558
BRITAIN.
Reign of operated as a heavy tax upon merchandise ; and govern-
George IV-ment at last declared that the board ot trade was haming
a law to alleviate this evil.
The death of Lord Londonderry, which happened short¬
ly after the prorogation of parliament, whilst the king was
absent in Scotland, was eventually tile cause of an essen¬
tial change in the system pursued by the British govern¬
ment. Lord Liverpool entertained very liberal opinions
in matters of commercial and international policy. His
sentiments were in general shared by such members of
the Grenville party and of Mr Canning’s friends as were
in office. Mr Peel was a minister of comprehensive mind,
extensive acquirements, and a disposition that could adapt
itself to associates of any principles. The liberal incli¬
nations of these men were completely neutralized by the
bigoted ultra-toryism of Eldon, Londonderry, and Welling¬
ton, with their retainers Bathurst, Westmoreland, Mary¬
borough, Sidmouth, and Vansittart. Of this clique, Lon¬
donderry, by his plausible manners, ready flow of language,
and relentless pertinacity of purpose, was the animating
spirit. After his death it offered to its more enlightened
associates no resistance beyond that of mere vis inertia;.
In opposition to its wishes, and in opposition to the king s
personal dislike, Lord Liverpool installed Mi Canning^
into the office left vacant by the death of the Marquis of
Londonderry. The new foreign secretary was tui ther
strengthened in the commencement of 1823, by the resig¬
nation of Mr Vansittart, to whose financial reputation the
last session of parliament had given the finishipg stroke,
upon receiving a peerage and the sinecure chancellor ship
of the duchy of Lancaster. He was succeeded as chan¬
cellor of the exchequer by Mr Frederick Robinson. Mr
Huskisson was at the same time appointed president of
the board of trade; his seat in the cabinet he did not re¬
ceive till a later period. A government of force had been
found not to answer, and one of specious pretence was
now to be tried. .
The line of policy observed by government during the
continuance of Mr Canning, Mr Robinson, and Mi Hus¬
kisson in office, was such as to conciliate the confidence
of a large body of the people. It was indeed a material
improvement upon that persisted in by Lord Londondeiry
and Mr Vansittart; and the nation, long unaccustomed to
such a parade of liberality on the part of ministers, con¬
ceived an exaggerated idea of its excellence. Fo this
circumstance, and to the more determined and better or¬
ganized efforts of the Catholics of Ireland, which for some
years shared, with questions of commercial arrangements
and foreign policy, almost the exclusive attention of the
public, we are to attribute the fact that, subsequent to the
year 1823, the very name of parliamentary reform seemed
for a time to have been forgotten. During the early part
of the session of parliament in this year, the table of the
House of Commons was loaded with petitions for reform.
On the 24th of April Lord John Russell moved that the
state of parliamentary representation required the most
serious consideration of the house. Ihe motion, however,
was negatived. Lord Archibald Hamilton submitted a
series of resolutions to the house on the 2d of June, de¬
scriptive of the state of county representation in Scotland,
and containing a pledge of early redress. But these were
negatived by a narrow majority. Nevertheless we hear
no more in parliament for several years of refoim, except
in some futile attempts to obtain an amendment in the
representation of Edinburgh.
The topic on which the discussions in parliament for
the most part turned during the session of 1823 were the
relations of continental Europe. Mr Canning s system
was to record a pi’Otest against the doctrines of the allied
sovereigns, and to endeavour to prevent any attack upon
Spain on their part, but if possible to avoid war. A few
days after Mr Canning’s acceptance of office, the Duke ofGe elv.
Wellington left London for Vienna. The topic of deli-
beration at tbe congress appointed to be held in that city 1
was the existing state of affairs between Russia and the
Porte. That question having been disposed of, the mem¬
bers of the congress, with the exception of the British
minister, were to have adjourned to Verona, there to sit
in judgment on the Italian peninsula. It was the wish of
Mr Canning that the absence of the English minister from
Verona should mark England’s refusal to interfere with
the independence of the Italian states. Ihe Duke of
Wellington, however, being detained by indisposition, did
not reach Vienna until a few days before the proposed
adjournment, and the urgency of affairs rendered it advis¬
able that he should follow the sovereigns to Verona. He
had learned from a conversation with M. de Villele at
Paris, that it was the intention of the French ministers to
call upon the congress to come to some decision on the
relative positions of France and Spain. By Mr Canning s
instructions the Duke of W ellington opposed most vigo¬
rously any interference on the part of the allied sove¬
reigns with the internal arrangements of Spain. This
unexpected opposition checked them in their arbitrary
projects; and the result was, that they abstained from a
combined demonstration, resolving to assist France, in
case of any aggression upon the part of Spain, of any
outrage on the person of the king, or of any attempt to
change the dynasty of that kingdom. \\ ith this resolu¬
tion the congress separated, and Mr Canning s negocia-
tions for preserving the peace of Europe and the principle
of national independence were adjourned to Paris.
The British envoys in that capital were amused by
different pretences, from the termination ot the congress
in November 1822 till the 7th of April 1823, when the
Duke d’Angouleme crossed the Bidassoa. According as
timid or rash counsels prevailed, the French ministers ex¬
pressed pacific or warlike intentions; but whatever their
expressions might be, trench gold and French intrigue
were incessantly employed in stirring up factions in Spain.
The reasons for declaring war, ultimately published by
France, however frivolous, rested the justification of the
matter upon a national quarrel alone, and thus precluded
tbe interference of Britain. The popular feeling in Eng¬
land ran very high in favour ot Spain; but the inch er-
ence manifested by the body of that nation towards the
constitutional cause reconciled the country to the pacific
policy of ministers. i • u ** J d
The most embarrassing circumstance which attenae
these negociations was the necessity of a serious remon¬
strance with the Spanish ministry respecting certain ag¬
gressions perpetrated on British subjects in consequence
of the disputes between Spain and her colonies. Ihe
constitutional government was as averse to the recogni¬
tion of colonial independence as the old despotism. Bri¬
tain had, however, acquired, during the Peninsular war, <
right of commerce with the Spanish South American po •
sessions, and this she was not inclined to relinquish; w
British vessels had been captured by cruizers carrying
Spanish colours, under the pretext that they had intnngeu
a nominal blockade of the provinces in a state o msu
tion. After various ineffectual representations, tne d
tish ministry assumed the right ot redressing t emse
and sent notification of the fact to the Spanish c0ur ‘ •
was a matter of great delicacy to press for the ie "S
tion of rights which that government could not fa ^
grant with reluctance, at a moment when ^nglan
the only barrier to which it could look agains
croachments of the holy alliance. The Spanish min^y,
however, frankly admitted the justice of the procea
Jht
Gd ■'
-
BRITAIN.
i of the part of England, and the intercourse between that upw with u p . ,. ^9
IJ.country and Spanish America was allowed to remain upon bered Mr M^rlTnmn^'w^K8 had been encum- Reign ot'
^ the footing that had been established for years without fund wh.Vh . y ProP°sed t0 substitute for a sinking George IV,
any complaints on the part of the mother country The o^W mi iin, ^r°Ved °f aS illusor^ an extinction
success of the French army rendered it expedient to adopt seven years bv tfe rodp ^ ^ ^ in the course of
yet more decided steps. In the month of July a number ohierf Jd‘t W ia • ^edemption of the land tax. It was
of respectable merchants connected with Soufh America tmn nf .• 1 t llS ProJect’as evolving a necessary diminu-
applied to the foreign office, requesting the appointment \Tw reZteT’ ; and it w/s accord-
of commercial agents to protect British interests in that timi V .IIurPe fouSht hard for further reduc-
quarter of the world. Thlir prayer was granted, and con- of min sters" fh'Th SUCh WaS the PaP^arity
suls and consuls-general appointed to the principal sta evnpr.p 1 i’ th c1 he met W1.th ess suPP01,t than he had
tions in Mexico, Colombia, Peru, Chili, and B^enosAyres' agaTn t the minfi^f 0CCaSi°nS*. His motion censure
The system adopted or intended to be adhered to by of Hip m-d fbr appointing a lieutenant-general
government in these questions of foreign policy was expli^ cessarv hv H?^ ^ eI tp&t °ftc.e been declared unne-
citly declared in the speech from the throne/ The only division /v m/^/ ^ C0™missi0ne™’ was pressed to a
complaint urged against the declaration was its coldness^ noises.,An nf Canning, who was dissatisfied with the
Mr Canning was not at that time in parliament Lord Ld ne^tivil Cf T ^ed to ^ its Parade,
Liverpool’s explanation of the views of ministry, and Mr nS ?reat ^ajor.ty.
Brougham’s indignant denunciations of the nefhrious pro- men minittert e^eZ/fth ° de 1 °pini0nS from a11 sorts of
jects of the continental sovereigns, rendered his absence of Sir Tom/: e^?rted to secure the rejection
less felt. The Spanish question was not immedS tf the c^
urged by opposition, it being understood that negociationl tendino- nrpf d?^’ 0I] 7 t0 lntroduce bdIs of their own
were still in progress. Thf diplomatic papertSfv/to trodtfdP bf Cp/16 Same end> The reSolutions --
these transactions were submitted to both houses on the nurnori l James nioe m number, and their
14th of April ; Lord Liverpool and Mr Canning seizing puihshment of deTthTn ^ expedleac7 of abrogating the
the opportunity of addressing to their respective houses shin • of Zh«n<- H • ! CaS6S 0t most flaSrant hard-
explanatory statements of their conduct. The opposition or i term of vp u g ^ 1686 03868 transPortation for life
leaders intimated their opinion that the explanation given labour aTthe discr^donTthTT1 °\without hard
by ministers was by no means satisfactory • but more mi tW tliscretion of the judge ; of making provision
nute discussion wJ reserved for a future occa “n when where S ff6 “ be Pro'»unced in cases
members should have had time to examine the corre" ^ect iToC? •n° eXpeCtatr , °f its being carried into
spondence. Before that discussion occurred Lord A1 ’i • 10mrS “—T W'th tho fol'felture of g00<ls onl1
thorpe moved for leave to bring in a bill for the repeal rf dL„ t/eV^^d f aml PUttinS an e"<l«'« in-
the act prohibiting British subiects from eneasrinir in fo td vrcd to the remains of the dead in cases of
reign military service, or fitJl out in hSesV" do' course o?",! g'’ treaS°n- h’6 aCtS ^foduced in the
minions, without the royal license, vessels for warlike rmr n f fithe Saime sess.10n under t,ie auspices of govern-
poses. It was argued in opposftion! that, ^ wTthM PaSSed’ C?ntamed provisions t0 the 8ame effect,
circumstances, such an alteration of the law would operatf ment SOpm^ .conces®lons to vu gar prejudice in the treat-
exclusively in favour of Spain ; and by this fHvolon?^,, u , emainS, °f SU1Cldes* In the department of
ment a majority of the house was influenced to ne/atfve r/nl T STG a™ei?dme,lts were introduced into the law
the motion. The main question of the correefnp^ nf fi10 p&ulating the relations of agent and principal; a commis-
ministerial measures was resumed both by the Lords and th°n was aPP0*nted to inquire into the forms of process in
Commons a few evenings later In both houses an address he c £ “f*001 and’ and «.he of appeals from
•o the king was moved? expressive of regret that Ids m H court of session i a resolution was adopted by the
jetty's ministers had not adopted a Se defied w 5T* t° de’0,e ,fite ***> <* the instead
and supported with more energy the cause of^Snnin The tl £ ee„ t0 llealIng appeals; and some modifications of
universal sentiment was srapZemly h. favourPof mifos S, '! ^ clandestine marriages were wrested
tors, that the opposition endeavored to ay„M comfoe ‘S f'“"‘“"e P,r0P“™dca- Every attempt to obtain
a division in the House of Commons Th ' * , ° • i an am^|dmfnt 0 t le c°urt of chancery proved unavail-
members, however. sncceeded in forHt ,L 1 m,ms,telaal The dogged obstinacy of Lord Eldon, and the un-
vide, by which means they gave to the Ia£l 6 ‘0"St, t0 ‘‘j "dlingness of the ministry to admit the existence of abuse
■uwJvthesarrn'&riS^ ;rrof their own offices’i>roved
the popularit/wh^c^its'^avowed^e^essinn^f nt ,^reaS.ed .The c°aduct of ministers towards Ireland was far from
rests1 of the hoi/alliance had /ted fo b tZ ^ b7 the Same eaSerness to conciliate popular
of the revenue// rdM/ /8 i f , increase affection. The violent conduct of the Orangemen neces-
quer to commenCf hfs ca^ sarily embittered the spirits of the opposite faction, and
Nation of national burdens In n MV taneous alle- acts of violence occurred even more frequently than be-
stance, Mr Robinson’s hmid audition to this circum- fore. Under these circumstances Lord Wellesley found
explanation of the measirestn/t fKaccounts’ and himself called upon to apply for a continuation o/the in-
contrasted most fa/ourablv Zbht h Z '1 r7 f\ern™ent’ sarrection act, which was conceded by parliament. This
becile attemnfc ryp ourably with the complicated and im- anxious moment was selected by Mr Canning to han^
-latL/lTe^ tXsofTnv01'* -f-Robinso?\cal- coldly back for the first time Jen the questL of thl
he Proposed to an/onrh^ fn H mdb??S’ fiv/ f wbluch Catholic claims was stirred. He expressed himself averse
two to the remSn of tax/f ^Th IZ ^ t0 1161, discussion at that time. Mr Plunkett, however,
ttcomplished bv /“I ? VZ 1 °bjeCt, -naS lnsisted uPon bringing them before the house on the 17th
fn order to sec/re Hp/C/ °£ 'u6 necf ^7 bdls. of April. On that day Sir Francis Burdett and several
>ar]iament a bill H1P ormer, ■ r Robinson laid before other friends to Catholic concession declared that the an-
lnnual sum of rn;irUrp01t a^.^brnb was to apply an nual discussion of the question was a mere farce, from which
ame time matprialK, f10”8 as a smkmg fund, and at the the honest advocates of emancipation ought henceforth to
y o simplify the superfluous machi- withdraw. Mr Brougham indulged in a strain of indig-
560
BRITAIN.
Reign of nant invective that stung Mr Canning beyond the power
George IV. 0f maintaining a parliamentary appearance of equanimity,
or even the decency of polished society. Mr Plunkett
insisting upon bringing forward his motion, Sir brands
and many other opposition members rose and left the
house. The debate was soon adjourned, and not renewed
during the course of the session. In the House of Lords
the Duke of Devonshire endeavoured to excite attention
to the condition of Ireland, but in vain. In the House of
Commons Mr Brougham called for investigation into the
gross inequality of the Irish law wherever Catholic and
Protestant were opposed, and to the yet more oppressive
mode of its administration ; but the house refused to en¬
tertain the question. Mr Hume exposed the iniquity of
the church establishment, but could scarcely obtain a
hearing. Ireland perceived that government was deaf to
her wrongs, and England, won by^the graceful and con¬
ciliatory manners of that government, careless of her griev¬
ances. A conviction began to gain ground that the coun¬
try must help herself. And in the course of a few years,
this sentiment animating an organized body, impelled by
the restless activity of an agitator of high talents, wrung
from a reluctant government the boon which had so long
been prayed for humbly and in vain.
The affairs of the colonies and other dependencies ex¬
cited this year more than the usual share of attention.
An act was passed, establishing courts, and making other
regulations for the administration of justice in New South
Wales and Van Diemen’s Land. A bill for remedying
abuses in the administration of justice in Newfoundland
was announced by ministers as in preparation. A stre¬
nuous effort was made on the part of the East India mer¬
chants to obtain an equalization of the duties imposed on
the sugars imported from Hindustan, and those which were
the growth of the West Indian colonies; but it was de¬
feated by the exertions of the planters. But the measure
most important, both in regard to the test it afforded of the
progress of liberal opinions, to the consequences it has al¬
ready produced, and the still greater results it must ulti¬
mately lead to, was the ministerial circular of the 24th of
May, relating to the treatment of slaves in the British colo¬
nies. This document followed up the resolutions adopted
by the House of Commons on the 15th of the same month
at Mr Canning’s suggestion. The resolutions declared
the anxiety of the house that immediate measures should
be adopted for securing such a gradual improvement of
the slave’s character as might render safe his ultimate
admission to participation in the civil rights and privileges
of other classes of his majesty’s subjects. The circular
commanded the abolition of the punishment of flogging in
the case of females, and forbade the carrying of whips on
the field in the crown colonies. Enactments to the same
effect were recommended for the adoption of the legisla¬
tive bodies of the chartered colonies. The burst of indig¬
nation in the sugar colonies was violent and unanimous.
Jamaica spoke of asserting its independence. In Barba-
does, the chapel of a missionary suspected of having trans¬
mitted unfavourable accounts of the treatment which the
slaves experienced at the hands of the planters was de¬
molished, and the clergyman himself obliged to abscond.
In Demerara the promulgation of the order in council was
deferred, and all knowledge of it attempted to be with¬
held from the negroes. Some vague surmises having
spread among them, the mysterious silence of their mas¬
ters excited the most unreasonable expectations, and hope
deferred precipitated them into insurrection. The planters
in their blind fury accused the missionaries of exciting a
revolt which had been caused solely by their own illegal
and unwise proceedings. A court-martial convicted Mr
Smith, one of the Wesleyan clergymen, in the face of the
clearest exculpatory evidence. They, did not dare to in-
flict their unjust sentence, but the unhappy martyr diedGtLlv
-  .1 ~ V. ^ 4-1-vv-» ! ! *> o f L’-1 rr riori /"»o .
in prison before the news arrived that the king had rescind- ^ yv
ed his condemnation.
The policy of government, liberal in the highest degree
when compared with what the nation had been accustom¬
ed to, blinded men to its defects. The brilliant and some¬
what gaudy eloquence of Capning strengthened the charm.
His speech delivered at Plymouth in October completed
his achievement. The splendid diction and imagery with
which he adorned his development of the system adopted
by himself and his colleagues carried away all who heard
and all who read that magnificent oration. A palpable
object to be attained, one of the most winning appearance,
seemed to be placed within their view, nay within their
reach. They soothed themselves with the idea that the
honour to be gained would be shared by themselves. They
forgot that nothing beyond fair words had been afforded
to the falling constitutional governments of the Continent;
that the reduction of national burdens so ostentatiously
paraded had left them much as they were; that the sister
island remained convulsed by faction, and robbed of her
rights. All these they forgot and forgave for the sake of a
few fair promises. Castlereagh had endeavoured for years
to tame the spirit of the country by whips and dungeons,
but in vain. Canning sung its stern resolves to peace in
the course of twelve months. At the expense of slight
concessions, a corrupt, expensive, and oppressive oligarchy
had renewed its lease of power for an indefinite term.
During the year 1824 ministers continued, by persever¬
ance in their new sprung liberality, to grow in the good
graces of the nation. The opposition found it extremely
difficult to muster a respectable minority. Attempts to
attach to government the stigma of having played a double
game with the Spanish constitutionalists, and given under¬
hand encouragement to the French, were successfully re¬
pelled. Calls for an acknowledgment of the independence
of the South American states were answered by the de¬
clarations of Lord Liverpool and Mr Canning, that to all
useful intents they had been declared independent. They
were allowed the privileges of free states under the new
navigation act, and consuls had been appointed at their
most important maritime towns. A formal acknowledg¬
ment of independence could be made only by the powei
which claimed dominion over another. Ministers theie-
fore contended that one thing only remained to be done,
namely, the opening a diplomatic intercourse with these
countries; but the power of deciding at what period this
step ought to be taken, they maintained, was unquestion¬
ably the prerogative of the crown. Parliament declare
itself satisfied with these reasons; and a further declaia-
tion by Mr Canning, that government had refused a se¬
cond and urgent application to become a party to a new
congress, made the walls of the House of Commons nng
again with applause. ... -j
Notwithstanding the caution with which ministers avoi
ed anyr express pledge to recognise the independence o
the rising states in the new world, active prepara i
were making for paving the way to such a step. °fa., p
as the end of August 1823 the diplomatic agent 0
United States in England had been sounded as o
ther “ the moment had not arrived when the S0'
ments of Great Britain and the United States might
to some understanding with each other on the su J ^
the Spanish American colonies ; and whether, iftn ^ nt
arrive at such understanding, it would not he exp
for themselves, and beneficial for the world, tha V
ciples of it should be clearly settledan.c. P ainif ^ho¬
ed.” The American envoy did not feel hll?se^ eX.
rized to enter, on the part of his government, in
M R
1.JG4
of press understanding on the subject. Mr Canning next
H.turned to the French ambassador, with whom he opened
a conference in October of the same year. The reply of
this diplomatist was evasive and unsatisfactory, and seems
to have fixed the British ministers in the resolution to
wait no longer for the co-operation of any other power,
in fulfilment of the promise made to the South American
traders, consuls were dispatched to all the principal sea¬
ports wuthin the Spanish provinces on that continent and
Mexico. Commissioners were at the same time dispatch-
ed to Colombia and Mexico, with directions to report on
die political state of these countries. The measures of the
British government were precipitated by the urgency of
opposition, by the reluctance manifested on the part of
France to withdraw her troops from Spain, and by the
intelligence which arrived early in 1824 of the prepara-
tory steps taken by the president and congress of the
United States towards recognising the independence of
South America. Towards the end of July Mr Parish was
dispatched to Buenos Ayres, intrusted with powers to
negociate a commercial treaty with that state, in the con¬
tingency of the government continuing to afford a reason-
able prospect of being able to maintain its authority. On
the Mth of December it was determined to recognise
forthwith the independence of Colombia and Mexico'; and
by the first day of the year 1825 instructions and full
KTf ^ ,1 C°aStS °f EnS,and’ and the ambassa¬
dors of the allied courts received intimation that measures
for recognising the independence of the three mostpower-
ful ofthe new states of Spanish America had been taken,
past recall, by the British government.
.^!atfBrita;a m^ht in the year 1824 be regarded as eman¬
cipated from the false position in which, as a free and com¬
mercial nation, she had long found herself entangled. The
good work was carried on by the adoption of several import¬
ant measures both in and out of parliament. The firsfwas
nfP 7^ °f Cenain st0PPaSes and impediments to a free
fo ZLTrcu,atlon- 7act passed in the former sessi°n
or repealing some, and providing for the progressive di«-
ySTA 0t,7,d?tieS t0 "hich th^n.JnufaCmts
Great Britain and Ireland respectively were subject, on
been fZid^^h11 country into the other, had
been found so beneficial, that all the duties left in exist-
intrXceV hPeMd'MNeM in imPortance was the measure
troduced by Mr Huskisson for placing the home silk
“r °n aim°rt nfUral basis’ hy Wring the duty
°oods anh f ? In? 6 h0,unty °n the exportation of silk
C a„duty °f thirty P^r cent, on the
importation of foreign silk manufactures. The interests
tion "tTo! iT68 rece!ved also a share of legislative atten-
purnoseof S aTSragamiSt con?blnati°ns of workmen for the
an7n annPr gf J the pnCe °f labour aad the hours
denounced s W° 7 Were aboIished by an act which
attempt to inflere punishments against those who should
t.ttempt to influence or overawe by violence or intimida-
likewise renelfl^A1184 the emigration of’ artizans were
sequence to paSSed af,tbe Sreatest con'
BRITAIN.
561
semienna tX T , , . oi me greatest con-
ofVeiffhts nCn7merClal dealings, establishing a uniformity
May 1895 7 j7,asares! to commence from the 1st of
measure A bl11 f°r the rePeal of the usury laws, a
now enumerated1016 imPortant than any^e have
Ponents having’ WaS] tbro'Yn out by a manoeuvre; its op-
at a late be g moved that it be read that day six months,
no further d7’ roany °f the supporters, expecting
lature was tt ’ lad \etl the house- While the legis-
a wider exfen 8 emP °yed’ tIle executive was busy giving
'nerce Com 10n- \° the- SyStem of reciprocity in com-
ed States 7 atreatl1es Wlth Portugal and the Unit-
aient fnot be menca’ including this reciprocity arrange-
vol." , 0"'eTer extcndi"g <I>e colonies), had exist-
Aie 0f,the ana 1813 Heign of
with Peussia in theApril'^hr^roTc^t^of060^
which we are now narrutino- r!'be Leurrences ot
with Sweden. It was at Sm effeeted withoul^ty Ind
mauevs temanted m this unauthenticated condlS till
b~o. A convention for reciprocal equality, to endure for
en years was concluded with Denmark in June? In May
tne kingdom of Hanover, and in October the duchy of
Oldenburg, were admitted to the footing of reciprocity
erfn/to Hi ^ ^°Unc!L. France and the Netherlands ad?
je3 t'o0 reTahation>.Sltl0nS UP°n Bli‘ish reSSe,S’ ^
Government continued to advance with a hesitating
and timorous step along the path of legal reform into
which it had reluctantly been forced. The reversal of at
tainders of several noble Scottish families may be viewed
as falling under this head, but was a measure of little ge?
nei al importance. 1 he different bankrupt laws were con¬
solidated into one act, which, however, never receded ef-
fect a new enactment having been found necessary before
the time arrived at which it was to have come h/force
benef7nfPt t0 P?CUre for Persons accused of felony the
benefit of counsel was again defeated by the technicality
of lawyers and the bigotry of the country gentlemen. The
utmost attempts of the friends of law reform could this
year procure nothing more than the appointment of com-
ZncerT tP™6 propeed4 of the court of
ciianceiy. 1 he commission consisted of the chancellor
master of the rolls, and vice-chancellor, together with some5
masters in chancery barristers, and m^be^s of PaS
TIU pl °m such a body nothing was to be expected.
littl nnn77ia ‘™Se™ents of ministers encountered
little opposition. 1 he revenue of the preceding year had
exceeded the expenditure by L.6,718,985. From this it
ZSZTl7-t0 ^ P>000’000’ sum set aside for
the gradual diminution of the national debt. The surplus
immediately available was L.1,718,985. Ministers anlici-
pated an additional surplus of L.1,Q52,076 during the cur-
c HS <;x<:ess °P ^ncorne over expenditure was
accounted for partly by retrenchment and partly by savings
in management. Various items of charge which inter¬
cepted a part of the revenue in its progress to the exche-
quer were reduced A saving of one half per cent, on the
interest of the debt was effected. The bounties on the
wiiale and other fisheries were allowed to expire. Under
these favourable circumstances, and with a prospect of
their continuance, ministers felt themselves authorized to
commence a system of alterations in the commercial and
fiscal regulations of the country. They proposed to begin
iy putting rum, in regard to the duty with which it was
chargeable, on a level with spirits produced by British dis-
tillation. The duty on coals and wool was diminished,
ihe alteration on the laws regulating the silk trade, which
has already been adverted to, was the last measure pro¬
posed for immediate adoption. The total reduction thus
effected upon the national burdens was: 
Fum L.150,000
^als  100,000
Woo1  350,000
bdk  462,000
nni r „ , L. 1,062,000
Ihe relief was kept within the limits of the fund which
afforded the means of granting it.
Ireland continued to experience but a small share of
this conciliatory policy. Although disturbances had in a
great measure ceased, the insurrection act was again re¬
newed. The claims of the Catholics continued to be urged
with increasing feebleness, and operated with additional
4 B
502
BRITAIN.
Reign of inveteracy. Committees were demanded both in the
George IV. Lords and Commons for investigating into the state of
Ireland. Ministers, however, evaded the inquiry by li¬
miting it to the nature and extent of the disturbances
that had prevailed in the districts of Ireland subject to
the operation of the insurrection act. At a subsequent pe¬
riod of the session, Mr Hume moved “ that it is expedient
to inquire whether the present church establishment of Ire¬
land be not more than commensurate to the services to be
performed, both as regards the number of persons employ¬
ed, and the incomes they receive.” In a house of two hun¬
dred and thirty-two, only seventy-nine members supported
the motion. This coldness had the good effect of confirm¬
ing Ireland’s resolution to rely upon herself. The Catho¬
lic Association now began to assume a bolder tone, extend
its connections and operations, and take decided measures.
Its members held regular sessions in Dublin, constituted
themselves the medium of communication between Ireland
and parliament, ordered a census of the population to be
taken, and appointed collectors in every district for the
receipt of the “ Catholic Rent.” Mr O’Connell may be
regarded as the effective founder and organizer of this
body. The violent and theatrical character of many of
its proceedings cannot be denied; but it had the effect
of giving concentration, and a rational aim, to the angry
efforts of the oppressed Irish. It at once added a fresh
energy to their demands for redress of grievances, and
withdrew from them the temptation to illegal and atroci¬
ous acts of vengeance. Beneath its influence, and the re¬
straining force of the new constabulary, outrage subsided
to such a degree, that shortly after the close of the ses¬
sion the operation of the insurrection act was suspended
in several of the disturbed districts. The clamours of
Protestant and Catholic zealots were loud and bitter, but
they abstained from personal violence. Increased tran¬
quillity, the loosening of the restrictions upon commercial
exertions, and a limited but certain increase of the means
of education, shone through the troubles of Ireland like
the first dull beams of a tempestuous day-break.
The West India colonies still continued in an unsettled
state. A numerous military establishment maintained
quiet in Demerara. Such, however, was the malignant
spirit of the planters, that a missionary who had been
heard to speak favourably of Mr Smith was obliged to
quit the colony. In Trinidad the regulations of the order
in council were submitted to under protest. In Barba-
does a bill for admitting the evidence of slaves in certain
cases miscarried, and Mr Canning’s plans were contemp¬
tuously neglected. In Dominica the governor recom¬
mended to the legislature the incorporation of the whole
of the slave-laws into one act, comprising the substance
of the order in council, and repealing such statutes as were
at variance with its spirit. The House of Assembly re¬
fused, and expressly declined, to contribute any pecuniary
aid towards the instruction of the slaves. In Jamaica the
temper of the planters had been ruffled by a partial in¬
surrection of the slaves; which, however, had been sup¬
pressed without loss either of lives or property. A fresh
alarm was given during the month of June. On both oc¬
casions a number of negroes were executed. The revolt
was supposed to have originated in some vague expecta¬
tions on the part of the slaves of aid from England. The
House of Assembly, which met in November, was inform¬
ed that the general government had appointed a bishop
for the island, and appropriated a fund for the support of
the Episcopal clergy. One important office confided to
the bishop was the superintendence of the religious in¬
struction of the slaves; and the return required for this be¬
nefit was the adoption of the order in council. The angry
planters, instead of complying, appointed a committee to
inquire into the loss occasioned by the late revolt, and to R, nof
report on the best mode of obtaining compensation fromGe jiy
England. An attempt was likewise made to repeal the
registry act, and much violent and foolish language was
uttered. All the other colonies were tranquil, except
Lower Canada and the Cape of Good Hope. In the former
province, constitutional questions of an essential and grave
nature were urged. The House of Assembly on the one
hand, and the governor, supported by the legislative coun¬
cil, on the other, were at issue on the claim of the former
to the unlimited right of disposing of the whole revenue.
The governor and council would not admit the claim to
its full extent; the Assembly refused the supplies; a dis¬
solution ensued, and the different branches of the legisla¬
tive body parted in very bad humour with each other. The
disquiets of the Cape were caused by the petty tyranny of
the governor Lord Charles Somerset. Sixty of the most
respectable individuals of Cape Town were desirous of es¬
tablishing a literary society, a museum, and a library. A
fundamental article of the constitution of this body, was
the exclusion from their discussions of controversial theo¬
logy, the question of slavery, and all purely professional
subjects ; but the governor condemned the scheme as ille¬
gal, and induced the chief justice and some other members
to withdraw their names. The reasons which he assigned
for calling the society illegal were, first, because they
had presumed to form themselves into a society “ without
any previous reference to his excellency,” which he de¬
signated as a “ wilful” disregard of the existing authori¬
ties at the Cape; secondly, because it was improper to
permit the establishment of an association which might
have a tendency to produce “ political discussion. Ano¬
ther instance of the governor’s oppression was his conduct
towards Mr Greig, the editor of a newspaper, who pub¬
lished an article which Lord Charles conceived to be dis¬
respectful to his administration. The offender was order¬
ed to quit the colony within a month. He abandoned his
employment, and advertised his effects for sale; but by
this time a new whim had seized the governor, and Mr
Greig received intimation that he was at liberty to remain
in the colony.
England was this year involved in two wars by her fo¬
reign possessions. The Burmese wrar will fall to be noticed
when we come to narrate the events of 1826, when it was
terminated. The petty skirmishes with the barbarians
of Ashantee w ere the cause of much private grief, and
materially enhanced the expenses attendant upon the
maintenance of an unhealthy and useless establishment;
but were too trifling to affect the majestic interests of fin-
tain. The shock which had been communicated both to
the agricultural and manufacturing interests, by the tran¬
sition from a state of commerce in which, although ex¬
posed to hostile depredation, they were encountered y
no competition, to the rivalry of every nation,, and increas¬
ed in vehemence by the measures taken to restore t e
currency to a sound state, had begun to pass away.
prospect of a government acting upon a rational sys e
cheered men’s spirits; and under such auspices na ion
industry, although still trammelled and burdened by
unnecessarily complicated, wasteful, and extravagan
cutive system, was beginning to regain a healthy •
There was a regular demand for labour, and wage
rising. Manufactures of every kind were
abundance of capital led to many new ^e,^ice®, 01A pr:ca
ployment. The lately opened trade to South Am
was prosecuted, with all the sanguine hope o ig r rme(j
to an absurd extent. Joint-stock companies wer ,
for working the mines and conducting its pear je.
The rage for such associations spread through e j
partment of domestic industry. The wildest anticipation
g,, of of profit were indulged. The nation, drunken with the
;?eIV.sudden increase of its mercantile transactions, was pre-
Par.ing f?,r ltaelf a sudden and tremendous reflux of its
spring-tide of prosperity.
Parliament met in 1825 on the 3d of February The
question most urgently pressed upon its consideration was
the necessity of suppressing the Catholic Association.
1 he coldness ot lukewarm fnpnda nnri +1 ... ..
BRITAIN.
nHpfl ^ by false.lnfoymation; and that the description ap-
waa if11 hls maJesty s speech to the associations in Ireland
was altogether incorrect.” On the part of the opposition
Henry Parnell showed that MrOm.lh,,™ if  ’&ir
The coldness of Jukewarm ffiends, Tod the op^Enmity °n the ^ o^he o^osidoS
of avowed enemies, had rallied the whole of tlfe Catholic^ Z the mnfl16 fSh°u ed -that ?Ir Goulbu™ had misrepresent-
and a great number of the Protestants of Ireland around Sken hv ih °f ^fi^/he Catholic rent, and the shar,
this body. A contempt for the rights of citizens had nffi ^li? liT®? ln tbe 0Peration; and Mr Tierney
called it into existence and invested8it with power • and ^ be bad,exaggerated its amount. Mr Dem
”0W Ihe oppresses were the first to discovef the might tTte ™SShed h ‘’e “"“'fP'Vhich !?“'been attemPtec
»th tvh.ch they had myested it, but without feeling in- atsodati™ and th„t bT" °f thc «»>stitutiona:
dmed to betake themselves to the only effectual method f ociatloJ|.a”d that before the house, did not hold. The
of destroying it, namely, removing J griLTces wWct tus^am So/ f0hntai" °f j“Stice- at
gave it birth. 8 n,cn ^used a man because he entertained certain opinions, might
The expressions in the king’s speech applicable to the butTr* W as.jurors- . Tbe latter was at the most
Catholic Association were theseIt is to be regret- thieved Ld "giT ' as!?1ciatlons for the prosecution of
ted that associations should exist in Ireland, which have selvls to contHhnflT’tl G members only bound them-
adopted proceedings irreconcilable with the spirit of the W? * v i b m° the Prosecution of men guilty of of-
const,tut,on, and calculated, by exciting alarm Sby ex! tach mtf! bT" “."Tn611 by t.be 'vboIe "'°rM ^ such,
asperating animosities, to endanger the peace of societv • I c ? the consideration of the individual
an retard the course of national®improvement, ffi mt in Lour"^ ,Mr Plu"kctt> although
jesty relies upon your wisdom to consider without delay to ^1,° • f h admitted that it was quite legal
the means of applying a remedy to this evil.” The ad^ Mr Cmdh! ^ the PurPoses Professed by the Association,
dress in answpr tn .i,. au_ lVlr Houlburn s motion was, however, agreed to after a de
ust6 whirn »-«I/-ni»4-^. rr,i /'-i ,1 i* * .
i • ~ Lins evn. xnead-
dress in answer to the speech from the throne was agreed
to without a division. Several of the opposition members,
however, protested against the line of policy indicated in
MwrgfVVhl? WG haV-e qUOted* In tbe Lords’ tbe
Marquis of Lansdown cautioned ministers not to be hasty
in repressing open complaint, and not to beguile them¬
selves with the idea of curing a malady merely by remov-
ng a few of the outward symptoms. Mr Brougham, in
the Commons, maintained that the delay of redress had
driven the Irish to seek it at their own hands. He ex-
dations ’f lnTS;nCenty .that1!Urked under the plural « asso-
nltlT ri Wias a Juggllng attempt to assume the ap-
pearance of dealing equal justice to the Orangemen and
the members of the Association. g
bate which lasted four nights. The Catholic Association
™addebafPllCatl(?n }° be beard at the bar of the Commons;
onltbtn fl din,e^ thaE, Pnvilege’ they repeated the re¬
quest to the Lords with the same want of success. The
the 9thSef M0thih0UneS’ ?nd received the royal assent on
.• e / of March. But the Association, strong in the na¬
tional affection, was not so easily discomfited. It sub-
rlnseif ^Ithout a struggle; but no sooner w^as the session
ciosed than an aggregate meeting of the Catholics re-es¬
tablished it with a constitution which did not come under
m /:!ke Ml ,t0n S SPints’ ifc re-united, seemingly in-
capable of ‘mortal wound” in its “ liquid texture.” ^
whe^t^1611^ j ^ ?atholics Iaid bold of the occasion,
when the pretended advocates of emancipation were pro-
teStinP' tllP mnrp flvr  S . . ^ ^
Ministers were not slack in following up their denuncia- Pretended adv'ocates of emancipation were pi u
tion. On the second day of the session Mr Goulburn o-ave thJ efnl ent y tJeir contmued attachment t<
wAalhf Z0Ul^?n.the 10th ^bruary, move for tione??nr those »h° Peti
ieaveV'h-116 W°U,d’,?n the 10tb of FebJuar0;,1 move? S
unlawful ^in£Jn a. bld t0 amend certain acts relating to
unlawful societies in Ireland. The acts referred to were
raent^lT^r* I*!? °!?eS£ enacted by the Irish parlia-
ment nf1?93’ Proh,blted all assemblies for the appoint-
riidit nf dePuties\or which assumed in any manner the
r gh of representing the people of that country. The
feuds’ (laTfr ^tb the view of conciliating party
processions against, °range societies and Orange
Mr Goulburn ^w!ther touchedrthe Catholic Association,
great length nn Jy1611 ProPoundiog his measure, dwelt at
aig to him it 116 membei;s oP the Association. Accord-
appointeTamhTi-8 COmP0sfd ,mainlJ °f P™sts, men of dis-
Emmett Thl T’ and‘he familiar friends of Tone and
were actii^ h?0”™11 5ath°J1C gentry who belonged to
iects of thl g’ ? aVerr^d’ under intimidation. The ob-
of an nnn fi ln?tltJutl0n be described as being the levying
tuting nrosP!v°r?ed taX h-y th? agency of the priests; insti-
tratm/omr^ aga.mst lndividnals accused of perpe-
therifht m ^guS’ °r a^ting as incendiaries; and assuming
regard to thM TT t le !l^gaI societies to disband. With
silerable In T Charge’ Mr GouIbura expatiated at con-
dresf m i go 0I? °ne Part in the Association’s “ Ad-
them to refrainef°P G °f IreIand’’, in which they adjured
hate vo„ Secret and dlegal societies, “ by the
hate you hp^fi''^ ov'l"CL ttilu 1Jiegai societies, “ by the
mies.” Thp 1 6 prangemen, who are your natural ene-
suPported Mr remHerS ^ho’ la the course of the debate,
Goulburn s motion, adhered most pertina-
.• uuzy uiuumg mose Who peti-
oned for it, and when some of its opponents were shaken
in their firmness by the determination of the people, to
renew the question. Sir Francis Burdett, after some pre-
hmmary discussion in committee, introduced a bill for the
relief of the Catholics on the 23d of March. Two subor¬
dinate bills were introduced at the same time for the pur¬
pose of conciliating the most determined enemies of con¬
cession. By the one the qualification of a voter was raised
to a freehold of L.10 per annum, while the object of the
other was to make a provision for the Catholic clergy.
I he friends of the principal measure w^ere by no means
agreed as to the auxiliaries; but their variance was ren¬
dered of less consequence by the fate of the bill. While
it was yet before the committee of the House of Com¬
mons, the Duke of York rose in his place in the Upper
Douse, and in a long and confused speech declared his
resolution to oppose every concession “ up to the latest
moment of his existence, whatever might be his situation
m fife, so help him God.” This uncalled for and illiberal
declaration of the heir-apparent exasperated the Catholics
and grieved their friends. The bill passed the Commons
notwithstanding; but was, as every one anticipated, thrown
out in the Lords.
While parliament was thus refusing their just rights to
the Catholics in one breath, and in the next forbidding
under heavy penalties, every attempt to vindicate them’
the committee appointed by the Lords during the pre¬
vious session to collect information respecting the state
564 BRITAIN.
Reign of of Ireland, were proceeding with the investigation. The in Jamaica, Bridgetown in Barbadoes, St Johns in New It.n0f
George IV. evidence led established the existence of the most extensive Brunswick ; Halifax, and Quebec. The laige fees levied G^eiy,
and pervading misery. The peasantry were described as in the colonial ports were abolished. Two turther altera- f’V
being constantly on the verge of starvation, the victims tions of a local nature were contemplated. I he sugar of
of disease produced by the state of their squalid habita- the i'>Iauritius was admitted at the same late as that of
tions. They were servilely dependent on their landlords, the West Indies; and the coin of Canada was admitted
and harassed incessantly by the unprincipled extortions of into Great Britain on payment of a moderate duty. This
the tithe-agents. The law which was devised to protect last provision, however, was limited in its operation to the
them had been perverted into an engine of oppression, space of two years. This measure was accompanied by
The report of the committee was presented at too late a a second, which had for its object the promotion of corn-
period of the session to admit of its being made the basis merce by the diminution of duties imposed for piotection,
of any enactment. Various attempts were, however, made and not for revenue. A third was added, tending to re¬
in the House of Commons to procure redress of specific lieve the navigation of the country. Quaiantine duties
o-rievances. Sir John Newport, founding upon the report were abolished. All fees on commerce with the colo-
of the commissioners on education, moved an address to nies were done away. I he duty imposed upon the trans-
the kin«', praying his majesty to give orders for instituting fer of ships was removed. And, lastly, the system of con-
proseciTtions against different individuals connected with sular establishments was reformed by the substitution of |
the charter-schools of Ireland, who had been accused of fixed salaries, payable out of the public purse, for the bur-
«toss acts of cruelty; which was agreed to unanimously, densome and unequal fees which had previously been le-
jyjr Hume renewed his attack upon the established church vied. These measures, although viewed with appiehen-
in Ireland, but with a diminished number of supporters, sion by some members of the legislature, were approved
And after, wasting the best part of five months in violent of without a dissenting voice, ihe surrender of its char-
declamation, and passing some nugatory and some oppres- ter by the Levant Company at the same time confeiredan
sive laws, parliament abandoned Ireland to the rage of additional benefit on the mercantile interest. The repeal
party spirit, with scarcely any thing to preserve the coun- of the usury laws was again attempted, but without suc-
try from anarchy but the vigilance of a maligned and cess. A further reduction of taxation was effected by
persecuted body, the Catholic Association. the chancellor of the exchequer, but hot to any great
Meanwhile discussions leading to a more satisfactory extent. # . .
result had been agitated in parliament. On the 29th of The excessive speculation occasioned by the increasing
March Mr Huskisson called the attention of the House commercial prosperity of the country led, in the autumn
of Commons to the effects of Mr Hume’s bill of the pre- of 1825, to such a reverse as might have been anticipated,
vious session, repealing both the common and statute law Lord Liverpool and Mr Huskisson had raised their warn-
against combinations among workmen. It was to be ex- ing voices against the excess of speculation, ill loo e
pected that men new to liberty should in some measure and Mr M‘Culloch distinctly foretold the convulsion whic
abuse it. Every unaccustomed pleasure is apt to be in- was about to happen. The process of tlie change was
dulged in to excess. Accordingly it was found, that in this;—“ The depressed state of trade In 18~1 and J8
several parts of the country, and more particularly in the had led to a diminished production and importation o
west of Scotland and the sea-ports, the operatives had goods, and to an advance of prices in 18^.3; and the very
immediately availed themselves of the privilege of com- high prices of 1824 and 1825 were the result, hist, o is
bination to an extent that endangered the just rights of diminished production and-importation; secon y, o an
their employers, and threatened to place themselves at the improvement in the state of agricultural produce, tnr y,
mercy of the more artful and unprincipled of their own of the acknowledgment of the independence of t le <mi
body. The treasurer of the navy concluded his exposi- American republics, w hich opened new markets to pn-
tion of the state of combinations by moving for a commit- tish commerce ; and, lastly, of the loans which weie r*,s^
tee to report their opinion how far it might be necessary for these republics, and transmitted in manutac uie
to repeal or amend the act 6th George IV. cap. 95. The goods.’ 1 Ihe consequences of a want of due oresig
motion wras agreed to; and in consequence of the report under these circumstances were, production on t le par
of the committee, a bill was introduced having for its ob- the manufacturer beyond what could find vent, an
ject to afford protection to masters, and to such workmen tation on the part of the merchant beyond w latcou
as declined entering into associations. A summary juris- a market. Ihe delusion was kept up longer t an i o
diction was established, with power to convict for offences wise would have been, through tne facilities a oi e £
against the act on the oath of one credible witness, and large issues of paper, ihe first symptom o sonie . 8t
to inflict an arbitrary punishment to the extent of six being wrong was the turning of the exchange a? .
months imprisonment with hard labour. Some protection England, 'ihe bank immediately, in con oiri^lt^.'V1 ntg
to the capitalist was undoubtedly necessary; but it must established policy, diminished its issues am IS^ ,
at the same time be admitted, that the vague manner in Merchants were now pressed for funds to supp y i P
which the act was worded left open a wide field for op- of those which had been vested in a mode u!j1‘V'al ,a, joff
pression; and that the removal of the constitutional pro- immediate demand. I he bankers, mducec y j
tection of a jury was an infringement upon the rights of rate of interest, had discounted bills at unusua J ,jjj
the subject. The other measures introduced by Mr Hus- dates, and laid out their funds upon secunties w11C cjaj
kisson were less exceptionable. The first was an import- not be quickly realized. Several important com . ^
ant modification of the colonial system. The commerce failures took place, and the country became a arl^’
of the colonies was thrown open to a certain extent to all run upon the banks ensued, and several of t iem g , n
friendly powers. They were entitled to trade thither On the 12th of December it was announced t la a
with goods of their own produce in their own ships. The house, upon which no less than forty-seven coun D 0f
bonding system was likewise introduced into the colo- drew, had stopped payment. Next day t e s op^ ^
nies, and five warehousing ports appointed; Kingstown another equally important house was announce
1 On Paper-Money, Banking, and Over-Trading, by Sir Henry Parnell.
BRITAIN.
iof Baring thus described the scene which ensued• « a n„ i „ • ^ ,
;IV.nic seized the public. Men would not part with their nnde it nnl^ ^ ^harter °f the Bank of England which
money on any terras nor for any security,Pn„d the conse- consist of more than scanners 8 eStabliShment t0
quence was general distress. Persons of undoubted wealth Th0 kv.f e ,;UdI1 S1X partners. ^ ,
and real capital were seen walking about the streets of that wh' b' ° t|iese ProJects canned into execution was
London, not knowing whether they should be able to no?es fw C° e“(P “‘f11 'hc ,dest™ction of the small
meet their engagements for next day.” On the Wednes- >■;  in. .e,ntertalned aPPrehensions that du-
day the bank began to increase its discounts; it purchased
exchequer bills, and discounted on stock. Before the end
of the week it had issued in gold and notes not less than
eight millions. In the mean time meetings were held
565
Reign of
George IV.
ring the interval which must necessarily elapse between
the announcement of their plan and its receiving the
sanction of law, an infinite number of small notes might
be stamped, and immediately gave orders to put an end
in London, and in most of the trading towns, in whTch ed on in' l'nil'i'^n?1' SUCh n°teS' \he steP was animadvert-
resolutions were adopted for the support of commercial nmvor if i j6 j aS a m°St dangerous assumption of
credit. The public mind graduallybecame re aTsmS nZhJ 38 nef ssary t0 i^ure the success
but in the interval banks had broken down in every dt- bma v Z**!™ On the 10th of Fe-
tnct of England. Between October 1825 and February of the v^holp °c u ®xch^claer’ ln a committee
1826 fifty-nine commissions of bankruptcy were issued which related ‘o^heS^rf °P-ed 5 ^ par^Tof the Plan
against English country banks; and at such a time tfip tW 1 1 e small-note circulation. He proposed
number of private compositions are estimated to be to the be stampecP "ainTth it "ll ^ V^Ue °f five poun.df should
number of commissions in the proportion of four to one ’ i pr?.missory notes Payable to the
In a mercantile nation such a suspension of the cironlafinn fi ' i enian.d’ 1Salie(i by license, and under the value of
paralyses every effort. The s dp-owner suffered fom 1 previ°US t0 the 5th of February
their inability to procure freights /wSX m-tizans were bnSv Sq 6 t0 Circa>te until the 5th Fe-
thrown out of employment, and exposed to famine In rrm ^ no, ^°"Scr* Ministers at a later period
Scotland the momentary distress was equally great but sue i°fa °'V tne Fank of England the power to is-
the more solid system of banking materiady alleviated the to the 10th nf O Pf°Knd stamPed at an7 time prior
after-pressure. Mistrust and apprehension darkened B e enl! f « ^ mt t0 continue them ^ cir-
close of 1825, and threw their slide over the nrosneets of ^latl0n .aiter th,e laPse ot ^ree years, the limited date of
the opening y’ear. prospects of the existence of such a circulation. This measure met
Parliament was opened on the 2d of Februarv 1826 hv llr Ve,(:meat opposition m the Commons, but from a
commission. Almost the only topic °touch ^^ ^'^1,1^ vpry smad aiinority. In the Lords it was less pertina’
by the apprehension of anv intern,ntlon i T ^ d the rweed> Scotland took the alarm ; a small-
tranquillity. Sorae of the.cat,es to which this eSZn ^SSn^n^rvet^ThlraUro^b^ThlS
of parliament wrere instantly loaded with petitions from
that country against any restrictions on its paper cur¬
rency. It was necessary to pay attention to representa¬
tions in which men of all political parties and every rank
in life concurred. Select committees were appointed to
me ^auoco lu WHICH uus evil must
be attributed he without the direct reach of parliament-
ary mterpositmn, nor can security against the recurrence
of them be found, unless in the experience of the suffer¬
ings which they have occasioned. But to a certain por¬
tion of this evil, correctives, at least, if not effectual reme¬
dies, mav be annliod blV • “ Lum Ieme' 111 1Ite concurred. Select committees were appointed to
wisdom to devf£PI,?rb d maJesty relies upon your investigate the matter; and the result of their inquiries
b SivateTd nnhtTra f aS raay t!nd,.f0 1,rotcct was’ ,hat tlle ^^I-note currency of Scotland feSed
r'^ratt" IS Ire'“nd ^ ^ G‘'
TreZrerpZZdSiltaoWa^ Z6 Ct°Ty" ^ °r,ler 10 ^ive e,rect l° tIl<i -"easurecontempla.-
turned to this recommend linn wnf ^ 61 by nilai1sters’ Jt was necessary to interfere to a certain
houses without omiosifion^ w J . Z, bot J ,extfnt Wlth the chartered privileges of the Bank of Eng-
the opportunity of^statino-’ their ai?y.membe^ embraced land, and the consent of that body was therefore requisite
the countryHand th^mefsurp7il?Ptni0nff°/ f ^ t0 itS introduction. A communication was accord-
Lord Kin/attackcd tlm rnrn In 0l1'S t0 be, adoPt('d- *ngly made by the first lord of the treasury and the chan-
Lords shmild nlori i 1 WSj and P10posed that the cellor of the exchequer, to the governor of the bank, on
session. Mr BreuSiam^hou-ht their revisal during the the 13th of January, containing a detailed and luminous
more complicated^thnn ) causes of the distress exposition of the views of ministry, and expressing their
and dwelt ummks1 mdvpr«nHiadVertedm0-m 6 S^ee,ch, ]\°peS “ that the bank wil1 make no difficulty in giving up
its origin was not to be -7, I 7 SUfIcl®nt p^oof that their exclusive privileges, in respect to the number of part-
beral commercial nrincinb^ M • H adoptl0n fof mare1 ll' n1ers engaged in banking, as to any district fifty miles from
the true cause of ^he V f * 1 1 Hume maintained that the metropolis.” The directors, in their answer of the 20th,
taxation, and the f88 WaS 7° heav^ pressure of declined the task of recommending to the proprietors the
The members rnnneete l U .^xp^ndlture government, abandonment of their exclusive privileges. Several papers
fended the characters nf \ t ie country bankers de- were interchanged, and finally, a general court, held on the
ring and others puln • cse gcutlcmen; and Mr Ba- 3d of February, consented to waive their privilege, except
land. Ministers Tnnn^^ ^ conduct of the Bank of Eng- within a district of fifty miles round the city of London,
to apply were firof. U<nCet. J.^t the palhatives.they meant In the course of this correspondence the propriety of the
certain nerind nfr, l ° p''011blt t,ie circulation, after a bank establishing branches was suggested by government,
hy the Bank nf R °.es under tvvo pounds, whether issued The measure founded upon this arrangement was first in¬
to increase the sinmiv1 any pi?vat,e 1)anker 5 secondly, troduced into the House of Lords ; but no discussion took
t0 augment ^ , pnVate .b,anks, hY enabling them place upon it, until on the 17th of March Lord Liverpool
capital, and with that view to repeal moved the second reading. The debate even then wan-
566
BRITAIN.
Reign of dered entirely from the subject, and lost itself in vague dis-
George IV. quisitions on the history and fluctuations of the currency.
In the committee Lord Liverpool moved the addition of
a clause authorizing the Bank of England to establish
bi'anch banks throughout the country. The adoption of
this clause rendered another proviso necessary, declaring
the notes issued by the branch banks payable at the place
where they were issued. The bill experienced a warmer
opposition in the House of Commons, but was ultimately,
with some slight alterations, agreed to.
Public confidence was not however yet quite restored,
and ministers were pressed to take some step for the alle¬
viation of the immediate pressure. After some hesitation,
an arrangement was made with the bank, in virtue of
which it agreed to make advances to private individuals
upon the deposit of goods, merchandise, and other securi¬
ties. The whole sum advanced was not to exceed three
millions. The adoption of this measure rendered it neces¬
sary, for the security of the bank, to introduce a new bill
regarding the law of principal and agent. This act en¬
abled all persons in the possession of goods, possessed
likewise of documents conferring the property of them,
although such persons should be merely factors or agents,
to pledge with the bank as effectually as if they had been
the actual owners. Its operation was confined to deposits
made with the bank. Commissioners were immediately
appointed by the bank in the principal provincial towns.
They were almost uniformly merchants resident in the
district. The applications for advances were much fewer
than had been anticipated : either men were unwilling to
disclose their necessities to local competitors, or the know¬
ledge that a fund was provided restored confidence.
During these transactions the cause of the late panic
continued to be keenly canvassed both in parliament and
beyond its walls. Emigration was suggested as a source
of relief for the labouring classes, and a committee appoint¬
ed to collect information on the subject. The corn laws
were most vehemently exclaimed against, and even forced
upon the notice of parliament. Ministers acknowledged
the necessity that existed for thoroughly revising them,
but deprecated the introduction of so extensive a topic
during a session which, as the last ot that parliament, must
necessarily prove a brief one. The general question was
evaded ; yet before the end of the session, it was found
necessary to introduce two bills to modify the strict ope¬
ration of these laws. The first allowed wheat in bond to
come into the market on payment of a duty of ten shillings
per quarter, and other kinds of grain at inferior rates. The
second gave ministers a discretionary power of admitting
foreign grain during the recess to the limited quantity of
five hundred thousand quarters. rIhese slender conces¬
sions to justice and common sense were wrung with the
utmost difficulty from the reluctant landed interest. On
the other hand, a portion of the manufacturing and mer¬
cantile interest showed themselves equally unreasonable.
The silk trade, a hot-house plant, which has not been long
enough exposed to our bracing atmosphere out of doors
to become sufficiently acclimatized, was as usual the first
to complain. Petitions flowed in upon parliament from
every district where this employment had struck root.
An attempt was made to have them referred to a select
committee, as a first step towards checking the advance
made by government in liberal commercial policy; but
without success. The ship owners, next to the landholders
the most hardened and remorseless monopolists in the na¬
tion, were the next to make their voice heard. Mr Hus-
kisson met their allegations by a prompt appeal to facts,
moving for “ returns of ships built in the British dominions
between 1814 and 1825 both inclusive, distinguishing the
number in each year, and the amount of their tonnage.”
The advantages likely to result from the gradual emanci- Rinof
pation of the country from ill-judged trammels upon its in-GeJ,in¬
dustry were too apparent to allow, in any enlightened mind, ^ -v
of the thought of a retrograde movement.
In the discussions of this session to which we have
hitherto alluded, the ministers had found themselves
uniformly in triumphant majorities, swelled indeed more
frequently by their habitual opponents than by some of
their avowed supporters. The restriction of the small-note
currency was a step of questionable expediency, but was
susceptible of a plausible defence. The curtailment of the
bank privileges could only be disapproved of by a mem¬
ber of that powerful incorporation. The relaxation of the
corn laws, and the removal of commercial restrictions,
were measures based alike upon justice and expediency.
Every honest and enlightened man lent a willing support
to the projectors of such a system of policy. But finance
was their weak side. Robinson and Huskisson entertain¬
ed clear business notions, and were willing to have adopt¬
ed an honest system. Canning saw that their views were
popular, and coveted the glory of enforcing them. But
they and their friends knew right well that their places in
the cabinet were held but by sufferance of the faction which,
in virtue of its hold upon the House of Commons, domi¬
neered over England. They were kept in office to trans¬
act business, while the real holders of power reaped the
profits. They might make what parade of liberal senti¬
ments they pleased in order to conciliate the nation, so
long as they did not trench upon the emoluments of their
patrons. The conglomeration of offices ostensibly provided
for discharging the executive functions of government,
was frail, cumbrous, and ineffective, but it afforded “ but¬
tress and coigne of vantage” for scions of nobility to build
“ their pendant beds and procreant cradles,” and its struc¬
ture was in no event to be interfered with. They were
bound to defend what in their souls they believed to be
indefensible; and the event gives it proof.
The chancellor of the exchequer, on opening the budget
on the 13th of March, took a large review of the whole fi¬
nancial system of the country from the conclusion of peace.
It will be sufficient if we confine ourselves at present to what
related more immediately to the period during which he
himself had held office. Considerable retrenchment had
been effected between 1815 and 1819. During the last-
mentioned year an increase of taxation had been made to
the amount of three millions. In 1820 there had been no
change, and little in 1821. In 1822 Mr Vansittart was re¬
luctantly forced to remit rather more than three millions of
taxes. Matters were thus placed upon the same footing as
in 1819. Mr Robinson claimed to have remitted during
his administration L.8,073,000. The annual charge on
the whole debt on the 5th of January 1823 he stated
at L.29,286,000; and on the 5th of January 1826 at
L.27,946,000; being a reduction of L.1,339,000 m three
years. But he omitted to remind the house that during
each of these three years he had been professedly setting
apart an annual sum of five millions as a sinking fund, n
his estimate of the amount of the debt he omitted the a
gain commenced by Mr Vansittart, and completed by iw
self, for the payment of military and naval pensions,—
annuity ofL.2,800,000, which had forty-one and a halt years
to run, paid by government to trustees who had under
to discharge that burden. Mr Robinson was likewise
minded by Mr Hume that the decrease on taxation
more apparent than real. The taxes in 1818 hac pio
a sum of L.52,000,000; and in 1825 their amount
L.52,540,000. In 1818 the taxes were payable inP f
not convertible into gold, on an average of t ^ y ^
at a lower rate than L.5 per ounce. In 18^ me>
payable in gold, or in paper money convertible &
n of at the rate of seventy-seven shillings and tenpence half
a IV.penny per ounce. In reality there had been an increase
’~J of taxation instead of a reduction. The chancellor of the
exchequer evaded Mr Hume’s statements and arguments
under the pretext that they were too complicated to be
A‘—A af — There was nothing in the argument he
K 1 T A I N.
567
Bundoolah having received some reinforcements tnnk *■
up a strong position with twenty-five thousand mcm Geor^IV
with a judgment, says Sir Archibald Campbell, “ which v—v-^
wou d do credit to the best instructed engineers of the
most civilized and warlike nations.” On the 15th a body
lolVa lv.P   *
discussed at once. There was nothing in the argument he Uftb-T^ ajld nations.” On the 15th a body
advanced, that the amount of revenue being derived chiefly pH V^66111?undred of General Campbell’s infantry storing
from the excise and customs, indicatedgincreased coZ standt/S ^ fled’ leavinS the^ camp
sumption. If the officials of government were adequately of thpir^’ th a ] their b^age and a large proportion
d in the depreciatld currency, they Wp^Z °1^^s and ^munition. Whilst these operations
  ...V. ux guvcimnent were adequately
remunerated in the depreciated currency, they were extra
vagantly paid after its value had been raised. Undue bur
dens were imposed upon the country; but these were never
adverted to. The majorities were the only answer relied
upon by ministers; and they were applied with great suc¬
cess to meet motions for reduction of the naval, military
and diplomatic expenditure.
The discussions which arose during this session on the
state of Ireland were as vain and fruitless as might be ex
pected from a legislature indifferent to or ignorant of the
merits of either question.
In the speech by which the session was prorogued, allu¬
sion was made to the termination of hostilities with the
Burmese empire. The origin, progress, and termination
of this war were briefly these :-For many years the Bur¬
mese officers had been in the practice of committing acts
of encroachment and aggression on the East India Com-
pany s territories. lowards the close of the year 1823
they had crossed the frontiers, and entrenched themselves
within the limits belonging to the British. During Janu¬
ary and February 1824 they were driven from several of
their stockades ; but on the 21st of February they suc-
ceeded in repulsing a British force, which inspired them
mth fresh audacity. The governor-general, by the ad-
I-0f K1S C(^unci ’ .1®sued a declaration of war on the 5th
of March. A considerable naval and military armament
drawn partly from Madras and partly from Calcutta was
assembled at Port Cornwallis in the beginning of May, un¬
der the command of Sir Archibald Campbell and Commo-
ore Grant. It attacked Rangoon, the principal sea-port
of Ava, on the 10th of MayZand took it after a feeble
resistance, without the loss of a single man, capturing on
ffitffin CaSA10Hn 1 C°Vinsiderable quantity of artillery and ammu-
on r A detachment sef the island of Cheduba,
the mouthnfTl coa®t’and another against Negrais Isle, at
the 10th of T 16 £erbudda’ were equahy successful. On
the 10th of June General Campbell moved upon the ene-
S thTflotnia eThendin?’which he attacked i'1 concert
mpcpf tllla* The Position was evacuated by the Bur-
Thp TW°Pif’ af-er s.ustaining a cannonade of a few hours,
mmitc 1811 maintained their advantage in several engage-
butrhp enemy withdrew to a greater distance;
sunnlv jnn^1?118’ and the necessity of collecting a large
timfp^-0fZr°iV1SIOnS’ induced General Campbell to con-
nue hl head-quarters at Rangoon up to the end of the
Lst';mnXPfdltl0nS-W.ere’ however, detached against the
tober thP iani maritime stations; and by the end of Oc-
the eZfw Wi10 6 °f ?-e Burmese coast from Rangoon to
1 t nf n d ZaS ^uhjeeted to the British arms. On the
Maha ^undoolah, who had been lately
ed in f ° tbe command of the Burmese army, appear-
1 Gene^ CamPbeirs position Zi/from
his lino j ousand men. He was allowed to extend
?o .T11 f l-Brit,iah. flanks> !“d rear, and
General n hlrase)f ln that position. On the 5th
wing n„ attacked and entirely routed his left
g- liundoolah reinforced his centre and right with the
.— vvnusc tnese operations
were carrying on, demonstrations had been made by the
;ht Chittaeon8 frontier. Their arms were al
first attended by success, and they continued to hover
aiound Ramao till the end of July. Colonel limes bavin..
Iv frll h';Crma?dn0f th1 Sylhet frontier> they gtoduaf
ly fell back; and the end of October saw Cachar com¬
pletely evacuated, and the enemy in full retreat for Mun-
mpoor. About the middle of February 1825 Sir Archi-
bald Campbell moved from Rangoon upon Prome. The
inhabitants of the country through which he passed saw
with pleasure the expulsion of the Burmese. Having
reached Sorrawah, fifty miles in advance of Rangoon, the
fJ,°l1innfanderKn'Chle[-h1alted in the h°pe of hearing of the
fall of Donabew, which was to be attacked by the column
advancing under General Cotton by the Irawuddy. But the
attack was foiled. On the 11th of March General Camp¬
bell commenced a retrograde movement on Donabew, be¬
fore which he arrived on the 25th, and established a com¬
munication with the water column on the 27th. The bat¬
teries were opened on the 1st of April; and Maha Bundoo-
ai aving een accidentally killed, the Burmese garrison
abandoned the tort. Sir Archibald immediately resumed
ms march upon Prome, which he entered on the 25th of
April without firing a shot. By the 1st of February the
Burmese were expelled from Assam. A series of brilliant
operations on the 26th, 27th, 28th, and 29th'of March
gave General Morrison possession of Arracan. In Cachar
General Shuldham was advancing upon Munnipoor, which
les two undred miles north-west of Ammerapoora, the
capital of the Burmese empire. The main body of the
army was arrested at Prome by the rainy season, and felt
somewhat straitened for provisions, the country through
which their route lay having been entirely depopulated,
ihe mortality among the troops was also considerable.
Ihe liurmese had twenty thousand men at Mecadore, fifty
miles from Prome, and the same number at Patana-go,
An equally numerous body was interposed between the
lintish force in Arracan and the troops under the com-
mander-in-chief. In September negociations for the re¬
storation of peace were set on foot. A cessation of hosti¬
lities was agreed to on the 17th, to continue till the 17th of
October. Commissioners from the king of Ava met the
British general at Neounben-ziek on the 2d of October.
Ihey endeavoured to elude his demands for territorial
cessions and indemnification ; but finding him immovable,
requested a prolongation of the armistice, that they might
consult their court. It was accordingly extended till the
2d of November. Preparations were in the meanwhile
made to piosecute the war with activity in case the armis¬
tice did not lead to a definite treaty. On receiving the
proposed terms of peace, his majesty of the golden foot
burst into a violent passion, and gave orders to renew of¬
fensive operations. Before the termination of the armis¬
tice it was haughtily announced to the British leader 
“ If you wish for peace you may go away; but if you
wish either money or territory, no friendship can exist
between us. This is Burman custom.” The whole army
scattered remnant rhirmn-ti ^centre and right with the between us. This is Burman custom.” The whole army
aext day in front havinf mnshpd 1’•and/>reSei?ted hlmiSelf of Ava> nearly sixty thousand strong, advanced against
UP to the British’lines p8 en*r®nchm^ntj (dose Bl'ome> occupied by six thousand British and native troops,
at noon, and drove them f & Campbell attacked them The left division of fifteen thousand, commanded by Ma-
and drove them from all their entrenchments, ha Nemiow, approached close to Prome, keeping the east-
BRITAIN.
568
Reign of efn bank of the river. By the end of November the cen-
George IV. trej between twenty-five and thirty thousand strong, un-
der the Kee Wonghee, showed itself on the heights of
Napadee, on the same side of the river, five miles above
Prome. The right, consisting of fifteen thousand men
under Sudda Woon, were posted on the opposite side
of the river. All these bodies were, according to the mi¬
litary system of the Burmese, strongly entrenched, bir
Archibald Campbell, after expecting an attack for some
days in vain, marched on the 1st of December to dislodge
the corps of Maha Nemiow ; and in this he succeeded after
a desperate resistance. The leader fell, and the dispersion
of his followers was so complete that they did not even at¬
tempt to form a junction with their centre. Sir Archibald,
after allowing his troops only two hours repose, returned
to Zeouke, having marched twenty-nine miles and fought a
battle in the course of a day. Next day the British stormed
the heights of Napadee under a heavy cannonade, entire¬
ly dispersed the centre, and captured the whole of its ar¬
tillery, ammunition, and military stores. The position of
the right wing was attacked on the 5th; the Burmese
were driven from their defences, which were set on fire;
and a considerable amount of military stores was captured.
The road to the capital w^as now open, and Sir Archibald,
after allowing his men one day’s repose, advanced upon it
in two columns. The Burmese once more indicated a de¬
sire to make peace ; but as their shuffling and equivocation
rendered it impossible to repose confidence in their pro¬
fessions, the commander-in-chief continued to advance;
nor was it till the army had arrived within four days’
march of the capital that the king agreed to accept of the
terms which were offered to him. He renounced all claims
to Assam, Cachar, and Jyntia, and recognised Gumbheer
Singh as rajah of Munnipoor. He ceded to the Company
the four -great divisions of Arracan, and the provinces
Yeh, Tavoy, Mergui, and Tenasserim. And to indemnify
the British government he agreed to pay the sum of one
crore of rupees. Twenty-five lacs of rupees were to be
paid before the British retired upon Rangoon; the same
sum before they evacuated the king’s dominions ; and the
remaining half by equal annual instalments within two years
from the date of the treaty. The handful of troops which
had achieved this triumph commenced its return on the 5th
of March. The India Company obtained by this conquest
the removal of a troublesome neighbour, an increase of
territory, and a consequent increased perplexity in its af¬
fairs. Britain gained nothing but an augmentation of its
military and naval establishments.
Parliament was prorogued on the 31st or May 182(>, and
dissolved on the 2d of June; and writs were ordered to be is¬
sued for a new election, returnable on the 25th of July. The
elections afforded a test of the success which had attended
the new system of ministers. They showed how far the
confidence of the people had been won by the concessions
made to the spirit of the age and the popular eloquence
of Mr Canning. In Scotland, as was to be expected from
its miserable system of mock representation, there was a
dull silent adherence to the old routine, from which no¬
thing could be gathered. In Ireland the Catholic Asso¬
ciation prosecuted with success its sacred task of forcing
from an unwilling government the nation’s rights. The
bond of union, in defiance of the law, was kept up among
its members; “ the rent” continued to be levied ; and the
priests had been won to lend it their confidence. In every
district of Ireland the new allies struggled with unwearied
assiduity to turn the angry energies of the peasantry into
a legal channel, and to teach them to direct their efforts to
the attainment of some real good. The elections offered
them an opportunity of strengthening the phalanx of their
friends in parliament, and of testifying the national senti¬
ment. The forty-shilling freeholders, a body of men who
had been encouraged by unprincipled political gamblers G; (rep
to increase and multiply beyond what the land seemed 'v w
able to support, and more neglected by their suzerains than
the beasts of the field, except when the time arrived that
they were to be driven to the poll, were converted into an
engine to overthrow the power of their creators. The te¬
nantry were besieged by the exhortations of clerical and lay
emancipators to remember that they had rights as well as
their landlords, and that they owed duties to themselves
as well as to others. The great landholders now found
the automata upon whom they had hitherto relied assert¬
ing wills of their own. The most splendid victory of the
Catholics was gained in Waterford, where a member of
the Beresford family was compelled to withdraw from the
contest. The Catholic Association might point with pride
to the change it had worked in the character of the Irish
peasant; for, amidst all the heat of contested elections,
bloodshed and lawless violence were on the decline, even
while the hungry artizans of England were driven by
want to violate the law. In England the ministers were
almost everywhere triumphant. Mr Brougham experien¬
ced a more marked defeat in Westmoreland than on any
former occasion. Lord Howick and Mr Beaumont, the
Whig candidates for Northumberland, both failed. Mr
Huskisson was again returned for Liverpool. Ihe metro¬
polis alone adhered to its old principles. The usual topics
were advanced by the candidates for popular favour.
Only one is worthy of being recorded. In proportion as
the Catholic cause advanced in Ireland it seemed to grow
weaker in England. The same ignorance, prejudice, and
sectarian spirit of which the Catholics stood accused was
appealed to by their adversaries, and the almost absolute
watchword “ no popery” was revived.
The bustle of the elections was succeeded by grave ap¬
prehensions of famine. Wheat had proved an average
crop through England; but a long drought threatened a
dearth in every other sort of grain. Barley was deficient;
there was every appearance of a scarcity of pulse; oats,
in many districts the most important article of food to
the lower classes, and the potato crop, the sole stay of
Ireland, threatened to fail altogether. The farmers, too,
were suffering; for the violent and continued heats had
dried up the richest meadow-land in England, till it be¬
came necessary to feed cattle with dry fodder, as if it were
the depth of winter. A seasonable change of weather
averted a great portion of the impending calamity; but m
the month of September prospects were most alarming,
and the rise in the price of grain pressed with unwonted
severity upon the working classes, who were still suffering
from the effects of the late panic. The price of oats m
reality exceeded the importation price ; but the crafty de¬
vices of the landlords’ committee respecting the taking ot
averages precluded the opening of the ports before the
15th of November, although in the interim a famine might
have depopulated the country. Ministers generously re
solved to risk a violation of the law rather than incur the
deeper moral responsibility of allowing the people to Per's
by famine. On the first of September they issued an order
in council, authorizing the immediate importation of 08 s,
oatmeal, &c. upon the persons importing becoming boun
to pay a conditional duty. The necessity of obtaining a
act of indemnity for this step occasioned the assem Mg
of parliament at an earlier season than usual. ,
The first session of the eighth parliament of the uni
kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland commence on
14th of November 1826, and terminated on the
July 1827. It adjourned twice ; from the 13th of Rece
ber to the 8th of February, and from the 12th o P
to the 1st of May. It will be necessary, in order to p
G ,relV.
1 w
serve the current of our narrative free from perplexity, to
detail briefly the changes in administration, and the in¬
trigues by which they were effected, before narrating the
legislative proceedings of this session.
Lord Liverpool was struck with apoplexy on the morn¬
ing of the 17th of February 1826. As it was possible that
he might recover sufficiently to resume his share in public
business, a feeling of delicacy kept both the king and mi¬
nisters from taking any immediate steps to re-organize the
government. The disunion between the two incompati¬
ble parties which composed the cabinet continued to in¬
crease after the removal of their connecting link; and a
sense of this, aided by the urgency of opposition, forbade
longer delay. The first practical discussions respecting
a new arrangement took place between the king and Mr
Canning, at the royal lodge, on the 28th of March. His
majesty’s first idea was, to retain the services of Mr Can¬
ning and his friends, and to place at the head of administra¬
tion a peer holding Lord Liverpool’s opinions on the Ca¬
tholic question. Mr Canning explicitly stated, that if those
whose sentiments were favourable to the Catholics were
to be excluded, solely on account of these sentiments, from
the highest offices of state, he could not consent to be
the individual in whose person such a principle should be
established.” He therefore felt himself bound honestly to
state, that “ the substantive power of first minister he must
have, and, what was more, must be known to have,” or he
must beg leave to retire from a situation which he could
“ no longer fill with satisfaction to himself or with benefit
to the king’s service.” Mr Canning felt, in short, that in
any administration of which he should form a part, who¬
ever might be the ostensible, he must be the real prime
minister, and he was naturally and justly indignant at the
demand that he should yield up his laurels to grace the
brow of titled imbecility.
With the exception of an interview, during which no-
tnng of moment occurred, Mr Canning had no more com¬
munication with the king till the 10th of April, when he
received the royal commands to prepare, “ with as little
delay as possible, a plan for the reconstruction of the ad¬
ministration.’ There were, however, frequent conferences
n the interim between Mr Canning, the Duke of Welling-
on, and Mr Peel. The last-mentioned gentleman frankly
eclared that he had made up his mind to resign if an
individual favourable to the Catholics were placed at the
ea o government. I he duke urged strongly the ne-
cess'ty of having a prime minister opposed to concession,
ir reels professions “ of respect and regard” for Mr
vanning were unbounded; so much so that Mr Canning
• pressed himself as feeling “ it quite impossible to do
fln/:evrice n° ^ran^ness an<l straightforwardness,
• °./eeT'nqs for which he owned he had not before
niin-f 1 ee credlt-” The subsequent conduct of that
minister has proved that Mr Canning’s first impressions
ere con-ect. fhe haughty character of the Duke of
sn mSton prevented him from wearing the mask to
ca,Tch PurPose. The language of the Duke of New-
tle, and other adherents of the Duke of Wellington,
turalha-PP-r°Vej ^ ,Pnot sanctioned by his Grace, had na-
tud /.lrr‘tated Mr Canning. By the intervention of mu-
dnkp alfi1 AJ s®yera! interviews took place between the
bpvnn i i^r Canning, but without producing any effect
alitv 1 a le'estahhshment of the outward show of cordi-
duko an a uunviction in the mind of Mr Canning that the
iustipp0Vcu5 the P°St .of prime minister for himself. The
wiili «,k0, i! 1 iS conclusion is established by the eagerness
sions orIC 1 Ult eminent soldier on two subsequent occa-
Mr Cn.asped at ti16 pffice, and by Mr Peel’s waiting upon
to tlle kmg’s command, on the 9th of April,
vol v Ule apP0^ntment °f the duke as premier, an
BRITAIN.
569
difficulties!114 WhiCh ^ Ped C°nCeiVed like]? t0 S0lve a11 a-£n of
J left the king late in the afternoon of the '—
loth of Apul; and as parliament was to adjourn for the
aster recess on the 12th, there was not a moment to be
lost He found Lord Grenville, Mr Huskisson, and Mr
anta at the foreign office. Lord Grenville was request¬
ed to bear to his brother-in-law, Lord Harrowby, a verbal
announcement of Mr Canning’s having been ordered to
construct an administration; Mr Huskisson was charged
i ™ SLmilar mission to Lord Melville and Mr Wvnn •
and Mr Planta to Mr Robinson. The same communica-
tron was made by Mr Canning in writing to the Duke of
e mgton. Lord Bathurst, Lord Westmoreland, and Lord
GX e/* nr °rd cliancellor and Mr Peel were waited
upon by Mr Canning in person. The projected cabinet,
it was intimated, was to “ adhere to the principles on
winch Lord Liverpool’s government had so long acted.
Loid Eldon had long felt anxious to resign ; but wished
to procrastinate the time, not for his own sake, but on ac¬
count of the business of his court. In about four months
he would wind up its affairs and retire.” Finding, how¬
ever, his colleagues determined to secede from Mr Can¬
ning, his lordship at last vacated the woolsack, “ with cov
reluctant, amorous delay.” The Duke of Wellington in¬
quired who was the individual intended to be put at the
lead of the government. To Mr Canning’s reply that the
king usually intrusted the formation of an administra¬
tion to the individual whom it was his majesty’s gracious
intention to put at the head of it,” his Grace rejoined
by requesting Mr Canning to desire his majesty “ to ex¬
cuse him from belonging to his councils.” Lord West-
moreland hesitated to pledge himself, and ultimately de-
c.ined office on the ground that “ the chief office was in
the hands of a person of different principles from Lord
Liverpool’s.” Mr Canning replied to this insinuation;
but only received a brief and haughty note, intimating
that Lord Westmoreland “ declined to enter into a lite-
upon principles.” Lord Bexley first accept¬
ed office, and afterwards drew back. Lord Bathurst wish¬
ed to see Mr Canning, but sent in his demission before
an interview took place. The reason afterwards assigned
was the resignation of so many of his colleagues. Mr
Peel adhered to his first determination. Lastly, Lord
Melville made up his mind to resign, because, as he ex¬
pressed himself in the House of Lords, he doubted the
“ stability of Mr Canning’s administration.
It was impossible for Mr Canning not to see that these
answers were the result of combination. The king took
the same view of the transaction; and, already moved by
the dictatorial tone of the Dukes of Wellington and New-
castle, was roused, by this pertinacious opposition to the
minister of his choice, to long unwonted decision. He
immediately confirmed Mr Canning’s appointment by giv¬
ing him his hand to kiss. The new premier lost not a
moment in gathering the friends who had stood true to
him,—Lord Harrowby, Mr Robinson, Mr Wynn, and Mr
Huskisson,—and preparing to fill up vacancies. Lord Mel¬
ville was the last to resign, and his office was the first filled
up. Before twenty-four hours had elapsed, his royal high¬
ness the Duke of Clarence, the heir-presumptive to the
throne, was placed at the head of the admiralty. Lords
Anglesey and Lyndhurst accepted the offices vacated by
the Duke of Wellington and Lord Eldon; the Duke of
Portland, Lord Dudley, and Mr S'turges Bourne, joined the
administration. A negociation was opened with the Whigs
through the medium of Lord Lansdown. Some difficul¬
ties occurred to prevent the immediate accession of the
party to the number of Mr Canning’s avowed supporters.
In general, however, they cordially co-operated with him;
4 c
570
BRITAIN.
Ueign of and it was settled, that at the close of the session Lords
George IV. Lansdown and Carlisle, and Mr Tierney, should have seats
s—’-"Y''*’"' in the cabinet.
The ministry seemed irresistible. Supported by trium¬
phant majorities in both houses—opposed by the virulent
but powerless hatred of a talentless faction of discontent¬
ed place-hunters—suspected only by Lord Grey in the
House of Lords, and Mr Hume and his small band of sturdy
reformers in the Commons—it swayed the legislature to
its will. The great body of the nation saw, in the junction
of the Whigs with Mr Canning’s friends, a further guaran¬
tee of administrative reform. The question of parliamen¬
tary reform had been postponed by universal consent, and
the concession of it by the Whigs was less noticed than
perhaps it ought to have been. Ireland, relieved from a
portion of her fears by the death of the Duke of York, was
waiting in breathless expectation of the change which the
new arrangements were to work in her favour. The cal¬
culations of all were, however, rendered nugatory by the
death of Mr Canning on the 8th of August 1827.
George Canning was more the orator, and specious or¬
gan of a party, than a statesman. He had no political
principles, and it may even be doubted whether he was
capable of comprehending any. In his youth he advocat¬
ed despotic opinions, and the policy of restriction ; to¬
wards the close of his career he patronized popular rights,
and advocated a liberal commercial system ; and the wea¬
pons which he used, dazzling declamation and ready
wit, were alike available on either side. It would be in
vain to seek in his numerous orations any clear and palp¬
able delineation of a system, or definition of principle ;
they are mere showy superstructures, based on the vulgar
assumptions of a party man. His favourite maxim, “ to
hold the balance between contending principles,” is the
severest satire that has been pronounced against him. It
was an explicit confession that his mind was so. construct¬
ed as to be incapable of apprehending truth. Even his
eloquence was showy, not substantial. Its most beautiful
passages are tricked out abstractions and common-places,
not those burning expressions of sentiment which strike
conviction, and convey new ideas to the auditor, liis
jokes were not always either new or select. Canning’s,
power consisted in a generous disposition, which hankered
after the love and admiration of all he came in contact
with ; in a physical vehemence, which compensated to a
certain extent for his deficiency in reasoning and senti¬
ment ; and a feeling of rhetorical beauty, which, from its
common-place character, kept him uniformly within the
range of the comprehension of those he was addressing. In
a popular government Canning would have sunk before men
of business and fluent expression ; in a despotic govern¬
ment his irritable temperament would have incapacitated
him for competition with the cool and guarded courtier.
Even in the House of Commons, his vehement disposition,
alike incapable of enduring opposition or bearing triumph
with moderation, if it sometimes enabled him to bear down
petulance, as in the case of the celebrated “ yes” with which
he met some captious questions from Mr Dawson, at times
prompted him to a strain of declamation revolting to every
generous feeling, as in the case of his ungentlemanly joke
at the expense of Lord Nugent. But on the whole, in
a government such as he found England, where a despo¬
tic oligarchy sought to juggle the nation with the show
of free discussion, he was an invaluable tool. He put a
fair face on their worst proceedings, and he could adapt
himself to every change in public opinion, doo late he
awakened to a sense of his own dignity. The cold-heart¬
ed oppressors to whom he had sold his youthful vigour
turned the whole energy of their concentrated malice upon
him the moment he asserted his equality with them. Their
scorn and persecution preyed upon his spirits, harassed He; 0f
and undermined his constitution. His death was an ex-Gedfv,
ample of retributive justice: he died the victim of the^-"*'
false god to whom he had sold himself.
The cabinet he had collected did not long survive him.
His personality was the only cement that kept it together.
Had he survived, time might have given it consistency; but
both he and his immediate friends must have purchased it
at the price of large concession to popular demands. He
had thrown himself into the arms of the Whigs, and both
parties must have thrown themselves, as the latter have
since done, into the arms of the people, to enable them to
make a stand against the aristocracy. His cabinet at the
moment of his death consisted of three incompatible par¬
ties ;—some adherents of the old far niente system; Mr
Huskisson and others, who wished to govern in accordance
with popular principles, but without conceding any direct
influence to the people ; and the Whigs, whose professions
had ever been a desire to afford the people a more direct
voice in public councils. At the head of this discordant
mass was placed Lord Goderich, an intelligent and well-
meaning man, but totally destitute of promptitude and de¬
cision. Mr Herries, whose personal attachments bound
him to the Duke of Wellington and Mr Peel, was placed
in an important office. This ill-assorted shadow of a govern¬
ment was huddled up after the prorogation in 1827, and did
not survive to meet the session of 1828. Lord Goderich
resigned on the 8th of January. Some violent recrimina¬
tion ensued between the parties, worthy only of ephemeral
notice. One or other, or both parties, might have behaved,
in fact did behave unhandsomely; but the real cause ot
the dissolution of Lord Goderich’s government lay deeper,
—in the very nature of its constitution.
Before proceeding to the history of his successors in
office, and the fortunes of the nation under their sway, it
will be necessary to revert to the proceedings of the ses¬
sion 1826-27 ; a session interrupted by two long recesses,
and frittered away by vehement personal disputes.
The subject of the corn laws was almost the only one
that met with serious and continued attention, dhe kings
speech was studiously silent upon the general question,
_but this very silence was made a pretext for introducing
it. Lord King in the House of Lords moved an amend¬
ment to the address, condemning the corn laws. Mr W es¬
tern in the Commons moved an amendment to the address,
calling for investigation into the state of the agricultural in¬
terest, and pointing at additional restrictions in its favour.
Ministers objected to the discussion, on the ground that
parliament had been summoned to meet before Christmas,
not for purposes of general legislation, but to pass an act ot
indemnity in favour of ministers, in consequence of then-
having opened the ports before the averages indicated that
the price of grain warranted such a step. Lord Liver¬
pool and Mr Canning assured parliament that mimsteis
were prepared to propose a general measure regarding
the corn laws, and that they would produce it immediate¬
ly after the holidays. In consequence of these represen¬
tations, the only step taken before the close of
the passing of the indemnity act. Mr Whitmore 0 '
casion to remark that the measure was a new proof ot
absurdity of a law which they had been obliged to re
thrice in the course of three years. It was intende
introduce the subject of the proposed alterations to
notice of both houses on the same evening, name y>
17th of February. _nn0Si.
The illness of Lord Liverpool prevented the P F
tions being submitted to a committee of the uppei j.
and Mr Canning’s indisposition caused a PostPone!? tj,at
the committee of the lower till the 1st of March. .flS
day the foreign secretary proposed a series of re
BRITAIN.
ign of respecting the future regulation of the corn trade, to be
urge IV. adopted by the committee as the foundation of a bill. The
object of the proposed measure he stated to be to afford
as much protection to the land-owner as was necessary,
at the expense of as little pressure upon the commercial
interest as was possible. The mode in which this was to
be accomplished was by imposing a scale of regulated
duties upon foreign grain, rising and falling inversely with
the fall and rise of prices. The medium price of wheat
assumed was sixty shillings, and the corresponding duty
was one pound per quarter. For every shilling wheat rose
above the medium price there was to be a reduction of
two shillings of duty until the price reached seventy shil¬
lings, at or above which it was liable to a duty of one
shilling per quarter. For every shilling wheat fell below
the medium price, there was imposed an additional two
shillings of duty. The duty upon other kinds of grain
was in proportion, and varied upon the same principle. A
duty equal in amount to the duty payable on five bushels
of wheat was imposed upon every barrel of wheat-meal
and flour, being a hundred and ninety-six pounds. A
duty equal in amount to the duty payable on a quarter of
oats was imposed upon every quantity of two hundred and
fifty-two pounds of oatmeal. The averages regulating the
amount of duty were to be taken weekly. Mr Canning
having submitted his measure to the house, postponed
its consideration for a week, in order that every appear¬
ance of precipitation should be avoided. The debate, when
resumed, turned chiefly upon the question of too much or
too little. It was waged, however, with all that pertina¬
city and violence which characterize the disputes of men
who differ little from each other in opinion. Some con¬
cessions were made by ministers, but they were all in fa¬
vour of the land-owners. Mr Hume took no part in the
discussion in committee, but when the report was brought
up he entered his protest against the measure. He man¬
fully argued for a free trade in corn as in every thing else.
He maintained, that if there was truth in the allegation
of the land-owners, that they bore a heavier burden of taxa¬
tion than the rest of the community, the proper way to af¬
ford them relief was by a countervailing duty, or the repeal
of taxes. The country needed foreign grain ; it could not
one year with another grow enough for its own support.
When the ports were sometimes open and sometimes shut,
no foreign nation could rationally venture on the specula¬
tion of raising grain for the English market; the demand
was too uncertain. Mr Hume suggested the imposition
of a duty of fifteen shillings on foreign wheat, to decrease
annually one shilling until it was reduced to ten shillings,
which was to remain the permanent duty. Only fifteen
members voted for this amendment. The House of Com¬
mons having approved of Mr Canning’s resolutions, a bill
enacting them into a law was introduced, which reached
its third reading on the 12th of April, was passed, and
sent to the Lords.
A strong opposition to the provisions of the bill had
been mustering and threatening before it made its appear¬
ance in the upper house. Various unimportant amend¬
ments were made in committee ; but one brought forward
by the Duke of Wellington sealed the fate of the bill.
His Grace moved, that “ no foreign corn in bond should
e taken out of bond until the average price of corn should
ave reached sixty-six shillings.” This amendment, which
completely altered the nature of the bill, was carried by
considerable majorities, both in committee and when the
•eport was brought up. Ministry in consequence aban-
oned the mutilated measure. A temporary bill was in-
toduced by Mr Canning, lest a year should be allowed
0 jPse without any legal provision on the subject;
and this passed through both houses without any serious
571
nmPp0nSrfm°n\ Dl|ke of Weliington asserted that his Feign of
amendment met with the concurrence of his maiestv’sGeorgcIV.
ministers, and produced a letter from Mr Huskisson in
corroboration of his assertion. One expression in the let¬
ter was certainly liable to misapprehension, and might
have contained the original hint of the duke’s amendment;
but Mr Huskisson expressly said, even of his own sug¬
gestion, that it would hazard the safety of the measure
and therefore he could not'approve of it. The duke, also’
when charged with having sought to defeat a measure to
which he had given his assent during Lord Liverpool’s
life, replied that he had only approved of the general prin¬
ciple of it. But his measure was subversive of the prin¬
ciple of the bill. No wonder then that Mr Canning saw
m the duke’s amendment, and the hearty support it found,
a personal attack. His only mistake lay in calling him
an insti ument in the hands of others. His previous in¬
ti iguing, and his subsequent political career, show him
to have been an instrument possessed of a perfect con¬
sciousness of the purposes to which he was applied. Mr
Canning was thus far in the right. He was the object of
the most intense animosity to the high Tories. They hated
with all a woman s hatred one of the democracy who
aspired to an equality with them, who they felt surpassed
them in intellectual power, and who they rvere conscious
knew that he surpassed them.
The other questions brought before the session of par¬
liament which witnessed the termination of Mr Canning’s
career, were discussed with a considerable degree of list¬
lessness and impatience. Mr Canning’s vindication of the
prompt interference of Britain, when Spain threatened
to disturb by violence the internal arrangements of Por¬
tugal, wras splendid and convincing. The establishment
of a constitutional form of government in Portugal had
given rise to much faction and intrigue; and there had
been numerous desertions from the army. The disaffect¬
ed had been well received, and allowed to organize them¬
selves behind the Spanish frontier, and had even dared to
violate the Portuguese territory. A large force of Spa¬
nish troops was mustering upon the frontier. Under these
circumstances the regency, after losing some time in fruit¬
less negociations at Madrid, claimed the aid of England,
which was frankly and promptly granted. Five thousand
British troops were immediately embarked, the first division
of which arrived in the Tagus on the 25th of December
1826. The course of events rendered it unnecessary for
them to encounter the rebels in the field. Home affairs
were discussed with the same want of keenness. On the
5th of March the House of Commons refused to entertain
the question of Catholic emancipation, by a majority of four.
Notices of one motion on the subject, and another for the
repeal of the test act, were withdrawn immediately after
the instalment of Mr Canning in the premiership, lest a
premature collision between him and his new allies should
be brought about. Mr Hume’s motion for the repeal of
Lord Castlereagh’s act against cheap publications was
smothered by the voluntary absence of the Whigs, aided
by the apostacy of Sir James Scarlett and of Sir Robert
Wilson. Such was the aspect of affairs when the fate of
the nation was confided to the guardianship of the Duke
of Wellington. . .i i •
Lord Goderich had no sooner resigned than the king
sent for the Duke of Wellington, and commissioned him
to form an administration with himself at its head. Mis
Grace immediately entered into communication with Mi
Peel and others of Lord Liverpool s ministry who had
seceded on the elevation of Mr Canning. The new go¬
vernment was speedily constructed. The Whigs were dis¬
missed, the friends of Mr Canning remained in office, and
the leading members of Lord Liverpool s cabinet return-
572
BRITAIN.
lleign of ed. The public were not satisfied at seeing the pertina-
GeorgeIY.city with which Mr Huskisson and his friends clung to
office. The duke indeed seemed to have retained them
solely for the purpose of disgracing them in the eyes of
the country; for, after forcing-upon the House of Com¬
mons measures which obliged them, out of a regard to
common decency, to declare they supported with reluc¬
tance, and merely for the sake of preserving unity in the
cabinet, he took the opportunity afforded him by Mr Hus¬
kisson, when he voted for transferring the franchise of
Penryn, convicted of corruption, to Birmingham or Man¬
chester, to get quit of him, and with him of his retaineis.
Their places were immediately filled by creatures of the
duke. The only other change made by the premier was
his superseding the Duke of Clarence in the admiralty.
The Duke of Wellington found the country at peace,
and looked up to as the head of constitutional Europe.
The state of peace seemed to run little risk of being in¬
terrupted. The British troops dispatched to loitugal
were still stationed there, but almost one of the first steps
taken by the new minister was to withdraw them. Ihe
relation in which England stood to the Ottoman Porte was
more delicate. From the commencement of the Greek
struggle for independence till the year 1827 Britain had
observed a strict neutrality between the Turks and their
former vassals. The prolongation of the contest between
the infuriated nations, however, promoted the growth of
piracy to such a degree that the countries principally in¬
terested in the commerce of the Levant felt themselves
bound to put an end if possible to the state of things in
which it originated. These resolves were confirmed by
their feelings of humanity, revolted by the Turkish cruel¬
ties. On the 6th of July a treaty was signed at London
by the ministers of Britain, France, and Russia, declara¬
tory of the necessity of putting an end to this sanguinary
contest. The intervention of France and Britain was jus¬
tified on the ground that their mediation had been re¬
quested by the Greeks. The object of the treaty was de¬
clared to be the effecting of a reconciliation between the
Porte and its Grecian subjects. An armistice was to be
insisted on from both parties as an indispensable prelimi¬
nary to the opening of any negociation. Before the Porte
could be brought to declare its sentiments with regard to
this interference, Ibrahim Pacha, with the Egyptian fleet
of ninety-two sail, arrived in the Morea. The British
squadron under Admiral Codrington was cruizing off Na-
varino when this armament approached. The Porte not
having yet refused to accede to the armistice, the English
admiral gave the Egyptian his choice of returning to
Alexandria or entering Navarino, to which in that case he
must confine himself. The latter branch of the alterna¬
tive was accepted. Ibrahim took advantage of the absence
of the British and French squadrons to put to sea on the
30th of September, but returned to Navarino on the ap¬
proach of Admiral Codrington. Chafed by these obstruc¬
tions, he attacked the Greeks by land, and ravaged the
surrounding districts with fire and sword. It was imme¬
diately resolved by the British, Russian, and French ad¬
mirals, to enter the harbour, in the hope that their impos¬
ing attitude would induce Ibrahim to desist from his savage
devastation. This movement produced an attack from
several of the Turkish ships; and after a vain attempt at
explanation the action became general. The Egyptian
fleet was completely dismantled. It was feared that the
sullen silence with which the intelligence of this disaster
was received at Constantinople might eventually break out
into war. If it happened that there was little reason to
dread a transition from the peace which Europe was en¬
joying, owing to the accession of a military premier, the
confidence in the liberal policy of England was consider¬
ably shaken. No decided steps of the minister justified Ifei 0f
the suspicions of his own country and Europe; but theGeor;
lenient eye with which the proceedings of Don Miguel ^
were regarded, and the disparaging terms applied to the
action at Navarino in the king’s speech, were laid hold of
as unfavourable symptoms.
The first step taken by the new ministry after the meet¬
ing of parliament was to appoint a finance committee.
The nomination of its chairman was the ostensible reason
of that schism in the late cabinet which had caused its
dissolution. On the 15th of February Mr Peel proposed
“ That a select committee be appointed to inquire into
the state of the public income and expenditure of the
united kingdom, and to consider and report to the house
what further regulations and checks it may be proper in
their opinion to adopt, for establishing an effectual control
upon all charges incurred in the receipt, custody, and ap¬
plication of public money; and what further measures can
be adopted for reducing any part of the public expendi¬
ture without detriment to the public service.” The sub¬
ject of inquiry to which the mover adverted as most worthy
of the attention of the committee, and most likely to be
productive of benefit, was the simplification of the public
accounts. He alluded to the superior manner in which
those of France and the United States were kept. This
admission of the propriety of taking a lesson on such a
subject from these countries, when viewed in connec¬
tion with Mr Canning’s declamatory opposition to Mr
Brougham’s motion respecting the droits of admiralty in
1820, was a most remarkable sign of the times. A minis¬
ter who had opposed that very Mr Canning on the ground
that he conceded too much to the innovating spirit of the
age, was ready to advance before him in the path of in¬
novation. Mr Peel’s motion encountered no stronger op¬
position than arose from a proposal made by Mr Hume,
that as one committee was inadequate to overtake the im¬
mense number of topics embraced by the proposed inves¬
tigation, several should be appointed. Mr Brougham, with
a view to reconcile the two plans, suggested the division
of the committee into sub-committees, each taking a spe¬
cific subject of inquiry. Ministers persisted in adhering
to their original plan. Two measures of financial reform
were submitted by the committee to the House of Com¬
mons during the session. The first related to the system
on which government annuities were granted. Mr Per¬
ceval’s bill for regulating the granting of annuities of 180H
was calculated upon Dr Price’s tables. So early as lo
Mr Finlayson demonstrated to Mr Vansittart that, in conse¬
quence of the errors of these tables, the country was losing
L.8000 per month on the annuities granted by government.
The subject was of course beyond the comprehension o
that enlightened chancellor of the exchequer; but even
his judicious and economical successor Mr Robinson pam
no attention to the representation. The finance commi -
tee soon convinced itself that the annuities 0(5c.a®10{ie,
loss. Nothing could be done to alter those whic
been already sold; but on the recommendation ot ™
committee a bill was passed to suspend the operation
the act under which they had been granted, unti a
correct system should be settled. Ihe other me
recommended by the committee was the abolition ^
office of lieutenant-general ot the ordnance; u ,
concession was not to be expected from the Duke
The next undertaking of the ministry was the set
ment of the corn laws. The bill introduced wi
sanction adopted the principle of that propose y ^
predecessors, but increased the flutie® nf"bring-
Charles Grant, to whom was intrusted the tas ^
ing forward the measure, described the enac m
BRITAIN.
r fruit of a compromise, and confessed that he thought it from the temnor nfM,. i , • ^73
• imperfect. Some other members of the government ex- course left onen fol Jn0USe’ mt co,!cession ™s the only Reign of
pressed a similar opinion. The bill was finally carried by the resolution Li - gt°Ve.rnm^nt- A bill founded upon George IV.
large majorities. ^ y tne resolution was introduced and read a second time
While ministers were thus carrying into effect the mea- mitte^Ufmade" Mr^p0/116 going int0 com:
sures originated by men with whom they had refused to the decisL m wh.Vb tl! f ^^i a’Ild declared> that after
co-operate, Mr Brougham was astonishing the nation with ed to dismiss at on^f - C°me’ he vvas P^epar-
the display of a degree of legislative industry, of a mind to the existing law f ^ldea of adhering
at once indefatigable and comprehensive, that threw into stitution ofTrWl’ ^ V he asked for was, the sub-
the shade even his own exertions in the cause of educa- establishde£Iar‘atl01n1 .that the predominancy of the
tion. On the 7th of February he directed the attention test Sfs r > ^ be SeCUred for the «acramental
of the house to the state of the common law courts and withdrew th -qUeSt b-n§ con?Phed Wlth, the ministers
of the common law itself. He omitted equity in every m ed L wilh ?P°,Sltl0ni t0 Ule biI1’ which wa« ^eedily
branch, because he considered it as in some sort alreadJ pas®^d’ notwithstanding the tears of the Earl of Eldon,
taken up by parliament. For the same reason he passed to be conceTef h °US eXaCti°n °/ P°pular right remained
over the criminal law. The inquiries pressed upon the the enTr, ft miniSterS ; the^ had yet t0 Purchase
house by Sir Samuel Romilly and Sir James Mackintosh neratelv nt ?h °f bat Pr°Wer t0 whlch the^ clung so des¬
had, it was true, been followed up timidly and on a narrow their n,Pf ^& glfnng abandonment of
scale by Mr Peel; still the exertions of that minister were licv whiclMeftkb feSSt10n^ ° thu adoPtlon of a line of po-
a pledge Aa, something was to be done. The commercial v jus imincSi^^r.‘he br“d •**"■
®ch.n°f5TSlr Francis ?urdett "xwed for a
*7 A 1 ? 01 tuc CACI LlUHS OI
a pledge that something was to be done. The commercial
law, as of modern growth, was comparatively pure. In re
orflrH tn law r\f — i...  i_ i i / 1
gard the law of real pr^ertyTmucTtad K'tae and committee of «h H t Franck for a
more was hoped for. But to the conflictingjurisdictions, the the claims of the ‘*=bf nt# “"Ration
• -- njui.ii nau ueen none ana
more was hoped for. But to the conflictingjurisdictions, the
inadequate and cumbrous forms of the common law courts
and the incongruities of the anomalous mass of consue¬
tudinary and statutory law to which their judgments were
conformed, the hand of reform had never yet been stretch¬
ed out. Mr Brougham entered at great length into the
constitution of the English courts, and the state of the
law administered in them. For seven hours did his lucid
arrangement and impressive earnestness fetter the atten¬
tion of an assembly little qualified by habits or education
to take pleasure in dry legal discussions. He pointed out
the claims of the Catholics, with a 'to a ^ZcZ
cihatory adjustment. The debate on this motion, which
was continued for three evenings, ended in a majority of
in favour of the house going into committee. The
resolution subsequently adopted was, that the time had
arrived when a final settlement of the Catholic claims was
expedient. A conference with the Lords was requested,
for the purpose of ascertaining whether the sentiments of
that house had undergone the same change with those of the
    j Commons. The managers for the Lords having received
the danger of paltry piecemeal reform, and concludekTy tikn by tlmirhokj'on SlhlfH ^ ft0 considera-
moving an address to the throne, praying the appointment entirely destitmp nf i f 9th of June‘ lhe discussion was
of “ a commission for inquiring into the defects occasioned its heink tl if ^ f ^terest beyond what resulted from
by time and otherwise ?„ thelaws of tht re“Tint^ Z S ^ ^ °f
111 r \ 1 c*-1 m si — 1 1 1 T 1 .-i ,
 J tlic oailic. -an ae-
oate on this motion was suspended until the 29th of Feb¬
ruary, when Mr Brougham substituted a modified resolu¬
tion, which, with the assent of government, was unanimous-
y carried. It prayed his majesty to take such measures
as might “ seem most expedient for the purpose of caus¬
ing HUP irmiiu.Tr _ .1 • F r
pediency. The discussion would lead, he thought,"to
practical result, and would tend only to disturb the public
mind. He was desirous that the agitation of the country
might be allowed to subside; and in the end it might be
possible to do something, for he was most desirous of see-
incr tno ciiRirw'** *■ —  • _ 1 i i .  
ing due inquiry to be made into the oriain a P°SS1Ple to do something, for he was most desirous 
termination of actions in the superior courts of fm’ aiK lng,.t ie subject brought to an amicable conclusion. The
law in this country, and matters connected therewRh” 11101,011 J6 Mar^ul.s ofLansdown’that the house should
and into the state of theW rekaXf- the fnffT f ^ the rfolut,on had been adopted by the
real propertv ” The fmhl nf • g g . .f^61 op Commons, was lost by a majority of forty-four.
It has already been remarked that the eRl or’ t f neither way inclines, the power which was to establish
who rebelled aiinst the 3c,if,’ ft f d anstocrats Justlce w as carrying all before it in Ireland. The Catho-
piring to the chief honours of theP ,0 • f cammcner as- lies had paused to see what measures would be adopted by
themselves obhged on their return m Xe tn t ad fdt Mr ?nnlngbut the elevation of'the Duke of Wefiington
to public feeling and adopt the f Pfy hon?Pg^ set 11 em aSam in motion. The first opportunity of show-
they had blamed fn others A I 7 ft ft P°llCy ft ft ft their deteri™ed spirit of opposition to him was afford-
thej were mSelv ah owe dm heldT Slr,k,n/ pr0°f that ed the election for county of Clare. Mr Vesey Fitz-
by sufferance wa^ this vear aff° d j6' °f Sovernpieat gerald, one of the members representing that county, had
dissenters in assertingkheir Sts X^Th^X ft ^acaled his fat hy accepting the office of president^'the
moved on the 26th ofgFeh • ft l ft ft J°hP 1 board of trade when Mr Charles Grant resigned. He had
solve itsekinto a committee f- the 0 ,/ h0US° sbould re- uniformIy g^en his vote and influence in favour of eman-
consideration the reXat ons of Xe? ftaklng lnto ^,paj!on’ but be had identified himself with the Duke of
acts. Akeen debatefn^ed th 1 C0.rp<;ratl.0n and est Wellington, and was esteemed no longer worthy of con-
when two hundred and thX terminat"d in a dlvlslon> fid^ce. Besides, a new mode of annoying government had
mittee and a hundred'and ninet "8^611 116 CPm" ®aggfsted ltselp to the fertile invention of the Association,
flent. This was the ftftftftftft ftft' 1 hf.Jaws might prevent a Catholic from taking his seat in
O'"—-icy of the chumh of F lSSfi; blow aimed ffc .the P^hament, by ordering that an oath should be tendered
y or tne church of England since the revolution, to him wl-mn 1m £,r,r>0Qv0d  , .
mpremacy of the chureh of Fn^l i .D1°w aimed at the parliament, by ordering that an oath should be tendered
The commitfpp rw w " gland since the revolution, to him when he appeared to claim his right of sitting ; but
'Ministers for delXhS Aing 6 entr?aties, they did not forbid his being returned to serve. Taking
he instant repeal nfth ^3 ^ a resoIutloTn approving of advantage of this omission would afford the administration
epeai of the obnoxious acts. It was evident, a test of the absolute sway which the Association exer-
574
Reign of
George IV.
BRITAIN.
cised over the tenantry of Ireland. Accordingly Mr
O’Connell \vas proposed as a candidate for the honour of
representing Clare in parliament, in opposition to Mr I'itz-
gerald. Emissaries of the Association were dispatched to
every barony and parish of the county. The priests, with
one exception, exhorted their flocks to vote for the advo¬
cate of their rights. A fund was prepared to pay up the
arrears of all tenants distrained on account of the votes
they might give, upon their finding security for repay¬
ment within a reasonable time. Ihe day of election came.
Mr Fitzgerald threatened the voters with the displeasure
of their landlords. “ Is it,” he asked, “ the payment of
an arrear of rent by any body of men that will compensate
to the unfortunate peasant for being deprived of his na¬
tural protector ? Is it the payment of a few pounds that
can compensate to the unfortunate peasant for the total
alienation of his landlord ? When the poor man is sick,
and his family famishing with hunger, where will those
men be, who, to gratify a public, perhaps a private, pique,
burst the bonds which for years have bound together the
landlord and tenant by what was considered an indissolu¬
ble tie ? Alas ! they will be far distant; and the unfor¬
tunate tenant will have nobody to look to for relief and
comfort, except that landlord whom he is now called upon
to desert.” Mr O’Connell, on the other hand, dwelt upon
the utter hopelessness of good legislation for Ireland so
long as the people were not represented. He expatiated
upon the impossibility of men achieving their rights who
shrunk back from asserting them in person, and were willing
to receive them from the bounty of a patron. He reminded
his hearers of the unjust and unequal taxation under which
they were labouring. He warned government that “ the
young blood of Ireland was in a ferment.” The result of
the election proved that the Catholics of Ireland had de¬
termined to rely upon their own efforts alone. The tenant¬
ry had awakened to a sense of their degraded situation;
a race of paupers tolerated in the land because once in
seven years they were of use, and allowed to perish of
hunger and cold except when it became necessary to win
their voices at an election. They were determined to
assert their right to equal laws and legislative attention
to their interests. This spirit was mainly owing to the
efforts of the Association ; and to the credit of the gentle¬
men composing that body, a spirit of forbearance from vio¬
lence had likewise been fostered in the peasantry. Not¬
withstanding the violence of party feeling, the Clare elec¬
tion was attended with less outrage than the average of
English county elections; and Mr O’Connell, notwith¬
standing a protest taken by some of the freeholders, was
declared duly elected.
In the month of July the law which had been directed
against the Catholic Association expired, and that body
immediately re-assembled in its original form, to improve
the victory it had gained in Clare. They issued an enu¬
meration of four pledges to be required of every person
who should at any time come forward as candidate for a
seat in parliament. By the first he was to bind himself to
oppose the Duke of Wellington’s ministry in every thing
until emancipation was conceded; by the second, to sup¬
port religious and civil liberty ; by the third, to procure the
repeal of the sub-letting act; and by the fourth, to sup¬
port refornf in parliament. It was declared that every can¬
didate refusing to take these pledges should be opposed
by the men, influence, and funds of the Catholic Associa¬
tion. The next step was to organize local clubs. These
bodies speedily spread throughout the three southern pro¬
vinces, and embraced in their number many of the higher
as well as of the lower orders. As far as possible, a club
was instituted in every parish, consisting of the principal
gentry, clergy, churchwardens, and such respectable far¬
mers as could read. The club was to meet monthly. It itej. of
was to keep a register of all electors within its bounds; to Geoi? tv,
have every man in readiness for future elections; and to
promote good order, perfect subordination to the laws, po¬
litical knowledge, and liberal feeling, as much as possible.
Every club was to report once in three months to tbe se¬
cretary of the Association, and to receive a weekly paper
for a weekly contribution of three pence. Aggregate
meetings of these clubs were held during the autumn in
the provinces of Leinster and Munster, and countenanced
by many of the aristocracy. The party feuds which raged
among the peasantry, and occasioned unintermitting scenes
of riot and bloodshed, were hushed at the bidding of the
Association. The superfluous flow of Irish animal spirits
was turned from the path of crime, and concentrated for
the achievement of a great national conquest. Well might
Mr Shiel say—“ What has government to dread from our
resentment in peace ? An answer is supplied by what we
behold. Does not a tremendous organization extend over
the whole island ? Have not all the natural bonds by
which men are tied together been broken and burst asun¬
der? Are not all the relations of society which exist
elsewhere gone ? Has not property lost its influence—
has not rank been stripped of the respect which should
belong to it—and has not an internal government grown
up, which, gradually superseding the legitimate authori¬
ties, has armed itself with a complete domination ? Is it
nothing that the whole body of the clergy are alienated
from the state, and that the Catholic gentry, and peasant¬
ry, and priesthood, are all combined in one vast confede¬
racy ? So much for Catholic indignation while we are at
peace ; and when England shall be involved in war 1
pause ; it is not necessary that I should discuss that branch
of the division, or point to the cloud which, charged with
thunder, is hanging over our heads.”
The first symptom of intimidation on the part of the
supporters of Protestant ascendency, was Mr Dawson’s
speech at a public dinner in Londonderry on the 12th of
August. This gentleman was a minister ot the crown,
brother-in-law of Mr Peel, the leader ot the Anti-Catholic
party in the House of Commons, and himself distinguish¬
ed for more than ordinary vehemence in opposing Catho¬
lic claims. He now declared that his sentiments were
changed; that there was but one alternative, either to crush
the Association, or to settle the question ; that the for¬
mer was impossible, the latter inevitable.
The bigots of the Protestant ascendency were on their
part no less active. No sooner had the act against illega
societies expired, than the Orange lodges were revived,
and the grand Orange lodge in Dublin again opened. New
associations were formed in various parts of the country,
but particularly in Dublin and Ulster, under the name ot
Brunswick clubs. A Protestant rent was collected in emu¬
lation of the Catholic rent. The mass of the Irish popu¬
lation seemed arrayed into two mighty and adverse ar¬
mies. Men’s minds grew heated, and the war-cry ot re¬
ligious intolerance rose fiercer and fiercer. Ihe Protes¬
tant friends of emancipation began to hold back from e
Association. The mania of Brunswick clubs spread
England, and the spirit first showed itself in Kent, a
great meeting on Pennenden Heath. The Catholics
England were few; the question of emancipation was tner
regarded with comparative indifference ; and there w
possibility of the prejudices of the lower orders being
flamed, and the Catholic claims made a ground of
enmity between the sister islands.
The silence and inactivity of ministers while tm
was gathering merited the taunt of Mr Shie • ,,
while the government stands by, and the nnms e
his arms as if he were a mere indifferent observ ,
BRITAIN.
sign of the terrific contest only afforded him a spectacle for the
irgeIV.amusement of his official leisure. He sits as if two gla-
diators were crossing their swords for his recreation. The
cabinet seems to be little better than a box in an amphi¬
theatre, from whence his majesty’s ministers may survey
the business of blood.” The truth was, that the members of
the cabinet were irresolute, and divided among themselves,
and that the king was unmanageable. His pride was hurt
at the opposition to his sovereign will, displayed in the
proceedings of the Association ; and his worn-out and irri¬
table constitution was stung to frenzy by the interruption
of his pleasures. The Duke of Wellington, in a communi¬
cation to the Marquis of Anglesey, dated the 28th of Sep¬
tember, told the lord-lieutenant that the Catholic question
was “ a subject of which the king never hears or speaks
without being disturbed.” On the 11th of November the
duke wrote to the same nobleman:—“ I cannot express
to you adequately the extent of the difficulties which these
and other occurrences in Ireland create, in all discus¬
sions with his majesty. He feels that in Ireland the pub¬
lic peace is violated every day with impunity, by those
whose duty it is to preserve it, and that a formidable con¬
spiracy exists, and that the supposed principal conspira¬
tors—those whose language and conduct point them out
as the avowed principal agitators of the country—are ad¬
mitted to the presence of his majesty’s representative in
Ireland, and equally well received with the king’s most
loyal subjects.” Again, on the 19th of November:—“ I
might have at an earlier period expressed the pain I felt
at the attendance of gentlemen of your household, and
even of your family, at the Roman Catholic Association.
I could not but feel that such attendance must expose
your government to misconstruction ; but I was silent,
because it is painful to notice such things. But I have al¬
ways felt, that if these impressions on the king’s mind
should remain, and I must say that recent transactions
have given fresh cause for them, I could not avoid to men¬
tion them to you in a private communication, and to let
you know the embarrassment you occasion.”
The silence and inaction of the duke, circumstanced as
he was, were unavoidable. They tended, however, to pre¬
cipitate the final issue. Dr Curtis, the Catholic primate
of Ireland, had long cultivated an intimacy with the Duke
of Wellington, which had its origin in some important ser¬
vices rendered to the army in Spain, the doctor having
held a high office in the university of Salamanca. He
availed himself of the footing on which he stood with the
premier to address to him a letter on the state of the
country, and the importance of settling the Catholic ques¬
tion. The duke’s reply was in these words:—“ I assure
you that you do me but justice in believing that I am sin¬
cerely anxious to witness the settlement of the Roman
Catholic question, which, by benefiting the state, would
confer a benefit upon every individual belonging to it.
hut I confess that I see no prospect of such a settlement.
Party has been mixed up with the consideration of the
question to such a degree, and such violence pervades
every discussion of it, that it is impossible to expect to
prevail upon men to consider it dispassionately. If we
could bury it in oblivion for a short time, and employ that
time diligently in the consideration of its difficulties on all
sides (for they are very great), I should not despair of
seeing a satisfactory remedy.” A copy of the duke’s let¬
ter was forwarded to Mr O’Connell, and received by him
uud the Association as a declaration that the minister was
no longer unfavourable to the Catholic claims. A copy of
e letter was likewise transmitted to the Marquis of An-
glesey. In hjg rep]y to Dr Curtis the marquis pointed
nut that the duke could only be considered as wavering
ln ^ls previous opinions; advised the adoption of such lan-
575
guage as might further conciliate him; and earnestlv ri;«
rrkl/VOm eVery aP171 ,t0 brute f°;“ “he Geol” IV.
markdWe passage in the letter was tile followingI "—^
i er from the opinion of the duke, that an attempt should
be made to bury in oblivion the question for a short time.
Pmst, because the thing is utterly impossible; and next,
if the thing were possible, I fear that advantage might be
taken of the pause, by representing it as a panic achieved
by the late violent re-action, and by proclaiming, that if
the government at once and peremptorily decided against
concession, the Catholics would cease to agitate, and then
all the miseries of the last years of Ireland will have to be
re-acted. What I do recommend is, that the measure
should not for a moment be lost sight of—that anxiety
should continue to be manifested—that all constitutional
(in contradistinction to merely legal) means should be
resorted to to forward the cause; but that, at the same
time, the most patient forbearance—the most submissive
obedience to the laws—should be inculcated; that no per¬
sonal and offensive language should be held towards those
who oppose the claims.” This letter was produced at a
meeting of the Association, and received with the warm¬
est encomiums. The next wind that blew from England
brought the mandate recalling the Marquis of Anglesey,
and appointing the Duke of Northumberland to succeed
him. The rage of the Catholics was unbounded, as their
hopes had been premature. The storm howled more loud¬
ly than ever.
Wellington’s resolution was at last fixed. It may be
that pride had some share in prompting his resolves. It
was known, or believed, that in his own person he had no
great objections to concede what was claimed by the Ca¬
tholics ; and he was not a man to defer to the prejudices
of others, however high in station, although he might to
his own. The danger was too imminent to allow him to
hesitate longer. Having secured the assent of his col¬
leagues, and wrung his slow leave from the king, he pre¬
pared to force upon parliament a measure which it had
often with seeming loathing rejected. The session of
1829 was opened on the 5th of February by a speech from
the throne, which contained the following unwonted ex¬
pressions :—“ His majesty recommends that you should
take into your deliberate consideration the whole condi¬
tion of Ireland; and that you should review the laws which
impose civil disabilities on his majesty’s Roman Catholic
subjects. You will consider whether the removal of these
disabilities can be effected consistently with the full and
permanent security of our establishments in church and
state, with the maintenance of the reformed religion esta¬
blished by law, and of the rights and privileges of the
bishops and of the clergy of this realm, and of the churches
committed to their charge. These are institutions which
must ever be held sacred in this Protestant kingdom, and
which it is the duty and determination of his majesty to
preserve inviolate. His majesty most earnestly recom¬
mends to you to enter upon the consideration of a subject
of such paramount importance, deeply interesting to the
best feelings of his people, and involving the tranquillity
and concord of the united kingdom, with the temper
and the moderation which will best insure the successfu
issue of your deliberations.” The Anti-Catholics were not
taken by surprise, for it had been whispered about, a few
days before the meeting of parliament, that ministers in¬
tended to recommend concessions to the Catholics. But
they were not yet sufficiently masters of the course in¬
tended to be pursued by the duke to organize an effective
opposition, and their first burst of discontent is unworthy
of being recorded. . . r ,
The first measure of the ministry was one of punish¬
ment to the sturdy beggars whose importunity had ex-
576
BRITAIN.
Reign of torted their charity. The Catholic Association was de-
George IV. nounced in the king’s speech as dangerous to the public,
and inconsistent with the constitution. This flourish of
trumpets was followed up by a bill, which Mr I eel intro¬
duced on the 10th of February, to terminate the exist¬
ence of the Association. He proposed to give to the lord-
lieutenant, and to him alone, the power of suppressing any
association or meeting which he might think dangerous
to the peace, or inconsistent with the due administration
of law ; together with the power of interdicting the meet-
in0- of any assembly of a similar character, of which pre¬
vious notice had been given. In case it should be neces¬
sary to enforce the provisions of the law, the lord-lieute¬
nant was authorized to select two magistrates, for the pur¬
pose of suppressing the meeting, and requiring the people
to disperse. Finally, every meeting and association which
fell under the provisions of the act were prohibited from
receiving and placing at their disposal any monies, by
the name of rent, or any other name. The operation
of the act was limited to the end of the then next session
of parliament. This bill met with no opposition. The
friends of the Catholics regarded it as a part of the sys¬
tem of emancipation—as a concession to the wounded
feelings of men in power. Their adversaries were pleased
even with this dying blow at the Association. Several
members who voted felt themselves called upon to apo¬
logise for supporting the bill; whilst others taunted them
for not having introduced such a measure before. It re¬
ceived the royal assent on the 5th of March ; but the As¬
sociation had already declared itself dissolved. The last
blow struck for the gratification of offended vanity was
lost in the empty air.
On the same day that the bill aimed at the Catholic
Association received the royal assent, Mr Peel moved in
the House of Commons that the house should resolve it¬
self into a committee on the laws which imposed disabili¬
ties on the Catholics. A call of the house had been
moved for that day, and the consequence was an unusu¬
ally crowded attendance. The speech with which the
home secretary prefaced his recommendation of the mi¬
nisterial measure had two remarkable features. In the
first place, every fact that he stated as influencing the de¬
cision to which he had come, must have been known for
years, or he must have been unfit for his office. In the
second place, while confessing that the object of the mea¬
sure was to mediate between contending interests, he
conceived it necessary for the honour of government to
affect a stern disregard of all. His reasons for yielding to
the Catholic claims were,—That the evils of divided
councils were palpably so great, that something must be
done to form a government with one common opinion on
the subject; that a united government must either grant
further political rights to the Catholics, or deprive them
of those they already possessed; and that the latter alter¬
native was impossible. Having made up their minds to
bring back the Catholics within the pale of the constitu¬
tion, ministers wisely brushed off all the incumbrances
with which the concession had from time to time been
surrounded, with the view of assuring alarmists. The
great object of the measure was to abolish civil dis¬
tinctions, and establish equality of civil rights. The
Catholic, when promoted to office, was only called upon
to swear allegiance in the usual terms; to disclaim the
deposing power of the pope; and to abjure any intention
of employing his privileges to weaken the Protestant re¬
ligion or government. The only offices from which Ca¬
tholics were excluded were that of lord-lieutenant of Ire¬
land, that of lord high chancellor, and appointments in
any of the universities, colleges, or ecclesiastical schools.
No official insignia were to be borne to a Catholic place of
worship; no Catholic prelate was to assume the name and iui j
title of any dignitary of the church of England; and theGecliy,
names and numbers of the individuals composing monastic ^
societies were to be registered. Making allowance for the
necessity of gildingthe pill in order that it might be swallow¬
ed, the measure was as liberal as could be desired. It was,
however, beyond the power of the narrow-minded faction
into whose hands fortune, in one of her freaks, had placed
the office of effecting this great act of justice, to have kept
it pure from every indication of their own want of mag¬
nanimity. The provision that the oath recited in the act,
and no other, should be taken by a Catholic, was express¬
ly limited to the case of “ any person professing the Ca¬
tholic religion who shall, after the commencement of this
act, be returned as a member of the House of Commons.”
This specification w7as evidently levelled against Mr O’Con¬
nell, who had been returned for Clare before “ the com¬
mencement of this act;” and was worthy of the temper
that punished the Catholic Association at the very moment
it confessed that that body had demanded no more than
justice. Ministers had been terrified into an honest ac¬
tion, and were determined to show their resentment by
performing it with as bad a grace as possible.
The burden of defending the measure fell upon the re¬
cently-converted ministerialists; the old and tried friends
of emancipation contenting themselves with throwing in
an occasional word of encouragement to their new allies.
The line of argument adopted by all wms much the same
as that made use of by Mr Peel. The opposition was
characterized rather by a dogged and sullen pertinacity,
than by debating talent. The speakers had followed the
lord of the ascendency ; and the only things that enliven¬
ed the dulness of the minority were some savage sneers at
the deserters. The main argument relied upon was, that
a majority of the nation was opposed to concession. Mi¬
nisters were repeatedly challenged to appeal to the sense
of the nation by a dissolution of parliament. They who
urged such reasons knew right well, that as parliament
was constituted, a new election would not have given the
voice of the nation. They knew that even though Eng¬
land and Scotland had been bigoted enough to wish to
rivet the fetters of the Catholics, Ireland had still a rig it
to appeal from their decision. Ireland was all but unani¬
mous on the question ;—Ireland was the principal pait)
interested;—Ireland had assented to the union under the
impression that emancipation was to be conceded, re
land had a right, if it was withheld, to demand the repeal
of an alliance into which she had been inveigled under
false pretences, in order, after arranging this domestic
matter, to re-unite herself on equal terms to Englan_ •
Parliament was certainly not the fairest tribunal; but, in
the circumstances of the case, it wras the best that cou c
be had. , , . on.i
The majority in the committee, three hundred
forty-eight for the motion, and a hundred and six )
against it, decided the fate of the measure m *ie ,
mons. No important variation in the relative nu
occurred during the remaining discussions, neltl51 ‘j
any new argument adduced. The speakers came
for the purpose of recording their own opinions, no
the hope of influencing those of others., ine t
carried up to the Lords, and read a first time on
of March, „ , . i uaher-
In this house the demands of the Catholics i
to met w ith the most determined and umfoim re . r)
Its members were men of high feelings, °^Person‘ niated
t- , j .  THpv were coniemiJ*
and independent circumstances. They were contemp
by the panegyrists of the constitution as t e p ^ ^
by the panegyrists ot tne consuiuuuu ^ i p g0.
tives of what w7as permanent in the Eng is i 0}veSof
vernment, and as the check upon the ovei- ias y
BRITAIN.
,'eign of
orge IV.
*y-*J
a popular assembly. Yet they evinced as much haste and scarcely rememu
dexterity in following the veering inclinations of the mi- ed a tonic fo? hof of triumph, but it afford- Remn of
mofnr qc linmKl^r r»r»lloorpn«-»o t*-. 4-U^ *-—1- _ i • i .. . I QGClSni&tiori wllCH tllP lirmr 0 t- 4.* r' ^ TAr
should arrive ; and the latter sen, back to Irekn^as0'.'.”
avowed and embittered enemy bf government the ^
who had more power than an/othe? over populr tW
O Connell s progress through Ireland was a continued
triumph. His re-election for Clare was not conSted
™ld "af.r!Ve! he went h?. h.eld ■>« ministers to the
  ^ . 1 . 7° in^nuatiuiih ui me mi¬
nister as their humbler colleagues in the task of legislation.
On the 11th of June 1828 a majority of forty-four refused
even to entertain the question of the Catholic claims. On
the 10th of April 1829 a majority of a hundred and four
passed a bill granting every thing that the Catholics asked
for. The debates were equally lengthy and unsatisfactory
with those in the lower house. The hill received the royal nular ^levei le w^nt he held out ministers to me po-
assent on the 13th of April. 6 ^ recount,„g all their misdeeds, real or imagi-
The bill which admitted Catholics to both houses of be T o™s t0 ever>' Passion tl»lt could
parliament, and to almost every office of political power, the other hand "aniW1 ^ J]63?111- Jh.e 9ranSemen> on
trust, and emolument, was accompanied throughout its pro- con thi imd tnvn!’; by*the loSS °f tl,leir, ascenden’cy,
gross by another bill for disfranchising the whole body of the 7r I “tC 'ty "’““‘S8’ which haJ “‘least
forty-shilling freeholders in Ireland. This measure as de- halrld »„,l ,",tatI0n-, The 'vaves of P»Pu'ar
scribed by L Peel, restricted the possessionTflh’edt iated^rern’TStwroveT'110 daS" 'he St°™ thM
tive franchise to the possessors of a real ten-pound free- Amiri nil rliic * • . ,
hold. This restriction did not extend to corporate towns; that ministers were inadequate'tolheS of hoMtaTthe
for had the franchise been raised within their jurisdictions reins of government. It was apparen that they® hid
o ten pound, tlie corporations could have overpowered chalked out for themselves no system to which to sLte
he public voice by their right to make freemen. The their conduct. They undertook nothing of heir own ac!
bill fixed a day for the opening, in every county in Ire¬
land, of a bona fide register of ten-pound freeholds. An
act of more flagrant injustice was never perpetrated. The
landlords finding that the serfs, whom they had bred
for electioneering purposes, had emancipated themselves,
threw them carelessly away. The wealthier Catholics had
served their own purposes, and abandoned those who had
fought their battles. The Irish forty-shillings freeholder
had as good a title to his elective franchise as the proud¬
est nobleman to his barony. He might be all that his
calumniators represented him, but the fault lay in the sys¬
tem under which he was born, and in the ambitious land¬
holders who had made it an engine to serve their own
selfish purposes. He was punished for having rescued
himself from the degradation of being a mere unthinking
tool. Lords Duncannon and Palmerston, and Mr Hus-
kisson, deserve to be had in remembrance for having
raised their voices against this filching of men’s rights.
Only seventeen members voted against the bill in the
cord, and they adopted every suggestion. Nor was this
strange. With the exception of some inferior officials,
men trained in the discharge of routine duties, but who
could only discharge a task prescribed to them, there was
not one man among them who had a knowledge of public
business. The leaders were the remnant of that imbecile
aristocratic faction who had revolted at the idea of follow¬
ing the lead of a parvenu like Canning. They believed
the honours of the state to belong to them in virtue of
their birth; they managed to secure them by influence
and underhand intrigue ; but they could not use the power
which they had succeeded in acquiring. Masters of their
wishes, they gaped idly around, asking what they were to
do next. The dilemma in which they had involved them¬
selves was soon visible to every eye, and its effect was to
revive dormant feelings. At the commencement of the
reign of George IV. parliamentary reform was loudly call¬
ed for by tw7o bodies of men; by the Whigs, with whom
the belief of its necessity partook largely of the character
       iio C 111 nils a A m vy A A CO l/WV/IV Ui Li 1C V/lldl CiU LC1
Commons, and scarcely a murmur was heard from Ireland of a theoretical tenet; and by the radicals, who, without
when it passed into a law. And thus a question which correct or extensive views, felt that something was wrong,
had vexed the nation for half a century was set at rest. and stumbled upon the remedy. The conciliatory policy
No other question of importance succeeded in arrest- of the cabinet after the accession of Mr Canning delud-
the attention of parliament during this agitated year, ed the nation with the hope that an efficient and enlight-
hven the budget was hurried over without its due allow- ened government might be obtained even under the old
ance of wrangling. On the 24th of June parliament was system ; and the cry of reform was stilled for a time. But
prorogued, in order that the nation and the government the intrigues by which it was sought to keep Mr Canning
might have time to reflect upon their novel situation. out of the premiership, and the success with which they
The ceding of the Catholic claims was the last import- were employed after his death, revived the conviction
ant act of the reign of George IV. The ministers gain- that an enlightened ministry, acting for the national good,
ed by this desertion of their professed principles what must remain weak, unless, by parliamentary reform, the
every body of men adopting a similar line of conduct may body of the people obtained a more direct control over
leasonably expect, the enmity of their former friends, and the executive. Ibis spirit, to which subsequent events
a cold distrustful toleration at the hands of their former soon imparted a more determined character, was rapidly
opponents. The country was partially disquieted during spreading when parliament re-assembled in February 1830.
the autumn and winter of 1829. The labourers wrere suf- The ministers were conscious that they did not com-
eiing in many places from want of employment, and dis- mand a majority of the house. °9. ^or*es stood m
tress to a considerable extent was insinuating itself among an attitude of avowed hostility. Ihe Whigs lent a patio-
the agricultural classes. England’s productive powers nising but uncertain support. The Duke of Wellington,
continued unabated, and the prevalence of want showed however, flattered himself that the incompatib e pnncip es
that there was something wrong in her internal arrange- of these two parties would keep them from coalescing
^ents, interfering with the natural tendency of wealth to against him. He dreamed of receiving alternate assist-
1 use itself. In Ireland public tranquillity was far from ance from both, and, by playing off their mu ua jea ous},
eing re-established, nor was such a consummation rea- of avoiding the necessity of throwing imse in o learms
onably to be hoped for from the redress of one grievance of either. Thus situated, his com uc 'vas mai
alene m a country which had been governed for centuries the same tinge of feebleness as during the Pre^ed‘ag ^s'
by men ignorant of its wants and feelings. The boon of sion. When any measure to which he was averse wa
emancipation had been attended, as we have seen, by an energetically pressed upon him, he evaded the appearance
The former was of a defeat by introducing one slightly varied in form, but
OpA p • , t Ci LLdlUCVAj CIO *V <
VoL~ and a gratuitous insult.
4 D
578
Helgn of
George IV.
BRITAIN
of the same tendency. On the 12th of February, Sir
James Graham moved a resolution to the effect— lhat
whereas subsequently to the act of the 37th George I
by which a suspension of cash payments was effected,
large augmentations had taken place m the salaries and
pay of persons in civil and military employments, on
account of the diminished value of money; and J/hereas
the alleged reason for such augmentations had ceased to
operate, in consequence of the passing of o9th Georg
III., which restored a metallic standard of value; it was
expedient, in order to relieve the country from its exces¬
sive load of taxation, to revise our present system of ex¬
penditure, for the purpose of making every P^sible redu -
tion that could be effected, without violation of good faith
or public justice.” This motion was opposed by ministers
but! in the temper of the house, it was judged expedient
merely to substitute a motion to the following effect.
“ That whereas his majesty has been graciously pleased,
&c. to assure the house that he would cause an inquiry to
be made into all the departments of the civil government,
with a view of reducing the number of persons employed,
and the amount of the salaries paid; resolved, that an
humble address be presented to his majesty, that his ma-
iestv might be graciously pleased to lay before the house
an account of the progress which had been made in such
inquiry : also, that it was the opinion of the house that, in
every establishment of the state, every saving ought to be
made consistently with the due performance of the public
service, and without the violation of existing engagements.
Ministers did not insist upon taking the lead; they on y
asked leave to walk foremost. So that they rode on the
crest of the billow, they cared not in what dnection it was
imA variety of subjects forced on the attention of parlia¬
ment, confirmed the fact that men’s minds were full of
doubts and questionings. Lord Stanhope ^
inquiry into the state of the nation. Mr P. Thomson
moved for a committee to revise the whole system of tax¬
ation. The question of the East India charter was un¬
avoidably brought forward. Parliamentary reform was sug¬
gested in the most various forms, and from the most unex¬
pected quarters. The Marquis of Blandford, once a vio¬
lent Tory, proposed, on the 18th of Tebruary, the appoin -
ment of a committee by ballot, to take a review of all he
boroughs and cities in the kingdom, and to report to the
home secretary such as had fallen into decay or forfeited
their right to representation. That minister was immediate¬
ly to relieve these places from the burden of sending mem¬
bers to parliament in future, and to fill up the vacancies by
towns hitherto unrepresented. The elective franchise was
to be enjoyed by all persons paying scot and lot. I he plan
of the marquis contemplated the revival of the custom o
paving wages to members in parliament. Lord John Lussell
moved, on the 23d of the same month, for leave to bring
in a bill to enable Leeds, Manchester, and Birmingham,
to return members to the House of Commons. Mr O Con¬
nell brought his plan of reform before parliament on the
28th of May. He moved for leave to bring in a bill to
establish triennial parliaments and vote by ballot, and
extend the franchise to every man who paid a tax or was
liable to serve in the militia. The same day Lord John
Russell submitted two resolutions to the house, first,
“ That it was exnedient.the number of representatives in
the house should be increased;” and secondly, ‘‘ That it
was expedient to give members to the large manufacturing
towns, and additional members to counties of great wealth
and population.” All these schemes were negatived by
large majorities, and their discordant nature showed that
the reformers,—for the old parties of Whigs and lories
had now well nigh merged into reformers and anti-re¬
formers,—had not come to a right understanding with each Re |, 0f
other. But taken in connection with the voice of the pub-Gea dv.
lie out of doors, they showed that the cry for reform, si-
lenced for a while, was again rising with increased urgen¬
cy, and that an extensive change in the constitution of the
House of Commons could not much longer be evaded.
At this ominous crisis George IV. breathed his last. He
had long been in an infirm state, but no immediate danger
was anticipated till the commencement of April. On the
15th of that month the first bulletin was issued. He con¬
tinued to grow weaker, and latterly the slightest exertion
became intensely painful. A message was sent to both
houses of parliament on the 2Ith of May, stating that his
majesty found it painful to sign with his own hand docu¬
ments which required his sign-manual, and requesting par¬
liament to provide for the temporary discharge of that
function of the crown. A bill was immediately passed, al¬
lowing the sign manual to be adhibited by a stamp. The
disease continued to run its course, and upon the 26th of
June his majesty expired.
George IV. had no public virtues. By those who knew
him he is said to have possessed a taste for the arts and for
letters. The only instances given of his attachment to the
latter indicate a pretty correct estimate of the merits of
some works of lighter literature. The buildings erected un-
der his patronage evince an utter absence of the sense of ar¬
chitectural beauty and grandeur. In rich and voluptuous
decoration of apartments he excelled. His taste in painting
does not seem to have gone beyond a feeling of neat exe¬
cution, and a recognition of strongly-expressed vulgar cha¬
racter. Neither science, literature, nor art, found in him
an active patron ; and as little interest did he take in affairs
of government. He was in habits of intimacy at one time
with the leading Whigs; but finding their opponents firmly
seated in power, he allowed them to remain there. I
character of his minister, and the course of policy adopted
by him, was a matter of the most perfect indifference, so
that the royal repose was left undisturbed. An intense and
wilful self-indulgence and deep-rooted personal vanity re-
gulated all his actions. It was this that made him bestov
more thought upon his coronation dress than upon the go
vermnent o°f three kingdoms. He could enjoy the pageantry
of monarchy, but could not comprehend its duties. It was
this that made him hazard the peace °f the en
wreak his spite on a woman. It was this that made hun
so pertinaciously resist concession .o the Cathohcs. ii
looked upon agitation as a personal affront. The “t®
that his adulators have ventured to say in his behalf is,
that his manners were refined. Alternate y m
cheered, he never possessed the affections of his subjec
In private life he might have been an agreeable co
nion, little thought of when absent; as a king, he wa ^
thing, or worse—an expensive cumbeiei y d at
Yot his reign was not uneventful, it comment,
the close of the extensive wars which had desolate ^
rope. The nation, no longer engrossed with its
ploits in foreign lands, but deranged d t0 turn
economy by a long-continued struggle, f ^ study
its eyes inwards, i he consequences o t
developed themselves slowly. First the gov endea.
itself free from the alliance of despots ; and
itself free from the alliance or - -ing
voured to check the gambling sf ’rency. A
a healthy and substantial character ^^ nationS was
more frank and liberal intercomse v.ure and an
encouraged. Retrenchment of state expend loudly
equable apportionment of national bm ’ ted> The
demanded, and in outward show at least attemp^^ ^ re_
old inadequate customs of the law bega g unaiienable
cede before a more rational system. without
right of a nation to regulate its internal concerns
jn of foreign interference was recognised. It was not to be ex-
jham pected that such important changes couid be effected
Xi without exciting individual discontent, and causing indivi-
r~ dual suffering. The consequent discussions led men to
inquire into the distribution of power and privilege The
rights of citizens were warmly asserted. The eimal politi-
cal rights of all reliffinns  1 1
BRITAIN.
. , A, “ ,. . VVitIIIJv asserted. Ihe equal ooliti- afFp^tlnnc ^ uldL Jie completely won the
cal rights of all religious denominations were lovglered. fet to deifv » nfn " n*6 c°mmunity wllid>> “'s it is the
The adherents of rational principles of government felt again \T„}’i " a,'ch’ ,s aiso the first to cast him off
their strength, and nrnsprnt^l _ e![ Main- change, however, took place in the ministrv
lY. declared himself fripnHKr i-n,  i? ^
ISpssSSi
auctions ^hl' ^rt'^^rn ^ifh't ZZ £
first to deify a monarch, is nlso fn, * ’ aS.^ ?s th^
. yovernme^t tel
their strength, and prosecuted their assaults upon anti
quated prejudice and abuses with more vivacity. This
period of preparation was. terminated by the death of
George IV. The seeds of future activity were germbat
ingm silence. The unsettled slate ofL„\ S “s
asachaos, upon which the news of the expulsion of the
flurbons from brnnno . .
William TV a r - pJace m the ministry.
deteS^rtaTn ,her ffr,e',<''y t0 ^ ^
They were, however, incapable of beino- much Inno-or
wbMT1 by the royal suppSrt TL party
strong in?] , ! r ,rntated bf carrying the Catholic biff was
WW n i f Comnl°1ns’ and stronger in the Lords. The
Whigs had lost confidpnro m five t»..i .. it
du r r c IlcyvS) U1 expulsion or the strnno- In n jLne '-auionc Dili was
Bourbons from France descended like an animating spirit. wS had L^ cnTl”8’ and St,''0n.ger in the I-or‘,s- Tl'c
The huge mass heaved at once with the throes of new life, his cradh. or. , h ‘n ' 1:>uke of Wellington and
T^e rs truits have been the achievement of parliament- £ 2*?™ ^Vising,
CHAP. XX.
reign of WILLIAM IV,
Accession of William IV.-Popularity of the new King-No
change made in the Ministry—Dissolution of Parliament?—['Le
frlTnr0t JUfy in7 hrance.'—Effect produced by it in Bri¬
tain.—! arhamentary Reform—Result of the Elections unfa
JXd A'ifr?1-"iStP~^iStUrbed state “f “-e Country--—
thT irn^ T Afociatlons—Distress and outrages in
PnVf^ f TTh- Asnc“ltural Counties—Demand for Reform —
1 ohtical Unions and Reform Associations Meeting of Parlia
E f ?v6n- r°m the Throne-Debates on the Address _
Duke of \\ elhngton s Declaration against Reform The Kino-
MaySoaf” sT/h0 dechv?e <lil?1itn«' at GuildhaU on the Lord
Mayor s Bay.—Sir Henry Parnell’s motion on the Civil List
Ministers defeated.-Their Resignation.-Earl Grey authorT
form a tE a frT Administratiolh on the basis of making Re.
™ a ^abl.net Question—Parliament adjourned till February
SsW. „”f tSe Sr rtrag5? “ the ^ricultcral distrlcX
Ur l rXf ni Hioters. Meeting of Parllament.—Minis.
tenal plan of Reform—Its reception by the country Dehatp
Bills't^ amerfl ^h ^R1’8 Motion—Leave granted to bring in
Ireland nm f LePrefntation of Scotland, England, and
f‘ h M h S r r °n the SeC°llS Reading
of one (Wr Rl1—8econd Heading carried by a majority
of e f h7 ra fTaSC°vgrT S Motion carried by a majority
fUA10n7f Lirliament—Scene on this occa^
riedthroufl thlff6 Llef^ns—Bill re-introduced and car-
BeadiSg ^h?LrdreBm h?111011^^13"16 °n the Second
one Inri;7 !■ TTJ5 thrown out by a majority of fortv-
rrnmc lljdlSuatlon of the country—Proceedings of'the Com
and Bristol-lir1 hrorogued—Riots at Derby, Nottingham,
iSSl—E^iglish1 mne“b-ing- °5 I arliament on 6th December
22d March 1819 P gain, ^^dneed—Debates—Passed on
sponniit;? 1832—Carried to the House of Lords—Read a
durino- the V '7 rnne—Adjournment of the House
o 2 n“eT:TGreat Public Meetinss in all parts
Lord Lyn ! intrigues—Meeting of the House—
sters—Lord Fhrin ?en-lIm,eTnt carried—Resignation of Mini-
Duke of Weiir b? gt°n,S Motlon-—State of the Country 
ciple of carrvinoMhp pndertakcs fo form a Cabinet, on the prin-
Greyrecalled ^Snh liefo™ LuIs—His utter failure—Lord
of the OpporitTn e<1Uer dlscusslons on the Bills—Secession
the geth^f1! ' aS(| t^irone Great Britain on
not occasion .1830* . The change of the monarch did
affairs The l/ETm!316 change on the state of public
MrCannino- n ii fLC]arence had accepted office under
ed of it hJth n7 '7 rat^er unceremoniously depriv-
augured tliat^h uke ^ 'Wellington ; hence, some people
the nnlit' ^ "0!1<d unfavourable to his ministry,
grud™ ™l‘> ,h? "’a* scarcely known. An 'old
trial. Tjip t .^amBt hlm from the time of the queen’s
spread caricamrS’ 'V l° more/han iialf feared his revolt,
c d accounts of. the proceedings at Bushy
calculator! tn L-o ?! V111 P01ICJ was temporising,
the bu fness of tL GS ^ P°Wer’ but not to forward
measuro hf • f • c°untry. It was evident that every
measure having in view the better organization of the
state must be wrung from them, like Catholic emanci-
pation, by demonstrations of power. War was in con
vehemeC„etly bvrtbc t?b"Sn-tht' C?.binCt’ and Pros<*uted
more cautfon7 TbVfi a,'TonCS’ bUt, ^ tbe Whigs with
r .* ^ question that ^ave rise to se-
nous discussion was, whether the parliament, after vot- -
g such supplies as were immediately necessary should
be at once dissolved, or whether pro^sion ouS first !o
be made mr a regency in the event of the king’s demise
ed a small ma g °f ^ body' Ministtirs obtain¬
ed a small majority after a violent debate. A few mat-
ters of business which could not be postponed were after-
andoL thrisd^fTf1 the,.house with bttle opposition,
on the ~dd of July parliament was prorogued bv the
king in person; and being next day dissolved by procla¬
mation, wnts were issued for the election of a new one
leturnable on the 14th of September.
A few davs afterwards the news of the revolution bv
which the elder branch of the Bourbons was finally expeh
led from trance, reached England. The intelligence, as
which rinientl°Td’ iad a P°werful effect. The delusion
O d 0 ™™bat017 Pobcy of inning had occasioned,
and the belief, that an enlightened and energetic govern¬
ment was attainable under the old rotten system of parlia¬
mentary election, had received a severe shock from the cir-
r^CeS^blf,death- , The liberal measures into which
t e Duxe of Wellington had reluctantly been forced, had
tor a short time delayed the disabusing of the nation. But
ate events had shown that nothing was to be expected
from him arid the men of mere routine who formed his
mimstry. Ihe longing for parliamentary reform returned
with redoubled efficacy. Men were not prepared with
any definite scheme, nor were they at one as to the prin¬
ciples on which they vindicated the justice of innovation,
fne news of the three days in Paris ripened men’s views:
t icy showed that wishes were useless while unproductive
of action. The French received the homage of universal
sympathy. I his circumstance was turned to use by some
active friends of liberty. Meetings were called in every
important town to congratulate the freemen of France;
and thus reformers were brought together, and taught
how numerous a body they were. °
. AP these circumstances operated unfavourably for mi¬
nisters at the elections. Wherever the election was po¬
pular, the reformers supported a candidate of their own
principles ; and of the close burghs, with the exception of
those commanded by government, a decided majority were
in the hands of the Duke’s adversaries. The suspicions
under which Ids administration lay, of coqueting with
Prince Polignac, added materially to his unpopularity.
Not one candidate appeared on the hustings to claim the
580
BRITAIN.
IV.
everywhere established. The most important of these R*
bodies were the Birmingham union, the model of all the Vi
others ; the great northern union, extending over the coun¬
ties of Northumberland and Durham; and the Renfrew-
shire political union. But others of less note were to be
found in almost every town and village in the kingdom.
Such was the threatening aspect of the country when
parliament opened on the 2d of November. The speech
from the throne contained no indications of the means by
which ministers proposed to meet the threatening emer¬
gency. It was simply announced in regard to France,
that “ the elder branch of the Bourbons no longer reign¬
ed,” and that “ the Duke of Orleans had been called to
the throne by the title of King of the French.” The
events in Belgium were branded with the title of “revolt.”
The disturbances among the peasantry were attributed to
Reign of suffrages of the electors as a supporter of ministers. The
William general result of the election diminished by titty the
votes upon which the government could depend.
At the same time the disturbed state of the country,
by showing the incapacity of government, went far to
swell the ranks of its enemies. Ireland had not been
pacified, because the concession of its claims had been
accompanied by personal insult and perseverance in a hos¬
tile attitude. Emancipation had never been demanded
by any reasonable man as a measure that could do gooi
further than by allaying religious feuds, and bringing the
nation to a temper in which an honest government might
with rational hopes of success look for support in pursu¬
ing measures of reform. But, on every question that re¬
garded Ireland, government evinced a hostile spirit, the
of*" unioHr^to rafsedfam? ^society esta- “ efforts’in^strious'iy made to excite'discontent and dis-
blished bearing the title of “ The Friends of Ireland of affect,on.” A determination was expressed to exert ever,
all rehgious denominations.” This body announced its de- means winch the const,tut,on had placed at the kmg s <I,s-
termination to agitate till every one of its objects should posal for the repress,on of outrage. No distant allusion
be conceded The most essential of these were, a repeal was made to that reform winch the nation demanded as
of the sub letting act a radical reform in the representa- with one voice. The ministerial declaration showed that
thin1 and a repeaf of the union. Mr O’Connell was at the the Duke of Wellington, m proud ignorance, was de er-
time absent in England; and there being no other man of mined to cling to a system whose props one after another
bis nartv equally fertile in resources and undaunted in per- had for years been dropping down.
ins party equally leriue in , , ' Any doubt that remained upon this subject was re-
Sn u^Je ,t ^ which ad- moved" by the debate which took place in the House of
social ion unaer me act Pd * in the privileges of Lords when the address to the throne was moved. Earl
?he consdtuUon But no sooner did the dissolution restore Grey, adverting to the opprobrious designation applied in
OT ll tn Trelan(J than he engaged in re-organizing his the kings speech to the Belgian revolution, obse e ,
O Connell to Ireland than ne engageu n” ^ u We ht t0 learn wisdom Rom what was passing be-
washkewise prohibited by proclamation of'.he lord-liente- fore our eyes. He felt persuaded, that unless reform were
nant, but was succeeded by the « Association of Irish volun- granted, we must make up ouy ^ ^ witnewiA^de;
teers for the repeal of the Union. Many who bad hither¬
to acted with Mr O’Connell, felt the necessity of a legis¬
lative union with England, and took alarm at these pio-
ceedings. A numerous meeting, convened by the Duke
rsSSSSSaaS
nr,moved at any of the elections as a test to candidates. a parliamentary reform, but he has acknowledged t
P EPverEn“and began o rival Ireland in misery and dis- is not prepared with any measure of '•efonn; h ’
turblnces. While parliament continued to sit, its table as little scruple to say, that his majesty s government,
was covered with petitions, describing in the strongest as »y to I
tprms the distress suffered by the lower classes engaged part, I will go farther and say, tnat i nave
^Tgricultui It was predicted that unless a change heard of any measure up to ^
fnr the better took place it would be impossible to restrain could in any degree satisfy my mind that the st
Sem from o". ageP The harvest was Scarcely concluded presentation could be improved f/"
wZ this prophecy was fulfilled. The disturbances be- factory to the country at large. * * * lam fufiy com ncc
"Knt/of Kent. Threatening letters were that the country Po-e-s f ^
dispersed throughout the county, machinery destroyed, Jature which ans^eprrSi^v Kgislature^ver has
money extorted, and barns and stack-yards set on fire, and this to a gre L & whatever^* * * Under these
The commotions were the wild aimless efforts of men suf- answered in any country whatever forward
fering almost beyond nature and without hope. Viewing circumstances I am not only "Ot prepa e
t ® .. • n..,,* r,.vrvrr,l>onyl<vrl wf>rp nnv measure of this nature, but I will at
struction of the constitution. He had been a reformer all
his life, and at no period had he been inclined to go farther
than he would be prepared to go now, if the opportunity
were offered.” The Duke of Wellington’s reply to this por¬
tion of this speech is only memorable by the declaration
*-.•1 • 1 *  H /A Tim TO I
ratres. During October, November, and December, the tion in tne government ui r ’ u nronosed by
riots increased in frequency and boldness, and spread from it my duty to resist such measu e P P
Kent into Hants, Wilts, Bucks, Sussex, and Surrey. The others.” nnnosition in both houses
frame of civil society seemed breaking up, and a wild de- I he tone assumed by t e PP ministers of their
luge of human passion, untamed by moral feeling, uncheck- after this haughty .declal’^tl°” c h a pariiament in an of
ed by law, threatened to overwhelm all. rashness m venturing to mee P increased in
With a nation apparently resolving into anarchy, and a ficial capacity. lh^ir e^ar^SI^ intended to ter-
government helpless and stubborn, there was no hope. Like consequence of an injudicious mantt ^ b impressing
sailors in a shipwreck, men began to search for something nfy the more timid of d'eir. ®PPf larvf0]ence. The
to cling to in the impending convulsion. The demand for them with an exaggerated notmnot p p m ^ ^ Lord
reform was raised more clamorously than ever. Political kifig and queen were to dme at was a con-
unions and reform associations, having for their object the Mayor s day; but, under the P1^ terg t0 attack
propagation of definite political principles, and a demon- spiracy on the part of some ab.andon.pdti vvere induced to
stration of the physical strength of the reformers, were the Duke ofWellmgton, their majesties <vere
tii of retract their assent
Jiam
!'V.
BRITAIN.
58.1
loyalty of the nation, and adroTt^confounZg1 disking stored th6 ChSSeS and their employers re- Reign of
with his advisers, to give greater firmness tn n at -li , , , -
government, failed signally. The ministers became rid? succrssfdinfesmri?3"^!^ ^ fi\niStrati°D been entirely
culous. The invectives of the opposition in parliament authorities Th Tg PUbi,C c1°.nfidence in the constituted
became more pointed and inveterate; and on the 15th of oml S ^ ^6 Ster-n u"bendmg adherence of Earl Grey
November Sir Henry Parnell moved ’« that a sdect com ?heir favorlutthe T" °f refo™ -- in
nnttee be appointed to take into consideration the esti- man and meetint! C0U]?^was determined to trust no
mates and accounts presented by command of his maiesty to neHtinn £ 4 gt Were1 held.m eveiT county and town
respecting the civil list.” Afte? a short debate mhSs as Sht h/ ^ T aIteratI°n of the elective system
were left in a minority of twenty-nine in an unusually full Porl lm T & ^ndency to. secure good government,
house. Mr Hobhouse asked Sir Robert Peel whe her i 18S? T , 38 aPP0Inted> nn the 3d of February
William
IV.
- -7 ireei wnetner It
was the intention of ministers to retain their places after
such an expression of the sentiments of the house but
received no answer. Next day the Duke of Wellington
m the Peers, and Sir Robert Peel in the Commonsfan-
ary reform should be brought forward b7L°dPjX'Rut
se on the 1st of March. The interim was occupied by
discussions on the arrangement of the civil list prepared
by ministers, on the budget, and on a plan for reform ng
abuses in the court of &
nounced, that in consequence of the vote of the preceding abu™the° r and on a Plan for reforming
evening, they had tendered, and his majesty had accept? chancellor On thm Cha.nCery’ pr°P0Sed b^ the ^rd
ed, their resignations. ^ 1 iceiior. On that evening accordingly his lordship
The king immediately authorized Earl Grey to form S geiTerd ombnTh eXte,nt ^ tlle ministerial plan,
an administration upon the basis of making parliamentarv th7 S autllnf bare a marked resemblance to that of
reform a cabinet question. His lordship had refuseS hil Lambton and^* °n 3 f°rmer °Crasioa bJ Mr
support to the Canning administration on the ground that Mr Cannim? Tb^J1'0^ by a manceuvre on the part of
its premier was opposed to reform. His son-in-law Lord rmnnl^ ? g* 1 chief grievances complained of by the
r~“J -- ’ - ■ “ •Pn m Jaw Lord people, it was remarked by Lord John, were the nomina
lion or mpmnprc Kxr  i i .. . _
n i r T aVu , ^ son-in-law JLord
Durham, Lord Althorp, the Marquis of Lansdown, and
Lord John Russell, were tried adherents of the Whig party
and friendly to reform. These, with Lord Holland may
be regarded as the nucleus of the reform administration.
Its ranks were filled up by Mr Canning s friends, who had
tmn u r . ullIb 'vere me nomina¬
tion of members by individuals, and elections by close
and11?!?410118’ 416 ?Xtent of tbe elective franchise,
and the expense of elections. With a view to do away
with the two first-mentioned evils, in as far as regarded
England, ministers proposed to introduce a bill proceed¬
ing unnn tbp tbroa  c j- r , . ^
gathered from ^Hi^^ tSIm^iST^ t^onthe*™ ^ V°
longer withstanding those innovations which timidity of chfsSnt andTvf1Sf-a,nChisement’ enfran’
character or the prejudices of education had led them to oriW^ r^f extension1of !he rigbt of suffrage. In
oppose. The treatment which their leader had experien altnmH • Uf<iC exPense> they mtended to recommend an
ced at the hands of the high aristocratic party rendered tbe vn/ ^ f SJStem opregIstering v°tcrs and of taking
them less averse to any measure that p omTsed to st hs tlZT The 6Xtent of di^anchisement
power. The Duke of Richmond w^s tlm on v leading rZT ne'!SSary t0 extlrPate close and «on>ination bo-
member of the old Tory party who accepted ofifee under fe^tiT61? t0 dJfpnve f!ch Places as bad a population of
Earl Grey. Others of tLt ^party had joined after the a?v " ? tW0, lnhabitants of ^eir right to send
concession of the Catholic claims, in calling for reform ■ populationofon*? P/rllaf™ent’ T* t0 restnct such as had a
but their object was merely to raise a ebm,m,r onn’ ! ’ P P,oa?PoalTfour tbousand to one member each. Wey-
Pobtical adversary, and they ceased the moment thev saw 1’fW bci!,bad P^vl^usly returned four members, was
there was danger of their re^^ ^ tbf.m- % tins measure sixty burghs vvould be
Brougham was appointed lord high chancellor ‘ ' totally ilK^franchised, and forty-seven partially, exclusive
There was necessarily a suspension of busiApsa In Weymouth, ihe number of members thus withdrawn
liament till the wlXd vLted “LTr sea.f^ T1, T0™ t0 T did propose to fill
accepting office should be re-elected Bv the time tl, ii i- ]L ]0,Jner nl!mI)or of the House. Seven large towns,
they were all restored to thefr places, it was ,o7late to To 7 Prev“>usly been wholly unrepresented, were
think of maturing and developing their svsfom nf " r ceiye wo members each. Iwenty other towns,
before the Christmas holydayl! Accordingly EarHAcv T S'Ze’ leSS imPortance> were receive
contented himself with declaring that it wa&s the iniemin7 ? t ™emheAr™ch- jl116. metropolis was to be subdivided
of the cabinet to introduce a llan for the ref^r^ n? b" TJ™- dlStl'iCtS’ Tbich were to return among
Commons House of Parliament ' The re^eneThin 416 JbeJf ei*?bt member®- An addition of two members was
Passed in conformity with the recommeSL in Z gJVen f° ^ °f,tbe tvventy -seven largest coun-
speech from the throZr And on thT?ld nf nZl11 f8’ and "T? .ridi^ of the county of York was to re-
1830 both houses adjourned to the Sd of Fehru'n add,tlanal member^ and ^ Isle of Wight
sters having declared that a lono- intcrvnl y’ nilnl" i le d,stnbutl0n of tbe elective franchise through
^ enable them to clcoct that pJ^Z he, countVh*™g ^ thus arranged, the next point
had pledged themselves on Accepting office W ng s^ouldlxTe'nd ThTob8 ‘t ^ ^ °f VOt'
Ihe interval of narlmmpnimMT h In& snouJa exlena. Ihe object of ministers was not to
one for the country. The r o s and on raZs fn C°mmanicate tbe franchise to every subject, but at the
^cultural districts: bar! f a, outiages m the ag- same time to extend it so far that every man who perse-
»f punbLug",^ conviclS L° 7, 7 ™-ed“>bi.f of honest iudustry migL fairly calcSe
Gained to be fulfilled DurinZbc bZ r iff rZ ^ ^ able t0 attain it- Non-resident voters, as pro¬
ber and the beginning nf Inn g 4 latter halp°f Pe<'em- ductive of much expense and bribery, were deprived of
dred rioters were trfed befoi^Tnccbd^^8 °f- e-gh4 1Un7 4heir pnvilege- Every householder rated at ten pounds
those against whom ZtcnccZ ,P Z commiss\onf Of per annum, whether the house he inhabited were his
four were executed • thl ? t * deatb Yas re.corded, onIy ovvn or rented, received the right of voting. In counties,
to various terms of transnnrtZ Were,a tlm.ateIy sentenced the possession o‘f copyhold property rated to the amount
parative tranauillbv ati0n an dimpr monmen t. Com- often pounds per annum, or a lease for twenty-one years
bad been done wZnnt l restared ; but tbe m^chief that of the yearly value of fifty pounds, likewise entitled to a
mended, nor was a healthy confi- vote. The last object contemplated by the ministerial
582
BRITAIN.
Iteign of plan of reform was the diminution of election expenses.
William With a view to prevent the disgraceful tricks frequently
f^ - practised on the hustings, the most fertile source of ex-
pense, a list of all qualified persons in every parish was
ordered to be prepared by the parish officers and church
wardens. This list was to be placed on the church door,
and at a certain period of the year the returning officer
in towns, and a person appointed by the judge of assize
in counties, was to hold a court for the purpose of hearing
and deciding upon the claims of persons whose votes had-
been held objectionable. The list, as finally adjusted,
was to be published, so that every person might obtain a
copy, and was to serve as the election roll for the ensuing
year. The duration of the poll was limited to two days
in towns, and three in counties. The counties were to
be divided into polling districts, so arranged that no voter
should have to go more than fifteen miles in order to ex¬
ercise his franchise. This ample measure of reform for
England it was proposed to follow up by similar measures
applicable to Scotland and Ireland. With regard to the
former country, it was to receive five additional members.
Twenty-two counties were to return one member each.
The remaining twelve were to be conjoined into pairs,
returning one each. Edinburgh and Glasgow were each to
return two members; while Aberdeen, Paisley, Dundee,
Greenock, and Leith, were each to return one member.
The remaining thirteen districts of royal burghs were to
return each one member, as before, but the elective fran¬
chise was transferred from the delegates of the town coun¬
cils to the inhabitants possessed of a certain qualification.
The qualification required in burghs was the occupancy
of a dwelling-house of ten pounds per annum; in coun¬
ties, the ownership of land or houses worth ten pounds a
year, or holding as a tenant at the annual value ot fifty
pounds on lease for nineteen years or upwards. The
reform of the Irish system was much less extensive, be¬
cause, as was alleged, the representation of that country
had been entirely re-modelled little more than thirty years
before, at the time of the union. It was proposed that
occupancy to the amount of ten pounds per annum should
give the right of voting for burghs, and that Belfast, Water¬
ford, and Limerick should each return an additional mem¬
ber. It was calculated that by this great measure 500,000
uersons would be added to the national constituency, all
having a stake in the country, and so dispersed over its ex¬
tent as to place them beyond the influence of any faction.
This bold measure produced an electrical effect upon par¬
liament. The sincere reformers hailed its searching charac¬
ter as indicative of the honesty of its authors, and fruitful
of good to the nation. The timid wavering reformers stood
aghast, and so did all the champions of old abuses. Mr
Hume, a fair representative of the radical party, said the
plan of ministers had so far exceeded his expectations, that
he felt himself bound to admit that they had completely
redeemed the pledge which they had given. Mr Macaulay,
speaking the sentiments of the young and highly educat¬
ed liberals, thought it “ a great, noble, and comprehensive
plan.” Lord Ebrington, the model of a sturdy, sagacious,
independent country gentleman, “ hailed the measure,
as it gave due weight to every interest, and was calcu¬
lated to stem the torrent of corruption.” Sir R. Inglis, as
the organ of the high-church party, declared that the
“ plan of the noble lord meant revolution, not reforma¬
tion.” Sir Charles Wetherell, as representative of the
legal formalists, denounced the measure as “ a corpora¬
tion robbery.” The debate on Lord John Russell s mo¬
tion for leave to bring in a bill to amend the repre¬
sentation of the people of England, was kept up with ex¬
treme keenness for seven successive meetings, but ter¬
minated on the 9th of March without a division. Leave
was on the same evening given, after a short discussion, IU,nof
to bring in bills to amend the representation of the people R am
in Scotland and Ireland. The English bill was introduced
by Lord John Russell on the 14th of March, and read a
first time; the same step was taken with the Scotch bill
by the Lord Advocate on the 15th, and with the Irish
bill by Mr Stanley on the 24th. The discussion on the
second reading of the English bill was characterized by
a yet more fierce and inveterate spirit of hostility to all
reform, than that which took place when the measure was
first propounded. After a debate which lasted for two
evenings, the motion that the bill be read a second time
was carried by a majority of one. The opposition, there¬
fore, went into committee with a fair prospect of being
able to mutilate, and finally defeat the bill. Their first
demonstration was a declaration, moved by General Gas¬
coyne, “ that it is the opinion of the house that the total
number of members returned to parliament for England
and Wales ought not to be diminished.” The General’s
motion was carried by a majority of eight; a result which
intimated to ministers that they had not such a hold upon
the house as afforded them the most distant chance of
carrying the measure by which they stood pledged to
stand or fall. In order to appreciate the propriety of the
line of conduct adopted by them on this occasion, it will
be necessary to look to the effect which the promulgation of
the ministerial plan had produced upon the national mind.
The boldness of the measure, so much beyond what
had been expected, had conciliated the radical party,
of whom the unions may be considered as the repre¬
sentatives. Even the vital questions of the shortened
duration of parliaments, and a secret mode of taking the
votes, were postponed by one consent, lest any difference
of opinion should endanger the success of so efficient a
measure. The popular sense accepted the bills as satis¬
factory, and the nation crowded to their defence. Riot and
destruction ceased; for every man was intent upon the
prospect held out of good government and better days.
The tables of both houses were loaded with petitions in
favour of the bill. The more apparent it became that the
Commons would not pass it, the more intense became the
affection manifested by the people for its provisions. It was
evident that they regarded it as the standard to which
they were to look as a rallying point amid the whirls and
eddies of the headlong fight in which they were engaged.
With the people in such a mood, and the king remaining
true to his promises, the ministers were quite safe in
throwing themselves upon the sense of the electors by a
dissolution of parliament.
But the intimation that such a step was in contemplation
was received with anger and alarm by the opponents of re¬
form. They were not prepared for so determined a mea¬
sure ; and notwithstanding their declarations that the bill
was contrary to the national wish, they knew that the
people were against them. The exhibition of petty angei
which took place in both houses, but particulaily m ye
Lords, on the day of dissolution, baffles all description, n
eye-witness speaks thus : “ A hope had remained tha
project of stopping the king’s speech, and interposing a
address, might succeed. That hope rested entne j np
the speech being read by the chancellor or by his majes)
in person. Suddenly the thunder of the guns was heard o
roar, breaking the silence ot the anxious crowds wi >
and drowming even the noise that filled the rva s o P
liament. Inthe fulness of his royal state, and atte
by all his magnificent court, the monarch appioacie _
House of Lords. Preceded by the great ofheeis o
and of the household, he moved through the vas ’
which were filled with troops in iron mail, as tne __
courts were with horse, while the guns boome , an
fll of
liam
V.
tial music filled the air. Having stopped in the robing
chamber in order to put on his crown, he entered the
house and ascended the throne, while his officers and mi¬
nisters crowded around him. As soon as he was seated
he ordered the usher of the black rod to summon the
Commons; and his majesty, after passing some bills, ad¬
dressed them. By those who were present the effect’will
not soon be forgotten, of the first words he pronounced, or
the firmness with which they were uttered, when he said,
that ‘ he had come to meet his parliament in order to pro¬
rogue it with a view to its dissolution !’ He then with an
audible voice commanded the lord chancellor to prorogue,
which being done, the houses dispersed, and the royal
procession returned amidst the hearty and enthusiastiV
shouts of thousands of the people.”*
In the state of the national mind, the result of the elec¬
tions could not be doubted. “ The bill, the whole bill,
and nothing but the bill,” was the war-cry of the reform¬
ing electors ; and to this the candidates were called to
pledge themselves at every open election. The Duke
of Newcastle, who had formerly returned two members
for Newark, and two for the county of Notts at lar^e,
found his interest reduced to four rotten borough seats’
where no man could interfere with him. The Duke^of Beau¬
fort s brother, and his eldest son, both justly popular no¬
blemen, were flung out, solely because they were opposed
to reform. I he Duke of Rutland’s nominees were reject¬
ed in his own county. In Northumberland the minister’s
son, who had not ventured to enter the field at the preced¬
ing election, was returned, notwithstanding the indolence
of his fiiends. In short, out of eighty-two county mem¬
bers, England returned seventy-six pledged to support the
bill; the members for the cities and great towns were for
it to a man. Ireland returned a great majority, and even
Scotland a majority of friends to reform.
The success of the ministerial measure in a House of
Commons so constituted was beyond a doubt. Its enemies
however, exerted every device to delay and baffle the Eng-
hsh reform bill. By trifling motions pushed repeatedly to
dmsion,. the opposition succeeded in retaining the Eng¬
lish bill in the House of Commons from the 15th of June
till the 22d of September, when it was finally agreed to
by a majority of one hundred and nine.
Ihe eyes of the people followed it with anxiety to the
Rouse of Lords. It struck at the roots of an influence
winch that body possessed over the house which ought to
have been the representative of the people; and this in¬
fluence, it was known, a majority of their number were
resolved to preserve. When submitted to them, the bill
was brought before a tribunal of prejudiced and inte-
ies e judges. Its fate, if left to the House of Lords as
men constituted, was sealed before the debate had be-
&un. Ihe nation knew this, and loudly and urgently was
e necessity of a new creation of peers pressed upon mi-
s ers, but m vain. Earl Grey had determined to give
the nationC°1IeagUeS ^ opportunitE of dealing justly by
ebitG °n tbe second reading commenced on the
ceed Uct0 and eontinued during that and four sue-
BRITAIN.
ppH' 7 ’ —~ uumig mat aim rour sue-
ffip ivif evenin§s’ The arguments brought forward against
e Dill were various and contradictory. After this long
and fatiguing debate, the Peers of England, by a majority
tr. Z^0116’ decided, in opposition to a maiority nearly
almrff lat ai?10unt of the House of Commons, and to the
cum/ “Hammous voice of the nation, that a system of
petuat ^ Ve^e(^ 0PPress*on and corruption should be per-
Hie indignation of the country was «reat 'dthmio-h
h.pmty —ed from breaking out into open violence
*e eh™e„n e rn,StT a"d the House of Commons,
of r? °f 16 o^obequer declared in the House
ot Commons on the 10th of October, the earliest dav
on vvhich that house assembled after the rejection of till
bill by the Lords, “that unless he entertained a hope
that a measure of reform equally efficient with that which
had been rejected would be carried hereafter, he would
not remain in office a single hour longer.” Lord Ebring-
ton brought forward the same evening a motion for a vote
ot confidence m ministers, which was carried by a maio¬
rity of a hundred and thirty-one in a house of five hundred
and twenty-seven; and the house by this means pledged
to support ministers and the reform bill. On the 20th
parliament was prorogued by the king in person.
Owmg to the firmness of the king, his ministers, and
the House of Commons, the decision of the Lords was re¬
ceived by the people with deep-felt disgust; but, except
m two or three isolated cases, without any alarming bursts
of violence. At Derby the rabble broke open the town
jail, and demolished the property of some anti-reformers,
and were only prevented from the perpetration of further
violence by the interference of the military. The castle
at Nottingham, the property of the Duke of Newcastle,
vvas burned by a band of rioters. Some rioting, but not
of a very serious character, took place in Somersetshire and
Devonshire. And at Bristol, the arrival of Sir Charles
VVetherell, a strenuous anti-reformer, to discharge his
judicial duties, excited a popular ferment, which, beino-
met on the part of the magistrates at first with preci¬
pitate violence, and afterwards by cowardly supineness,
hurried the populace on to works of extensive destruc¬
tion. In every other part ol the kingdom, however, large
meetings were held, and perfect obedience to the law en¬
forced.
I ail lament le-assembled on the bth of December 1831.
In the speech from the throne, a speedy and satisfac-
toiy settlement of the question of reform was urgently
recommended. The ministry adhered to their original
purpose of remodelling the representation by three sepa-
late bills applicable to the varying social relations of the
three incorporated nations. I hat which had for its object
the reform of the English representation was introdu¬
ced on the 12th of December. It was confessedly supe-
rioi to the former in precision of expression; and some
of the subordinate arrangements had been modified with
a view to avoid the captious quibbling of the preceding
session. The opposition modestly claimed all the im-
piovements as their own, and yet attacked the measure
as inveterately as ever. Ihe ministerial members adopt¬
ed the prudent resolution of leaving all the speaking to
their opponents; but, nevertheless, the pertinacious volu¬
bility of these orators was so far successful in retarding
the bill, that it did not pass through the House of Com¬
mons before the 22d of March.
It was carried up to the Lords with even more gloomy
anticipations than on the former occasion. No new peers
had been created. Lords Harrowby and Wharncliffe, who
had seemed at one time inclined to come to terms, re¬
sumed a hostile attitude. Between the first and second
reading of the bill, however, these noblemen and their
followers determined to make a concession to public feel¬
ing, and allow the bill to go into committee. In conse¬
quence of their wavering, the second reading of the bill
was carried by a majority of nine, and the bill ordered
to be committed the first day on which the house should
583
Reign of
William
IY^.
1 Edinburgh Review, No. cvi. p. 484.
584
BRITAIN.
Reign of sit after the Easter recess. The house, immediately after
William coming to this resolution, adjourned for the holydays.
IV. During the interval, the whole country was kept in a fer-
rnent by meetings assembled for the purpose of expres¬
sing their satisfaction that the bill had passed the second
reading, and earnestly adjuring the Lords to give it the sanc¬
tion of a law. These assemblages were more frequent,
and attended by greater multitudes, than had ever previ¬
ously been witnessed ; and at all of them it was unequivo¬
cally declared that nothing would satisfy the nation short
of the full measure introduced by Earl Grey.
While the people were thus openly busy, their enemies
were privately at work with equal assiduity, and not with¬
out some success. Earl Grey, unsuspicious of the mine
about to be sprung under his feet, moved, on the 7th of May,
in a committee of the whole house, the adoption of the clause
disfranchising all burghs having a population beneath two
thousand. Lord Lyndhurst moved, as an amendment, the
postponement of the first and second clauses until the
question of enfranchisement should have been taken into
consideration. The object of this manoeuvre was to leave
the opposition an opportunity of conciliating the unrepre¬
sented great towns before it proceeded to mutilate the
bill. A suspicion to this effect was raised by the care
which some noble lords took to vindicate the fairness of
their intentions before any body had called it in question ;
and suspicion was rendered certainty when Lord Ellenbo-
rough favoured the house with an outline of the plan of
reform which he and his friends had in contemplation.
Ministers were left in a minority of thirty-five. They
immediately postponed the discussion, and next day re¬
commended to the king, in prosecution of a former under¬
standing, a creation of peers sufficient to insure the pass¬
ing of the bill. His majesty refused, and ministers im¬
mediately resigned.
Lord Althorp no sooner announced the ministerial re¬
signation in the House of Commons, than Lord Ebring-
ton gave notice of a motion to address the king on the
state of affairs next evening. The address which, in pur¬
suance of this notice, his lordship moved, expressed the
most entire confidence in the late ministry, warned the
king of the unabated ardour of the nation in favour of re¬
form, and prayed that no men might be called to his ma¬
jesty’s councils who were not prepared to carry into effect
the reform bill, unimpaired in all its essential provisions.
The debate which ensued was eminently characterized by
boldness and determination on the part of the reformers.
The address was agreed to by a majority of eighty, in a
house of four hundred and ninety-six. The House of Com¬
mons was supported by the nation. Wherever the news
arrived of the resignation of Earl Grey, and it was circu¬
lated with unexampled rapidity, the inhabitants rose in
mass, and feeling confidence in their representatives, peti- Re;
tioned them to stop the supplies; while it was announced W;
in many places, that in the event of the House of Com- 1
mons refusing to do its duty, no more taxes would be paid
until the reform bill passed into a law. Not one act of
rioting was perpetrated from one end of the kingdom to
the other, but the orderly conduct of the assembled mul¬
titudes only made their anger the more terrible.
The Duke of Wellington undertook to form an admini¬
stration which should take office upon condition of carrying
through a large measure of reform. At the first hint of
this project, the national indignation blazed up more fierce¬
ly ; the more timid politicians shrunk from the side of their
leader; the duke abandoned the task as hopeless ; and the
king was obliged to recal Lord Grey.
On the evening of Friday the 18th May, Lord Althorp
announced to the House of Commons that ministers had
again accepted office, after receiving assurance that every
power would be placed in their hands which should be
found necessary to secure the passing of the reform bill
unmutilated. The discussions of the measure in the House
of Lords, subsequent to this communication, were mere mat¬
ters of form. Few of the amendments proposed were ever
pushed to a division. Even the most obnoxious clause of
all, that which gave members to the metropolitan districts,
was carried by a majority of fifty-five, in a house of a hun¬
dred and twenty-seven. A creation of peers was not re¬
sorted to for the purpose of carrying the bill. In order
to render that supposed evil unnecessary, a sufficient num¬
ber of noble lords absented themselves from the house to
leave ministers in a majority on the third reading. The
few who remained, however, expressed in their speeches
the concentrated anger of all the absentees. The royal
assent was given to the English bill by commission on the
7th of June 1832.
The bills for Scotland and Ireland had been merely read
a first time, and then allowed to lie over until the key¬
stone of the arch, the English bill, had been secured. As
soon as that object was attained, the discussions upon the
other two were resumed. Those regarding the Scotch
bill were little more than a mere matter of form, no serious
opposition being offered. It received the royal assent by
commission on the 17th of July. Greater difficulty threat¬
ened to arise on the question of the Irish bill, for a strong
body of the Irish members were dissatisfied with the pro¬
visions for the extension of the franchise, regarding them
as insufficient. A timely concession on the part of mi¬
nisters conciliated the malcontents; and the bill passed
the Commons on Friday the 20th of July. As no essen¬
tial alterations are likely to be made by the Lords, Fog-
land’s new constitution of parliament may be regarded as
established.
of
im
>*/
jritain,
Neff
•roach.
B R O
Britain, New, a large country of North America, call¬
ed also Terra Labrador, has Hudson’s Bay and Strait on
the north and west, Canada and the river St Lawrence on
the south, and the Atlantic Ocean on the east. It is sub¬
ject to Great Britain, but yields only skins and furs. See
Hudson’s Bay.
Britain, New, in the Pacific Ocean. See Austral¬
asia.
BRITANNICUS, son of the emperor Claudius by Mes-
salina, wtis excluded from the empire after his father had
married Agrippina, who placed her son Nero on the throne,
and caused Britannicus to be poisoned, a. d. 55.
BRITTLENESS, that quality of bodies which subjects
them to be easily broken by pressure or percussion.
BRIVE, an arrondissement of the department of the
Correze in France, four hundred and six square miles in
extent, and comprehending ten cantons and a hundred
and one communes, with 93,858 inhabitants. The capital,
Brive la Galliarde, is on the left side of the Correze, on a
beautiful plain, wdth a population of 5762 persons, em¬
ployed chiefly in manufacturing muslins and other fine
cotton goods.
BRIXEN, a city in the Austrian province of Tyrol and
circle of Pusterthal, at the confluence of the rivers Eisack
and Rientz. It contains a cathedral, four other churches,
and a nunnery for English ladies. It is situated in long.
12. 39. 30. E. and lat. 46. 40. N.
BRIXHAM, a town of the hundred of Haytor, in the
county of Devon, a hundred and ninety-nine miles from
London, on the western side of Torbay. It is in a warm,
sheltered situation, and during the war formed the place
for watering the king’s ships on that station. It is cele¬
brated as the spot where King William landed in 1688.
It has now a considerable fishery, and has become a place
of resort for sea-bathing. The inhabitants amounted in
1801 to 3671, in 1811 to 4341, and in 1821 to 4503.
BROACH, a town and district of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Gujerat. The district is situated principally be¬
tween the 21st and 22d degrees of north latitude, and it is
bounded on the west by the Gulf of Cambay. It is one of
the best cultivated and most populous tracts on the west
coast of India, and was finally acquired by the Bombay pre¬
sidency by the treaty concluded with Scindia in 1803. This
district, prior to its occupation by the British, was greatly
exposed to robberies; but since its final cession in 1803
it has enjoyed almost uninterrupted prosperity. Its chief
annoyance has proceeded from the adjacent countries, out
of which such gangs of armed Bheels have issued as en¬
tirely to set at defiance the ordinary force of the police.
The inhabitants of the district itself have been quiet, or¬
derly, and industrious, and the land is remarkably high
priced.
Broach, the capital, is situated on an eminence on the
north bank of the Nerbuddah, twenty-five miles from the
entrance of the river. The houses are generally lofty,
and the streets narrow and dirty. In the towm and vici-
mty are many dilapidated mosques and mausoleums. The
town has a considerable trade, and annually exports large
quantities of raw and manufactured- cotton to Bombay.
Besides cotton, the principal exports are wheat, joaree,
rice, and other grains ; nuts, oil seeds, and dyeing shrubs
and plants. The water of the Nerbuddah is said to pos¬
sess a peculiar property in bleaching clothes to a pure
mute; yet the muslins are inferior to those of Bengal, and
he coloured chintzes to those on the Coromandel coast.
'772 this city was besieged by a British force under
general Wedderburne, brother to Lord Loughborough,
Was killed under its walls. It was stormed a few days
erwards. In 1782 it was ceded, along with the district,
cindia; but was again taken possession of in 1803 by
R R O
an army under Colonel Woodington, and has ever since
remained in possession of the British. Broach is thought
to have been the Barygaza of the ancients; and when it
suii endered to the emperor Acbar in 1572 it still continu¬
ed t0 be a place of great trade. In 1780 it was about two
miles and a half in circumference, and fortified in the ori¬
ental manner, with high walls, perforated for musketry
and flanked with towers; forming, with its natural advan-
tages, an Asiatic fortress of considerable strength. The
travelling distance from Bombay is two hundred and twen¬
ty-one miles, from Oojein two hundred and sixty-six, and
from Poona two hundred and eighty-seven miles. Long,
/o. 14. E. Lat. 21. 46. N.
Broach, or Brooch, Brocha, from the French broche,
denotes an awl or bodkin; also a large packing needle
A spit, m some parts of England, is called a broach ; ami
trom this word comes to pierce or broach a barrel. In
Scotland, broach, broche, brooch, or brotche, is the name of
an utensil which the Highlanders used, like the fibula of
the Romans, to fasten their vest or plaid. It is usually
made.of silver, of a round figure, with a tongue crossing
its diameter, to fasten the folds of the garment; some¬
times with two tongues, one on each side of a cross bar in
the middle. There are preserved in several families an¬
cient brooches of very elegant workmanship, and richly
ornamented. Some of these are inscribed with names, to
which particular virtues used to be attributed; others are
furnished with receptacles for relics supposed to preserve
the wearer from harm: so that these broodies seem to
have been worn not only for use, but as amulets. One or
two of this sort are figured and described by Mr Pennant,
Tour in Scotland, i. 90, iii. 14, 3d. edit.
BROAD Piece, a denomination given to certain gold
pieces broader than a guinea; particularly Caroluses and
Jacobuses.
Broadside, in the sea-language, a discharge of all the
guns on one side of a ship at the same time.
BROCADE, or Brocado, a stuff of gold, silver, or silk,
raised and enriched with flowers, foliages, and other orna¬
ments, according to the fancy of the merchants or manu¬
facturers. Formerly the word signified onty a stuff woven
all of gold, both in the warp and in the woof, or all of sil¬
ver, or of both mixed together ; thence it passed to those
stuffs in which there was silk mixed, to raise and termi¬
nate the gold or silver flowers; but at present all stuffs,
even those of silk alone, whether they be grograms of
Tours or of Naples, satins, and even tatfeties or lustrings,
if they be but adorned and worked with some flowers or
other figures, are called brocades.
BROCATEL, or Brocaded, a kind of coarse brocade,
chiefly used for tapestry.
BROCCOLI, a kind of cabbage cultivated for the use
of the table. See Horticulture.
BROCHE or Brooch. See Broach.
BROCK, among sportsmen, a term used to denote a
badger. A hart, too, of the third year is called a brock or
brocket; and a hind of the same year is called a brocket's
sistev.
BROCKLESBY, Richard, a physician of considerable
reputation, was born in Somersetshire on the 11th of
August 1722, and was descended from a respectable and
opulent Irish family belonging to the sect of Quakers.
He received his grammatical education at the academy
of Ballytore, in the north of Ireland, and afterwards pur¬
sued his medical studies at Edinburgh and at Leyden;
at which latter university he graduated in 1 Ho, choosing
for the subject of his thesis, Be Saliva sana et morbosa.
In the following year he fixed his residence in London,
with a view to practice; and in 1751 was admitted a li¬
centiate of the Royal College of Physicians, of which he
^ £
585
Broach
II
Brockles-
by.
586
B R O
Brockles- afterwards became a fellow, having previously received ho-
by. norary degrees of doctor in medicine from the universities o
   Dublin and of Cambridge. The first publication by which
he became known to the world was his Essay on the Mor¬
tality of the Horned Cattle, which appeared m 1746, and
gained him considerable reputation; and his practice ex¬
tended itself with that gradual and steady progress which
affords the surest prospect of permanent and distinguished
success. His benevolent attention to his poorer patients,
and the general suavity of his manners, soon brought him
into notice, and procured him the esteem of a wide circle
of friends, especially among his professional brethren. In
consequence of their recommendation of him to Lord Bar¬
rington, he was appointed, in 1758, physician to the army;
in which capacity he served in Germany during the greater
part of the seven years’ war, and in the course of it was
chosen physician to the hospitals for British forces, ihe
results of his observations during this period were pub¬
lished in 1764, under the title of Economical and Medical
Observations, from 1738 to 1763, tending to the improve¬
ment of Medical Hospitals, in one volume octavo. He
had already, however, given to the public many proofs o
the activity of his mind and the variety of his attainments.
The Transactions of the Royal Society for 1747 (vol. xhv.)
contain a letter of his on the Indian Poison sent over by
Don Antonio de Ulloa; and the succeeding volume for
lr/47_8 contains a paper on the Poisonous Root lately found
mixed with the Gentian. In the Transactions for 1755
(vol. xlix.) are inserted his Experiments on the bensibi-
lity and Irritability of the several parts of Animals. He
also published, in different volumes of the Medical Obser¬
vations, the following papers, namely, the case of a lady
labouring under diabetes, in vol. iii.; experiments relative
to the analysis of Seltzer water, and case of an encyst¬
ed tumour in the orbit of the eye, in vol. iv. His Ahs-
sertation on the Music of the Ancients appeared in 1749, and
his Oratio Harveiana in 1760. _ j r • i
Dr Brocklesby was appointed, by his patron and friend
the Duke of Richmond, physician-general to the royal
regiment of artillery and corps of engineers; an appoint¬
ment that connected him much with the laboratory of
Woolwich, which he always visited with pleasure. L was
by his advice, indeed, that a professorship of chemistry
was added to the establishment of the college ; and it was
also by his recommendation that the celebrated Dr Adair
Crawford was nominated the first professor in this new
The life of a medical practitioner, absorbed in the la¬
borious duties of his profession, is seldom diversified with
much incident; and Dr Brocklesby was now arrived at
that period when the approaching infirmities of age de¬
manded some relaxation from labour, and an exchange
of the anxieties and fatigues of practice for the tranquil
amusements of literature and the solace of cheerful so¬
ciety. The frugal use which he had made of means ori¬
ginally slender, but progressively augmenting by the in¬
crease of his professional emoluments, by the addition of
a pension from the Duke of Richmond, his halt pay from
the army, and an estate which devolved to him on the
death of his father, had placed him in circumstances not
only independent, but affluent, and enabled him to derive
from retirement all the advantages he had contemplated.
His society was courted on all sides; and the. circle of
his friends comprehended some of the most distinguished
literary men of the age. He was during the whole of his
life intimate with Burke. His acquaintance with this
extraordinary man began at the school where they were
both educated, and soon ripened into the warmest and
most durable friendship. He was also on terms of close
intimacy with Dr Johnson, and attended him in his last
B R O
illness with the assiduity and kindness of a friend. Dr 1
Brocklesby is characterised in Boswell’s Life of Dr John-
son as a man whose reading, knowledge of life, and ^ a.
good spirits, supplied him with a never-faihng source of 'J
conversation; and several letters, addressed to him from
Dr Johnson, are preserved in that entertaining work.
One trait, however, is omitted, which does him great ho¬
nour. Understanding that Dr Johnson wished, in the
latter part of his life, to remove to the Continent for the
recovery of his health, Dr Brocklesby immediately made
him offer of an annuity of L.100 during the remainder of
his life ; and, when this offer was declined, pressed him to
reside in his house, as more suited to his health than the
one in which he then lived. The same generous disposi¬
tion was manifested in his conduct to Burke, to whom he
transmitted L.1000, as a legacy he had intended leaving
him, but which he thought would be of more use to him
at the present time. Dr Brocklesby was, indeed, the
survivor of Burke, though only for a few months; for on
his return from a visit which he paid to the widow of his
friend at Beaconsfield, after dining with his two nephews,
Dr Thomas Young and Mr Beeby, of whose education
he had taken the principal charge, he expired suddenly
a few minutes after retiring to bed, without the least pain
or previous illness. He left his fortune, which was consi¬
derable, between his two nephews, with the exception of
a few legacies to friends and distant lelations. Gv
BROD, a town of Hungary, on the military frontier
belonging to the military colony of the regiment of Brod,
and giving its name to a district containing 62,000 inha¬
bitants, mostly soldiers and their families. It is situated
on the river Save, is fortified, and has a castle, a Catholic
and two Greek churches, and 4100 inhabitants. Long.
17. 56. 20. E. Lat. 45. 10. 50. N.
BRODEAU, John, in Latin Brodceus, a critic, on
whom Lipsius, Scaliger, Grotius, and all the learned, have
bestowed great encomiums, was descended from a nob e
family in France, and born at Tours m 1500. He was
liberally educated, and placed under Alcmt to study the
civil law ; but soon forsaking that pursuit, he gave himse
up wholly to languages and the belleslettres. He trave¬
led into Italy, where he became acquainted with Sado et,
Bembo, and other famous wits; and here he applied hi
self to the study of mathematics, philosophy, and tn
sacred languages, in which he made no small proficie j.
Then, returning to his own country, he ledarebrelbu
not an idle life, as his many learned lucubrations abun
dantly testify. He was a man free fimm all ambmon and
vain-glory, and suffered his works to be published rat e
under the sanction and authority of others t an
his own. His chief works are, 1. Commentaries on tl
Anthologia, Basel, 1549; 2. Several books of m®*®’
3 Notes on Martial, Euripides, &c. Basel, 1oj8,
1561. He died in 1563, aged sixty-three.
BRODERA, or Barodah, a large and weahhy
of Hindustan, in the province of Gujerat, district C
paneer, the capital of a Mahratta ch.ef known bj t»e
family name ol the Guicowar, who is an f Dortion
tish, and divides with them the largest and finest P
of Gujerat, his particular share being a ““ ot Je
, J .1 ,1 * ™ w n pxt.ent. and lying j
of Gujerat, his particular snare oemg a hief]y
twelve thousand square miles in extent, and y ^
in the northern districts. Ihe town is
spacious streets, which divide it into four equal p
cross at the market-place. The ruins som^
Mogul buildings are still to be seen; but th°Near the
by the Mahrattas are mean and contemptible. he
city is a stone bridge over the nver V.swanntta,^
only one in Gujerat, where the streams are g ^
crossed in ferry boats or on light floating p ^ gtepS
the environs are several magnificent >
B R O
Brody down to the bottom. In 1780 the fortifications of this
|| place consisted of slight walls, with towers at irregular
broker, distances, and several double gates. It is still wealthy
and populous, and during the war with Scindia and Holkar
in 1803 the native bankers advanced to the British armies
a crore and a half of rupees, equal to about L.1,600,000
sterling. Provisions of all descriptions are cheap and abun¬
dant, and the population amounted in 1818 to 100,000.
The founder of the present family of the Guicowar in¬
vaded the province of Gujerat in 1726, and in 1730 was
confirmed in his conquest by Sahoo Rajah, the grandson
of Sevajee, and the reigning sovereign of the Mahrattas.
He was succeeded by his son Damajee, who in 1761 was
present at the battle of Paniput, and was afterwards taken
prisoner by the Peshwa Bajerow, to whom he was obliged
to cede half of his territories, and to acknowledge his de¬
pendence for the other half. His successor was Futteh
Singh, who, dying in 1789, was succeeded by his brother
Manajee, who died in 1792, when another brother, named
Govind Row, ascended the throne. He died in 1800, and
was succeeded by his son Annund Row Guicowar, who in
his turn was succeeded in 1814 by Futteh Singh Guicowar.
The revenues of this petty sovereign were in great confu¬
sion when the British interfered and undertook the ma¬
nagement of his affairs. Long. 73. 24. E. Lat. 22. 13. N.
BRODY, a large city of the circle of Lemberg, in the
Austrian province of Galicia. It stands on the river
Sucha-Wielkabacha, close to the Russian frontier, by which
position it is enabled to carry on a most extensive contra¬
band trade with that extensive empire. It is an ill-built
and filthy place, containing about 18,000 inhabitants, one
third of Avhom are Jews. There are four churches for the
Greeks, one for the Catholics, and some synagogues for
the Jews.
BROKE, Sir Robert, lord chief justice of the common
pleas, was the son of Thomas Broke, Esq. of Claverly in
Shropshire, and educated at Oxford, from which he re¬
moved to the Middle Temple, and soon became a very emi¬
nent lawyer. In the year 1542 he was chosen summer
reader, and in 1550 double reader. In 1552 he was made
serjeant at law; and in the year following, the first of Queen
Mary, lord chief justice of the common pleas; about
which time he received the honour of knighthood. Stow
says he was recorder of London and speaker of the House
of Commons; which is confirmed by a manuscript in the
Ashmolean library. He died and was buried at Claverly
in Shropshire, the place of his nativity, in 1558. Wood
gives him the character of a great lawyer and an upright
judge. His works are, 1. An abridgment containing an
abstract of the year-books till the time of Queen Mary;
2. Certain cases adjudged in the reign of Henry VIII.
Edward VI. and Queen Mary ; 3. Reading on the statute
of limitations, 32 Hen. VIII. c. 2.
BROKER. The origin of this word is contested, some
deriving it from the French broier, “ to grindothers from
brocarder, “ to cavil, or higgleand others again from a
trader broken, and that from the Saxon broc, “ misfor¬
tune.”
A broker is an agent or intermediate person appointed
for transacting special business on account of another, but
somewhat different from an ordinary factor in functions
and responsibility. Of this class there are various descrip¬
tions, exercising employments without the smallest ana-
logy> though all are brought under the general name of
brokers; and of these the principal are, exchange-brokers,
whose province is to ascertain the rates and relation of
exchange between countries ; stock-brokers, who negociate
transactions in the public-funds ; insurance-brokers, who
effect insurances on lives or property ; and pawn-brokers,
who advance money on goods, on the condition of being
B R O
587
allowed to sell the goods, if the sum advanced is not re- Bromberg
paid with interest, within a limited time. ||
BROMBERG, one of the governments into which the Br°mley-
Prussian province of Posen is divided. It is bounded on
the north by West Prussia, on the east by the present
kingdom of Poland, on the south by the government of
Posen, and on the west by the province of Brandenburg.
Its extent is four thousand five hundred and six square
miles, or two millions eight hundred and eighty-three
thousand eight hundred and forty acres. It comprehends
fifty-five cities and towns, and one thousand two hundred
and fifty villages, thirty-two thousand eight hundred and
twenty dwelling houses, with 279,360 inhabitants, of whom
about 160,000 are Catholics, and the remainder Protes¬
tants of various sects, with 16,000 Jews. It is divided into
nine circles, and is a part of the former kingdom of Poland.
The soil is generally a light sand. The face of the coun¬
try is level, and a great portion of it is covered with woods.
The agricultural product is very small, scarcely sufficient
for the subsistence of the inhabitants. The whole stock
of cattle for this extensive district and its numerous po¬
pulation was in 1820 only 33,700 horses, 11,917 cows, and
45,475 sheep of all descriptions. The city of the same
name, the capital of the government and of the circle of
Bromberg, called by the Poles Bydgoscy, stands on an
elevation near the navigable river Brahe. It is, for a
Polish town, well built, and contains one Lutheran and two
Catholic churches, a monastery, a nunnery, three hospitals,
and five hundred and fifty-two dwellings, with 7554 inha¬
bitants. It has some refineries for sugar, and a little trade
in corn by means of its connection with the Vistula. Long.
17. 55. E. Lat. 55. 27. N.
BROME, Alexander, a poet, and attorney in the lord
mayor’s court in the reign of Charles II., was the author
of the greater part of those songs and epigrams which
were published in favour of the royalists, and against the
Rump, as well in Oliver Cromwell’s time as during the re¬
bellion. These, together with his epistles and epigrams
translated from different authors, were all printed in one
volume octavo after the restoration. He also published a
version of Horace, by himself and others, which is very
far from being a bad one. He left behind him a comedy
entitled The Cunning Lovers; and the world is indebted
to him for two volumes of Richard Brome’s plays in oc¬
tavo, many of which, but for his care in preseiving and
publishing them, would in all probability have been en¬
tirely lost. He died in 1666. # . .
Brome, Richard, a dramatic writer who lived in the
reign of King Charles I. and was contemporary with Dek-
ker Ford, Shirley, and others. His extraction was mean,
he having been originally no better than a menial servant to
the celebrated Ben Jonson. He wrote himself, however,
into high reputation, as is testified, not only by various
commendatory verses written by his contemporaries an
prefixed to many of his plays, but also by some lines whic
his quondam master addressed to him on account of his
comedy called The Northern Lass. Brome, m imitation
of his master, laid it down as his first great pomt to apply
closely to the study of men and manners. His genius was
entirely turned to comedy, and therefore his FOP^P^-
vince was observation more than reading. p
nil his own, and are far from being ill conducted, and
we“^ing of h^
'number, ten of which are coHected together m t.o
* Tt R n M ELI A the Pine-apple. See Hoet.cultuee.
mSK’a town in the hundred of Ossulton, am.
588
B R O
Bromley county of Middlesex, two miles from London, on the high
II road to the eastern counties. The inhabitants amounted
in 1801 to 2101, in 1811 to 2190, and in 1821 to 2349.
Bromley, a market-town in the hundred of the same
name in the county of Kent, ten miles from London, on
the Ravensbourne. Near it is a palace belonging to the
Bishop of Rochester; and in it is an hospital for the widows
of clergymen, who have, besides their dwelling, a pension
of L.60 per annum. The market is on Thursday. The
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 2700, in 1811 to 3011,
and in 1821 to 3147.
B R O
and that a set of surgeon’s instruments consisting entirely Ero.
of bronze was discovered at Pompeii.
Bronze is extremely hard, sonorous, more brittle than
brass, and more fusible than copper, from which, and its
not being liable to tarnish, it is peculiarly adapted for
casts of statues. Various nations have compounded the
metals employed in different proportions. The Egyptians
are said to have taken two thirds of brass and one third of
copper. According to Pliny, the bronze of the Grecians
was formed in the same way, with the addition of one tenth
part of lead and a twentieth of silver; which proportions
BROMSGROVE, a market-town in the hundred of were adopted by the Romans. In modern times bronze
Halfshire, and county of Worcester, a hundred and seven- is generally composed of two thirds of copper and one
teen miles from London. It is a borough, and formerly third of brass, and sometimes small quantities of lead and
sent members to parliament. It stands on the edge of a zinc have been added. These latter render the cast more
black heath, but chiefly depends on some manufactures of compact and brilliant; and the combination of different
nails, needles, and hats. The market is on Tuesday. The substances occasions the readier fusibility of the whole
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 5898, in 1811 to 6201, than when separate. The ancient bronzes, however, pre-
and in 1821 to 7519. sent a difference in appearance and composition from those
BROMYARD, a market-town in the hundred of Brox- executed* by the moderns, and the fact is ascertained in
ash, and county of Hereford, a hundred and twenty-five respect to the metallic proportions, by skilful chemists on
miles from London, on the river Frome. It is a poor analysis. An illustration of this fact is sometimes given
place, but situated in the finest part of the cider orchards, in the four celebrated horses of bronze, supposed to be
The market is on Tuesday. The inhabitants amounted in the work of Lysippus, a Greek artist; which were brought
1801 to 983, in 1811 to 1101, and in 1821 to 1227. from Venice, by command of Bonaparte, to the Thuilleries
BRONNIZY, a circle in the Russian government of at Paris, and, on the fall of that extraordinary man, re-
Moscow, extending over one thousand four hundred and stored to their original position.
seventy-ei'dit square miles. It contains two cities, and Ihe casting of bronze statues is a nice and diflicultart,
five hundred and twenty-five villages, with 176,500 in- requiring long experience and the judicious management
habitants. The chief place, of the same name, is situat- of a great apparatus. An exact model must be made of
ed on the Mosqua, near the lake of Beloe, and has a po- the subject to be cast, and nicely coated over with wax
pulation of about 2000 persons. Long. 27. 55. E. Lat. 55. not less than an inch thick, on which the artist works the
20. N. o.
BRONTE, a city in the intendency of Catania, in Sicily.
It stands in a healthy situation on the river Giaretta, near
a celebrated water-fall. It is an industrious place, where
linen and woollen cloths, and some kinds of paper, are
made. Good wine is produced in the neighbourhood. It
gave the title of duke to the late Lord Nelson. The po¬
pulation amounts to 9400 persons.
BRONTIUM, in Grecian Antiquity, a place underneath
the floor of the theatres, in which were kept brazen ves¬
sels full of stones and other materials, with which they
imitated the noise of thunder.
BRONTOLOGY denotes the doctrine of thunder, or
impression meant to be taken. A mould is then formed,
consisting of several hollow pieces of wood or other resist¬
ing substance, filled with a mixture of clay and sand,
which is applied to the model, in order that its outline may
be received. The mould being united together, is perfo¬
rated by a number of channels, and the melted metal being
discharged from a furnace by means of these into the in¬
terior, thus produces the cast. When cold, the external
covering is taken off, and the subjects appear as if covered
with spines, which are the channels filled with metal; these
are removed by saws, files, and chisels ; and any imperfec¬
tions on the surface being corrected, the whole is complet¬
ed. But this in detail is a tedious, laborious, and expensive
an explanation of its causes, phenomena, &c. together with process; and the difficulty of producing beautiful works in
* T n voc trk nrixro fliom Q Burn vnlllP in tllP PStlHlci-
the presages drawn from it.
BRONZING. A combination of metals which has re¬
ceived the name of bronze was employed by the ancients
in the fabrication of different utensils, and in casting busts,
statues, and other subjects, either larger or smaller than
life. The Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, nations which
bronze conspires to give them a high value in the estima¬
tion of the lovers of the arts. In general, the natural colour
of the composition remains unaltered, and with the lapse
of time tends to black, or particular shades of green; but
some artists render it black artificially, or give it a green
colour from the first. It is the delicacy of the workmanship,
subsisted long and were familiar with the most refined however, that constitutes the value of bronzes, not t eco
state of the arts, used this compound metal in the greater lour, because it is the former alone which constitutes
part of the decorations of those magnificent temples and difficulty, and calls for the skill of the ai tist. 0 0
palaces whose ruins only have remained to later eras. But figures are sometimes obtained in bronze ; but moie usu
amidst the general wrreck there are still some fragments ly, when of very large dimensions, they aie forme 7
preserved, which indicate the perfection which had been at- union of several pieces, and are hollow within , as 18 .
tained in the employment of bronze. The wealth of some the case with some of those of smaller size. Consi e
ancient cities was estimated by the number of their brazen premiums have been offered by the Society jor t le
statues; and Delphos, Athens, and Rhodes, are reported rayement of Arts, for promoting the execution ol oroiu
to have each possessed three thousand. Some distinguish- figures in England, but few have been claimed, i ,
ed Romans adorned the public edifices of their city in this less, British artists have produced several very ereana
manner; and so strong a propensity was excited for mul- works, if we take the low condition of sculptuie ’
tiplying works of this kind, that an observation became but, either from want of skill or practice, neither tlie
current, that in Rome the people of brass were not less of this island nor those of the Continent can riva .
numerous than the Roman people. It has been remarked, terpieces of antiquity. Perhaps it is only the hes P
that the works which we now execute in iron or steel were mens which are preserved, and many of infenoi n ^
little known to the ancients; that their arms and armour been allowed to decay, or cease to attract atten 1° >
were usually of brass, or the compound now alluded to ; in this way we may partly account for our own inter ;
B II O
■onzing. The substances on which bronzing is employed are
'Y'*’'' either metals, wood, ivory, clay, or plaster; hut more
tof general preference is given to wood or plaster. The
■azing- colours are of various shades and intensity ; their com¬
position and application being in a great measure arbitrary,
according to the will of the artist. This art is nothing
but a species of painting, far from the most delicate kind;
and, when applied to plaster figures, may be done either
with or without cement, the latter rendering it more
durable. One principal ingredient in bronzing is gold-
powder, for the preparation of which the following receipt
is given. A quantity of leaf-gold is ground with virgin
honey on a stone, until the texture of the leaves be com¬
pletely broken, and their parts divided to the most minute
degree. The mixture of gold and honey is then removed
from the stone and put into a basin of water, whereby the
honey may be melted, and the gold freed from it; and the
basin is allowed to stand at rest until the gold subsides.
When it does so, the water is poured off, and fresh quan¬
tities are added, until the honey be entirely washed away;
after which the gold is put in paper, and dried for use.
This is the true gold powder; besides which, there is ano¬
ther, called German gold, in common use ; and also a third,
called aurum mosaicum, or musician, greatly employed in
bronzing, and which is thus prepared. A pound of tin,
seven ounces of flour of sulphur, half a pound of purified
quicksilver, and the same quantity of sal ammoniac, are
taken as the necessary ingredients. The tin being melted
in a crucible, the quicksilver is added to it; and, when this
mixture is cold, it is reduced to powder, and ground with
the sal ammoniac and sulphur, until the whole be thorough¬
ly mixed. They are then to be calcined in a matrass, and
die sublimation of the other ingredients will leave the tin
converted into the aurum mosaicum, which is found at the
bottom of the glass like a mass of bright flaky gold powder.
Should any black or discoloured particles appear, they
must be removed. The sal ammoniac used here must be
very white and clean, and the mercury quite pure, and
unadulterated with lead. These colours are commonly
employed in bronzing; but when a shade more of a red,
resembling copper, is required, it can easily be obtained
by grinding a very small quantity of red lead along with
them. Copper powder may be procured by dissolving fil¬
ings or slips of that metal with nitrous acid in a receiver.
When the acid is saturated the slips are to be removed;
or, if filings be employed, the solution is to be poured oft’
from what remains undissolved. Small iron bars are then
put in, which will precipitate the copper from the saturat¬
ed acid, in a powder of the peculiar appearance and colour
of copper; and the liquid being poured from the powder,
this is to be washed clean off the crystals by repeated le-
vigations. In addition to these compounds, we may name
gold size, which is of particular use in bronzing and seve¬
ral other branches of the arts. This is prepared from a
pound of linseed oil, with four ounces of gum animi. The
latter is gradually supplied in powder to the oil, while
boiling; and it is necessary that it should be stirred with
every successive dose, until the whole be dissolved and
incorporated with the oil. The mixture is still allowed to
continue boiling, until a small quantity, when taken out,
appears of a thicker consistence than tar, and the whole
being then strained through a coarse cloth, is put aside.
When used, it must be ground with as much vermilion
as will render it opaque, and, at the same time, diluted
with such a quantity of oil of turpentine as will bring it to
a proper consistence for working freely with the pencil.
In regard to the operation of bronzing itself, if a cement
is to be used, the powders now described may be mixed
with strong gum water or isinglass, and laid on the sub¬
ject with a brush or pencil; in doing which, some artists
B r o sgg
recommend beginning at the bottom and proceedine un- •
wards. By a different process, gold size.VeparKfh
a due proportion of turpentine, may be taken, and the
subject covered with it; then being allowed to dry very
nearly, but still preserving a certain clamminess, a piece
of soft leather wrapped round the finger is dipped in the
powder, and rubbed over the work; or, what is judged
pi eferable, it may be spread with a soft camel-hair pencil.
Ihe whole, now covered, must be left to dry, and the
loose powder then cleared away by a hair pencil also.
Here the principal nicety consists in ascertaining the pro¬
per period of dryness for applying the powder, as much
of the effect depends on it. But this method of bronzing
is esteemed better, because the gold size binds the powders
to the ground, without any hazard of their scaling or rub¬
bing off, which sometimes happens when gum or isinglass
is employed. The precise tint of bronzing is regulated by
taste ; and, indeed, a very perceptible difference appears
both in ancient and modern statues, resulting either from
age or the metallic proportions.
Bronzing on wood may be effected by a particular pro¬
cess, somewhat varying from the general rules. Prussian
blue, patent yellow, raw umber, lamp-black, and pipe-clay,
are ground separately with water, on a stone, and as much
of them as will make a good colour put into a small ves¬
sel three fourths full of size, not quite so strong as what is
called clean size in gilding. This mixture is found to suc¬
ceed best on using about half as much more pipe-clay as
of the rest; but this depends on taste and fancy in pre¬
ferring a peculiar tint. The wood being previously clean¬
ed and smoothed, and coated with a mixture of clean size
and lamp-black, receives a new coating with the preced¬
ing ingredients, twice successively, having allowed the
first to dry: afterwards the bronze-powder is to be laid
on with a pencil, and the whole burnished or cleaned
anew, observing to repair the parts which maybe injured
by this operation. Next, the work must be coated over
with a thin lather of Castile soap, which will take oft' the
glare of the burnishing, and afterwards carefully rubbed
with a woollen cloth. The gangrenous appearance of the
cavities is effected by slightly wetting them with a camel-
hair pencil dipped in the lather, and then sprinkling them
with a little dust of verditer gum. The superfluous pow¬
der may be rubbed off when dry.
In bronzing iron, the subject should be heated to a
greater degree than the hand can bear, and German gold,
mixed with a small quantity of spirit of wine varnish,
spread over it with a pencil. Should the iron be already
polished, it is necessary to heat it well and moisten it with
a linen rag wet in vinegar, on purpose to obscure the glare,
that the bronze-powder may be sufficiently incorporated
with the surface. There are other methods of accom¬
plishing the same object, as by employing some coloured
mordant, when the iron is not to be exposed to heat, and
spreading the bronze over the mordant, when halt dry,
with a pencil. Bronze is injured by humidity; and it is
said not to preserve its proper quality beyond ten yeais ;
but it may be renewed, in which case the subject must be
completely cleaned. „
There is an analogous method of silvering casts of plas¬
ter of Paris, and other substances, which is also called
bronzing, and conducted after the manner above describ¬
ed • but it is not in general repute. . ...
Conjectures hare been entertained, that artists origma-
ly resorted to bronzing solely for the P^P0 e
[L the glare of colours; but tins is exceedingly impro¬
bable ; and it is certainly unnecessary to seek farther than
oTll'yeSrTcome into
very general use, and has received many improvements.
590
B R O
B R O
Bronzes BRONZES, a name given by antiquaries to figures
II either of men or beasts, to urns, and in general to every
Broom. pjece 0f sculpture which the ancients made of that metal.
We likewise give the name of bronzes to statues or busts
cast of bronze, whether these pieces be copies of antiques
or original subjects.
BROOKE, Mrs, daughter of a clergyman of the name
of Moore, was a lady as remarkable for her virtue and
suavity of manners as for her great literary accomplish¬
ments. Her first performance, which introduced her to
the notice and consequent esteem of the public, vt&s Julia
Mandeville ; a work concerning which there were various
opinions, but which every body read with eagerness. It
has been often wished that she had made the catastrophe
less melancholy ; and we believe that she was afterwards
of the same opinion, but she thought it unworthy of her
character to alter it. Soon afterwards she went to Canada
with her husband, who was chaplain to the garrison at
Quebec; and here she saw and loved those romantic cha¬
racters and scenes which gave birth to Emily Montague ; a
work most deservedly in universal esteem, which has passed
through several editions, and which is now not easily met
with. On her return to England, accident introduced,
and congenial sentiments attracted her, to Mrs Yates; and
an intimacy was formed which terminated only with the
life of that lady. Mrs Brooke, in consequence of this con¬
nection, formed an acquaintance with Mr Garrick, and
wrote some pieces for the stage. She had, however, great
reason to be dissatisfied with his behaviour as a manager ;
and she made The Excursion, a novel which she wrote at
this time, the vehicle by which she exhibited to the public
her complaints. Her anger, we believe, was just, but the
retribution was too severe. She herself afterwards thought
so, for she lamented and retracted it. Her first dramatic
performance was the tragedy of Virginia, 1756. Her next
effort in that line was The Siege of Synope, a tragedy, in¬
troduced by Mr Harris, and written principally with the
view of placing Mrs Yates in a conspicuous character.
This did not altogether fail, but it did not become popular;
it wanted energy, and it had not much originality ; there
was little to disapprove, but there was nothing to admire.
Her next and most popular production was Rosina, which,
in a most liberal manner, she presented to Mr Harris.
Few modern pieces have been equally successful. Her
last musical piece, entitled Marian, which was introduced
by Shield, continued for some time to be occasionally ex¬
hibited. Mrs Brooke was also the translator of various
books from the French. She was esteemed by Dr John¬
son, valued by Miss Seward, and her company was courted
by all the first characters of her time. She died in January
1789, two days after her husband. Her husband enjoyed
the rectory of Colney in Norfolk, to which he had been
preferred after his arrival from America.
BROOM denotes a well-known household besom or im¬
plement wherewith to sweep away dirt, dust, and the like.
We say a birch-broom, a hair-broom, a rush-broom, a heath-
broom. The primitive kind of brooms, from which the de¬
nomination is given to all the rest, was made of the genista
or wild broom growing on commons.
BnooM-flower gives the denomination to an order of
knights instituted by St Louis of France on occasion of
his marriage. The motto was Exaltat humiles, and the col¬
lar of the order was made up of broom flowers and husks,
enamelled and intermixed with jleurs de Us of gold, set in
open lozenges, enamelled white, chained together ; and at
it hung a cross florence of gold. This answers to what the
French called Ordre de la Geneste, from the name of a spe¬
cies of broom so called, different from the common broom,
as being lower, the stalk smaller, and leaf narrow: the
flower is yellow, and bears a long husk. Some also speak
of another order of the Geneste or Broom established by Bro >
Charles Martel, or rather Charles YI. W-l
BROOME, William, the coadjutor of Pope in trans¬
lating the Odyssey, was born in Cheshire, as is said, of
very mean parents. He was educated upon the founda¬
tion at Eton, and was captain of the school a whole year,
without any vacancy by which he might have obtained a
scholarship at King’s College. Being by this delay, which
is said to have happened very rarely, superannuated, he
was sent to St John’s College by the contribution of his
friends, where he obtained a small exhibition. At this
college he lived for some time in the same chamber with
the well known Ford, by whom Dr Johnson heard him
described as a contracted scholar and a mere versifier, un¬
acquainted with life, and unskilful in conversation. His
addiction to metre was then such that his companions fa¬
miliarly called him Poet. When he had opportunities of
mingling with mankind, he cleared himselfj as Ford like¬
wise owned, from great part of his scholastic rust. He
appeared early in the world as a translator of the Iliads
into prose, in conjunction with Ozell and Oldisworth.
How their several parts were distributed is not known.
This is the translation of which Ozell boasted as superior,
in Toland’s opinion, to that of Pope. It has long since
vanished, Dr Johnson observes, and is now in no danger
from the critics. He was introduced to Mr Pope, who was
then visiting Sir John Cotton at Madingley, near Cam¬
bridge, and gained so much of his esteem that he was em¬
ployed to make extracts from Eustathius for the notes to
the translation of the Iliad; and in the volumes of poetry
published by Lintot, commonly c.dS\e.dPope sMiscellanm,
many of his early pieces were inserted.
Pope and Broome were to be yet more closely connect¬
ed. When the success of the Iliad gave encouragement
to a version of the Odyssey, Pope, weary of the toil, called
Fenton and Broome to his assistance; and taking only half
the work upon himself, divided the other half between his
partners, giving four books to Fenton and eight to Broome.
Fenton’s books are enumerated in Dr Johnson’s life of him.
To the lot of Broome fell the second, sixth, eighth, eleventh,
twelfth, sixteenth, eighteenth, and twenty-third, together
with the burden of writing all the notes. The price at
which Pope purchased this assistance was L.300 paid to
Fenton and L.500 to Broome, with as many copies as he
wanted for his friends, which amounted to L.100 more.
The payment made to Fenton is known only by hearsay;
Broome’s is very distinctly told by Pope in the notes to
the Dunciad. It is evident that, according to Pope’s own
estimate, Broome was unkindly treated. If four books
could merit L.300, eight, and all the notes, equivalent at
least to four, had certainly a right to more than L.600.
Broome probably considered himself as injured, and there
was for some time more than coldness between him and
bis employer. He always spoke of Pope as too much a
lover of money, and Pope pursued him with avowed hos¬
tility; for he not only named him disrespectfully in the
Dunciad, but quoted him more than once in the Bathos,
as a proficient in the art of sinking; and in his enumera¬
tion of the different kinds of poets distinguished for ie
profound, he reckons Broome among “ the parrots wo
repeat another’s words in such a hoarse odd tone as ma e
them seem their own.” It has been said that they wer
afterwards reconciled ; but their peace was probab y wi
out friendship. He afterwards published a Miscellany
Poems, and never rose to very high , ef Up i]e
He was some time rector of Sturston in Suffolk, w e
married a wealthy widow; and afterwards, when tie
visited Cambridge, 1728, became doctor of laws,
in 1733 presented by the crown to the rectory o ,,
in Norfolk, which he held with Oakley Magna m
Bn
B R O
In ■«
ss.
given him by Lord Cornwallis, to whom he was chaplain,
and who added the vicarage of Eye in Suffolk. He then
resigned Fulham, and retained the other two. Towards
the close of his life he grew again poetical, and amused
himself with translating Odes of Anacreon, which he pub¬
lished in the Gentleman s ATagazine, under the name of
Chester. He died at Bath in 1745.
BROOMING, or Breaming of a Ship, the washing
and burning off all the filth she has contracted on her sidej
with weeds, stiaw, bioom, &c. when she is on the careen
or on the ground.
BROOS, a town, the capital of a small district, to which
it has given its name, in the Saxon division of the Hunga¬
rian province of the Seven Mountains. It contains5 a
Greek, a Lutheran, and a Calvinistic church, five hundred
and ninety houses, and 4560 inhabitants. Lornr. 23. 7 26
E. Lat. 45. 40. 46. N. 8
BROSELEY, a market-town within the franchise of
Wenlock, in the county of Salop, a hundred and forty-six
miles from London, on the river Severn. It is a place of
considerable trade in iron, having near it productive mines
of that mineral, as well as of coal. It has a good market
on Wednesday. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to
4832, in 1811 to 4850, and in 1821 to 4814.
t BROSSARD, Sebastian de, an eminent French mu¬
sician. In the early part of his life he had been preben¬
dary and chapel-master of the cathedral church of Stras-
burg, but afterwards became grand chaplain and also
maitre de chapelle in the cathedral of Meaux. There is
extant of his a work entitled Prodromus Musicalis, in two
volumes folio. He was also author of a very useful book
entitled Dictionnaire de Musique, printed at Amsterdam,
in folio, 1703; and afterwards at the same place in octavo’
without a date. At the end of this book is a catalogue of
authors ancient and modern, to the amount of nine hundred,
who have written on music, divided into classes; wherein
are interspersed many curious observations of the author
relating to the history of music. From M. Boivin’s Cata¬
logue General des Livres de Musique for the year 1729, it
appears that Brossard was the author of two sets of motets,
as also of nine Lemons de Tenebres, therein mentioned. It
seems that these several publications were made at a time
when the author was far advanced in years; for Walther
takes notice that in the Mercure Galante he is mentioned
as an abbe and componist as early as the year 1678. He
Ttim ^16 i^uSust 1^30, aged upwards of seventy.
BROSSES, Charles de, first president of the parlia¬
ment of Burgundy, was born at Dijon on the 17th of Feb¬
ruary 1707. _ Fie studied law with a view to the magis¬
tracy, but without neglecting literature and the sciences,
to which he discovered an early and decided attachment.
4us study of the Roman history excited in him a strong
i7QQe-t0 ^ta^’ which he accordingly traversed in
t/39, in company with his friend M. de Sainte-Palaye.
Un iiis return to France he published his Lettres sur VEtat
Actuelde la Vide Souterraine d'Herculaneum, Dijon, 1750,
v°; the first work which had appeared upon that inte¬
resting subject.. A collection of letters, written during his
aiian tour, entitledZetfres Historiqueset Critiques, in three
w> s. 8vo, was published at Paris after his death without
ie consent of his family. In 1760 he published a disser-
a ion Sur le Culte des Dieux Fetiches, 12mo, which was
,, ervvards inserted in the Encyclopedic Methodique. At
• e station of his friend Buffon, De Brosses undertook
s Histone des Navigations aux Terres Australes, which
^as published in 1756, in two vols. 4to, with maps, by Ro-
W i • i ig()ndy- 11 was in this work that Ue Brosses
m laid down the geographical divisions of Australasia and
ynesia, which were afterwards adopted by Pinkerton
succeeding geographers. In 1765 appeared his Trade
BUG
591
de la Formation Mechanique des Lanques • a work rbV,n -n
pushed by much research, and contaiSg manytgenioui T*
lypotheses; but, at the same time, marked by that love Brother.
Of theory which is so apt to imbue the cultivators of efv- ' 
mological science.
i Br°sses had been occupied, during a great nart nf
his life, m making a translation of Sallusf and in attempt¬
ing to supply the chasms in that celebrated historian At
length m 1777, he published ^ 7e Sde L
Repubhque Romame, three vols. 4to ; a work which would
probably have met with great success had the style corre¬
sponded with the interest of the subject, and with the au¬
thor s historical sagacity and depth of research. To the
history is prefixed a learned life of Sallust, which was re¬
printed at the commencement of the translation of that
historian by De Lamalle. After the death of De Brosses
a supplement was added to this work, from his MSS. con-
ainmg the various readings, fragments, and an index of
!!]f;^U J0rSiIrKm^h0m, the^are taken- This supplement,
which should be placed at the end of the third volume is
wanting in some copies.
These literary occupations did not prevent De Brosses
from discharging with ability his official duties, nor from
carrying on a constant and extensive correspondence with
the most distinguished literary characters of his time
During the leisure afforded him by the suspension of the
parliaments in the year 1771, he applied himself with
greater vigour to literature. In 1758 he succeeded the
Marquis de Caumont in the Academic de Belles Lettres •
but was never admitted a member of the French Aca¬
demy, in consequence, it is said, of the opposition of Vol¬
taire, who entertained a dislike to him.
De Brosses died on the 7th of May 1777. He was a
man no less distinguished for ease and vivacity in the
general intercourse of society, than for the extent and
variety of his literary attainments. Besides the works we
have already mentioned, he wrote several memoirs and
dissertations in the collections of the Academy of Inscrip¬
tions, and in those of the Academy of Dijon. He also
contributed a number of articles to the Dictionnaire Em-
cyclopedique, on the subjects of grammar, etjmiology, mu¬
sic,^ &c.; and he left behind him several MSS. which were
unfortunately lost during the revolution. (See the Bio¬
graphic Universelle.)
BROTHER, Frater, a term of relation between two
male children, sprung from the same father, or mother, or
both. Scaliger and Vossius derive frater from <p»arm, for
fguTuo, which properly signifies a person who draws water
in the same well; pgsag, in Greek, signifying ivell, and
(pgurgia, a company of people who have a right to draw
water out of the same well. The word, it is said, came
originally from the city Argos, where there were only a
few wells distributed in certain quarters of the city, to
which those of the same neighbourhood alone repaired.
By the civil law, brothers and sisters stand in the second
degree of consanguinity; by the canon law they are in
the first degree. By the Mosaic law the brother of a man
who died without issue was obliged to marry the widow
of the deceased. Deuter. xxv. 7. The ancients applied
the term brother indifferently to almost all who stood re¬
lated in the collateral line, as uncles and nephews, cousin
germans, and the like. This we learn not only from a great
many passages in the Old Testament, but also from pro¬
fane authors. Cicero, in his Philippics, says, Antonia was
both wife and sister of Mark Antony, because she was
daughter of his brother C. Antonius. And as to cousins,
Tullus Hostilius, in Dionysius Halicarnasseus, calls the
Horatii and Curiatii brothers, because they were sisters’
children. The language of the Jews, Bishop Pearson ob¬
serves, included in the name of brethren not only the
592 B R O
Brothers strict relation of fraternity, but also the larger one of con-
11 sanguinity. We are brethren, says Abraham to Lot, Gen.
Broughton.8, whereas Lot was only his nephew. So Jacob told
Rachel that he was her father’s brother, Gen. xxix. 12,
whereas he was only her father’s nephew. This conside¬
ration has been urged with good advantage against the
Antidicomarianites, who, from the mention made of the
brethren of Jesus, John ii. 12, Matt. xii. 46, have impugned
the perpetual virginity of the mother of Christ. Among
us it is customary for kings to give the title of brother to
each other; the unction in coronation being esteemed to
create a kind of brotherhood. Nor is the custom modern.
Menander mentions a letter of Cosroes king of Persia to
the emperor Justinian, beginning thus : “ Cosroes, king of
kings, to the emperor Justinian my brother.” Kings
now also give the same appellation to the electors of the
empire. In the civil law, brothers, fratres, in the plural,
sometimes comprehends sisters ; as Lucius et Titia,fratres ;
tres fratres, Titius, Mcevius, et Seia.
Foster-BnoTHERS, those who have been suckled by the
same nurse. The French call them fratres du lait, or
brothers by milk; which is most properly used in respect
of a person who had been suckled by a nurse at the same
time with the nurse’s own child.
Brother was also used by the writers of the middle
ages for a comes, or governor of a province.
Brother is applied, in a less proper sense, to denote
a person of the same profession; in which sense judges,
bishops, priests, call each other brothers.
Brother is also a customary term by which priests of
the same persuasion address one another: but it is more
particularly used to denote the relation between monks of
the same convent; as Brother Zachary. In English we
more usually say Friar Zachary, from the French word
frere, brother. Preachers also call their hearers my
brethren, or my dear brethren. This appellation is borrow¬
ed from the primitive Christians, who all called each other
brothers. But it is now principally used for such of Ihe
religious as are not priests; those in orders are generally
honoured with the title of father, whereas the rest are only
simple brothers.
Brother is also an appellation more peculiarly given
to certain orders of religious.
Brothers of Arms, an appellation given to those who con¬
tract a kind of fraternity in war, obliging themselves to the
mutual service and assistance of each other. In the mili¬
tary orders the knights are also called brothers. In the
order of Malta there is a particular class who are called
serving brothers, consisting of such as cannot give proof
of their nobility. In Latin they are denominated fratres
dientes.
Brothers of the Rosy Cross. See Rosycrucians.
BROTTERODE, a market-town of the circle of Schmal-
kald, in Hesse-Cassel. It stands on the river Lauderbach,
and contains 2860 inhabitants, employed in various minor
manufactures.
BROUGH, a market-town in the east ward of the coun¬
ty of Westmoreland, two hundred and sixty-two miles from
London. It is on a brook running into the Eden two miles
below the town. Near it are the ruins of a castle belong¬
ing to the Earl of Thanet, the prospects around which
are very magnificent. It has a market on Tuesday. The
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 694, in 1811 to 758, and
in 1821 to 940.
BROUGHTON, Thomas, a learned divine, and one of
the original writers of the Biographia Britannica, was born
at London, July 5, 1704, in the parish of St Andrew, Hol-
born, of which parish his father was minister. At an early
age he was sent to Eton School, where he soon distinguish¬
ed himself by the acuteness of his genius and the studi-
B R O
ousness of his disposition. Being superannuated on this Bi J
foundation, he removed about 1722 to the university of hi s'
Cambridge ; and, for the sake of scholarship, entered him- ^ J
self of Caius College. Here two of the principal objects
of his attention were the acquisition of knowledge of the
modern languages, and the study of the mathematics,
under the famous Professor Sanderson. In May 1727, Mr
Broughton, after taking the degree of bachelor of arts,
was admitted to deacon’s orders, and in the succeeding
year was ordained priest, and proceeded to the degree of
M. A. At this time he removed from the university to the
curacy of Offley in Hertfordshire. In 1739 he was insti¬
tuted to the rectory of Stepington, otherwise Stibington,
in the county of Huntingdon, on the presentation of John
duke of Bedford, and was appointed one of that nobleman’s
chaplains. Soon afterwards he was chosen reader to the
Temple, by which means he became known to Bishop Sher¬
lock, then master of it, and who conceived so high an opi¬
nion of our author’s merit, that in 1744 this eminent prelate
presented Mr Broughton to the valuable vicarage of Bed-
minster, near Bristol, together with the chapels of St Mary
Redcliff, St Thomas, and Abbot’s Leigh annexed. Some
short time afterwards he was collated, by the same patron,
to the prebend of Bedminster and Redclilf, in the cathe¬
dral of Salisbury. Upon receiving this preferment he
removed from London to Bristol, where he married the
daughter of Thomas Harris, clerk of that city, by whom
he had seven children, six of whom survived him. Here-
sided on his living till his death, which happened on the
21st December 1774, in the seventy-first year of his age.
He was interred in the church of St Mary Redcliff.
From the time of Mr Broughton’s quitting the univer¬
sity till he was considerably advanced in life, he was en¬
gaged in a variety of publications, of which a list is given
in the Biographia Britannica, second edition. Some little
time before his death he composed “ a short view of the
principles upon which Christian churches require, of their
respective clergy, subscription to established articles of
religion but this work never appeared in print. He
possessed, likewise, no inconsiderable talent for poetry, as
is evident from many little fugitive pieces in manuscript,
found among his papers ; and particularly from two unfi¬
nished tragedies, both written at the age of seventeen. He
was a great lover of music, particularly the ancient; which
introduced him to the knowledge and acquaintance of Mr
Handel, whom he furnished with the words for many of
his compositions. In his public character Mr Broughton
was distinguished by an active zeal for the Christian cause,
joined with a moderation of mind. In private life he was
devoted to the interests and happiness of his family; and
was of a mild, cheerful, and liberal temper. In 1778 a
posthumous volume of sermons, on select subjects, was
published by his son, the Rev. Thomas Broughton, M. A.
of Wadham College, Oxford.
BROUKHUSIUS, Janus, or John Broekhuizen, a
distinguished scholar in Holland, was born on the 20th No¬
vember 1649, at Amsterdam, where his father was a clerk
in the admiralty. He learned the Latin tongue under Ha¬
drian Fumius, and made a prodigious progress in polite
literature ; but, his father dying when he was very jrvung,
he was taken from literary pursuits, and placed with an
apothecary at Amsterdam, with whom he lived severa
years. But not liking the pestle and mortar, he went into
the army, where his behaviour raised him to the ?
lieutenant-captain; and, in 1674, he was sent with ns
regiment to America in the fleet under Admiral
ter, but returned to Holland the same year. In 167
was sent to the garrison at Utrecht, where he COIltK!c'l
a friendship with the celebrated Graevius; and e >
though a person of an excellent temper, he had the m
I
B R O
•uncker fortune to be so deeply engaged in a duel, that, according
|| to the laws of Holland, his life was forfeited; but Graevius
rousso- wrote immediately to Nicholas Heinsius, who obtained his
ne^ pardon from the stadtholder. Not long afterwards he be-
came a captain of one of the companies then at Amster¬
dam ; which post placed him in an easy situation, and gave
him leisure to pursue his studies. His company beingBdis-
banded in 1697, a pension was granted him, upon which he
retired to a country-house near Amsterdam, where he saw
but little company, and spent his time among books. He
died on the 15th December 1707, at the age of fifty-eight.
As a classical editor, he is distinguished by his labours
upon Tibullus and Propertius: the latter was published
in 1702, the former in 1708. He was an excellent Latin
poet himself, and a volume of his poems was published at
Utrecht, 1684, in 12mo ; but a very noble edition of them
was given by Van Hoogstraton, at Amsterdam, 1711, in
4to. His Dutch poems were also published at Amsterdam,
1712, in 8vo, by the same person, who prefixed his life, ex¬
tracted from the funeral oration pronounced over him by
Peter Burman. Broukhusius was also an editor of Sanna-
zarius’s and Palearius’s Latin works. With regard to his
Latin poems, the authors of the Journal de Trevoux have
observed that his verses are written in good enough Latin,
but want fire, and that the author was a poet by art, not
by nature; an observation which is applicable to the bulk
of modern Latin poems.
BROUNCKER, or Brounker, William, lord viscount
of Castle-Lyons, in Ireland, and the first president of the
Royal Society, was the son of Sir William Brounker, knight,
and born about the year 1620. He was distinguished by
his knowledge of the mathematics, and by the considerable
posts of honour and profit he enjoyed after the restoration ;
for he had at the same time the office of chancellor to the
queen and the keeping of her great seal, that of one of the
commissioners of the navy, and master of St Catharine’s
Hospital, near the Tower of London. He wrote, 1. Expe¬
riments on the recoiling of Guns ; 2. An algebraical paper
upon the squaring of the Hyperbola ; and several letters to
Dr Usher, archbishop of Armagh. He died in 1684.
BROUSSONET, Pierre Marie Auguste, a distin¬
guished French naturalist, born at Montpellier on the 28th
February 1761. His father was a respectable schoolmaster
in that towm, who, perceiving the avidity with which he
received instruction of every kind, took pains to store his
mind with knowledge at an early age. It appears from
his writings that he was at first educated for the medical
profession. The opinion entertained in the university of
the success with which he pursued his studies, was proved
by his being appointed to fill a professor's chair when he
was only eighteen years of age. So great, indeed, was the
reputation he had acquired, that when he offered himself
as candidate a few years afterwards for a seat in the Aca¬
demy of Sciences, he was elected a member by an unani¬
mous vote; a circumstance which had hitherto been with¬
out example since the foundation of that learned body.
Botany seems to have been the science to which he was
at first chiefly devoted; and he laboured with much zeal
to establish the system of Linnaeus in France. In pursuit
this great object, and with the view of extending his
owledge of the science, he visited Paris, and studied
overy museum and collection from which he could derive
mstiuction in the different branches of natural history.
e next came to England, where he was admitted in 1782
an honorary member of the Royal Society. It was also
a this period that he published at London his work on
8 -s, describing the most rare species of this class of
imajs, under the title of Ichthyologia, sen Piscium J)e-
oo^f et *cones' On his return to Paris he was ap-
^ vol ^erPetua^ secretary to the Society of Agriculture,
B R o
™ “?ce w.hic1’ t,;e iMendant Berthier de Sauvianv nur-
posely reigned tta ,t might be filled by BrouSsf„etP
A hfe thus dedicated to the pursuits of science was
not hkely to be chequered by any remarkable vicissitude.
But the revolution, which soon broke out in France and
for a long time unhinged all the ordinary relations of so¬
ciety, had already involved in its vortex not only the am¬
bitious and the turbulent spirits of the nation, but also the
peaceful votaries of science. In 1789 he was nominated
a member of the Electoral College of Paris, an office which
required him to serve as magistrate whenever his colleagues
were in need of assistance in the exercise of their func¬
tions. On the first day when he was called upon this
duty, as he was proceeding to the Hotel de Ville, he had
the misfortune to see his friend and protector Berthier
barbarously murdered by the populace. His own life was
frequently exposed to great danger during the tumults
that ensued, and when he had the charge of superintend-
ing the supply of provisions for the capital. In 1791 he
had a seat in the legislative assembly; but, disgusted
with politics, he quitted Paris the year following, and re¬
paired to his native city. Persecution followed him in
his retreat, and he was glad to effect his escape to Madrid,
after encountering many dangers. But though well re¬
ceived and liberally assisted by the literati of that city,
the malignity of the French emigrants, who could not,
pardon his having held any office under the revolutionary
government, still pursued him, and drove him from Spain,
and afterwards from Lisbon, where he had sought another
asylum. He at last went out as physician to an embassy
which the United States sent to the emperor of Morocco.
He was furnished with the means of equipping himself
by the generous assistance of Sir Joseph Banks, who, in¬
formed of his distresses, nobly sent him a credit for L.1000.
After residing for some time at Morocco, during which
he lost no opportunity of pursuing his favourite science,
he obtained from the French directory permission to re¬
turn to France; and he was appointed by them consul at
the Canaries, in which capacity he resided for two years
at Teneriffe. On his return in 1797 he was chosen
member of the institute, and was reinstated in his botani¬
cal professorship at Montpellier, with the direction of the
botanical garden. Fie was afterwards elected a member
of the legislative body, and died of apoplexy on the 27th
July 1807. France is indebted to him for the introduction
of the Merino sheep and Angola goats.
Besides the work on fishes, already noticed, the follow¬
ing are his principal productions : 1. Varim Positiones circa
Respirationem, Montpellier, 1788. 2. Essai sur 1 Histoire
Naturelle de quelques especes de Moines, decrite a la
maniere de Linne, 8vo, 1784, which is a translation of a
Latin satire on the monks, the original of which appeared
in Germany in 1783. 3. Annee rurale, ou Calendrier a
1’usage des Cultivateurs, in 2 vols. 12mo. Paris 1787-8.
4. Notes pour servir a 1’Histoire de 1 Ecole de Medecine
de Montpellier pendant fan VI. 8vo, Montpellier, 1795.
He was also a conductor, conjointly with Parmentier,
Dubois, and Lefebure, of La Feuille du Cultivateur, m
8 vols. 4to, published in 1788 and the following years, (y.)
BROWN, Robert, a schismatic divine, the founder of
the Brownists, a numerous sect of dissenters in the reign
of Queen Elizabeth. He was the son of Mr Anthony
Brown of Tolthorp in Rutlandshire, whose father obtained
the singular privilege of wearing his cap in the kings F6'
sence, by a charter of Henry V1IL Robert was educa ed
at Cambridge, in Corpus Christ., or, according to Coflier
in Bennet College, and was afterwards a schoolmaste
Southwark. About the year 1580 he began to promul¬
gate his principles of dissension from the established
church ; and the following year he preached at^Norwich,
593
Brousso-
net
II
Brown.
594
Brown.
v—
B R O
B R O
where he soon accumulated a numerous congregation. He
was violent in his abuse of the church of England, and pre¬
tended to divine inspiration, alleging that he alone was the
sure guide to heaven. This new sect daily increasing, Ur
Freake, bishop of Norwich, with other ecclesiastical com-
missionefs, called our apostle before them. He was inso¬
lent to the court, and they committed him to the custody
of the sheriff’s officer; but he was released at the inter¬
cession of lord treasurer Burghley, to whom it seems he
was related. Brown now left the kingdom, and, with per¬
mission of the states, settled at Middleburg in Zealand,
where he formed a church after his own plan, and preach¬
ed without molestation ; but here persecution, the natural
stimulus of fanaticism, was wanting. In 1585 we find him
again in England; for in that year he was cited to appear
before Archbishop Whitgift, and, seeming to comply with
the established church, was, by Lord Burghley, sent home
to his father; but relapsing into his former obstinacy, Ins
a^ed parent was obliged to turn him out of his house. He
now wandered about for some time, and in the course of
his mission endured great hardships. At last he fixed at
Northampton, where, labouring with too much indiscre¬
tion to increase his sect, he was cited by the Bishop of
Peterborough, and, refusing to appear, was finally excom¬
municated for contempt. The solemnity of this censure,
we are told, immediately effected his reformation. He
moved for absolution, which he obtained, and from that
time became a dutiful member of the church of Engknd.
This happened about the year 1590; and, in. a short time
afterwards, Brown was preferred to a rectory in Northamp¬
tonshire, where he kept a curate to do his duty, and where
he might probably have died in peace; but having some
dispute with the constable of his parish, he proceeded to
blows ; and was afterwards so insolent to the justice, that
he committed him to Northampton jail, where he died in
1630, aged eighty. Thus ended the life of the famous
Robert Brown, the greatest part of which was a series of
opposition and persecution. He boasted on his death-bed
that he had been confined in no less than thirty-two dif¬
ferent prisons. He wrote A Treatise of Reformation
without tarrying for any, and of the wickedness of those
teachers which will not reform themselves and then
charge, because they will tarry till the magistrate com¬
mand and compel them, by me Robert Brown; and two
other pieces; making together a thin quarto, published at
Middleburg, 1582.
Brown, Ulysses Maximilian, a celebrated general of the
eighteenth century, was son of Ulysses, Baron Brown and
Camus, colonel of a regiment of cuirassiers in the empe¬
ror’s service, and descended from one of the most ancient
and noble families in Ireland. He was born at Basel in
1705 ; and having finished his first studies at Limerick in
Ireland, was in 1715 sent for into Hungary by Count
George Brown, his uncle, member of the auhc council of
war, and colonel of a regiment of infantry. He was pre¬
sent at the famous battle of Belgrade in 1717. Next year
he followed his uncle into Italy, who made him continue
his studies in the Clementine College at Rome till the
year 1721, when he was sent to Prague in order to learn
the civil law. At the end of the year 1723 he became
captain in his uncle’s regiment, and in 1725 lieutenant-
colonel. In 1730 he went into Corsica with a battalion of
his regiment, and contributed greatly to the taking of
Callansara, where he received a considerable wound in his
thioffi. In 1732 the emperor made him chamberlain. He
was raised to the rank of colonel in 1734, and distinguish¬
ed himself so much in the war of Italy, especially at the
battles of Parma and Guastalla, and in burning in the
presence of the French army the bridge which the Mar¬
shal de Noailles had caused to be thrown over the Adige,
that he was made general in 1736. The following year, m
by an excellent manoeuvre, he favoured the retreat of the V yv
army, after the unhappy battle of Banjuluca in Bosnia,
and saved all the baggage. His admirable conduct upon
this occasion was rewarded by his obtaining a second re¬
giment of infantry, vacant by the death of Count Francis
de Wallis.
On his return to Vienna in 1739 the emperor Charles
VI. raised him to the rank of field-marshal-lieutenant, and
made him counsellor in the aulic council of war. After
the death of that prince, the king of Prussia entering Si¬
lesia, Count Brown with a small body of troops disputed
the country with him inch by inch. He signalized him¬
self on several occasions ; and in 1743 the queen of Hun¬
gary made him a privy-counsellor at her coronation in
Bohemia. He at length passed into Bavaria, wheie he
commanded the van-guard of the Austiian army; seized
Deckendorf, with a great quantity of baggage ; and obliged
the French to abandon the banks of the Danube, which
the Austrian army passed in full security. Ihe same
year, that is, in 1743, the queen of Hungary sent him to
Worms in quality of her plenipotentiary to the king of
Britain, where he put the last hand to the treaty of alli¬
ance between the courts of Vienna, London, and lurin.
In 1744 he followed Prince Lobkowitz into Italy; took
the city of Veletri on the 4th of August, in spite of the
superior numbers of the enemy; entered their camp, over¬
threw several regiments, and took many prisoners. The
following year he was recalled into Bavaria, where he took
the town of Wilshosen by assault, and received a danger¬
ous wound in the thigh. The same year he was made
general of artillery ; and in January 1746 he marched for
Italy at the head of a body of eighteen thousand men.
He then drove the Spaniards out of the Milanese; and bav¬
in o-joined the forces under Prince de Lichtenstein, he com¬
manded the left wing of the Austrian army at the battle
of Placentia on the 15th of June 1746, and defeated the
right wing of the enemy’s forces commanded by Mar¬
shal de Maillebois. After this victory he commanded in
chief the army against the Genoese ; seized the pass ot
Bocchetta, though defended by above four thousand men;
and took the city of Genoa. Count Brown at length join¬
ed the king of Sardinia’s troops, and, in conjunction with
them, took Mont-Alban and the county of Nice. On the
30th of November he passed the Var m spite of the Trench
troops; entered Provence ; took the isles of St Margare
and St Honorat; and expected to have rendered lumseit
master of a much greater part of Provence, when the ie-
volution which happened in Genoa, and Marshal Be -
isle’s advancing with his army, obliged him to execu e
that fine retreat which procured him the admiration am
esteem of all persons skilled in war. He employed
rest of the year 1747 in defending the states ot the house
of Austria in Italy; and after the peace in U48 he wa
sent to Nice, to regulate there, in conjunction wi
Duke of Belleisle and the Marquis de !a Mmas, the
ferences that had arisen with respect to the execu . ,
some of the articles of the definitive trehty o
The empress queen, to reward these signal services,
pecially his glorious campaign in Italy in H49, ma
governor of Transylvania, where he rendered himselt g
nerally admired for his probity and disinterestedness. _
1752 he obtained the government of the cl{f V
with the chief command of the troops m tha S .
with the chief command of the troops
in 1753 the king of Poland, elector of Saxony, «^—i
him with the collar of the order of the W hite R<g »
the next year he was declared field-marsha . , at.
The king of Prussia entering Saxony in DuR ^
tacking Bohemia, Count Brown marche ‘g
B R O
and repulsed that prince at the battle of Lowositz on the
' 1st of October, though he had only twenty-seven thou¬
sand men, and the king of Prussia had at least forty thou¬
sand. Seven days after this battle he undertook the fa¬
mous march into Saxony, to deliver the Saxon troops shut
up between Pirna and K-onigstein; an action worthy of
the greatest captains, ancient or modern. He at leno-th
obliged the Prussians to retire from Bohemia, for winch
he was rewarded by being made a knight of the Golden
Fleece. Soon afterwards Count Brown hastily assembled
an army in Bohemia to oppose the king of Prussia, who had
again penetrated into that kingdom at the head of all his
forces; and, on the 6th of May, he fought the famous battle
of Prague, in which, while he was employed in giving his
orders for maintaining the advantages he had gained over
the Prussians, he was so dangerously wounded that he
was obliged to be carried to Prague, where he died of
his wounds, on the 26th of June 1757, at the age of fifty-
two. There is reason to believe, that if he had not been
wounded, he would have gained the victory, as he had
broken the Prussians, and the brave Count Schwerin, one
of their greatest generals, was slain.
Brown, William^ an English poet of the seventeenth
century, was descended from a good family, and born at
Tavistock in Devonshire in the year 1590. After he had
passed through the grammar school, he was sent to Exeter
College, in the University of Oxford, in the beginning of
the reign of James I. and became tutor to Robert Dormer
who was afterwards Earl of Carnarvon, and killed at New¬
bury battle on the 20th of September 1643. He is styled
in the public register of the university, “ a man well skill¬
ed in all kinds of polite literature and useful arts vir
omni humana literatura et bonorum artium cognitione in-
structus. After he had left the college with his pupil he
was taken into the family of William earl of Pembroke, who
had a great respect for him ; and he improved his fortune so
much that he purchased an estate. His poetical works pro¬
cured him a very great reputation. Among these may be
mentioned :—1. Britannia’s Pastorals. The first part was
published at London, 1613, in folio, and ushered into
the world with several copies of verses made by his ino-e-
mous and learned friends John Selden, Michael Drayton,
Christopher Cook, &c. The second part was printed at
Condon in 1616, and recommended by various copies of
verses written by John Glanville, who afterwards became
eminent in the profession of the law, and others. These
two parts were reprinted in two vols. 8vo in 1625. 2. The
Shepherds Pipe, in seven eclogues; London, 1614, 8vo.
An Elegy on the never-enough-bewailed death of Prince
Henry, eldest son of King James I. Mr Wood tells us
tnaut is probable our author wrote several other poems,
ten he had not seen. It is uncertain when he died.
, 4 ,°j^’ Thomas, of facetious memory, as he is styled
Dy Addison, was the son of a farmer in Shropshire, and
entered m Chnst-church College, Oxford, where he soon
]•. guished himself by his uncommon attainments in
him*! Ure* • ^regularities of his life not suffering
fatli ° contlnue i°n& there, he, instead of returning to his
ther, Went to London to seek his fortune. His com-
eVe^ beinS more delighted with his humour
thp nef3! ^ re ie„ve h'8 necessities, he had recourse to
and nnkr !efjge of ha^-starved wits, scribbling for bread,
and Lb lShed a gr®at vai'iety of poems, letters, dialogues,
oftpn • eJ f.omPoslti°ns> full of humour and erudition, but
one nprl'e!lcate* Though a good-natured man, he had
tha/hL joke S qUa ^ which was rather to ]ose his friend
Matter end of Brown’s life, we are informed
Who invRC?i v • at he.was in favour with the Earl of Dorset,
eu nun to dinner on a Christmas day, with Mr Dry-
13 R Q
den and some other gentlemen celebrated for their inee-
3no eof Lrsnr0WHn’ t,>.his,0Sre“bk surprise, found a
Dank note of L.50 under his plate, and Mr Dryden at the
same tim e was presen ted* with another of L.100. Mr Brown
died m the year 1704, and was interred in the cloister of
Westminster Abbey, near the remains of Mrs Behn, with
whom he was intimate in his lifetime. His works have
been printed both in 8vo and 12mo, making four volumes.
ijRown, Dr John, a clergyman of the church of England
and an ingenious writer, was born at Rothbury in Northum¬
berland in November 1715. His father, John Brown, was
c native of Scotland, being descended of the Browns of
Co stown, near Haddington; and at the time of his son’s
n tli he was curate to Dr Tomlinson, rector of Rothbury.
He was afterwards collated to the vicarage of Wigton in
Cumberland, to which place he carried his son, who re¬
ceived the first part of his education there. Thence he
was removed in 1732 to the University of Cambridge, and
entered of St John s College, under the tuition of Dr Tun-
sstcUf. After taking the degree of bachelor of arts with
great reputation, being among the list of wranglers, and
his name at the head of the list, he returned to Wigton,
and received both deacon’s and priest’s orders from Sir
George Fleming, bishop of Carlisle. Here he was ap¬
pointed by the dean and chapter a minor canon and lec¬
turer of the cathedral church. For some years he lived
in obscurity; and nothing further is known concerning
him than that m 1739 he went to Cambridge to take
ns degree of master of arts. In 1745 he distinguished
Inmself as a volunteer in the king’s service, and behaved
with great intrepidity at the siege of Carlisle. After the
deteat of the rebels, when several of them were tried at
the assises held at Carlisle in the summer of 1746, he
preached at the cathedral church of that city two excel-
ent discourses, on the mutual connection between reli¬
gious truth and civil freedom; and between superstition,
tyranny, irreligion, and licentiousness.
x s attachment to the royal cause and to the
Whig party procured him the friendship of Dr Osbaldes-
ton, who was the only person that continued to be his
friend through life; the peculiarities of his temper, or
some other cause, having produced quarrels with every
one else. When Dr Osbaldeston was advanced to the see
of Carlisle, he appointed Mr Brown one of his chaplains.
It was probably in the early part of his life, and during
his residence at Carlisle, that Mr Brown wrote his poem
entitled Honour, inscribed to Lord Viscount Lonsdale.
Our author’s next poetical production was his Essay on
Satire, which was of considerable advantage to him both
in point of fame and fortune. It was addressed to Dr War-
burton, to whom it was so acceptable, that he took Mr
Brown into his friendship, and introduced him to Ralph
Allen, Esq. of Prior Park, near Bath, who behaved to him
with great generosity, and at whose house he resided for
some time.
In 1751 Mr Brown published his Essay on the Charac¬
teristics of Lord Shaftesbury, dedicated to Ralph Allen,
Esq. Ihis was received with a high degree of applause,
though several persons attempted to answer it. In 1754
our author was promoted by the Earl of Hardwicke to the
living of Great Horkesley in Essex.
In 1755 our author took the degree of doctor of divinity
at Cambridge. This year he published his tragedy of
Barbarossa; which, under the management of Mr Garrick,
was acted with considerable applause, although, when it
came to be published, it was exposed to a variety of stric¬
tures and censures. This tragedy introduced our author
to the acquaintance of that eminent actor, by whose fa¬
vour he had a second tragedy, named Athelstane, repre¬
sented at Drury-Lane theatre. This was also well re-
595
Brown.
596
B R O
B R O
Brown.
ceived by the public, but did not become so popular as
Barbarossa, nor did it preserve so long the possession of
the stage. .
In 1757 appeared his well-known Estimate ot the Man¬
ners and Principles of the Times. The chief design of
this performance was to show, that a vain, luxurious, and
selfish effeminacy in the higher ranks of life marked the
character of the age ; and to point out the effects as well as
sources of this effeminacy. Several antagonists appeared,
some of whom were neither destitute of learning nor
ingenuity; though Dr Brown himself asserted that Mr
Wallace, a clergyman of Edinburgh, was the only candid
and decent adversary that appeared against him. In 1758
our author published the second volume of Ins Estimate
of the Manners and Principles of the Times, containing
additional remarks on the ruling manners and principles,
and on the public effects of those manners and principles.
The periodical critics, whom he had gone out of his way
to abuse, treated him with uncommon severity ; and such
a multitude of antagonists rose against him, and so many
objections were urged upon him, by friends as well as ene¬
mies, that he seems to have been deeply impressed, and
to have retired for a while into the countr}r. From the
country it was that he wrote, in a series of letters to a
noble friend, An Explanatory Defence of the Estimate
of the Manners and Principles of the Times; being an ap¬
pendix to that work, occasioned by the clamours lately
raised against it among certain ranks of men.
In 1760 he published an Additional Dialogue of the
Dead, between Pericles and Aristides ; being a sequel to
a dialogue of Lord Lyttleton’s between Pericles and Cos¬
mo. One design of this additional dialogue was to vindi¬
cate the measures of Mr Pitt, against whose administra¬
tion Lord Lyttleton had been supposed to have thrown
out some hints. Our author’s next publication, in 1763,
was The Cure of Saul, a sacred ode; which was followed
in the same year by A Dissertation on the Lise, Union,
and Power, the Progressions, Separations, and Corrup¬
tions of Poetry and Music. This is one of the most pleas¬
ing of Dr Brown’s performances, and abounds with a va¬
riety of critical discussions. A number of strictures on
this piece were published; and the doctor defended him¬
self in a treatise entitled Remarks on some Observa¬
tions on Dr Brown’s Dissertation on Poetry and Music.
In 1764 he published, in octavo, The History of the Rise
and Progress of Poetry through its several Species ; which
is no more than the substance of the dissertation above
mentioned. The same year Dr Brown published a volume
of sermons, dedicated to his patron Dr Osbaldeston, bishop
of London ; but most, if not all, of these, had been sepa¬
rately published, excepting the first three, which were on
the subject of education. In the beginning of the year
1765 the doctor again returned to politics, and published
Thoughts on Civil Liberty, Licentiousness, and Faction.
At the conclusion of this work the author prescribed
a code of education, upon which Dr Priestley made re¬
marks at the end of his Essay on the Course of a liberal
Education for civil and active Life. The same year he
published a sermon On the Female Character and Edu¬
cation, preached on the 16th of May 1766, before the
guardians of the asylum for deserted female orphans. Flis
last publication was in 1766, being a Letter to the Rev. Dr
Lowth, occasioned by his late Letter to the right reverend
Author of the Divine Legation of Moses. I his was oc¬
casioned by Dr Lowth’s having clearly, though indirectly,
pointed at Dr Brown as one of the extravagant adulators
and defenders of Bishop Warburton. Besides these works,
Dr Brown published a poem on Liberty, and two or three
anonymous pamphlets. At the end of several ot his latter
writings he advertised his design of publishing Christian
Principles of Legislation; but he was prevented from exe¬
cuting it by his unhappy death. He put a period to his '
life on the 23d of September 1766, in the fifty-first year of
his age, by cutting the jugular vein with a razor. Such
was the end of this ingenious writer ; but the manner of
it, when some previous circumstances of his life are un¬
derstood, will cast no stain on his character. He had a
tendency to insanity in his constitution ; and, from his
early life, had been subject at times to some disorder in
his brain, at least to melancholy in its excess.
Brown, Simon, a dissenting minister, whose uncommon
talents and singular misfortunes justly entitle him to a
place in this work, was born at Shepton Mallet, in Somer¬
setshire, 1680. Grounded and'excelling in grammatical
learning, he early became qualified for the ministry, and
actually began to preach before he was twenty. He was
first called to be a pastor at Portsmouth, and afterwards
removed to the Old Jewry, where he was admired and es¬
teemed for a number of years. But the death of his wife
and only son, which happened in 1723, affected him so as
to deprive him of his reason; and he became from that
time lost to himself, to his family, and to the world.
His congregation at the Old Jewry, in expectation of his
recovery, delayed for some time to fill his office; but at
length all hopes were over, when Mr Samuel Chandler was
appointed to succeed him in 1725. ibis double misfor¬
tune affected him at first in a manner little different from
distraction, but afterwards sunk him into a settled melan¬
choly. He quitted the duties of his function, and would
not be persuaded to join in any act of worship, public
or private. Some time after his secession from the Old
Jewry he retired to Shepton Mallet, his native place ; and
though in his retirement he was perpetually contending
that his powers of reason and imagination were gone, yet
he was as constantly exerting both with much activity
and vigour. He amused himself sometimes with translat-
ing parts of the ancient Greek and Latin poets into Eng¬
lish verse, and he composed little pieces for the use of chil¬
dren ; an English Grammar and Spelling Book ; an Ab¬
stract of the Scripture History, and a Collection of Fables,
both in metre ; and with much learning he brought toge¬
ther in a short compass all the Themata of the Greek and
Latin tongues, and also compiled a Dictionary to each of
those works, in order to render the learning of both these
languages more easy and compendious. Of these per¬
formances none have been made public. But what show¬
ed the strength and vigour of his understanding, whde he
was daily bemoaning the loss of it, were the works com¬
posed during the two last years of his life, in defence o
Christianity, against Woolston and Tindal. He wrote an
answer to Woolston’s fifth Discourse on the Miracles of
our Saviour, entitled a fit Rebuke for a ludicrous Inhaei;
with a preface concerning the prosecution of such writers
by the civil power. His book against Tindal was called
a" Defence of the Religion of Nature and the Christian
Revelation, against the defective account of the one and
the exceptions against the other, in a book entitled Chris¬
tianity as old as the Creation. Mr Brown survived the
publication of this last work a very short time. A con-
plication of distempers, contracted by his sedentary
(for he could not be prevailed on to refresh himself w
air and exercise) brought on a mortification, which pui
period to his labours towards the close of the year •
Besides the two pieces above mentioned, and befor
became ill, he had published some single .s?rmonS’
gether with a Collection of Hymns and Spiritual 8
He left several daughters. ^ v waS
Brown, Isaac Hawkins, an ingenious English P°et’ t
born at Burton-upon-Trent, in Staffordshire, on jc
January 1705-6, of which place his father was the min
rmvn.
V*
\-A C
ofhis time to the muses than to the law. Soon after his
arrival there he wrote a poem on Design and Beauty ^aillbridge poets,
which he addressed to Mr Highmore the painter, for whom PhvmV ’ 1 u6 foufcler of the Brunonian Theory of
he had a great friendship. Several otlJr poetical ptce“ rislfof Bunet"" thf {ear 1J35 °r 1736’ in the Pa‘
were written here, and particularly his Pipe of Tobacco beimr ;n fln ^ f • Berwickshire, Scotland. His parents
This piece is in imitation of Cibber, Ambrose Phillins' he 11 ^ ^ ^ °f Ilfe’ whiIe he was very young
Thomson, Young, Pope, and Swift, who were then all living’ hn ' &S t0 a weaver’ the drudgery of
and is reckoned oni of the ntost pleasing and popuhr Sf cultivathm ^em^ddlS °r d*scoverinS ahilifies which
his performances. In 1744 he married the daughter of tion his desHnT? d iaise ,him t0,a moreconspicuoussta-
DrTrimnell, archdeacon of Leicester. hparl , ^ wa« changed, and he was placed at
the grammar school of Dunse. Here he soon distinguish¬
ed himself, and gave abundant proofs, by his ardour and
uccess m the studies which occupied his attention, that
he was worthy of being encouraged in literary pursuits.
is parents belonged to that body of dissenters in Scot¬
land called Seceders, Flattered with the rapid and suc¬
cessful progress which their son had begun to make in the
acquisition of the Latin language, they destined him to
the ministerial office among their own sect. With this
view his education was for some time directed. But an
" . • . . — LUC uaugnier or
Dr Irimnell, archdeacon of Leicester. He was chosen twice
to serve in parliament, first in 1744, and afterwards in
1748; both times for the borough of Wenlock in Shrop¬
shire, near which place he possessed a considerable estate
which came from his maternal grandfather, Isaac Haw¬
kins, Esq. In 1754 he published what has been deemed
his capital work, Be Animi Immortalitate, in two books ;
in which, besides a most judicious choice of matter and'
arrangement, he is thought to have shown himself not a
servile but happy imitator of Lucretius and Virgil. The
universal applause and popularity of this noem nrodur-pd r,nn\Aa ^ e^u.c.*} was for some time directed. But an
several English translations of it in a very short time • the and the 1 c "^i °nCe renounce t,lis P^n
best of which is that by Soame Jenyns Esq nZted in 2 , ’ 6 t6netS of,whlch’ a^ will appear from this
his Miscellanies. Mr Brown^tended to hareP added a SenT f-f extrfmely So early as his thir-
third part, but went no farther than to leave a fragment ed unn^tl’ W V 6 at Srarn™ar school, he was prevail-
This excellent person died, after a lingering illness in 1760* tane JTn n0t wlUlout showing considerable reluc-
aged fifty-five. In 1768 Hawkins BroT Fsrohl Id ihe Z a Tet'ng °f S^nod’ one of the e“lesi-
public with an elegant edition of ir?;the?;s noegms in COm,tS °f S^tlant^ whi.ch was heId in the church of
large octavo ; to which is prefixed a print of the author hellnw 1 11S’ the estimatlon of the Part>' t0 which he
from a painting of Mr Highmore engraved bv Havpnpi ’ on»cd> was a transgression which could not be passed
Brown, Sil William, anTed ZZ TlTtTl" Y°Ung Bl'own was called ^nto ap-
ouswriter, was settledoriginallvit T vnn in Nm-fnll i "i ^.e ,e Ble session, and required either to submit to
he published a iranslZ of hr cCry? Elemeo of ^ SUflT a Se"te"« °f expulsion.
SfiV';”1-?"" •SJttSxa': BSSSSSSSTtS
^rsit^rth:LLpX^hrh^^oportir; ‘'r
, - — particular Account of Micro¬
scopes and Telescopes, from Mr Huygens, with the dis¬
coveries made in Catoptrics and Dioptrics. Having ac-
qun-ed, a competence by his profession, he removed to
uiueens Square, Ormond Street, London, where he resid¬
ed till lus death. By his lady, who died in 1763, he had
one daughter, grandmother to Sir Martin Browne Folkes,
Daronet. A great number of lively essays, both in prose
c ^erse, the production of his pen, were printed and
Slrtinr aiPonS friends. The active part taken by
. llaai Brown in the contest with the licentiates, 1768,
7/^aSIined J1S being introduced by Mr Foote in his Devil
'■ n wo sticks. Upon Foote’s exact representation of
After this period Brown was for some time engaged as
a private tutor in a gentleman’s family in the country; and
here, and as an assistant in the grammar school of Dunse,
he remained till about his twentieth year, when he went
to Edinburgh, and. having passed through the previous
necessary studies in the classes of philosophy, entered
himself as a student of divinity in the university. His
classical knowledge was now of real advantage to him ; for
while he resided in Edinburgh pursuing the plan of his
studies, he was able to support himself by private teach¬
ing. In this situation he continued for some time, after
which he resumed his former labours as assistant in the
him, with hindentiXl 8 ^^presentation of grammar school of Dunse for a year, and returned to Edin-
stiffly applied o his III g andf <?°at’ tal1 ?gure’ and ^.ass burSh about the year 1759, when he finally renounced the
him on havwln i!•/ Sen hl? ! Card complimenting study of theology, and commenced that of physic.
^gotten his muff 6p^4. on8-.during Bis. medical studies, he supported himself by
oatured method of i-p UIC sent bim bl® mvn. This good- his own exertions. He was employed in giving private
to frequent thp ,Se,n isarmed Foote. He used instructions to students who wished to acquire the habit
Queen So Ha rp pi ln^a a at the ladies boarding-school, of expressing themselves with facility and correctness in
and fond of tfp Gre ^ as a neighbour, a good-natured man, the Latin language, and to be thus prepared for the exa-
nitary of thp pi C01?1BaaT °t spi ightly young folks. A dig- minations which were conducted in that language, for me¬
ter dance and ft r bG1^ ther.e PnG day t0 Se^ his dauSh- dicaI degrees in the university. For this employment, as
told him ftp ftpi;~.n„ tbls aTPnSbt figure, stationed there, well as for translating inaugural dissertations into the same
language, the previous studies and acquirements of Brown
peculiarly fitted him. Thus occupied, he soon recom¬
mended himself to the notice of several of the professors,
and particularly to that of Dr Cullen, whose patronage
I, c, cinu nncung i
inlH be bcbeved he was Hermippus redivivus, who lived
I et w Z PUfMarum.. When he lived at Lynn, a pamph-
lis hni Wr!tten aSamst him, which he nailed up against
house door. At the age of eighty, on St Luke’s day
598
Brown.
B R O
and friendship he obtained in an eminent degree. The
doctor not only employed him as a private tutor in his own
family, but was extremely assiduous in recommending him
to others. This situation afforded him an excellent op¬
portunity of improving in medical studies by the conver¬
sation of that celebrated professor, and by the permission
which was granted him of delivering to private pupils
illustrations of the doctor’s public lectures. In this way
Mr Brown began to have full employment, and prospe¬
rity seemed to smile upon him. It was about this time
that he married the daughter of a respectable. trades¬
man in Edinburgh, and opened a house for boarding stu¬
dents. His house was soon filled with boarders, who were
attracted by the hope of great benefit from his instruc¬
tions and conversation. But here it soon appeared that
he was unfit for the management of such concerns. By
want of economy, or by misconduct, his affairs were soon
areally embarrassed, and at last terminated in total bank¬
ruptcy. Soured and irritated by this misfortune, and still
more so, it is probable, by being disappointed of one of
the medical chairs in the university, which he supposed
had been occasioned by the interference of Dr Cullen, he
quarrelled with his friend and patron, and from that mo¬
ment set himself up as a keen opponent of his doctrines.
It was in the year 1780 that the first edition of his
Elementa Medicince appeared. This work is a compen¬
dium of his opinions, which he continued for several years
to illustrate by a course of public lectures. And as he
now proposed to prosecute the profession of medicine by
private practice and public instruction, it was found ne¬
cessary to have a medical degree, as a testimony to the
world of his qualifications. Having opposed and quarrel¬
led with all the professors in the University of Edinburgh,
there was little hope of his succeeding there; and he was
therefore induced to make an excursion to St Andrews,
when he took the degree of M. D.
But the terms on which Dr Brown lived with his me¬
dical brethren, and the unfortunate habits which were
daily gathering strength, precluded him from all rational
hopes of success, either as a private practitioner or a public
teacher. He therefore turned his thoughts to London,
and removed to that metropolis in the year 1786. Pre¬
vious to 1788 he had delivered one course of lectures ; for
in October of this year he was cut off by a fit of apoplexy,
on the day after he had delivered his introductory lecture
to a second course. He died in the fifty-third year of
his age.
Dr Brown possessed great vigour of mind, and seems
to have been capable of considerable application. His
talents, had they been directed to more practical and more
useful objects, would have probably raised him to more
eminent distinction, and rendered him a more valuable
member of society. The style of his Elementa is harsh
and unpolished. His meaning is often dark and ambigu¬
ous. But perhaps this want of perspicuity is as much
owing to the subjects which he treated, the principles of
which are far from being settled, as to the obscurity of his
expression. He attempted an unbeaten path ; it is not
wonderful that he was often bewildered.
Brown, William Laurence., born at Utrecht on the 7th
of January 1755, was the son of the Rev. William Brown,
minister of the English church in that city, and of his
wife Janet Ogilvie, daughter of the Rev. George Ogilvie,
minister of Kirriemuir. The father, having been appoint¬
ed professor of ecclesiastical history in the university of
St Andrews, returned to his native country in the year
1757; and the son was in due time sent to the grammar
school, but his early education was chiefly of a more do¬
mestic nature. The professor was regarded as a great
proficient in Latin literature, and his public lectures were
B R O
partly delivered in that language. At the early age, we I wn.
may safely say at the too early age, of twelve, his son be- ^ -v
came a student in the university. It is still a prevalent
error in the same country, to send boys to college at a
period of life when they are scarcely prepared for a high
form in a well-appointed grammar school; and till we de¬
part from this common practice, we shall have too much
reason to regret the condition of our public seminaries of
learning. Brown was however a youth of superior talents,
and he possessed some domestic advantages beyond the
ordinary lot. The branches of study to which he chiefly
devoted his attention were classical literature, logic, and j
ethics ; and notwithstanding his premature age, he passed !
through his academical course writh no small distinction.
Of the prizes distributed by the chancellor of that period,
the earl of Kinnoull, he obtained a greater number than fell
to the share of any other competitor. I wo of his college
friends were William Thomson, LL. D., well knovyn in the
literary world, and Mr Gray, who afterwards resided in a
diplomatic capacity at some of the courts of Germany.
When he was of five years standing, he became a student
of divinity; and after a further residence of two years,
namely in 1774, he removed to the university of Utrecht,
where he not only prosecuted the study of theology, but
likewise of the civil law. Leyden and Utrecht had long
been eminently distinguished as schools of jurisprudence;
and Mr Brown, whose views were liberal and enlarged,
perceived the various advantages which a knowledge ol
the Roman law confers, not merely upon the professional
lawyer, but even upon the classical scholar, from this
study he frequently declared that he had derived essen¬
tial benefit. . ,
His uncle, Dr Robert Brown, had succeeded as minis¬
ter of the English church at Utrecht; and after his de¬
cease, which took place in the year 17/ /, the magistrates
of that city, in compliance with the general wishes of the
congregation, offered the vacant charge to his young re¬
lation. This invitation he finally accepted, though not
without some degree of reluctance. Alter having spent
nearly a year in Scotland, where he was licensed and or¬
dained by the presbytery of St Andrews, he was admitted
minister of the English church at Utrecht in the month
of March 1778. His congregation was highly respectable,
but at the same time was far from being numerous, and
consequently his sphere of professional utility was ver)
circumscribed. We are informed that although the con¬
gregation seldom exceeded forty persons, his preparation
for the pulpit was not less assiduous than at Aberdeen,
where he had to address a larger audience ; for he was ot
opinion that the minister of the gospel who cannot hm.,
in the dignity and importance of his office, and in his at¬
tachment to the spiritual interests of his flock, however
small, a stimulus to exertion sufficiently powerful, win
never find it in what is termed a wider field, or what is
considered as a more important station. As it was only
incumbent upon him to preach once every Sunday, ne
possessed a sufficient degree of literary leisure; and he in¬
creased his income as well as his avocations by receiving
pupils into his house. He was intrusted with the e uca
tion of many young men of rank and fortune; nox 131 s
perfluous to mention that one of these was the presen
Lord Dacre, of whom he has spoken in very favoura
terms. His character and conduct were such as co
not fail to secure the cordial attachment ot his own 1
flock: he gradually extended his acquaintance amo g
individuals distinguished by their talents and learning,
well as by their station and influence; and he enia g
his sphere of knowledge and observation by various
cursions in France, Germany, and Switzerlan •
28th of May 1786, he married his own cousin, Anne ^
vn.
B R O
beth Brown, the daughter of his immediate predecessor.
This excellent woman, who was likewise a native of Hol¬
land, became the mother of five sons and four daughters,
and all of them still survive.
At an early period of his life he had begun to distin¬
guish himself by his superior talents, and by his superior
proficiency in various branches of knowledge. The cura¬
tors of the Stolpian Legacy at Leyden, appropriated to
the encouragement of theological learning, having in the
year 1783 proposed as the subject of their annual prize
that most difficult of all questions, the origin of evil, he
appeared in the list of twenty-five competitors. The first
prize was awarded to Joseph Paap de Fagoras, a learned
Hungarian ; but the second honour, namely, that of pub¬
lication at the expense of the trust, was adjudged to the
dissertation of Mr Brown. It was accordingly printed
among the memoirs of the society, under the title of
(< Disputatio de babrica Mundi, in quo Mala insunt, Na¬
turae Dei perfectissimae baud repugnante.” Other honours
awaited him about the same period. He had formerly taken
the degree of A. M. at St Andrews, and in 1784 the same
university created him D. D. On three different occasions
he obtained the medals awarded by the Teylerian Society
at Haarlem for the best compositions in Latin, Dutch,
French, or English, on certain prescribed subjects. His
essay on scepticism obtained the gold medal in 1786, his
dissertation on the immortality of the soul the silver me¬
dal in 1787, and his essay on the natural equality of men
the silver medal in 1792. The dissertation, which was
written in Latin, has never been printed, but the two Eno--
hsh essays were in due time given to the public. “ An
Essay on the Folly of Scepticism, the Absurdity of Dog¬
matizing on Religious Subjects, and the proper Medium
to be observed between these two extremes.” Lond.
1788, 8vo. “ An Essay on the natural Equality of Men,
the Rights that result from it, and the Duties which it
imposes. Edinb. 1793, 8vo. The latter work, which
*a.s most successful of all his publications, was re-
printed at London in the course of the following year.
Many of us are old enough to remember the political and
intellectual fermentation of that eventful period, when the
wildest reveries of one class of men wrere opposed by the
superannuated bigotry of another. Dr Brown’s work, al¬
though it evinces sufficient liberality, is at the same time
sober and discriminating: it was considered as an able and
a seasonable discussion of topics which had been so eo-re-
giously perverted; it even attracted the attention of^the
British government, and had no small influence in prepar¬
ing the way for his subsequent preferment.
Before this period he had been appointed to a profes¬
sorship m the university of Utrecht. He had for some
time been involved in considerable difficulties, in conse¬
quence of the civil commotions which arose between the
partizans of the house of Nassau and those who delighted
in the name of patriots. He was led to regard the autho-
n yand influence of the prince as the best security against
f ‘Manny of the aristocracy, and he accordingly became
a ecided adherent of the Orange party.1 Although he
was not exposed to any direct molestation on account of
us political opinions and connexions, yet during the tem¬
porary triumph of the opposite party, he found himself
P need in a situation both precarious and harassing. In
B R O
599
A! PeC atl0\°f remo.vlng himself beyond their power, Brown,
hb; fSfn t0,cast a?™118 ghince towards the land of
ns fathers; put after he had repaired to London with the
view of obtaining some literary or ecclesiastical appoint¬
ment in Scotland, the armed interposition of the Prussians
occasioned a sudden change in the government of Hol¬
land. The friends of Dr Brown had now regained their
ascendency, and were anxious to testify their approba¬
tion of his public conduct and personal merit: the states
and the magistrates of Utrecht jointly instituted a pro-
essorship of moral philosophy and ecclesiastical history,
and appointed him to this new office. The lectures were
to be delivered in the Latin language; and two courses,
to be continued during a session of nearly eight months,
were to be commenced after an interval of not many
weeks. So great an effort was very prejudicial to his
health, and laid the foundation of complaints by which he
was frequently harassed during the remainder of his life.
On entering upon the duties of his office, he pronounced
an inaugural oration, which was immediately published
under the title of “ Oratio de Religionis et Philosophiae
Societate et Concordia maxime salutari.” Traj. ad Rhen.
1788, 4to. Two years afterwards he was nominated rec¬
tor of the university; and on depositing his temporary
igmty, he pronounced an “ Oratio de Imaginatione, in
Vitae Institutione, regunda.” Traj. ad Rhen. 1790, 4to.
During this interval he had been offered the Greek pro¬
fessorship at St Andrews; but the curators of the uni¬
versity of Utrecht induced him, by a promise of augment-
ing his salary, to retain a situation in which he had acquit-
ted himself with eminent ability. To his other offices
was now added the professorship of the law of nature; a
blanch of study to which a great degree of attention had
long been devoted in the universities of Holland and Ger¬
many. It has usually been conjoined with the law of na¬
tions, and taught by members of the law faculty; but
we have already seen that the previous studies of Dr
Brown had been partly juridical, and indeed this depart¬
ment is most intimately connected v/ith ethics. By the
professors of moral philosophy in the Scotish universities,
particularly by Dr Hutcheson, and his predecessor Mr
Carmichael, the law of nature was at one period regularly
discussed as an essential part of their course; nor were
the general principles of law excluded from the ethical
course of a more recent professor of eminence, the late
Dr Ferguson.
Dr Brown resided at Utrecht, and discharged his pub¬
lic duties with credit and reputation, till the war which
followed the French revolution finally drove him from the
place of his nativity. After a long interval of painful
anxiety and suspense, he was at length impelled, by the
rapid approach of the invading army, to seek a place of
refuge. In the course of a very severe winter, he em¬
barked in the month of January 1795, and with his wife
and five children, together with some other relations,
quitted the coast of Holland in an open boat, and landed
in England after a stormy passage. Having proceeded
to London, he experienced such a reception as wras due
to his literary talents and moral worth. During the late
Lord Auckland’s embassy at the Hague, he had formed
more than a common acquaintance with that nobleman,
who was himself a person of literature, and a judge of li-
I rpi t
et rei f0 ltlca^ sentiments were adopted by the most eminent scholars of that period. “ Ita enim judicabat [Hemsterhusiusl,
quieos °I)US e®sf gubernatore, qui totum ejus corpus curaret atque ad consensum dirigeret, et civibus quasi tribuno plebis,
optima in<a>rSfUS pat™!orum dominationem ac libidinem tueretur. Item et Ituhnkenius et Valckenarius judicabant. Postea, quum
eludi vide * 'll a Pr2esi<fiaque libertatis a publico ad privatum commodum traduci, et bello Britannico imperia ac successus praevaricando
iuriam •> utLer<:lue partes optimatum probare cceperunt, ut solas vindices glorias ac prosperitatis Batavee adversus hostilem in-
• t, W yttenbachii Vi/a Davidis Ruhnkerin: Opuscula, tom. L p. 695. Lugd. Bat. 1821, 2 tom. 8vo.)
600 B R O
Brown, terary merit: his Principles of Penal Law are a respect-
able monument of his intellectual attainments, and he
published other works of a more temporary nature. Hav¬
ing conceived a very favourable opinion of the professor,
he had some years before recommended him to the notice
of Dr Moore, archbishop of Canterbury; and it was to
their united influence that he was chiefly indebted for
the honourable station in which he terminated his long
and useful life. A distant prospect of succeeding to the
divinity chair at Aberdeen had presented itself at a much
earlier period. Dr Campbell, who was bending beneath
the load of years, had'expressed a wish to resign his
offices. The proposal of a pension, which his public ser¬
vices had well earned, and the nomination of a successor
with whose acquirements he was duly acquainted, now
led to the completion of such an arrangement as he en¬
tirely approved: he first resigned the professorship of
divinity, and in the summer of 1795 the magistrates of
Aberdeen presented Dr Brown to that chair; the office
of principal of Marischal College having been vacated
soon afterwards, he received a presentation from the
crown, and entered upon his new functions at the com¬
mencement of the ensuing session. With his distinguished
predecessor he formed a most cordial friendship, which
however was suspended by the feeble thread of a very
lengthened life. Dr Campbell died in the ensuing month
of April, and Dr Brown honoured his memory by a funeral
sermon, which was immediately printed. Aberd. 1796,
8vo. This venerable person, long the chief ornament of
the university, was a man of great acuteness and perspi¬
cacity, united with accurate and extensive learning: his
Philosophy of Rhetoric is a work of very singular merit,
and the value of his theological writings has been uni¬
versally acknowledged. Dr Beattie, an elegant and ac¬
complished writer of verse as well as prose, was still a
member of the same college; and to these conspicuous
names we must add that of Dr Hamilton, professor of
mathematics, whose Inquiry into the National Debt first
exposed the futility and delusion of the sinking fund.
This new professorship imposed upon him a very serious
task. He composed, as we are informed, a course of theo¬
logical lectures, extending over five sessions. After a re¬
view of the different systems of religion, those laying claim
to a divine origin, he discussed most amply the evidences
and doctrines of natural religion. He then proceeded to the
evidences of revealed religion, of which he gave a very lull
and learned view. The Christian scheme formed the next
subject of an enquiry, in which the peculiar doctrines of
Christianity were very extensively unfolded. Christian
ethics were also explained; and it formed part of his ori¬
ginal plan to treat of all the great controversies that have
agitated the religious world. This portion of the course
was not however completed.—It is observable that, in
this extensive outline, no department is allotted to biblical
literature, which in the Scotish universities has been too
much neglected. But in King’s College two successive
professors of the same family assigned a particular part
of their academical course to this very important subject;
and the younger of them, Dr Gilbert Gerard, further re¬
commended the study by the publication of his Institutes of
Biblical Criticism, printed at Edinburgh in the year 1808.
Dr Brown soon became a very conspicuous member of
the church of Scotland. He was an impressive preacher,
a prompt and forcible speaker, and some of his appear¬
ances in the general assembly produced a powerful effect.
The manly temperament of his mind rendered him inca¬
pable of cowering to mere rank and station; and his first
aspect, with the first sound of his voice, conveyed to those
who saw and heard him the idea that he was no ordinary
person. His speech on the case of Dr Arnot, delivered
B R O
in the first assembly of which he was a member, classed i n
him among the best public speakers of the time. It was ^ -v
printed in a separate form, under the title of “ Substance
of a Speech delivered in the General Assembly of the
Church of Scotland, on Wednesday the 28th of May 1800,
on the Question respecting the Settlement, at Kingsbarns,
of the Rev. Dr Robert Arnot, Professor of Divinity in St
Mary’s College, St Andrews.” Edinb. 1800, 8vo. His
public opposition to pluralities in the church has very fre¬
quently been represented as inconsistent with his private
practice ; but this inconsistency was less real than appa¬
rent. The office of principal, though honourable, was not
very lucrative : for a considerable time it had generally
been united with the professorship of divinity; but in
one instance it was held by a layman, Dr Blackwell, the
learned professor of Greek. And for the same reason,
the want of an adequate endowment, the divinity profes¬
sorship had been conjoined with the charge of a minister
of the West Church ; but the professor was only bound to
preach alternately with his colleague, and was exempted
from all the other routine of parochial duties. Most of
the other preferments subsequently bestowed upon him
were altogether unconnected with professional exertion.
For several years he regularly attended the assembly,
and, steadily adhering to the popular party, took a con¬
spicuous share in its public deliberations ; but it has been
truly remarked that although he could be roused to the
most lively interest in general questions, he felt no incli¬
nation to learn or to practise the tactics of a leader in the
ecclesiastical courts. The discharge of his academical
and pastoral duties was better adapted to his taste and
disposition. These duties he discharged with much zeal
and ability ; and his ordinary habits being sedentary and
studious, he found sufficient leisure for his favourite pur¬
suits of literature. Together with genuine piety and theo¬
logical knowledge, he was particularly anxious to dissemi¬
nate a taste for classical learning. It was his practice to
deliver a Latin oration to the professors and students of
his college at the commencement of each session; and he
bestowed particular attention on the style of the Latin
exercises read in the divinity hall.
Of the energy of his pulpit discourses he has left an
adequate specimen in his printed volume of Sermons.
Edinb. 1803, 8vo. But the most serious of his intellectual
efforts was the essay which obtained Burnet’s first prize,
amounting to L.1250. The competitors were about fifty
in number ; and the judges were Dr Gerard, professor of
divinity, Dr Glennie, professor of moral philosophy, and
Dr Hamilton, professor of mathematics. The second
prize, amounting to L.400, was awarded to Dr Sumner,
the present bishop of Chester. Dr Brown’s work was
published under the title of “ An Essay on the Existence
of a Supreme Creator,” &c. Aberd. 1816, 2 vols. 8vo.
The last considerable work which he committed to the
press was “ A comparative View of Christianity, and of
the other Forms of Religion which have existed, and still
exist, in the World, particularly with regard to their moral
Tendency.” Edinb. 1826, 2 vols. 8vo. This is a produc¬
tion of varied learning and of solid merit, but being the
result of mature thought, and being written in a sober and
manly style, it was less calculated to attract the mobility
of readers ; for there is a fashion in theology as well as in
novels.
In the year 1800 Dr Brown had been appointed chaplain
in ordinary to his majesty, and in 1804 dean of the chapel
royal, and of the most ancient and most noble onjr,°
the Thistle. He was last of all appointed to read t e
Gordon lecture in Marischal College, and he
his inaugural discourse on the 22d of November 1825.
was published under the title of a “ Lecture introductory
B R O
own. to the Course of Practical Religion, instituted by the Will
r-' of John Gordon, Esq. of Murtle.” Aberd. 18^6 8vo
All his publications have not yet been enumerated.
Before he quitted Utrecht, he had published a poem en¬
titled “An Essay on Sensibilityand at a more recent
period he sent to the press “ Philemon, or the Progress of
Virtue; a Poem. Edinb. 1809, 2 vols. 8vo. Beside the
works which we have mentioned, he printed several de¬
tached sermons, and likewise the following tracts An
Examination of the Causes and Conduct of the present
W ar with France, and of the most effectual Means of ob¬
taining a speedy, a secure, and an honourable Peace • to¬
gether with some Observations on the late Negociations
atA Ll.s,^ Lond- 1798, 8vo. This pamphlet was publish¬
ed without the author s name. Letters to the Rev. Dr
«nnCii;?1 °f ^ ColleSe’ St Andrews.
Aberd. 1801, 8vo. Remarks on certain Passages of “ An
Examination of Mr Dugald Stewart’s Pamphlet, by one
of the Ministers of Edinburgh relative to subjects near-
ly connected with the Interests of Religion and Learning.
Aberd. ISOO, 8vo. A Letter to George Hill, D. D. Prin-
cipal of St Mary’s College, St Andrews; occasioned by
the publication of the Substance of his Speech in the Ge-
nera^ Assembly, May 23, 1807. Edinb. 1807, 8vo. No-
bihssimi Vin, Georgn Marchionis de Huntly, Domini de
Gordon, Provinciae Aberdonensis Praefecti Regii, Acade-
mise Manschallanae Cancellarii, xxiid° Decembris die an-
no Christ! M.Dccc.xvt0 inaugurandi Formula atque Modus.
Aberdomae, 1816, 4to. Librorum Societas ; Carmen, re-
citatum m Comitns Academicis quae prima post Ferias
asstivas an. m.dccc.xxix. habebantur. Aberd. 1830, 8vo.
Although his health had never been robust, and he
reached a very advanced period of life, he retained his
mental faculties till the day of his death; and his disso¬
lution was rather occasioned by the gradual decay of his
bodily frame, than by any acute suffering. For two years
his strength had imperceptibly declined; and although
the decline became rapid about a week before his decease,
yet he did not relinquish his usual employments. Redu-
ced as he was to extreme weakness, he wrote part of a
letter to two of his sons on the very last day of his mortal
risSr 'll ° 11Si th!rd SOn’ the Greek Processor in Ma-
ischal College, he dictated a few sentences within six
ouis of his decease. Having been assisted to move from
s bed-chamber to the parlour, he continued till midnight
dpvnf; S0C1fty of hls. family: after joining in their domestic
devotions, he was with much difficulty removed to his bed;
he then slept quietly for three hours, and having repeat-
brpnthP°i k T a C0°i and intelIigible manner, he calmly
readied his last at four in the morning. So gently was
mark tfrk °f kfe .extinSuished> that his family did not
bSn the Precise time- He died on the eleventh of May
SnlK ?ear 0f h.is aSe- Jt has been
of a n ^ stated that the regrets of his fellow-citizens, and
a numerous circ e of friends in various parts of the king-
eauivnpJwP,v!d t0 !'? ^haracter the most affecting and un-
thnco i ‘‘h11!6 which can be offered to the memory of
ZL A h?Ve neither lived unnoticed nor died unho¬
of Min' Cannot refrain from addin& in the words
et san^C1U* Fe IX’ “ Nec. immerito discedens vir eximius
us, immensum sui desiderium nobis reliquit.”
hVpnt r°^n was of the middle size, and had a very intel-
eant cn °UatenanJcf-. had been much accustomed to ele-
in a pp^!?7’ and h,1S manners were easJ and polished, but,
of the '?iSeaSe’ he never could be initiated in the ways
and sn i^ok^: i Possessed an unusual singleness of heart,
the human11^ a reSard for wllat is upright and manly in
his caution ‘j laracter> that he not unfrequently displayed
not withn 688 Pj0minently than his honesty. He was
vol. yU considerable warmth of temper, but at the
B R o
601
aXur'TncUntCTsiTof fee'lfn6’ a"d ge!!0r0as '• nor is Brown,
quickness of diS'n^d ^
hs^rar’eSEeT^VparZurh mlT ha,f 0"
decent share of respectability. His talents and ^pa V^y
are not unknow n to the public; but Hs warmth ifX®
tion h,s rectitude of purpose, and his fervour of piety are
best known to those who had frequent opportunities of
eing um in the circle of his own iamily, or in the house
learninf “ U"USUal olassS
wilh iveral of the" a‘ very familiar acquaintance
w several of the modern languages. Latin and French
study°„f elhil^°k? ""‘i great facility- His successive
study of ethics, jurisprudence, and theology, had habitn
ated his mind with the most important topics of specut
tion, relating to the present condition of man andho his
future destiny. His political sentiments were Iffieml and
expansive not cautiously circumscribed by one party-dr-
C°,dIy 1,mited t0 one sma11 sPot of earth,^u/con-
mpCtfd Zlth aident asPlratl0ns after the general improve¬
ment and happiness of the human race. The liberahty of
encf60^1? Tm°ns vWas ?videly removed from indiffer¬
ence. His leading m divinity had been very extensive-
he was well acquainted with the works of British and £
eign theologians, particularly of those who wrote in the
Latin language during the seventeenth century. In his
more eluborate publications he evinces no mean portion of
eudition, ingenuity, and judgment; but the intellectual
vigour and promptitude which he displayed in conversa-
t on were such as to impress many of his friends with a
still higher opinion of his capabilities than they derived
to°the publiche nUmer°US WOrks which he communicated
BkowN 7W, an emjnent metaphysician, was born
at Kirkmabreck, m the stewartry of Kirkcudbright, on the
9th of January 1788, and was the youngest son of the Rev
bamuel Brown, minister of the parish of Kirkmabreck, and
of Mary Smith, daughter of John Smith, Esq. of Wigton.
His father survived his birth only a short time, and he re¬
ceived the first rudiments of his education from his mother
In the first lesson he learned all the letters of the alphabet
and every succeeding step was equally remarkable. From
ns seventh till his fourteenth year he was placed, under the
protection of a maternal uncle, at different schools in the
neighbourhood of London, at all of which he distinguished
himself, and made great progress in classical literature.
Upon the death of his uncle in 1792, he returned to his
mothers house in Edinburgh, and entered as a student in
the university.
His attention was first directed to metaphysical sub-
jects by the elegmit and benevolent biographer of Burns,
Dr Luirie of Liverpool, to whom he was introduced in the
summer of 1793. About that time the first volume of Mr
otewart s Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind
was published. Dr Currie put a copy of the work into his
hands, and was struck not more with the warmth of admi¬
ration which the young philosopher expressed, than with the
acuteness he displayed in many of his remarks. The next
winter he attended Mr Stewart’s class ; and at the close of
one of the lectures of that celebrated philosopher, he went
up, though personally unknown, and modestly submitted
some difficulties which had occurred to him respecting one
of Mr Stewart’s theories. Mr Stewart listened to him
patiently, and, with a candour which did him infinite ho¬
nour, informed him that he had just received a communi¬
cation from the distinguished M. Prevost of Geneva, con¬
taining a similar objection. This proved the commence¬
ment of a friendship which Dr Brown continued to enjoy
till the time of his death. J J
4 G
602
B R O
Brown.
It has already been mentioned in one of the preliminary
dissertations to this work (p. 395), that at the age of nine¬
teen he took a part with others, some of whom became the
most memorable men of their time, in the foundation of a
private society in Edinburgh under the name of the Aca¬
demy of Physics. This society is interesting in the his¬
tory of letters, as having given rise to the publication of
the Edinburgh Review. Some articles in the early num¬
bers of that work were written by Dr Brown, and bear the
marks of his genius. . . „
In 1798 he published “ Observations on the Zoonomia
of Dr Darwin.” When it is considered that the greater
part of this work was written in his eighteenth year, it
may perhaps be regarded as the most remarkable of his
productions; and it may be doubted if, in the history of
philosophy, there is to be found any work exhibiting an
equal prematurity of talents and attainments. _ Those who
take an interest in tracing the progress of intellect will
find in it the germ of all his subsequent views in regard
to mind, and of those principles of philosophizing by which
he was guided in his future inquiries.
In 1803, after attending the usual course pursued by
medical students, he took his degree of doctor of medicine.
In the same year he brought out the first edition of his
poems, in two volumes. The greater number of the pieces
contained in them were written while he was at college.
They are of a very miscellaneous description, and ai e cei-
tainiy inferior to many of his subsequent compositions ;
at the same time they all exhibit marks of an original
mind, and of a singularly refined taste. . .
His next publication was an examination of the princi¬
ples of Mr Hume respecting causation. Though tins tract
was occasioned by a local controversy, it is entirely of an
abstract nature, and all reference to the circumstances
that led to the publication is studiously avoided. Its great
merits have been universally acknowledged. It was allud¬
ed to in the most flattering manner in the Edinburgh Re¬
view, in a very able article by Mr Horner ; Mr Stejart
also gave a valuable testimony as to its excellence; and bir
.lames Mackintosh has pronounced it the finest model in
mental philosophy since Berkeley and Hume. A second
edition, considerably enlarged, was published in 1S0G ; and
in 1818 it appeared in a third edition, with so many ad¬
ditions and alterations, as to constitute it almost-a new
work, under the title of “ An Inquiry into the Relation of
Cause and Effect.” - , , , i • i .
From the time when Dr Brown had taken his degree, he
continued for several years to practise as a physician in
Edinburgh. In 1806 he was associated in partnership
with the'kite Dr Gregory; and there was every prospect
of his attaining in due time the highest eminence in Ins
profession. But success as a physician was not sufficient
to satisfy his ambition. The discharge of his professional
duties was marked by that assiduous.tenderness of atten¬
tion which might have been expected from a disposition
so truly amiable ; but still philosophy was his passion, from
which he felt it as a misfortune that his duty should so
much estrange him. . , , . . ,
The period, however, at last arrived when he was to be
elevated to a situation suited to his tastes and habits, and
where his public duties corresponded with Ins inclinations.
Mr Stewart, in consequence of the gradual decline of his
health, being frequently prevented from attending to the
duties of his class, found it necessary to have recourse to
the assistance of some of his friends during his temporary
absence. He therefore applied to Dr Brown, who under¬
took the arduous task of supplying his place with lectuies
of his own composition. He first appeared in the inoia
philosophy class in the winter of 1808-9. At this time,
however, there was no great call for his exertions, as Mi
B R O
Stewart was soon able to resume his professional duties. Bro:
In the following winter he again presented himself as Mr
Stewart’s substitute, and by a succession of eloquent lec¬
tures during several weeks, he so decidedly established his
character, that when Mr Stewart signified a desire to have
Dr Brown united with him in the professorship, but little
opposition was made, and m 1810 he was appointed pro¬
fessor of moral philosophy in conjunction with Mr Stewart.
Immediately after his appointment he retired to the
country, where he remained till within a few weeks of the
meeting of the college ; judging that, with a constitution
not naturally strong, nothing was so important for his ap¬
proaching labours as a confirmed state of health and spirits.
For many years he had devoted his attention to the sci¬
ence of mind, and was intimately acquainted with the
subject; and, from the experience of the two preceding
winters, he had acquired sufficient confidence in his own
powers to be assured that he could prepare his lectures
upon the spur of the occasion. Accordingly, when the
college opened, except the lectures that were written dur¬
ing Mr Stewart’s absence, he had no other preparation in
writing. His exertions during the whole of the winter
were very great, and completely successful. The expec¬
tations that had been excited among his friends were more
than realized, and he secured the highest place in the re¬
spect and affections of his students.
For some years after his appointment to the moral phi¬
losophy chair, Dr Brown had little leisure for engaging in
any literary undertaking. Even the long summer vaca¬
tion he found to be no more than sufficient foi restoring
his energies for the exertions of the succeeding season.
By decrees, however, he became familiarised with the du¬
ties of his situation, and was enabled to indulge occasion¬
ally in other pursuits. In the summer of 1814 he brought
to a conclusion his “ Paradise of Coquettes, which he
published anonymously, and which met with a favourable
reception. In succeeding seasons he published various
other poetical works. .
Any notice of the life of Dr Brown would be incom¬
plete if it did not contain a reference to Ins mother, whom
he loved with a tenderness and reverence of affection that
formed a distinguishing feature of Ins character. Ims
excellent woman died in 1817. Her character is faith¬
fully delineated in the beautiful lines addressed to her
memory, prefixed to one of his poetical productions.
In the autumn of 1819, at a favourite retreat in the
neighbourhood of Dunkeld, he commenced Ins text-book
a work which he long intended to prepare for the benefit
of his students. At that time he was m excellent health ,
but towards the end of December of the same year
became indisposed, and after the recess he was in such a
state of weakness as to be unable for some time
his official duties. When he again met his class h
ture unfortunately happened to be one which he was neve^
able to deliver without being much moved, and from
manner in which he recited the very affecting in s fmm
Beattie’s Hermit, it was conceived by many that the^
tion he displayed arose from a foreboding o
proaching dissolution.
’Tis night, and the landscape is lovely 110
I mourn, but, ve woodlands, I mourn not to y >
For morn is approaching your charms to ith dew;
Perfumed with fresh fragrance, and glittering
Nor yet for the ravage of winter I mourn, .
Kind nature the embryo blossom shaU save.
But when shall spring visit the mouidermg ^
O when will it dawn on the night of the grave
This was the last lecture he ever delivered Having
From this period his health rapidly declined. ^
upon a former occasion derived great benefit Irom
B R O
nrae. voyage, he proceeded, by the advice of his medical atten-
W dants, to London, accompanied by his two sisters, with the
intention of removing, as soon as the season allowed, to a
milder climate. But all means of remedy were now too
late, and nothing could permanently retard the progress of
his disease. Day after day he became weaker.
During the whole period of his illness he was never
heard to utt6r a complaint. Gentle as he ever was, sick¬
ness and pain made him still more so.' His only anxiety
seemed to be the distress which his sufferings occasioned
to those around him. A few days after his arrival in
London he went to Brompton, where he died on the 2d of
April 1820. His remains were put into a leaden coffin,
and laid, according to his own request, in the church-yard
of his native parish, beside those of his father and mother.
Dr Brown was in height rather above the middle size!
The expression of his countenance was that of calm re¬
flection. _ His likeness is well preserved in a picture by
Watson in 1806. Among the more prominent features of
Dr Brown’s character may be enumerated the most per¬
fect gentleness, and kindness, and delicacy of mind, unit¬
ed with great independence of spirit, a truly British love
of liberty, and a most ardent desire for the diffusion of
knowledge, and virtue, and happiness among mankind. All
his habits were simple, temperate, studious, and domestic;
and he was remarkable for nothing more than his love of
home, and the happiness he shed around him there.
As a philosopher he was possessed in an eminent de¬
gree of that comprehensive energy which, according to his
own description, “ sees, through a long train of thought, a
distant conclusion, and separating at every stage the es¬
sential from the accessory circumstances, and gathering
and combining analogies as it proceeds, arrives at length at
a system of harmonious truth.” The predominating qua¬
lity of his intellectual character -was unquestionably the
power of analysis, in which he has had few equals. In all
his prose Dr Brown has shown great powers of eloquence.
His poetry has never been popular, though it contains
many passages of exquisite beauty. As a writer, simpli¬
city is the quality in which he is most deficient, and sub-
tilty that in which he most excels.
His character as a philosopher wdll chiefly rest upon his
lectures, which were published after his death. It would
be foreign to the object of the present sketch to give an
account of the principles of his philosophy, or to enter
upon a discussion of any of the questions that have been
agitated upon the subject. We shall merely observe that
the estimation in which his lectures are held by the pub¬
ic appears from the number of editions which, under all
the disadvantages of a posthumous publication, have been
called for; and his virtues as a man are almost universally
a owed to have been in beautiful accordance with his
talents as a philosopher.
An account of the life and writings of Dr Brown was
published in 1825, in 8vo, by the Rev. Dr Welsh, (w. w.)
l .“^OWNE, Sir Thomas, an eminent physician and ce-
.T^ted writer, was born at London on the 19th of October
o. Having studied at Winchester College, and after¬
wards at Oxford, he travelled through France and Italy;
and returning by the way of Holland, he took his degree of
doctor of physic at Leyden. In 1636 he settled at Nor¬
wich, and the year following was incorporated as doctor
0 physic at Oxford. His Religio Medici made a great
noise; and being translated into Latin, instantly spread
iroughout Lurope, and gained him a prodigious reputa-
lon. It was then translated into almost every language
ln mope. This book has been heavily censured by some
tV-d-g to infidelity, and even atheism; whilst others,
a 1 , much uoore reason, have applauded the piety, as well
8 16 Parts and learning, of the author. His Treatise on
B R O
603
Vulgar Errors was read with equal avidity; he also pub- Browne,
lished Hydnotaphia, or a Discourse of Sepulchral Urns '
lately found in Norfolk. His reputation in his profession
was equal to his fame for learning m other respects; and
therefore the college of pl/ysicians were pleased to take
JVm Into their number as an honorary member; and King
Charles II. coming to Norwich in his progress in 1671,
was pleased to knight him, with singular marks of favour
and respect. He died on his birthday in 1681, leaving
several manuscripts behind him, which were published
under the title of The Posthumous Works of the learned
oir I homas Browne, Knt. M. D.
Browne, Edward, the son of the former, physician to
King Charles II. and president of the Royal College of
London. He was born in the year 1642; and studied at
Cambridge, and afterwards at Merton College, Oxford.
He then travelled; and on his return published a brief
account of some travels in Hungary, Servia, Bulgaria,
Macedonia, Thessaly, Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola,
Iriuli, and other parts. He also published an account
of several travels through great part of Germany, and
joined his name to those of many other eminent men in
a translation of Plutarch’s Lives. He was acquainted
with Hebrew, was a critic in Greek, and no man of his
age wiote better Latin. High Dutch, Italian, French, and
other modern languages, he spoke and wrrote with as much
ease as his mother tongue. King Charles said of him, that
he was as learned as any of the college, and as well bred
as any at court. He died on the 27th August 1708.
Browne, William George. This eminent traveller
wms born on Great-Tower-Hill, London, on the 25th July
1768. His father was a respectable wine merchant, de¬
scended from a good family in Cumberland. His con¬
stitution being originally so weak as to require constant
attention, he was educated privately under Dr Whalley,
editor of Ben Jonson’s works, a man of considerable parts
and learning, who inspired him with a taste for study. At
seventeen he was sent to Oriel College, Oxford; and,
though he complained of the want of encouragement and
assistance, he there went through an extensive course of
classical reading, studying often from twelve to fifteen
hours a day. On leaving the university he hesitated for
some time between the three learned professions, but at
length determined to remain contented with the mode¬
rate competence left to him by his father, and applied him¬
self entirely to the pursuit of knowledge. He embarked
deeply in political questions, embracing with ardour the
popular cause. He republished some political tracts, among
which was part of Buchanan, lie Jure Regni apud Scotos,
and formed the plan of reprinting a regular series of such
writings. But the fame of Mr Bruce’s travels, and of the
first discoveries made by the African Association, inflam¬
ed his ardent mind, and he determined to devote himself
to the cause of discovery on that continent.
. Mr Browne left England at the close of 1791, and ar¬
rived at Alexandria in January 1792. He spent a few
months in visiting Siwah, the supposed site of the temple
of Jupiter Ammon; and employed the remainder of the
year in examining the whole of Egypt. In the spring of
1793 he visited Suez and Sinai, and in May set out for
Darfur. This was his most important journey, in which
he acquired a great variety of original information. He
endured much hardship, and was unable to effect his
purpose of returning by Abyssinia. He did not reach
Egypt till 1796, after which he spent a year in Syria,
and did not arrive in London till September 1798. In
1800 he published his travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria,
from the year 1792 to 1798, in one volume 4to. The work
was highly esteemed, and is classed by Major Rennell
among the first performances of the kind; but, from the
604
B R O
Brownists. abruptness and dryness of the style, it never became very
popular.
In 1800 Mr Brown again left England, and spent three
years in visiting Greece, some parts of Asia Minor, and
Sicily. He had made some progress in preparing for the
press an account of this journey, but gave up his inten¬
tion, for some reason unknown.
Mr Browne now spent some years in retirement, em¬
ployed in oriental studies, and showing indifference to
British objects and scenery, though he enjoyed greatly an
excursion into Ireland.
Tired of this inactivity, in 1812 he set out on a more
extensive journey than formerly, proposing to penetrate
to Samarcand, and survey the most interesting regions of
Central Asia. He spent the winter in Smyrna, and in the
spring of 1813 proceeded through Asia IVlinor and Arme-
. nia, made a short stay at Erzerum, and arrived on the first
of June at Tabriz, where he met with Sir Gore Ouseley.
About the end of the summer of 1813 he left Tabriz for
Teheran, intending to proceed thence into Tartary; but
unhappily he never reached that destination. Near the
banks of the Kizil-Ozan his party were attacked by ban¬
ditti, and, according to the report of the survivors, Mr
Browne was dragged to a short distance from the road,
where he was plundered and murdered. Suspicion at¬
tached to his companions, and even to the Persian govern¬
ment, but nothing occurred to confirm these surmises.
Some bones, believed to be his, were afterwards found and
interred near the grave of Thevenot, the celebrated French
traveller.
Mr Browne, in his person, was thin, rather above the
middle size, with a grave and pensive cast of countenance.
He entertained an extraordinary predilection for the man¬
ners and character of the orientals. Like them, he was
in general society silent, reserved, and even repulsive.
Even among his most intimate friends he would remain
long gloomy and reserved; but after indulging in a pipe
his eye brightened, and he related with great animation
the interesting scenes through which he had passed. His
disposition was friendly, liberal, and generous, and he was
distinguished by a strict regard to veracity. Under a cold
exterior he cherished an ardent desire to distinguish him¬
self by some memorable achievement, in pursuit of which
he was ready to brave danger and death.
His volume of travels in Africa has already been men¬
tioned. Mr Walpole, in the second volume of his Memoirs
relating to European and Asiatic Turkey (4to, 1820), has
published, from papers left by him, the account of his
journey in 1802 through Asia Minor to Antioch and Cy¬
prus; also Remarks written at Constantinople. No ac¬
count is preserved of his last journey, except what is con¬
tained in a letter to Mr Smithson Tennant.
BROWNISTS, a religious sect, which sprung out of that
of the Puritans towards the close of the sixteenth century.
Their leader, Robert Brown, who wrote divers books in their
behalf, was a man of good parts and some learning. He
wras born of a good family in Rutlandshire, and related to
the lord-treasurer Burghley. He had been educated at
Cambridge, but first published his notions, and began to
inveigh openly against the discipline and ceremonies of
the church, at Norwich in the year 1580; from which time
he underwent divers prosecutions from the bishops, inso¬
much that he boasted he had been committed to no less
than thirty-two prisons, in some of which he could not see
his hand at noon-day. At length, with his congregation,
he left the kingdom, and settled at Middleburg in Zea¬
land, where they obtained leave of the states to worship
God in their own way, and form a church according to
their own model; which they had not long done before
this handful of men, just delivered from the severities of
B R O
the bishops, began to differ among themselves, and crumble Brow?:
into so many parties, that Brown their pastor grew weary V—"y,
of his office; and, returning to England in 1589, he renoun¬
ced his principles of separation, was preferred to the rec¬
tory of a church in Northamptonshire, and died, after lead¬
ing a very idle and dissolute life, in 1630.
The revolt of Brown was attended with the dissolution
of the church at Middleburg; but the seeds of Brown-
ism which he had sown in England were so far from be¬
ing destroyed, that Sir Walter Raleigh, in a speech in 1592,
computes that no less than twenty thousand persons follow¬
ed it. The occasion of their separation was not any fault
they found with the faith, but only with the discipline and
form of government of the other churches in England.
They charged corruption equally on the Episcopal form
and on that of the Presbyterians, by consistories, classes,
and synods; nor would they join with any other reformed
church, because they were not assured of the sanctity
and regeneration of the members who composed it, on ac¬
count of the toleration of sinners, with whom they main¬
tained it an impiety to communicate. They condemned
the solemn celebration of marriages in the church; main¬
taining that matrimony being a political contract, the con¬
firmation of it ought to come from the civil magistrate.
They would not allow to be baptized any children of such
as were not members of the church, or of such as did not
take sufficient care of those baptized before. They reject¬
ed all forms of prayer, and held that the Lord’s prayer
was not to be recited as a prayer, being only given for a
rule or model whereon all our prayers are to be formed.
The form of church government which they established
was democratical. When a church was to be gathered,
such as desired to be members of it made a confession and
signed a covenant, by which they obliged themselves to
walk together in the order of the gospel. The whole power
of admitting and excluding members, with the decision of
all controversies, was lodged in the brotherhood. The
church officers were chosen from among themselves, for
preaching the word and taking care of the poor, and sepa¬
rated to their several offices by fasting, prayer, and impo¬
sition of hands of some of the brethren. But they did not al¬
low the priesthood to be any distinct order, or to give any
indelible character. As the vote of the brotherhood made a
man a minister, and gave him authority to preach the word
and administer the sacraments among them, so the same
power could discharge him from his office, and reduce him
to the condition of a mere layman again. And as they main¬
tained that the bounds of a church were defined by the num¬
ber of those who could meet together in one place, andjoin
in one communion, so the power of these officers was con¬
fined within the same limits. The minister or pastor of
one church could not administer the Lord’s supper to ano¬
ther, nor baptize the children of any but those of his own
society. Any lay brother was allowed the liberty of pro¬
phesying, or of giving a word of exhortation to the people,
and it was usual for some of them, after sermon, to as
questions, and reason upon the doctrines which had been
preached. In a word, every church on the Brownists mo e
is a body corporate, having full power to do every tnng
which the good of the society requires, without being ac¬
countable to any presbytery, synod, assembly, convocation,
or other jurisdiction whatever. Most of their discipline
been adopted by the Independents, a party which a e
wards arose from among the Brownists. ^ .
executed with great severity against the Brownists ; 1
books were prohibited by Queen Elizabeth, tkeir l361^,
were imprisoned, and many of them were hange •
ecclesiastical commission and the star-chamber, m >
distressed them to such a degree that t^ey.[.esoTet:re4
quit their country. Accordingly, many families
B R U
iwnrigg and settled at Amsterdam, where they formed a church,
|| and chose Mr Johnson for their pastor, and after him Mr
Bruce. Ainsworth, author of the learned commentary on the Pen-
tateuch. Their church flourished near a hundred years.
BROWNRIGG, Dr William, was a native of Cum¬
berland, and born about the year 1712. Of the early part
of the life of this philosopher w^e have had no opportu¬
nity of obtaining information. Being destined for the me¬
dical profession, after the previous studies in his own
country he repaired to Leyden to finish his education.
This university was then in its highest splendour; Albi-
nus taught anatomy, Euler mathematics, and the chair of
medicine and chemistry was occupied by the accomplished
Boerhaave. Having made a long and happy residence at
Leyden, and taken his degree, he returned to his native
country, and, in Whitehaven, married a lady of singular
good sense, and possessed of an address so versatile and
superior as never failed to charm in whatever circle it was
exerted. He was the author of an inaugural dissertation
De Praxi medica ineunda, 4to, Lugd. Bat. 1737; and of a
treatise on the Art of making Common Salt, printed at
London in 1748, in 8vo, which procured for him the ad¬
dition of F. R. S.; a book now long out of print, but not
out of recollection. He also published An Enquiry con¬
cerning the Mineral Elastic Spirit contained in the Water
of Spa in Germany; and lastly, a treatise, published in
1771, On the Means of Preventing the Communication of
Pestilential Contagion. A trip to the Spas of Germany
suggested to him the idea of analyzing the properties of
the Pyrmont springs, and of some others, and actually led
him into that train of disquisition which terminated in the
decomposition of one of our elements, and fixing its invisi¬
ble fluid form in a palpable and visible substance. That
Dr Brownrigg was the legitimate father of these discove¬
ries was not only known at the time to his intimate and
domestic circle, but also to the then president of the
Royal Society, Sir John Pringle, who, when called upon
to bestow upon Dr Priestley the gold medal for his paper
of Discoveries of the Nature and Properties of Air, ob¬
served, that it was no disparagement to the learned Dr
Priestley, that the vein of these discoveries was hit upon,
and its course successfully followed up, some years ago, by
his very learned, very penetrating, very industrious, but
modest friend, Dr Brownrigg. To his seat at Ormeth-
waite, near Keswick, he had retired about twenty years
before his death, withdrawing himself as much from the
practice of physic as his numerous connections, his high
character, and his friendly disposition, would permit, and
purposing to divide his time and his taste between the
romantic scenery of this delicious spot, and his researches
m natural philosophy, In this retirement he died at the
venerable age of eighty-eight, lamented by the poor, to
whom he was uniformly a beneficent friend, and regretted
by all.
BROWNIE, the name of a serviceable kind of sprite,
who, according to a superstitious notion formerly preva¬
lent in the Hebrides and Highlands of Scotland (as well
as among the country people in England, where he had
the name of Robin Goodfellow'), was wont to clean the
houses, help to churn, thresh the corn, and belabour all
who pretended to make a jest of him. He was represent¬
ed as stout and blooming, had fine long flowing hair, and
went about with a wand in his hand. He was the very
counterpart of Milton’s Lubber Fiend.
BRUCE, Robert, son of the Earl of Garrick, and com¬
petitor with Baliol for the crown of Scotland, which he lost
by the arbitration of Edward I. of England, for generously
re usmg to hold of him the crown of Scotland, which his
ancestors had left him independent. But Baliol having
a terwards broken his agreement with Edward, Bruce was
B R U
easily persuaded by that king to unite with him against
Bahol, upon a promise that he would settle him on the '
Mol’* Having contributed much to the breaking up of
Bahol s party, he demanded the accomplishment of Kino-
Edwards promise; but the latter is said to have given
In™ ^ an^er : “ What! have I nothing else to do but
to conquer kingdoms for you ?” However, he recovered
ns mown, defeated the English in several battles, raised
the glory of the Scots to an unexampled height of splen¬
dour, and extended their dominions. See Scotland.
Bruce, James, F. R. S. a celebrated traveller, was born
at Kmnaird House in the county of Stirling, Scotland, on
the 14th of December 1730. The Bruces of Kinnaird are
a very ancient family, being descended from a younger
son of Robert de Bruce; and they have been in posses-
si°n of that estate for upv/ards of three centuries.
Mr Bruce was instructed in grammatical learning at the
school of Harrow on the Hill, in Middlesex, where he ac¬
quired a considerable share of classical knowledge. Re¬
turning to Scotland, he applied to the study of the laws of
his country; but soon contracting a dislike to this pur¬
suit, he determined to push his fortune in the East Indies,
and for that purpose went to London. While in the me¬
tropolis soliciting permission from the directors of the
East India Company to go out and settle under their aus¬
pices as a free trader, he was introduced to a Miss Allan.
I his lady was the daughter of Mrs Allan, the widow of an
opulent wine merchant. Her beauty and amiable temper
soon gained the affections of Bruce ; and on the proposal
of a marriage, he was induced to forego his East India spe¬
culations, and take a share in the wine trade, which he
did on marrying Miss Allan. She soon, however, fell into
a bad state of health, and Bruce, in hopes that the genial
climate of the south of France would benefit her, proceed¬
ed thither. But she died on the journey, within a year
after her marriage.
Bruce returned to his business in London, but the bond
which had connected him with it was now broken; and
giving up the principal management of the concern to his
partner, he applied himself to studies calculated to dispel
the grief which had settled on his mind. For two years he
laboured at the Spanish and Portuguese languages, which
he learned to pronounce with great accuracy. He also
assiduously practised several styles of drawing. His busi¬
ness having afforded him an opportunity of visiting the
Continent, he proceeded thither, and travelled first through
Portugal, and afterwards through Spain. In the latter
country, the traces of oriental manners still visible, the
desolate palaces of the caliphs, and the tales of chivalry,
interwoven with the Moorish wars, awakened in his mind
that spirit of romantic enterprise which afterwards led
him to the fountains of the Nile. At Madrid he propos¬
ed to explore the collections of Arabic manuscripts which
were buried in the monastery of St Lawrence, and in the
library of the Escurial. But the jealousy of the Spaniards
disappointing him in this, he proceeded to France, and af¬
terwards to Holland, where the news of his father s death
reaching him, he returned to England. .
By the demise of his father he succeeded to an inheri¬
tance which, though respectable, was inadequate to t le
wants of his growing ambition. From the period of his
return in 1758, to the year 1761, he intently employed
himself in the acquisition of the eastern languages,
circumstance had occurred which introduced him to Mr
Pitt While at Ferrol in Galicia, there was a rumour of
a war between Great Britain and Spam. It immediately
oMu^redTo the fertile mind of Bruce
Spain at this point could scarcely fail °f being successtu
He boldly resolved to submit his project t0 Mr f 1 ’
through his friend Mr Wood, under secretary of state, to
605
Bruce.
606
BRUCE.
Bruce.
whom he fully explained the circumstances on which he
had formed his opinion. Mr Pitt sent for him, and after
a conversation upon the subject, Bruce, at the minister s
suggestion, drew up a memorandum of his project. He
was then informed by Mr Wood, that Mr Pitt intended
to employ him upon a particular service ; that he might,
however, go down and settle his affairs in his own coun-
try> but by all means to be ready upon a call. No time
was lost on his part; but just after he received orders to
return to London, Mr Pitt resigned.
Notwithstanding this disappointment, which he very
sensibly felt, his hopes promised to be yet realized. Ihe
memorandum which he drew up for Mr I itt had been laid
before the king, and strongly recommended by Lord Hali¬
fax. The Earl of Egremont and Mr Greville had several
meetings with Mr Bruce upon the subject, but the death
of Egremont put an end to his expectations for the pre¬
sent. Lord Halifax, however, had appreciated Bruce’s
character. He proposed to him a journey to the coast of
Barbary, which had as yet been but partially explored by
Dr Shaw. The discovery of the source of the Nile also
formed a subject of conversation; and it is unnecessary to
state that the enterprising mind of Bruce eagerly caught
up the^dea.
“ Fortune,” says he, “ seemed to enter into this scheme.
At the very instant Mr Aspinwall, very cruelly and igno-
miniously treated by the dey of Algiers, had resigned his
consulship, and Mr Ford, a merchant, formerly the dey s
acquaintance, was named in his place. Mr Ford was ap¬
pointed, and dying a few days after, the consulship became
vacant. Lord Halifax pressed me to accept of this, as
containing all sorts of conveniences for making the pro¬
posed expedition.”
This favourable event determined him. After providing
a large apparatus of instruments, he set out tor Italy
through France. On his arrival at Rome he was ordered
to proceed to Naples, there to await his majesty s com¬
mands. From Naples he again returned to Rome, and
from thence proceeded to Leghorfi, where he at last
embarked for Algiers, and arrived there on the 15th of
March 1762.
“ After a year spent at Algiers, constant conversation
with the natives while abroad, and with my manuscripts
within doors, had qualified me to appear in any part of
the continent without the help of an interpreter. Ludolf
had assured his readers that the knowledge of any orien¬
tal language would soon enable them to acquire the Ethi-
opic; and I needed only the same number of books to
have made my knowledge of that language gp hand in
hand with my attainments in the Arabic. My immediate
project of setting out on my journey to the inland parts of
Africa had made me double my diligence; night and day
there was no relaxation from these studies, although the
acquiring any single language had never been with me
either an object of time or difficulty.”
At Algiers Mr Bruce was detained longer than he ex¬
pected, in consequence of a dispute with the dey concern¬
ing Mediterranean passes. This being adjusted, he pro¬
ceeded to Mahon, and from Mahon to Carthage. He next
visited Tunis and Fripoli, and travelled over the interim
parts of these states. At Bengazi, a small town on the
Mediterranean, he suffered shipwreck, and with extreme
difficulty saved his life, though with the loss of all his
baggage. He afterwards sailed to the isles of Rhodes
and Cyprus, and proceeding to Asia Minor, travelled
through a considerable part of Syria and Palestine, visit¬
ing Hassia, Latakea, Aleppo, and Tripoli, near which last
city he was again in imminent danger of perishing in a
river. The ruins of Palmyra and Baalbec were next care¬
fully surveyed and sketched by him ; and his drawings of
these places are deposited in the king’s library at Kew:
“ the most magnificent present in that line,” to use his'
own words, “ ever made by a subject to his sovereign.”
Mr Bruce published no particular account of these vari¬
ous journeys; but Dr Murray, in the second edition, in¬
troduced from Bruce’s MSS. some account of his travels in
Tunis.
In these various travels some years were passed; and Mr
Bruce now prepared for the grand expedition, the accom¬
plishment of which had ever been nearest his heart,—the
discovery of the supposed sources of the Nile. In the pro¬
secution of that dangerous object he left Sidon on the 15th
of June 1768, and arrived at Alexandria on the 20th of that
month. He proceeded from thence to Cairo, where he re¬
mained till the 12th of December following, when he em¬
barked on the Nile, and sailed up the river as far as Syene,
visiting in the course of the voyage the ruins of Thebes.
Leaving Kenne on the Nile on the 16th February 1769, he
crossed the desert of the Thebaid to Cosseir on the Red
Sea, and arrived at Jidda on the 3d of May. In Arabia Felix
he remained, not without making several excursions, till the
3d of September, when he sailed from Loheia, and arriv¬
ed on the 19th at Masuah, where he was detained near
two months by the treachery and avarice of the naybe of
that place. It was not till the 15th of November that he
was allowed to quit Arkeeko, near Masuah; and he arriv¬
ed on the 15th of February 1770 at Gondar, the capital of
Abyssinia, where he ingratiated himself with the most con¬
siderable persons of both sexes belonging to the court.
Several months were employed in attendance on the king,
and in an unsuccessful expedition round the lake of Dem-
bea. Towards the end of October Mr Bruce set out for
the sources of the Bahr el Azrek, which he supposed to
be the principal branch of the Nile, though it is now ge¬
nerally agreed that this rank ought to be assigned to the
Bahr el Abiad. At this long-desired spot he arrived on
the 14th of November; and his feelings on the accom¬
plishment of his wishes cannot be better expressed than
in his own words: . ,
“ It is easier to guess than to describe the situation of
my mind at that moment, standing in that spot which had
baffled the genius, industry, and inquiry of ancients and
moderns for the course of near three thousand years.
Kings had attempted this discovery at the head of armies;
and each expedition was distinguished from the last only
by the difference of the numbers which had perished, and
agreed alone in the disappointment which had uniformly
and without exception followed them all. Fame, riches,
and honour, had been held out for a series of ages to every
individual of those myriads whom princes commanded,
without having produced one man capable of gratifying
the curiosity of his sovereign, or wiping off this stain upon
the enterprise and abilities of mankind, or adding this de¬
sideratum for the encouragement of geography. Though
a mere private Briton, I triumphed here in my own mmu
over kings and their armies; and every comparison was
leading nearer and nearer to the presumption, when tne
place itself where I stood, the object of my vam-g ory,
suggested what depressed my short-lived tnumpns.
was but a few minutes arrived at the source of the >
through numberless dangers and sufferings, the leas
which would have overwhelmed me, but for the contin
goodness and protection of Providence; I was,however,
then half through my journey, and all those dangers ^
1 had already passed awaited me again on my return‘ d
found a despondency gaining ground fast upon me,
blasting the crown of laurels I had too rashly w
myWhen he returned to rest on the night of that discovery,
repose was sought for in vain. “ Melancholy ren
nice.
"W
BRUCE.
upon my present state, the doubtfulness of my return in
safety, were I permitted to make the attempt, and the
fears that even this would be refused, according to the
rule observed in Abyssinia with all travellers who have
once entered the kingdom ; the consciousness of the pain
that I was then occasioning to many worthy individuals,
expecting daily that information concerning my situation
which it was not in my power to give them; and some
other thoughts, perhaps, still nearer the heart than those,
crowded upon my mind, and forbade all approach of sleep.
“ I was, at that very moment, in possession of what had
for many years been the principal object of my ambition
and wishes; indifference, which, from the usual infirmity
of human nature, follows, at least for a time, complete en¬
joyment, had taken place of it. The marsh and the foun¬
tains, upon comparison with the rise of many of our rivers,
became now a trifling object in my sight. I remembered
that magnificent scene in my own native country, where
the Tweed, Clyde, and Annan rise in one hill; three rivers,
I now thought, not inferior to the Nile in beauty, prefer¬
able to it in the cultivation of those countries through
which they flow; superior, vastly superior, to it in the vir¬
tues and qualities of the inhabitants, and in the beauty of
the flocks, crowding its pastures in peace, without fear of
violence from man or beast. I had seen the rise of the
Rhine and Rhone, and the more magnificent sources of
the Saone; I began, in my sorrow, to treat the inquiry
about the source of the Nile as a violent effort of a distem¬
pered fancy. Grief and despondency now rolling upon me
like a torrent, relaxed, not refreshed, by unquiet and im¬
perfect sleep, I started from my bed in the utmost agony.
I went to the door of my tent. Every thing was still; the
Nile, at whose head I stood, was not capable either to
promote or to interrupt my slumbers; but the coolness
and serenity of the night braced my nerves, and chased
away those phantoms that while in bed had oppressed and
tormented me.
“ It was true, that numerous dangers, hardships, and
sorrows, had beset me through this half of my excursion ;
but it was still as true, that another guide, more powerful
than my own courage, health, or understanding, if any of
them can be called man’s own, had uniformly protected
me in all that tedious half. I found my confidence not
abated, that still the same guide was able to conduct me
to my wished-for home. I immediately resumed my for¬
mer fortitude, considered the Nile as indeed no more than
rising from springs as all other rivers do, but widely dif¬
fering in this, that it was the palm for three thousand years
held out to all the nations of the world as a detur dignis-
simo, which, in my cool hours, I had thought was worth the
attempting at the risk of my life, which I had long either
resolved to lose, or lay this discovery as a trophy, in which
I could have no competitor, for the honour of my country,
at the feet of my sovereign, whose servant I was.”
The object of Mr Bruce’s wishes being now gratified,
he bent his thoughts on his return to his native country.
He arrived at Gondar on the 19th November 1770, but
found, after repeated solicitations, that it was by no means
an easy task to obtain permission to quit Abyssinia. A
civil war in the mean time breaking out, several engage¬
ments took place between the king’s forces and the troops
of the rebels, particularly three actions at a place called
Serbraxos, on the 19th, 20th, and 23d of May 1771. In
each of these Mr Bruce acted a considerable part, and for
bis valiant conduct in the second, received, as a reward
from the king, a chain of gold. At Gondar, after these
engagements, he again preferred the most earnest entrea¬
ties to be allowed to return home, entreaties which were
long resisted ; but his health at last giving away, from the
anxiety of his mind, the king consented to his departure,
on condition of his engaging by oath to return to him in
the event of his recovery, with as many of his kindred as
lie could engage to accompany him.
After a residence of nearly two years in that wretched
country, Mr Bruce left Gondar on the 16th of December
1771, taking the dangerous way of the desert of Nubia,
instead of the more easy road of Masuah, by which he
entered Abyssinia. He was induced to take this route,
from his former experience of the cruel and savage tem¬
per of the naybe of Masuah. Arriving at Teawa on the
21st March 1772, Mr Bruce had the misfortune to find
the sheikh Fidele at Atbara, the counterpart of the naybe
of Masuah in every bad quality. By his intrepidity and
prudence, however, he obtained permission to depart next
day, and he arrived at Sennaar on the 29th of the same
month.
Mr Bruce was detained upwards of four months at that
miserable and inhospitable place, the inhabitants of which
he thus describes : “ War and treason seem to be the only
employment of these horrid people, whom Heaven has
separated by almost impassable deserts from the rest of
mankind, confining them to an accursed spot, seemingly
to give them an earnest in time of the only other state
worse which he has reserved to them for an eternal here¬
after.” This delay was occasioned by the villany of those
who had undertaken to supply him with money; but at
last, by disposing of nearly the whole of his gold chain,
the well-earned trophy of Serbraxos, he was enabled to
make preparations for his dangerous journey through the
deserts of Nubia.
He left Sennaar on the 5th of September, and arrived
on the 3d of October at Chendi, which he quitted on the
20th, and travelled through the desert of Gooz, reaching
the village of that name on the 26th of October. On the
9th of November he left Gooz, and entered upon the most
dreadful and dangerous part of his journey. All his camels
having perished, Mr Bruce was under the necessity of
abandoning his baggage in the desert, and with the greatest
difficulty reached Assouan upon the Nile on the 29th of
November. After some days’ rest, having procured fresh
camels, he returned into the desert, and recovered his
baggage, among which was a quadrant of three feet ra¬
dius, supplied by Louis XV. from the military academy at
Marseilles.
On the 10th of January 1773, after more than four
years’ absence, he arrived at Cairo, where, by his manly
and generous behaviour, he so won the heart of Mahomet
Bey, that he obtained a firman, permitting the command¬
ers of English vessels belonging to Bombay and Bengal
to bring their ships and merchandise to Suez, a place far
preferable in all respects to Jidda, to which they were
formerly confined. Of this permission, which no Euro¬
pean nation could ever before acquire, many English ves¬
sels have since availed themselves | and it has proved pe¬
culiarly useful both in public and private dispatches. Such
was the conclusion of his laborious-and memorable journey
through the desert.
At Cairo Mr Bruce’s earthly career had nearly been
concluded by a disorder in his leg, occasioned by a worm
in the flesh. This accident kept him five weeks in ex¬
treme agony, and his health was not re-established till a
twelvemonth afterwards, at the baths of Porretta m Ita y.
On his return to Europe Mr Bruce was received with all
the admiration due to his enterprising character. After
passing a considerable time m France, particularly at
Montbard, with his friend the Comte de Buffon, by whom
he was received with much hospitality, and is mentioned
with great applause, he at last revisited his native country,
from which he had been upwards of twelve years absent.
It was now expected that he would take the earliest
607
Bruce.
608
BRUCE.
Eruce. opportunity of giving to the world a narrative of his tra-
vels, in which the public curiosity could not but be deep¬
ly interested. But several circumstances contributed to
delay the publication. “ My friends at home,” says he,
“ gave me up for dead; and as my death must have hap¬
pened in circumstances difficult to have been proved, my
property became as it were a hcereditas jacetis, without an
owner, abandoned in common to those whose original title
extended no further than temporary possession. A num¬
ber of law-suits were the inevitable consequence of this
upon my return. To these disagreeable avocations, which
took up much time, were added others still more unfor*
tunate. The relentless ague, caught at Bengazi, main¬
tained its ground, at times, for a space of more than six¬
teen years, though every remedy had been used, but in
vain; and what was worst of all, a lingering distemper had
seriously threatened the life of a most near relation (his
second wife), which, after nine years constant alarm,
where every duty bound me to attention and attendance,
conducted her at last, in very early life, to her grave.”
Amidst the anxiety and the distress thus occasioned,
Mr Bruce was by no means neglectful of his private
affairs. He considerably improved his landed property,
inclosing and cultivating the waste grounds; and he high¬
ly embellished his paternal seat.
The termination of some law-suits, and of other busi¬
ness, which had occupied much of his time, having at
length afforded leisure to Mr Bruce to put his materials
in order, his long-expected work made its appearance in
, 1790, seventeen years after his return to Europe. It con¬
sisted of five large quarto volumes, embellished with plates
and charts; was dedicated to the king, and introduced by a
striking and manly preface. It is unnecessary to enter into
any criticism or analysis of this celebrated work. It is uni¬
versally allowed to be replete with curious and useful infor¬
mation, and to abound in narratives which at once excite
our admiration and interest our feelings. The very singu¬
lar and extraordinary picture which it gives of Abyssinian
manners startled the belief of some. One fact in parti¬
cular which he stated shipwrecked his reputation, and
the world of literature from Johnson down to the author
of Munchausen ridiculed the statement as unworthy of
credit. It was, that the Abyssinians were in the prac¬
tice of eating raw meat cut out of a living cow. This,
though believed in France and other continental countries,
was treated as a fable in England. The shafts of ridicule,
envy, and malice, were levelled at his devoted head. The
great moralist himself went so far as to doubt his ever
having been in the country at all. This was too much
foi a spirit like that of Bruce, proud, and conscious of its
own integrity. He had braved the simoom in the burn¬
ing sands of Nubia; he had perseverance and strength of
mind enough to achieve a triumph which had baffled the
efforts of mankind for three thousand years; but all that
he received at the hands of his contemporaries was obloquy
and contempt. Posterity, however, has done him justice.
Every succeeding traveller who has visited the country
bears testimony to his veracity, and shows that he has in an
eminent degree kept faith with his honour and his fame.
1 he most startling statements, in particular, which he made,
have since been fully verified. (See Abyssinia, vol. ii. p.
61 of this work.) Ihere are indeed a few errors in dates
and other circumstances, but they are of no great mo-
Sty ofTis ”ave°lSde8ree dedUCt fr°m tbe general aUthenti-
nnS6 !aTagl °f the.work is in general harsh and un¬
polished, though sometimes animated. Too areat a dis¬
play of vanity runs through the whole ; and the annarent
accmto'theWhiCh,the ?'aVeller gai,,ed the most «>miliar
access to the courts, and even to the harems, of the sove¬
reigns of the countries through which he passed, is apt to
create in readers some doubts of the accuracy of the nar¬
ration. Yet there appears upon the whole such an air of
manly veracity, ami circumstances are mentioned with a
minuteness so unlike deceit, that these doubts are over¬
come by the general impression of truth which the whole
detail irresistibly fastens upon the mind. The first im¬
pression being almost wholly disposed of within a short
time, Bruce had stipulated for a second edition, which
was preparing for the press when death removed the au¬
thor from this transitory stage.
This event happened on the 26th of April 1794. Ia
the evening of that day, when some company were de¬
parting, Bruce attended them down stairs; but on the
steps his foot slipped, and he fell down headlong. He was
taken up speechless, and remained in a state of insensi¬
bility for eight or nine hours, when he expired on the
27th of April 1794, in the sixty-fifth year of his age. He
married, for his second wife, at Carronhall, on the 20th
May 1776, Mary, eldest daughter of Thomas Dundas of
Fingask. Mrs Bruce died in 1784, after a long and lin¬
gering indisposition, during which she was attended with
the most affectionate assiduity by her husband. By this
marriage Mr Bruce had two sons and one daughter.
The second edition of these travels was published in
1805, in seven vols. 8vo, with a quarto volume of plates,
edited by Dr Alexander Murray, who obtained access to
all his papers, and illustrated the work with a learning
and research which established his fame as an oriental
scholar. A third edition was published in 1813, which,
we believe, is now out of print.
There never, perhaps, existed a man better qualified
for the hazardous enterprise he undertook, than Bruce.
Flis person was of the largest size, his height exceeding
six feet, and the bulk as well as the strength of his body
being proportionally great. He excelled in all personal
accomplishments, being a hardy, practised, and indefati¬
gable swimmer, trained to exercise and fatigue of every
kind, while his long residence among the Arabs had given
him a more than ordinary facility in managing the horse.
In the use of fire-arms he was so unerring, that in innu¬
merable instances he never failed to hit the mark; and
his dexterity in handling the spear and lance on horseback
was also uncommonly great. He was master of most lan¬
guages, understanding the Greek perfectly; and he was so
well skilled in oriental literature, that he revised the New
Testament in the Ethiopic, Samaritan, Hebrew, and Sy¬
riac, making many useful notes and remarks on difficult
passages. He had applied from early youth to mathema¬
tics, drawing, and astronomy, and had acquired some know¬
ledge of physic and surgery. His memory was astonish¬
ingly retentive, and his judgment sound and vigorous. He
was dexterous in negociation, a master of public business,
animated with the warmest zeal for the glory of his king
and country, a physician in the camp or city, a soldier
and horseman in the field ; whilst, at the same time, his
breast was a stranger to fear, though he took every pre¬
caution to avoid danger. Such, at least, is his own repre¬
sentation of his character; and though an impartial judge
would probably make considerable abatement for the na¬
tural bias of a man drawing his own portrait, yet it cannot
be denied, that in personal accomplishments Bruce equal¬
led, if he did not excel, most of his contemporaries; that he
was distinguished for vigour of understanding, as well as
great literary attainments; and that in active and perse¬
vering intrepidity he may be classed with the most eminent
characters in any age or country. Thus accomplished,
Bruce could not but be eminently fitted for an attempt so
full of difficulty and danger as that of penetrating into the
heart of Abyssinia; and no one who peruses his accoun
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B R U
B hsal of the expedition can fail to pay an unfeigned tribute of ad¬
miration to his intrepidity, manliness, and uncommon dex-
B ker. ter;ty in extricating himself out of situations the most dan-
^ gerous and alarming, in the course of his long and hazard¬
ous journey. Not to mention his conduct during his re¬
sidence in Abyssinia, his behaviour at Masuah, Teawa, and
Sennaar, evinces the uncommon vigour of his mind; but
it was chiefly during his passage through the Nubian de¬
sert that his fortitude, courage, and prudence, appeared
to the greatest advantage. Of his learning and sagacity,
his delineation of the course of Solomon’s fleet from Tar-
shish to Ophir, his account of the cause of the inundations
of the Nile, and his comprehensive view of the Abyssinian
history, afford ample proofs. He expresses throughout all
his works a deep and lively sense of the care of a superin¬
tending Providence, without whose influence he was con¬
vinced of the futility of all human ability and foresight to
preserve from danger. He appears to have been a serious
believer of the truth of Christianity ; and his illustrations
of some parts of the sacred writings are original and valu¬
able.
BRUCHSAL, a bailiwick in the grand duchy of Ba¬
den, on the Bergstrassa, near the Rhine, containing, be¬
sides the city from which it takes its name, one city,
nine villages, and 15,400 inhabitants. The city is on the
Salzbach, which soon joins the Rhine, in a beautiful situa-'
tion, surrounded by vineyards and gardens. It contains
5690 industrious inhabitants, occupied in various manu¬
factures.
BRUCK, a circle in the Austrian province of Steyer-
mark, extending over 1496 square miles, or 917,440 acres.
It is situated in a mountainous district, with valleys be¬
tween the ranges, of moderate fertility. In 1817 it con¬
tained 62,538 inhabitants. The chief place, of the same
name, at the junction of the river Mur with the Murz,
contains about 2000 inhabitants.
BRUCKENAU, a city of 1550 inhabitants, the capital
of a magistracy of the same name, in the circle of the
Lower Maine, and kingdom of Bavaria. It extends over a
hundred and nine square miles, and contains, besides the
city, twenty-two villages, with 9350 inhabitants. It is a
poor district, yielding little corn, but abundance of pota¬
toes. The chief employment of the inhabitants consists
in making wood ware, especially platters and bowls, and
some spinning and weaving flax.
BRUCKER, James, theologian, historian, philologer,
and biographer, was born at Augsburg on the 22d of
January 1696. His father, who was a respectable burgher,
destined him for the church; and his own inclinations
according with his father’s wishes, he was sent, at the
usual age, to pursue his studies in the university of Jena.
Here he took the degree of master of arts in 1718; and
in the following year he published his Tentamen Introduce
tionis in Historiam doctrince de Ideis, in 4to ; a work
which, having afterwards amplified and completed, he re¬
published under the title of Historia Philosophica doctrinal
de Ideis, at Augsburg in 1723. He returned to his na¬
tive city in 1720; but here his merit having attracted
envy rather than recompense, he was induced to accept
of the office of parish minister of Kaufbevern in 1123. In
the same year he published a memoir De Vita et Scriptis
Cl. Etingeri, Augs. 8vo. His reputation having been at
length established by these learned works, in 1731 he was
elected a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin,
and soon afterwards he was invited to Augsburg to fill
the honourable situation of pastor and senior minister of
the church of St Ulric. He published in the same year
three dissertations relating to the history of philosophy,
under the title of Otium Vindelicum, sive Meletematum
Historico-philosophicorum triga, Augsburg, 1731, 8vo. Le-
vol. v.
B R U
sides several smaller dissertations on biography and li¬
terary history printed at different times, and which he
afterwards collected in his Miscellanea, he published at
Ulm, in 1737, Neue Zusaetze verscUedner vlmehrungm,
&c. zu den kurtzen Fragen aus der Philosophischen historic,
7 vols. 12mo. Ihis work, being a history of philosophy
in question and answer, contains many details, especially
in the department of literary history, which he has chosen
to omit in his greater work on the same subject. He was
forced by the booksellers, in opposition to his own opinion,
to adopt the erotematic method, which at that time had
been rendered pooular by the writings of Hubner and
Rambach.
In 1741, at Leipsic, appeared the first volume of his
great work, Historia Critica Philosophic, a mundi incuna-
hulis ad nostrum usque cetatem deducta. Four other pon¬
derous quartos, completing the first edition of this ela¬
borate history, followed in 1744. Such was the success
of this publication, that the first impression, consisting of
four thousand copies, was exhausted in twenty-three years,
when a new and more perfect edition, the consummation
of the labours of half a century devoted to the history of
philosophy, was in 1767 given to the world in six volumes
quarto. The sixth volume, consisting entirely of supple¬
ment and corrections, is applicable to the first as well as
to the second edition. Of the merits of this work we
shall speak in the sequel.
His attention, however, was not wholly occupied b}' this
stupendous undertaking. The following books would of
themselves have been sufficient to exhaust the industry
of any ordinary author:—Pinacotheca Scriptorum nostra
date Uteris illustrium, &c. Augsburg, 1741-55, folio, in
five decads. Ehren Tempel der Deutschen Gelehr samkeit
in welschen die Bildnisse gelehrter Maenner unter den
Deutschen aus dem XV. X VI. und X VII. Jahrhundert
aufgestellet, und Hire Geschichte, &c. outworfen sind, Augs¬
burg, 1747-49, 4to, five decads. Institutiones Historic
Philosophicc, Leipsic, 1747, 8vo, a second edition, ibid.
1756; and a third has been published since Brucker’s
death, with a continuation by Professor Born of Leipsic,
in 1790. Miscellanea Historic Philosophicc Literaric
criticc olim sparsim edita nunc uno fasce collecta, Augs¬
burg, 1748, 8vo. Erste Anfangsgrunde der Philosophis¬
chen Geschichte, als ein Auszug seiner grossern Werke,
Zweyte, Ausgabe, Ulm, 1751, 8vo. He likewise superin¬
tended and corrected an edition of Luther s translation of
the Old and New Testament, with a Commentary extract¬
ed from the writings of the English theologians, Leipsic,
1758-70, folio, six parts. His death ensued before this
work was finished, which has since been accomplished by
Teller. He died at Augsburg in 1770; and he may be
added to the catalogue of Huetius, to prove that liteiary
labour is not incompatible with sound health and longe¬
vity. (See Saxii Onomasticon ; Biographic Universelle;
Gesner’s Isagoge.)
It is only by his writings on the history of philosophy
that Brucker is now known in the literature of Europe.
In this study his great work forms an important era, and
even at the present day it is the most extensive e.la‘
borate upon the subject. It is, however, a work of which
the defects are great, and its errors have been important
in their consequences, in proportion to the authority it
has acquired. We shall, therefore, hazard a fevv generd
observations on the defects which chmflv detratt
the perfection and utility of the Critical History of Phi
‘T Bracker had carried into this study a penetration
equal to his diligence, and had his general comprehen
siorfof the scope and nature of ^"Toufd
ed with the elaborate minuteness of his details, he wou
609
Brucker.
610
B R U
B R U
Brucker. have left us a work which might have had some preten-
sions to be considered as a rational history of human
opinion. He lived, however, at a period when these dif¬
ferent qualities were only beginning to be conjoined, and
when as yet the history of philosophy had been written
merely as a chronicle of the passing theories of indivi¬
duals and sects. To give to the science of history a regu¬
lar and connected form, and to arrange the narrative of
successive events, and still more of successive opinions,
according to the relation they bear to principles of esta¬
blished influence, was an attempt of which few in that age
had any conception, and of which Brucker certainly had
none. In civil history it was then believed that the his¬
torian had fulfilled all the duties of his office if he strung
together the events which were known or believed to have
occurred, in good language, and garnished them occasion¬
ally by a few general reflections on the absolute motives
of human action. A very different notion is now held of
the functions of the historian. He who at present attempts
to write the history of any country, must reflect, before he
begins, what were the chief occurrences in that history,
and what were the revolutions which the manners and con¬
stitution of that particular nation have undergone. He
must bea’f with him, from the commencement to the con¬
clusion of his labours, a constant impression that every oc¬
currence should be more or less considered, not only as it
took place, and as it bore an influence on contemporary af¬
fairs, but as it may have remotely contributed to the events,
and the opinions, and the character of succeeding times.
But if this be true in regard to the histories of particular
nations, it is evident that, by how much the traces of opi¬
nions are more light and evanescent than those of events,—
by how much the speculations of philosophers whose writ¬
ings have either perished or come down to us mutilated
and obscure, are more difficult to be appreciated in their
causes, and connections, and consequences, than the ac¬
tions of warriors and statesmen,—by so much the more is
it necessary in philosophical than" in civil history to com¬
bine reasoning with erudition, and to substitute the re¬
searches of the philosopher for the details of the chroni¬
cler. History and philosophy are two different things;
and he who would write the history of philosophy must
excel in both. Bacon had long ago required this union,
and had pointed out the manner in which the historian
of literature should endeavour to establish those princi¬
ples of connection which constitute the soul and charm
of such a history; how, by detecting the union of effects
and causes, he might be enabled to determine the circum¬
stances favourable or adverse to the sciences; and how,
in short, by a species of enchantment he might evoke the
literary genius of each different age. The fulfilment of this
plan was, however, far beyond the capacity of Brucker,
and was an undertaking of which he had even no concep¬
tion. Better qualified by nature and education for amass¬
ing than arranging materials, he devoted his principal at¬
tention to a confused compilation of facts, leaving to others
their application, the discovery of their mutual connec¬
tions, and the formation of the scattered fragments into
a whole.
fhe merit of his great work consists entirely in the
ample collection of materials. The reader who would ex¬
tract any rational view of the progress of opinion must per ¬
use it with a perpetual commentary of his own thoughts.
He will find no assistance from his author in forming any
general views, or in tracing the mutual dependencies of
the different parts of the subject. Brucker has discover¬
ed the fountains of history, but he has made us drink of
them without purifying the draught. Even in this respect
his merit has been greatly overrated. Vast as is the body
ot materials which he has collected, we are always miss-
ing those very things which we might reasonably have ex- Bri,
pected would have been the first objects of a rational in- W*
quirer, and we are continually disappointed of the infor¬
mation we are most anxious to acquire. The idle and
slavish attention which he has bestowed on previous com¬
pilers, has frequently diverted him from the study of the
original authors themselves. Quoting the passages of the
ancients from others, or trusting, perhaps, to the refer¬
ence of an index, he has frequently overlooked those very
testimonies which could have given us the most authentic
knowledge of the opinions or characters of ages and indi¬
viduals. He has often presented the authorities he has
adduced, mutilated or misapplied; and this either from
not having sufficiently studied these passages in their ge¬
neral connection with the system they illustrate, or from
having been unable to withdraw them from the obscurity
in which they were involved. Pie has shown no critical
sagacity in distinguishing the spurious from the authentic,
or in balancing the comparative weight of his authorities.
He has frequently transcribed where he ought to have
explained the words of the original authors ; and without
taking into account the different value of the same term
in different nations and ages, he has left us to apply a
doubtful or erroneous meaning to words which might have
been easily rendered by other expressions, and to suppose
a distinction in the sense where there only existed a dif¬
ference in the language. The glaring errors, even, which
occasionally occur in his expositions of the Grecian philo¬
sophy, while they are inconsistent with any critical know¬
ledge of the tongue, would make us suspect that he was
in the habit of relying on the treacherous aid of transla¬
tions. In short, if we knew nothing more of the ancient
philosophers than what we acquire from Brugker, we should
be often obliged to attribute to them opinions so obscure,
or so absurd, that we must either believe ourselves wrong
in the interpretation, or be unable to comprehend the
cause of all the admiration and reverence they have re¬
ceived.
Pie has discovered little skill in his analysis of the dif¬
ferent systems of philosophy; and the confusion of what
is essential and principal with what is accidental and
subordinate clearly evinces that these abridgments were
thrown together while acquiring, in detail, a knowledge
expressly for the purpose, instead of being the consum¬
mation of a long and familiar meditation on the subjects
in all their modifications and dependencies. He has dwelt
with the most irksome minuteness on every unimportant
and doubtful circumstance in the lives of the philoso¬
phers ; but he has too often overlooked the particular and
general causes that produced an influence on the desti¬
nies of their philosophy. The aphoristic method which
he has adopted prevents him from following a consecu¬
tive argument throughout its various windings. The most
convincing reasoning in his hands loses much of its de¬
monstration and beauty; and every ingenious paradox
comes forth from his alembic a mere caput mortuum,—&
residue from which every finer principle has been expel¬
led. Where the genius of the philosopher is discovered
more in the exposition and defence than in the origina
selection and intrinsic stability of his tenets, Brucker has
not found the art of doing justice both to the philosopher
and his opinions, or of conveying to the reader any con¬
ception of the general value of the original. rIhis last de¬
fect, it must, however, be acknowledged, is more or less
inseparable from every abstract of opinions, where it is a -
ways necessary to separate in some degree what is ess?"
tial to the subject from what is peculiar to the man. e
has relieved the sterility of his analysis by none o ^
elegancies of which the subject was susceptible. Wit ou^
any pretension to purity, his diction is detective even i
er.
B R U
cker. precision ; and his sentences, at all times void of harmony
v and grace, are abrupt, and often intricate in their struc¬
ture.
The person, therefore, who would attempt to write a
history of philosophy without the imperfections of that of
Brucker, must draw from obscurity many important facts
hitherto omitted; he must arrange and combine these in
a more perspicuous order; and, above all, he must review
the opinions he shall thus relate and methodise with a more
accurate criticism. He ought not to write of Peripate¬
tics like a disciple of Aristotle, of Platonists like a pupil
of Prod us, nor of the doctrines of the Porch like a follower
of Zeno. Still less must he compare the tenets of one
sect by the principles of another; or endeavour to estimate
doctrines, dubious in themselves, by reference to a stand¬
ard equally arbitrary and contingent. He must place
himself, to use the language of Lucretius, upon the high¬
est pinnacle of the temple of science, from which he may
look calmly back, and compare and study the doctrines of
all these departed sages, without being himself involved
m the partialities of particular sects or opinions, 
B R u
Despicere unde queat alios, passimque videre
Errare, atque viam palantcis (juserere veri.
He must honour the genius of all alike, and believe that
all are deserving of commendation, although all are more
or less subject to error. He ought, in short, to be a phi¬
losopher superior even to the prejudices of philosophy.
If we take a survey of what has been attempted since
the death of Brucker m accomplishing a more perfect his¬
tory of philosophy, we shall find that more has been done
in illustrating the philosophical tenets of particular sects,
or the progress of particular portions of science, than in
giving a comprehensive view of the general history of
thought. In France, in Italy, and in our own country, those
who have laboured in this department, far from being able
to correct the errors of Brucker, have, in general, through
detect of erudition, been wholly indebted to his industry
tor their materials, and have been content to rely on his
accuracy with more than Pythagorean faith. If we except
some ingemous speculations, which are more of the nature
ot philosophical essays on the history of philosophy, and
which endeavour rather to illustrate the general spirit than
to detail the particular opinions of the philosophers, there
is nothing valuable on this subject to be found in the lite¬
rature of these countries. Among the learned of his own
country Brucker has never enjoyed a very distinguished
reputation; and the Germans, while they were the most
capable of discovering his defects, have had the honour of
roost sedulously and successfully endeavouring to supply
them. We are indebted to them especially for many va¬
luable treatises on the history of particular portions of
philosophy, m which we find at length a profound reason-
rog united to an extensive and original erudition. The
works of Meiners, Fulleborn, Tiedmann, and perhaps
uhle, deserve especially to be distinguished. An under¬
taking, however, which, from the extent of its plan, as well
fi! ^ lability °f its execution, claims particular notice, is
TJ?- °f Philosophy, by Professor Tenneman of Jena.
is work, as far as it is completed, affords us the most
accurate, the most minute, and the most rational view we
ye possess of the different systems of philosophy, in their
ro rinsic and relative bearings. The author has not only
k'ven us a minute analysis of each system, the result of a
pro ound and familiar study of the original philosopher,
u ie has also displayed to us his philosophy, divested
0 1 s peculiarities, and compared with others by a gene-
ia and impartial review. The main defect of this work,
R iff81 nj re^erence ,t0 readers not German, is, that, like
u e and the other disciples of Kant, he has taken the criti-
cal philosophy as the vantage-ground from which to make
his survey of all former systems. Thus the continual re-
ference to the peculiar doctrines of the school of Kant,
and the adoption of its language, render it frequently im¬
possible for those who have not studied the dark works of
this modern Heraclitus to understand the strictures of Ten-
neSDnTT°^^e s^s.tems even of Aristotle or Plato, (v.v.)
BRUGES, a city, the capital of the province of East
rianders, and of the circle, containing seven cantons and
seventy-six communes, to which it gives the same name,
in tie Netherlands. At one period it was the greatest
commercial city in Europe; and though, from political
events, its importance has been reduced, the remains of
its ancient wealth are visible in the houses and public
buildings. It stands on the canal which passes from Ghent
to the sea at Ostend, and which is navigable for large flat-
bottomed barks. It is still a manufacturing city of con¬
siderable industry, producing a variety of goods in linen,
woollen, and silk, and furnishing many articles, chiefly for
home consumption. The land around it is brought to the
highest possible state of cultivation, and furnishes ample
stores of necessaries to the dense population. The churches
especially that of Notre Dame, are objects of curiosity to
all visitors, as well as the Gothic town-house and the hall
of justice. The inhabitants are about 35,000. Lonff. 3
7. 47. E. Lat. 51. 12. 40. N. b
BRUIN, John de, professor of natural philosophy and
mathematics at Utrecht, was born at Gorcum in 1620.
Fie had uncommon skill in dissecting animals, and was a
great lover of experiments. He also made observations
in astronomy. He published dissertations De vi altrice ;
De corporum gravitate et levitate ; De cognitione Dei natu-
rah ; De lucis causa et origine, &c. He had a dispute
with Isaac Vossius, to whom he wrote a letter, printed at
Amsterdam in 1693, wherein he criticises Vossius’s book
De Natura et Proprietate Lucis, and strenuously maintains
the hypothesis of Descartes. He died in 1675, after he
had been professor twenty-three years; and his funeral
oration was pronounced four days after by M. Gnevis.
BRUM ALIA, in Roman Antiquity, festivals of Bacchus,
celebrated twice a year, the first on the 12th of the ka¬
lends of March, and the other on the 18th of the kalends
of November. They were instituted by Romulus, who,
during these feasts, used to entertain the senate. Among
the heathen festivals which the primitive Christians were
much inclined to observe, Tertullian mentions the brumae
or brumalia.
BRUMOY, Peter, a learned Jesuit, born at Rouen in
1668, distinguished himself in his youth by his talents for
the belles lettres; and during his whole life was beloved
for his probity, his virtue, and the goodness of his heart.
He wrote many works, the most considerable of which is
his Theatre of the Greeks. He died at Paris in 1742.
BRLN, t harles ee, was descended of a family of dis¬
tinction in Scotland, and born in the year 1619. His fa¬
ther was a statuary by profession. He discovered, it is
said, such an early inclination for painting, that at three
years of age he used to take coals, and design on the
hearths and sides of the chimney, only by the light of the
fire; and at twelve he drew the picture of his uncle so
well that it still passes for a fine piece. His father being
employed in the gardens at Sequier, and having brought
his son along with him, the chancellor of that name took
a liking to him, and placed him with Simon Vouet, an
eminent painter. He was afterwards sent to Fountainbleau
to copy some of Raphael’s pieces. The chancellor sent him
next to Italy, and supported him there for six years. Le
Brun, in his return, met with the celebrated Poussin, by
whose conversation he greatly improved himself in his art,
and contracted a friendship with him which terminated
611
Bruges
II
Brim.
612 B II IT
Brunn only with their lives. A painting of St Stephen, which he
II finished in 1651, raised his reputation to the highest pitch.
BninQ. goon after this, the king, upon the representation of M.
Colbert, made him his first painter, and conferred on him
the order of St Michael. His majesty employed two
hours every day to see him work while he was painting
the family of Darius at Fontainebleau. About the year
1662 he began his five large pieces of the history of Alex¬
ander the Great, in which he is said to have set the. ac¬
tions of that famous conqueror in a more glorious light
than Quintus Curtius has done in his history. He pro¬
cured several advantages for the royal academy of paint¬
ing and sculpture at Paris, and formed the plan of another
for the students of his own nation at Rome. There was
scarcely any thing done for the advancement of the fine
arts in which he was not consulted. It was through the
interest of M. Colbert that the king gave him the direc¬
tion of all his works, particularly of his royal manufactory
at the Gobelins, where he had a handsome house with a
genteel salary assigned to him. He was also made direc¬
tor and chancellor of the royal academy, and showed the
greatest desire to encourage the fine arts in France. He
was endowed with a vast inventive genius, which extend¬
ed itself to arts of every kind ; and he was well acquainted
with the manners and history of all nations. Besides his
extraordinary talents, his manners were so polished, and
his address so pleasing, that he attracted the regard and
affection of the whole court of France, where, by the
places and pensions conferred on him by the king’s libe¬
rality, he made a very considerable figure. Le Brun was
the author of two treatises, one on physiognomy, and the
other on the different characters of the passions. Fie died
at Paris in 1690.
BRUNDUSIUM, or Bhundisium. See Brindisi.
BRUNN, a circle in the Austrian province of Moravia,
extending over 1815 square miles, or 1,116,600 acres. It
comprehends thirteen cities, with their respective suburbs,
fifty-six market-towns, 649 villages, and 52,143 houses.
The inhabitants amounted in the year 1823 to 354,175.
The northern part of the circle is a portion of the Moravian
mountain range, which yields abundant mineral riches.
Between the mountains the land is highly productive in
corn and cattle. It is the chief manufacturing district of
the imperial dominions, and produces good woollen, linen,
and cotton goods of all descriptions. The city of Brunn
is the capital of the circle of that name, as well as of the
province of Moravia. It stands at the junction of the river
Zwittawa with the Schwartza. It is fortified, but in too
weak and ancient a way to be now defensible, and the ci¬
tadel, from neglect, is falling to decay. The situation is
very picturesque, and the buildings are magnificent, but the
streets rather narrow. It is on the whole the most pleas¬
ing city in the Austrian dominions. Its trade is very ex¬
tensive. Its manufactures are chiefly fine woollen and
linen goods; it is also the principal mart for the exchange
of the commodities of the south and north of Europe, and
is benefited by the excellent roads through it to Vienna
and Italy on the one hand, and to Poland, Prussia, and
Saxony on the other. The increase of inhabitants has
been rapid. In the year 1814 they were 25,760, and in
the year 1827 they amounted to 33,350. Long. 16. 30.
30. E. Eat. 49. 11. 32. N.
BRUNO, Jordano, was born at Nola, in the kingdom
of Naples, and about the year 1582 began to call in ques¬
tion some of the tenets of the Romish church, which oc¬
casioned his retiring to Geneva; but after two years stay
there he expressed his aversion to Calvinism in such a
manner that he was expelled the city. After having staid
some time at Lyons, Toulouse, and Paris, he came to Lon¬
don, and continued two years in the house of M. Castle-
B R U
nau, the French ambassador. He was very well received Brun
by Queen Elizabeth and the politer part of the court. His I
principal friends were Sir Philip Sidney and Sir Fulk Gre- ®rus i.
ville. With these and some others of their club Bruno ’"'y
held assemblies; but as they treated of subjects of a very
delicate nature, which could not suit the taste or capacity
of every body, they kept the door always shut, and none
but select persons were admitted into their company. At
Sir Philip’s request he composed his Spaccio della Bestia
Triumphante, which was printed in 8vo, 1584, and dedi¬
cated to that gentleman. From England he went to Wit-
temberg, and thence to Prague, where he printed several
tracts, in which he openly avowed atheistical principles.
After visiting some other towns in Germany, he made a
tour to Venice, where he was apprehended by order of
the inquisition, tried, condemned, and, refusing to retract,
burnt at the stake on the 9th February 1600.
BRUNSWICK, Duchy of. See Germany.
Brunswick, a city, the capital of the duchy of the same
name, in Germany. It is situated on the small navigable
river Oker, which joins the Aller, and then falls into the
Weser. It is an open place, the fortifications having been
demolished and converted into public walks. It is a well-
built city, on a fruitful plain. The palace, in the ancient
German style, is large, inelegant, and incommodious.
There are eleven churches, of which nine, including the
cathedral, are allotted to the Lutheran worship, and one
each to the Catholics and the Reformed. The number of
inhabitants in 1827 was 36,200. These find employment
partly in the trades and professions arising from the seat
of government, partly from the trade created by the great
fairs annually held, but chiefly from manufactures of al¬
most every kind of commodity, the principal of which is
perhaps that of brewing beer and vinegar, and the distil¬
lation of corn. There are several cabinets, museums, lib¬
raries, and collections of pictures belonging to or under
the patronage of the duke. Long. 10. 26. 22. E. Lat. 52.
15. 35. N.
Brunswick, a post-town of Maine, in Cumberland
county, United States. It is situated on the south-west
side of the Androscoggin, and contains 2931 inhabitants.
Long. 69. 55. W. Lat. 43. 53. N.
BRUNTISLAND. See Burntisland.
BRUSH, an assemblage of hairs and hogs’ bristles, fas¬
tened in the holes of a ■wooden handle or board, pierced
for that purpose, and serving to cleanse divers bodies by
rubbing therewith. The manner of making brushes is by
folding the hair or bristle in two, bringing it by means of
a packthread, which is engaged in the fojd, through the
holes with which the wood is pierced all over, and after¬
wards fastening it therein with glue. When the holes are
. thus filled, the ends of the hair are cut to make the sur¬
face even.
Shearmen’s Brush is made of wild boars’ bristles, and
serves to lay the wool or nap of cloth, after shearing it
for the last time.
Brush, among painters, a larger and coarser kind ot
pencil, made of hogs’ bristles, wherewith to lay the colours
on their large pieces. The Chinese painter’s brush con¬
sists of the stalk of a plant, whose fibres being fretted at
both ends, and tied again, serve for a brush.
BRUSSELS, a city, one of the capitals of the kingdom
qf the Netherlands, and, till the separation ot Hollan
with Belgium, alternately with the Hague the seat o
the government. It is also the capital ot the piovince
of South Brabant, and of the circle, containing ten can
tons and a hundred and twenty-nine communes, whic
takes its name. It is built partly on a plain through w ic
the river Senne runs, and partly on the side ot a 1
which rises above it. The buildings in the lower pai 0
ate. old town are larger, and, though of antique forms, hand-
:~J some; but the upper or new town is one of the most
splendid collection of buildings to be found on any part of
the Continent. The park, near to which are the royal
palace, the houses of the legislature, and the dwelling of
persons of the first rank, is a very pleasing object. &The
most remarkable buildings are the town-house, with a beau¬
tiful tower three hundred and sixty-five feet in height the
theatre, the arsenal, the church of St Gudule, the cathe¬
dral, and the church of the Capuchins. Brussels is a
manufacturing city of great activity. It has long been
celebrated for its lace and its carpets; but though the de¬
mand for these goods has rather diminished, there have
been substituted others whose demands exceed theirs,
yery extensive establishments have been formed for
making cotton goods of all kinds, woollens of a superior
quality, hats, paper, glass, soap, starch, chemical prepara¬
tions, and various minute articles for dress and furniture
There are, besides, distilleries, refineries for salt and sugar'
and several large breweries. Coach-making is a very im¬
portant branch of industry, and all kinds of carriages are
elegantly built. This trade employs many hundreds of work¬
men. there are in Brussels establishments for the pro¬
motion of learning, science, and the fine arts, with collec¬
tions of paintings, and a valuable library of 120,000 vo¬
lumes. With the exception of London, no city in Europe
has made so great progress, either in extent, in wealth,
eml>f1''s'’m,<!nt-s,-as BrusseIs- The population in
1814 was 72,000, but it is now 100,000. Lono-. 4 16 10 F
Lat. 50. 59. 50. N. S
brute.
kindRUTE’ a general name for a11 animals except man-
Among brutes the monkey kind bear the nearest resem¬
blance to man, both in the external shape and internal
structure, but more in the former than in the latter. In
tie monkey kind the highest and the nearest approach to
the likeness of man is the ourang outang, or Homo Syl-
Of Mammalia.) The structure and economy
of brutes make the objects of what is called Comparative
Anatomy. (See vol. iii. page 1, of this work.)
.Philosophers have been much puzzled about the essen-
ial characteristics of brutes, by which they may be dis-
inguished from man. Some define a brute to be an ani¬
mal not risible, or a living creature incapable of laughter •
others call them mute animals. The Peripatetics allowed
them a sensmve power, but denied them a rational one.
lie Platonists allowed them reason and understanding,
though in a degree less pure and refined than that of men.
i^actantius allots every thing to brutes which men have,
except a sense of religion; and even this has been ascribed
iem by some sceptics. Descartes maintained that
orutes are mere inanimate machines, absolutely destitute
twTlwu .reaso?’ kut of all thought and perception, and
mat all their actions are only consequences of the exqui-
murl?nUam.r °i;their b0dies- This syst™' howeve?, is
men older than Descartes; it was borrowed by him from
vjomez Pereira, a Spanish physician, who employed thirty
years m composing a treatise which he entitled Antoniana
from the Christian names of his father and
nntT\ 14 WaS Pub.lished in 1554; but his opinion had
i 6 1f]noui; gaining partizans, nor even of being re¬
in L ’ 80 t ^ died with him. Even Pereira seems not
if l^aV,e ,een tbe inventor of this notion, something like
frnmVpig k66!1 held by several of the ancients, as we find
thVr 1U arch, and St Augnstin. Others who rejected
enfln,ar!fSian, hypothesis, have maintained that brutes are
and i ff.Wltb •a soul essentially inferior to that of men;
4ml °i "f S°a SOme ha7e avowed immortality, others not.
jp astW ln a treatise published by one Bougeant, a
j entitled A Philosophical Amusement on the Lan-
?P“SfrdS:he that tl,eyare a,iimated byevii
The opinion of Descartes was probably invented or at
least adopted, by him, to refute two great objections : one
against the immortality of the souls of brutes, if they were
GodWfn ^ ^ ; 6 °the,r against the goodness of
God, m suffering creatures who had never sinned to be
subjected to so many miseries. The arguments in favour
of it may be stated as follow : 1. It is certain that a num¬
ber of human actions are merely mechanical, because they
are done imperceptibly to the agent, and without any df-
lection from the will, which are to be ascribed to the im¬
pression of objects and the primordial disposition of the
machine, wherein the influence of the soul has no share •
of winch number are all habits of the body acquired from
the reiteration of certain actions. In ail such circum¬
stances human beings are no better than automata. 2.
ihere are some natural movements so involuntary that
we cannot restrain them; for example, that admirable
mechanism ever on the watch to preserve an equilibrium
when we stoop, bend, or incline our bodies in any way,
and when we walk upon a narrow plank. 3. The natural
iking for, and antipathy against, certain objects, which in
children precede the power of knowing and discriminating
them, and which sometimes in grown persons triumph
over all the efforts of reason, are all phenomena to be ac¬
counted for from the wonderful mechanism of the body
and are so many cogent proofs of that irresistible influ¬
ence which objects have on the human frame. 4. Every
one knows how much our passions depend on the degree
of motion into which the blood is put, and the reciprocal
impressions caused by the animal spirits between the
icait and brain, that are so closely connected by their
neives ; and if such effects may be produced by such sim-
ple mechanical means as the mere increase of motion in
the blood, without any direction of the will, we are not to
wonder at the actions of brutes being the effects only of
a refined mechanism, without thought or perception. 5.
A further proof will arise from a consideration of the many
wonderful effects which even the ingenuity of men has
contrived to bring about by mechanical means; the an-
droide, for instance, of Mr Kempell, which played at chess.
INow it is not to be questioned but that the mechanism of
the body of the meanest animal infinitely surpasses that of
Mr Kempell s machine ; and what can be the consequence
of this, but that the actions of that animal must be pro-
portionably more surprising than those of the wooden
chess player ? See Anduoides and Automaton.:
4 he above is a short abstract of all the arguments that
are brought in favour of the Cartesian system ; but they
are evidently very far from being conclusive. They are
.uencient, in the first place, because, though we allow them
in the utmost extent the Cartesians themselves can de-
sire, they prove only the possibility of brutes being inani¬
mate, and that the power of God actually could produce
such and such actions from inanimate machines ; but that
he has actually done so, they have not the least tendency
to prove. In the second place, the Cartesian argument is
insufficient, because it has no limits, and knows not where
to stop. By the same method of arguing every man
might prove his neighbour to be an inanimate machine ; for
though every individual be conscious of his own thoughts,
he is not so of those of his neighbours; and it no more ex¬
ceeds the power of God to cause an inanimate machine to
perform the actions of a man than those of a beast. Neither
are the two objections which the hypothesis is calculated
to answer to be at all admitted as arguments in its favour.
They are, 1. That if we allow brutes to have souls, they
must be immaterial, and consequently immortal; and, 2.
It seems a contradiction to the goodness of God to think
613
Brute.
614
Brute.
BRUTE.
that he should subject innocent creatures to such a mul¬
titude of evils as we see the brute creation endure in this
world. The first of these is productive of no bad conse¬
quences to us, though it should be granted; and if it is
supposed that the brute creatures are really immortal, the
second objection vanishes, because, in the enjoyment of
endless felicity, all temporary afflictions, how severe soever,
must be swallowed up as though they had nevei been.
As to a positive proof on the other side, namely, that brutes
are really endowed with sensation and consciousness,
there is undoubtedly the same evidence for the sensibility
of brutes that there is for that of mankind. We see brutes
avoid pain as much as we do; and we likewise see them
seek for pleasure, and express their happiness in the en¬
joyment of certain things by signs not at all equivocal.
Therefore, though we grant the possibility of all this being
the effect of mere mechanism, yet, as we are conscious
that in ourselves similar effects are produced by a sen¬
tient principle, we have all the reason in the world to con¬
clude that in brutes they are likewise derived from a prin¬
ciple of sensation, especially seeing we know of no kind
of mechanism in any other part of nature which produces
any thing like the effects just mentioned; and until we
see that a mechanism of this kind does take place in some
part of nature, we have no reason to suppose it in any.
As to those actions of the human body in which it seems
to move spontaneously, like an automaton, without the
direction of the mind or will, it is almost superfluous to
observe, that they were not performed in this manner ori¬
ginally, but required very great exertions of the will and
intellectual faculty before the body could be brought to
perform them easily.; so that from these nothing can be
inferred. Add to this, that divine revelation sets forth to
us in many places the brute creation as objects of mercy,
which could not be done without the highest absurdity, if
they were not really capable of feeling pleasure and pain
as well as we.
The most rational opposers of the Cartesian scheme
maintain that brutes are endowed with a principle of sen¬
sation as well as we, though of an inferior nature to ours.
Great disputes, however, have arisen on this subject, some
maintaining that the soul of brutes is merely sensitive,
and that they are altogether destitute of reflection and
understanding; others, that they not only reason, but
make a better use of it than men do. That the brutes
are endowed only with sensation, and totally destitute of
all power of reflection, or even reasoning, is what can by
no means be maintained on good grounds ; neither can it
be asserted that they act entirely from instinct or a blind
propensity to certain things without knowing why or
wherefore. In numberless instances, needless to be men¬
tioned here, but which will readily occur to every reader,
it is evident that education will get the better of many of
the natural instincts of brutes, which could never be the
case were they absolutely incapable of reasoning. On the
other hand, it is equally certain that they are by no means
capable of education in the same degree that men are,
neither are the rational exertions of beasts at all to be
compared even with those of the meanest savages. One
remarkable instance of this is in the use of the element of
fire. The most savage nations have known how to make
this element subservient to their purposes; or if some
have been found who have been entirely ignorant of its
existence, they have quickly learned its uses on seeing it
employed by others; but though many of the brute crea¬
tures are delighted with warmth, and have opportunities
every day of seeing how fire is supplied with fuel, and
thereby preserved, it never was known that one of them
attempted to preserve a fire by this means. This shows a
strange defect of rationality, unaccountable upon any other
supposition than that the soul or sentient principle of brutes
is somehow or other inferior in its nature to that of man;
but still it is a sentient principle, capable of perceptions as
quick as our own, and in many instances much more so.
Father Bougeant supports his opinion of the spirits of
brute creatures being devils in the following manner:—
Having proved at large that beasts naturally have under¬
standing, he says, “ Reason naturally inclines us to be¬
lieve that beasts have a spiritual soul; and the only thing
that opposes this sentiment is the consequences that might
be inferred from it. If brutes have a soul, that soul must
be either matter or spirit; it must be one of the two, and
yet you dare affirm neither. You dare not say it is mat¬
ter, because you must then necessarily suppose matter
to be capable of thinking; nor will you say that it is spi¬
rit, this opinion bringing with it consequences contrary to
the principles of religion; and this, among others, that
man would differ from beasts only by the degrees of plus
and minus, which would demolish the very foundation of
all religion. Therefore, if I can elude all these conse¬
quences ; if I can assign to beasts a spiritual soul without
striking at the doctrines of religion, it is evident that my
system, being moreover the most agreeable to reason, is
the only warrantable hypothesis. Now I shall, and can
do it, with the greatest ease imaginable. I even have
means, by the same method, to explain many very obscure
passages in the holy Scripture, and to resolve some very
great difficulties which are not well confuted. This we
shall unfold in a more particular manner.
“ Religion teaches us that the devils, from the very
moment they had sinned, were reprobate, and that they
were doomed to burn for ever in hell; but the church has
not yet determined whether they do actually endure the
torments to which they are condemned. It may then be
thought that they do not yet suffer them, and that the exe¬
cution of the verdict brought against them is reserved for
the day of the final judgment. Now, what I pretend to infer
from hence is, that, till doomsday comes, God, in order
not to suffer so many legions of reprobate spirits to be of
no use, has distributed them through the several spaces
of the world, to serve the designs of his providence, and
make his omnipotence to appear. Some continuing in
their natural state, busy themselves in tempting men, in
seducing and tormenting them, either immediately, as
Job’s devil, and those that lay hold of human bodies, or
by the ministry of sorcerers or phantoms. These wicked
spirits are those whom the Scripture calls the powers oj
darkness, or the powers of the air. God, with the others,
makes millions of beasts of all kinds, which serve for the
uses of men, which fill the universe, and cause the wis¬
dom and omnipotence of the Creator to be admired. By
that means I can easily conceive, on the one hand, how
the devils can tempt us; and, on the other, how beasts
can think, know, have sentiments, and a spiritual soul,
without any way striking at the doctrines of religion. I
am no longer surprised to see them have forecast, me¬
mory, and judgment. I should rather have occasion to
wonder at their having no more, since their soul very
likely is more perfect than ours. But I discover the rea¬
son of this; it is because, in beasts as well as in ourselves,
the operations of the mind are dependent on the materia
organs of the machine to which it is united; and those
organs being grosser and less perfect than in us, it o
lows that the knowledge, the thoughts, and the other spi¬
ritual operations of the beasts, must of course be less per
feet than ours; and if these proud spirits know then own
dismal state, what a humiliation must it be to them t u
to see themselves reduced to the condition of beas s.
But whether they know it or not, so shameful a degra
tion is still, with regard to them, the primary effect o i
brute.
^divine vengeance I just mentioned; it is an anticipated to do evil, to disconcevt the geneva, otder, to commit
Having mentioned the prejudices against this hypothe- ral h^dceVmrtn00^^ n°/10" We have of natu'
sis, such particularly as the pleasure which peonle of stori nm U " . ^ 1 Principles of virtue. What mon¬
sense and religion take in beasts and birds, especially all iustioe to ^ ? Wtk °.riS!nally created for order and
sorts of domestic animals, he proceeds, « Do we lnvP nott l /?Eg ^' • ?hlS 1S’,m Sood Part’ what formerly
beasts for their own sakes ? No.P As they are altol W Cn ' f thfe Mamcheans that there were of necessity
strangers to human society, they can have no other an that th^h °t 1 lingS’ 0"e Sood and the other bad ; and
pointment but that of being useful and amusing And a In f § "T 1i°t ^ W°I'k of the good principle:
lhat care we whether it be a devil ot any oX/creafute "Tl .to131;' ^ .sha11 we that
that amuses us? The thought of it, fa/from shocking ties so Ver/ °tUt ° t.heT’ands °/their Creator with quali-
pleases me mightily. I with gratitude admire the frond5 r f l ianSe ‘ ^ nian 18 so very wicked and cor-
ness of the Creatot, who gaveme so manyZle devlk to Z C 18 bef USe/ie throuSh sin P^verted
serve and amuse me. If I am told that these poor devils Of t AW.natuie that God had given him at his creation,
are doomed to suffer eternal tortures, I admire God’s de- t il- "°l ien ,^e must W on®». either that God has
crees, but I have no manner of share in that dreadful sen of T ‘ C lg 1 • ln malang beasts so vicious as they are, and
tence; I leave the execution of it to tl„dgn'ud'e • X/thatTheThat fk^^ " fameful in
and, notwithstanding this, I live with my little (fevils a"s I has pevlerted their primidve naturT’ °nSln Sin’ WhiCh
do with a multitude of people, of whom relip-inn Info,-me <4rn a ^ imLlvt aatuie.
me that a great number shSl be damned. But the cure cess to tlmmind .prop°Sltlons finds very difficult ac-
of a prejudice is not to be effected in a momem i f 2 • d’ Z/8 an express contradiction to the
done by time and reflection/give I Zve Zen li/htlv Go/’s Sa/l/hat whatevf came out of
to touch upon this difficulty, !n order to observe nve { t* a‘ ‘ 6 “i"6 0,,,.,tI'e creat!o" of *he "orld wos
important thing to you. 7 observe a very good, yea very good. What good can there be in a
pgalilliS lPiSP§§
silliiiiss sEBp|=iiii
t„?t„rrvh-,mt£eb’reH!:ac“u“!r^
Bz “ — v=o h^ubp ^
miser'^'J’^lTd6^,’^/ 1’ e|P^,e by ^uasts0?^ beasts'is’no^idginaVsfnf'it m a°pm'sona^'cri*me,rwIiichnhas
This is ’in anv ’ X greatei 1 ian .tllose endured by men. corrupted and perverted their nature in its whole sub-
terv whnrp// S? ’ an lnco“prehensible mys- stance; hence all the vices and corruption we observe in
th/syste/ l pTonos? n^0 bC COnce'Ved from ^iem’ though theJ can be no longer criminal, because
• J p Pose- The rebellious spirits deserve a God, by irrevocably reprobating them has at the same
fha ttr S-,1i m0rfe.ri|rus’ and llappy it i« for them time divested then/of theirZefty/ ’ Same
ness is -<• pVniflpient 18 deferred. In a word, God’s good- These quotations contain the strength of Father Bou-
can we hav/withoT,r hims^f 18 Juflfled ’ ^ what right geant’s hypothesis, which also has had its followers ; but
mere diversion to ZZw688/^/1111 1 le, ,Way °f th.e replT t0 1118 very obvious. Beasts, though remarkably
if God hod nnt ’ f / k. 7aT the °f millions of beasts, mischievous, are not completely so ; they are in many in¬
sensible /s / au1thonz®d us 80 ^ do ? And beasts being as stances capable of gratitude and love, which devils cannot
. XdmiiGod hXX-^11 and dfth’ b0w c™ld a jU8t po*sibly be. The very same passions which are implanted
not so manv Xhvvfrf/ ^ ^ PnvileSe’lf they were in the brutes exist in the human nature; and if we choose
“ But h/f m Ct .of the dlv,ne vengeance r to argue from the existence of those passions, and the as-
greate conSennPni/°R m0rf convincing’ a»d of cendency they at some times have over mankind, we may
cious canse(luence- Beasts by nature are extremely vi- say with as great justice that the souls of men are devils,
are not Z/ u? • iat, they1never ®!n.’ because they as that the souls of brutes are devils. All that can reason-
make tl//d// the °n y condition wanting to ably be inferred from the greater prevalency of the malig-
prev ai-P nr neTvr voraca)US birds and beasts of nant passions among the brutes than among men, is, that
cies do e; ^any insects of one and the same spe- the former have less rationality than men; and accord-
eratpfnl r i°ne another* Gats are perfidious and un- ingly it is found*that among savages, who exercise their
beasts °n ey^ ‘Ue mischievous, and dogs envious. All reason less than other men, every species of barbarity is
not tn gciiera are jealous and revengeful to excess, practised without being deemed a crime,
and at t/f1 10n many atber vices we observe in them; On the present subject there is a very ingenious trea-
ciou~ tli G fame tlme t iat ‘bey are by nature so very vi- tise in German, published by Professor Bergman, under
to resist f6’ Sfy ^e’ npltber the liberty nor any helps the title of “ Researches designed to show what the brute
tions Thev ‘nr hui;rieS ''bem into so many bad ac- animals certainly are not, and also what they probably
615
Brute.
rp.,   — mwiiittiB s.cxirtuiij' a/e //at, ttnu aibu wmtl mey piODUDlJ7
ey aie, accoruing to the schools, necessitated are.” That they are not machines, he proves with more
616
BRUTE.
Brute, detail than seemed necessary for refuting a hypothesis
which would equally tend to make us all machines. It is
certain that the half-reasoning elephant cannot be deem¬
ed a machine by us, from any other consideration than
that he goes upon four feet, while we go upon two; and
he might as well take us for mere machines, because we
go upon two feet, while he goes upon four.
But if animals are not mere machines, what are they ?
Manifestly sensitive beings, with an immaterial principle ;
and thinking or reasoning beings to a certain degree. In
certain classes of animals this appears evident to our au¬
thor, who seems to have observed with great sagacity and
attention their various operations and proceedings, their
ways and means, &c. He thinks it impossible to deduce
this variety of action, in any animals, if we except those
of the lowest classes in the gradation of intelligence, from
a general and uniform instinct. For they accommodate
their operations to times and circumstances. They com¬
bine ; they choose the favourable moment; they avail
themselves of the occasion, and seem to receive instruc¬
tion by experience. Many of their operations announce
reflection : the bird repairs a shattered nest, instead of con¬
structing instinctively a new one; the hen who has been
robbed of her eggs changes her place in order to lay the
remainder with more security; the cat discovers both
care and artifice in concealing her kittens. Again, it is
evident that on many occasions animals know their faults
and mistakes, and correct them; they sometimes contrive
the most ingenious methods of obtaining their ends, and
when one method fails have recourse to another; and
they have, without doubt, a kind of language for the mu¬
tual communication of their ideas. How is all this to be
accounted fox', says our author, unless we suppose them
endowed with the powers of perceiving, thinking, x*emem-
bering, comparing^ and judging ? They have these powers,
indeed, in a degree inferior to that in which they are pos¬
sessed by the human species, and form classes below them
in the graduated scale of intelligent beings. But still it
seems to our author unreasonable to exclude them from
the place which the principles of sound philosophy, and
facts ascertained by constant observation, assign to them
in the great and diversified sphere of life, sensation, and
intelligence. He does not, however, consider them as
beings whose actions are directed to moral ends, nor con¬
sequently as accountable and proper subjects for reward
or punishment in a futui’e world.
That brute animals possess reflection and sentiment,
and are susceptible of the kindly as well as the mascible
passions, independently of sexual attachment and natural
affection, is evident from the numei’ous instances of affec¬
tion and gratitude daily observable in different animals,
particularly the dog. Of these and other sentiments, such
as pride, and even a sense of glory, the elephant exhibits
proofs equally surprising and indubitable.
As to the natural affection of brutes, says an ingenious
writei', “ the more I x'eflect on it the more I am astonish¬
ed at its effects. Nor is the violence of this affection more
wonderful than the shortness of its duration. Thus every
hen is in her turn the virago of the yard, in proportion to
the helplessness of her brood; and will fly in the face of
a dog ox a sow, in defence of those chickens which in a
few weeks she will drive before her with relentless cruelty.
This affection sublimes the passions, quickens the inven¬
tion, and sharpens the sagacity of the brute creation. Thus
a hen, just become a mother, is no longer that placid bird
she used to be ; but, with feathers standing on end, wings
hovering, and clocking note, she runs about like one pos¬
sessed. Dams will throw themselves in the way of the
greatest danger, in order to avert it from their progeny.
ms a partridge will tumble along before a sportsman, in
order to di’aw away the dogs from her helpless covey. In
the time of nidification the most feeble birds will assault
the most rapacious. All the hirundines of a village are
up in ax-ms at the sight of a hawk, whom they will perse¬
cute till he leaves that district. A very exact observer
has often remarked, that a pair of ravens nestling in the
rock of Gibraltar would suffer no vulture or eagle to rest
near their station, but would drive them from the hill with
amazing fury; even the blue thrush, at the season of
bx-eeding, would dart out from the clefts of the rocks to
chase away the kestrel or the sparrow-hawk. If you stand
near the nest of a bird that has young, she will not be in¬
duced to betray them by an inadvertent fondness, but will
wait about at a distance with meat in her mouth for an hour
togethex*. The fly-catcher builds every year in the vines
that grow on the walls of my house. A pair of these little
birds had one year inadvertently placed their nest on a
naked bough, perhaps in a shady time, not being aware of
the inconvenience that followed ; but a hot sunny season
coming on before the brood was half fledged, the reflec¬
tion of the wall became insupportable, and must inevitably
have destroyed the tender young, had not affection sug¬
gested an expedient, and prompted the parent-birds to
hover over the nest all the hotter hours, while with wings
expanded and mouths gaping for breath they screened off
the heat from their suffering offspring. A further instance
I once saw of notable sagacity in a willow-wren, which had
built in a bank in my fields. This bird a friend and my¬
self had observed as she sat in her nest; but were parti¬
cularly careful not- to disturb her, though we saw she eyed
us with some degree of jealousy. Some days after, as we
passed that way, we were desirous of remarking how this
brood went on ; but no nest could be found, till I happen¬
ed to take up a large bundle of long green moss, as it were
carelessly thrown over the nest in order to dodge the eye
of any impertinent intruder.” (White’s Natural History
of Sdborne.)
A wonderful spirit of sociality in the brute creation, in¬
dependent of sexual attachment, has been frequently re¬
marked. Many horses, though quiet with company, will
not stay one minute in a field by themselves ; nor can the
strongest fences restrain them. A horse has been known
to leap out at a stable window through which dung was
thrown, after company. Oxen and cows will not fatten by
themselves, but will neglect the finest pasture that is not
recommended by society. It would be needless to in¬
stance sheep, which constantly flock together. But this
propensity seems not to be confined to animals of the same
species.
Even great disparity of kind and size does not always
prevent social advances and mutual fellow-ship. Of this the
following remarkable instance is given in the work above
quoted : “ A very intelligent and observant person has as-
sui’ed me, that in the former part of his life, keeping but
one horse, he happened also on a time to have but One so-
litaxy hen. These two incongruous animals spent much
of their time together in a lonely orchard, where they saw
no creature but each other. By degrees an apparent re¬
gard began to take place between tlxese two sequestered
individuals. The fowl would approach the quadruped
with notes of complacency, rubbing herself gently against
his legs ; while the horse would look down with satisfac¬
tion, and move with the greatest caution and circumspec¬
tion, lest he should trample on his diminutive companion.
Thus by mutual good offices each seemed to console the
vacant hours of the other; so that Milton, when he puts
the following sentiment in the mouth of Adam, seems to
be somewhat mistaken:
%
Much less can bird with beast, or fish with fowl,
So well converse, nor with the ox the ape.”
B R U
ate.
B R U
617
0f Brutus.
To such an instance of attachment between incongruous It has been mnrb i i 4.1 ,
J animals from a spirit of sociality or tile feelings of sym- lano-uatro by u hirl, ,Pt 'vIlet,ler *he brutes have any Brutii
pathy. ™.ay be added the following instance of fondness otier Ir Steter a 1 "’f1 rn!n;'S t0 e!“* - 11
from a different motive, recounted by Mr White, in the cries inortici uo ' “e noise they make consists only of
work already quoted. “ My friend had a little hdpless We are however’t™ little a'cT* f°
leveret brought to him, which the servants fed with milk tual fannlHp« nC ° U 6 acquamted Wltl1 tlle mtellec-
in a spoon; and about the same time his cat kSened, thb p^. Celt^U SThe'0 ^ aWe t0 ,dete™i"e
and the young were dispatched and buried. The hare ed are o-enemllv virn,i ’ ? * t jeir Passions, when excit-
was soon lost, and supposed to be gone the way of most whether &this hn Tl P' U?tlVe of some Pecuhar cry; but
foundlings, or to be killed by some dog or cat. HoweTer to others t onlv?^6? of passion
in about a fortnight, as the master was sitting in his gar- the larynx occasfoned bVlh^m n-0tl™ muTScles of
den in the dusk of the evening, he observed his cat with mpon« nf l-™, • w 1 6 Pps®10n’ 18 w^at we have no
tail erect, trotting towards him, and calling with little elude with c nm.V, miked, from analogy, con-
short inward notes of complacency, such as thly use tt are rLhv kg„“l-reaSOc'’.1tl,ot 60me »f the cries of beasts
wards their kittens, apd something gambling after, which beast is eanihV of f ° '1611 sfnt.lments 1 but whether one
proved to he the leveret, which the cat had supported that design hv »„“! [“adeS'gn’ ‘™d communicating
with her milk, and continued to support with great affec- submit wthe^udgmeni o°f th^reX'aftS gWing"^^^
rivorouTaldVedXZsonr ,mn,8, ^ |hi^’with others, ^^ufK a p^of
“ Why so cruel and sanguinary a beast as a cat, of the that a martin had h'rt built sta f)™10" ,i,K,lllS a nest
ferocious genus of Felis, the murium leo, as Linnams calls for him, possessed himself of it Thf vel7.conve.n,eo|-1y
it, should be affected with any tenderness towards an ani- usurper fn her house c Ld for 1mIn Z l ’ fT8 ''T
mal which is >ts natural prey is not so easy to determine, thousand martins canm fu speed, and aUaeked tC'son
Ibis strange affection probably was occasioned by that row but the Mtp,. i attacked tile spar-
desiderium, those tender maternal feelings, which the loss sentino- onlv hie lir vS )oveie^ on every side, and pre-
of her kittens had awakened in her brfast, and by the wasTnfuffle aS madfthe h^ert^f #f f* ?«*’
complacency and ease she derived to herself from the approach him repent of their temerttt ' Af,"1 'Vh° d“!’St
procuring her teats to be drawn, which were too much of an hour’s comint nil thn I After a quarter
distended with milk, till from habit she became as much sparrow thought he had”ot the better andT^* t
delighted with this foundling as if it had been her real judged that the ma^s faVl^d" htir unSS"
“ Thfs incident is no bad solution of that strange cir- charge; ami eacfof them ir.foXnef TT®? '?• ,tl,e
cumstance which grave historians as well as the poets tempered earth with which theyifake their nests^hey all
assert, of exposed children being sometimes nurtured by at once fell unon the snan-nw ami inplp^ri i • • s> [ney all
female wild beasts that probably had lost their young; for to perish there thouXthev’ennld i • im^.ln tlle nest
11 is "O' O"" wh‘' ■"ore marvellous that UomulL amUte- Cafit t t^inedTa.thTZtSrhtveX
mus, in their infant state, should be nursed by a she-wolf,
than that a poor little sucking leveret should be fostered
and cherished by a bloody grimalkin.”
But besides the different qualities enumerated, besides
reflection and sagacity often in an astonishing degree, and
besides the sentiments and actions prompted by" social or
natural attachments, certain brutes seem on many occa¬
sions inspired with a superior faculty, a kind of presenti¬
ment or second sight as it were, with regard to events
and designs altogether unforeseen by the rational beings
whom they concern. Of the faculty alluded to various in¬
stances will probably consist with the knowledge or the re¬
collection of most readers : we shall therefore only recite
the following, on account of its unquestionable authenti¬
city. At the seat of the Earl of Lichfield, three miles
from Blenheim, there is a portrait in the dining-room, of
hir Henry Lee, by Johnston, with that of a mastiff-dog
which saved his life. It seems a servant had formed the
esign of assassinating his master and robbing the house ;
but the night he had fixed on, the dog, which had never
been much noticed by Sir Henry, for the first time follow¬
ed him up stairs, got under his bed, and could not be got
^'om thence by either master or man : in the dead of night
tie same servant entered the room to execute his horrid
to hatch and concert this design all of them together with¬
out speaking to each other, or without some medium of
communication equivalent to language ?” We refer those
curious in this subject, to a work in two volumes, publish-
ed at Amsterdam, entitled Histoire critique de VAme des
Betes, contenant les sentimens des Philosophes Anciens et ceux
des Modernes sur cette matiere. Par. M. Guer, Avocat.
BRUIII, in Ancient Geography, one of the two penin¬
sulas of Italy (the ancient Calabria being the other);
stretching to the south towards Sicily; bounded by the*
sea on every side except by the isthmus, between the
river Laus and the Thurii, where it is terminated by Lu-
cania ; and inhabited by the Brutii, for whose country the
ancient Romans had no peculiar name, calling both the
people and the country indiscriminately Brutii.
BRUTON, a market-town of the hundred of the same
name, in the county of Somerset, a hundred and nine
miles from London, on the river Brue. It is a well-built
town, at which the quarter-sessions for the county are
held. Some silk mills have been established here, and some
trade is carried on in stockings and woollen goods. The
market is held on Saturday. The inhabitants amounted in
i801 to 163!, in 1811 to 1536, and in 1821 to 1858.
BRUTUS, or Brute, according to the old exploded
, 7 • TV ^iJiBuruo, or brute, according to the old exploded
sprJ a b 7as sei.zed bJ the d°g> and being history of this country by Geoffroy of Monmouth, was the
cured, confessed his intentions. Upon what hypothesis first king of Britain. He is said to have been the son of
suefl ac?oant *or a degree of foresight and penetration Sylvius, who was the son of Ascanius the son of vEneas,
diffi l! i' °r i 11 be suSSested’ as a solution of the and born in Italy. Killing his father by chance, he fled into
Xat ’ t lat r dog may PossibIy become capable in a Greece, where he took prisoner King Padrosus, who kept
rea«nXeaSU1je °f .understanding human discourse, and of the Trojans in slavery, hut released him on condition of
insta accordingly ; and that, in the present his providing ships for the Trojans to quit the land. Being
I 0Q.. Ce’ . e Vl]lam. had either uttered his design in soli- advised by the oracle to sail west beyond Gaul, he, after
he •°r ™Parted 11 t0 an accomplice, in the hearing of some adventures, landed at Totness in Devonshire. Albion
volT WaS tben habited by a remnant of giants, whom Brutus
4 i
618
BUY
BUY
Brutus destroyed. He called the island after his own name, Bri¬
ll tain. He built a city called New Troy, since London ; and
Bryant, jiving reigned there twenty-four years, at his death pai-
celled the island among his three sons: Locrine having
the middle, called Loegria ; Camber, Wales; and Alba-
nach, Scotland.
Brutus, Lucius Junius, the avenger of the rape ot Lm-
cretia, and founder of the Roman republic, flourished five
hundred years before Christ. See Rome.
Brutus, Marcus, the passionate lover of his country, and
chief conspirator against Caesar, slew himself on losing the
battle of Philippi, forty-two years before Christ. See Rome.
BRUX, a city in the circle of Saatz, and Austrian king¬
dom of Bohemia. It is situated on the river Vila, and
contains a philosophical institution with six professors, four
churches, a monastery, and 2950 inhabitants, who carry on
cotton and mineral acid manufactures.
BRUYERE, John de la, a celebrated French author,
was born at Dourdan in the year 1664. He wrote Cha¬
racters describing the manners of his age, in imitation of
Theophrastus; which characters were not always imagi¬
nary or general, but descriptive, as was well known at the
time, of persons of considerable rank. In the year 1693 he
was by an order of the king chosen a member of the French
Academy, and died in the year 1696. “ The Characters
of Bruyere,” says Voltaire, “ may justly be ranked among
the extraordinary productions of his age. Antiquity fur¬
nishes no examples of such a work. A style rapid, con¬
cise, and nervous ; expression animated and picturesque ;
a use of language altogether new, without offending
against its established rules, struck the public at first;
and the allusions which are crowded in almost every page
completed its success. When La Bruyere showed his
work in manuscript to Malesieux, this last told him that
the book would have many readers, and its author many
enemies. It somewhat sunk in the opinion of men, when
that whole generation whose follies it attacked were pass¬
ed away; yet as it contains many things applicable to all
times and places, it is more than probable that it will
never be forgotten.”
BRYANT, Sir Francis, a soldier, statesman, and a
poet of no inconsiderable fame in his time. In the year
1522, the 14th of Henry VIIL, he attended in a military
capacity the Earl of Surrey in his expedition to the coast
of Brittany, and commanded the troops in the attack of
the town of Morlaix, which he took and burnt. For this
service he was knighted on the spot by the earl. In 1529
he was sent ambassador to France, and the year follow¬
ing to Rome, on account of the king's divorce. He was
gentleman of the privy chamber to king Henry VIII. and
to his successor Edward VI., in the beginning of whose
reign he marched with the protector against the Scots;
and, after the battle of Musselburgh, in which he com¬
manded the light horse, he was made banneret. In 1548 he
was appointed chief governor of Ireland, where he married
the Countess of Ormond. He died soon afterwards, and
was buried at Waterford. He wrote, 1. Songs and Son¬
nets, some of which were printed with those of the Earl
of Surrey and Sir Thomas Wyatt, Lond. 1565; 2. Let¬
ters written from Rome concerning the king’s divorce,
manuscript.
Bryant, Jacob, a profound scholar, mythologist, and
sacred historian, born at Plymouth in 1715. His father
had a place in the customs, and was afterwards stationed
in Kent, where his son was first sent to a provincial school,
from which he was removed to Eton. Here he appears to
have remained till 1736, the date of his election to King’s
College, Cambridge, and he took his degrees of bachelor
and master of arts in 1740 and 1744. He returned to
Eton in the capacity of private tutor to the late Duke of
Marlborough, then Marquis of Blandford; and the good Bj nt
taste which his pupil showed through life, in the protec- ^ -w/
tion of the fine arts, and in the pursuit of science, suffi¬
ciently demonstrated the beneficial influence of his in¬
structor’s example. In 1756 he went to the Continent as
private secretary to the Duke of Marlborough, then mas¬
ter-general of the ordnance and commander-in-chief of
the forces in Germany; and he was rewarded, after his
return, for his various services to the family, by a lucrative
appointment in the ordnance, which allowed him ample
leisure to indulge his literary taste in a variety of refined
investigations, and to exercise his zeal for the cause of re¬
ligion in a multitude of works, calculated for the illustra¬
tion of the Scriptures, and the demonstration of their au¬
thenticity and divine authority.
1. His first publication was entitled Observations and
Inquiries relating to various parts of Ancient History,
containing Dissertations on the wind Euroclydon, and on
the island Melite, together with an account of Egypt in
its most early state, and of the Shepherd Kings, 1767.
In this work he attempts to prove that the Melite on
which St Paul was wrecked was not Malta, but one of the
Illyrian islands in the Adriatic, now called Melede; and
he endeavours to illustrate several points in the early
history of the oriental, and especially of the Aramitic
nations.
2. But his most elaborate performance was his New
System or Analysis of Ancient Mythology, wherein an at¬
tempt is made to divest tradition of fable, and to reduce
truth to its original purity, 3 vols. 4to, 1774, 1776. In
this attempt the author has equally displayed his deep
and extensive learning and his inventive fancy; but it
must be confessed that, on a minute examination, the
work exhibits much more of a poetical imagination than
of a sound judgment; and that, in endeavouring to sub¬
stitute etymological for historical evidence, he has been
completely unsuccessful. Nothing can afford a more sa¬
tisfactory kind of proof than etymology taken on a large
scale, and considered as a mode of tracing the relations of
nations to each other, by the affinities of their languages;
since the accumulation of a multitude of probabilities,
each weak when taken separately, becomes at last equiva¬
lent to absolute certainty. But nothing, on the other
hand, can be more fallacious, or more liable to controversy,
than single etymological inferences, in particular cases,
when one of these slight resemblances is magnified into
a striking likeness, and even an identity, which is then
made the foundation of a magnificent superstructure in
mythology or in history. Mr Richardson has shown, in
the Preface to his Dictionary, how much Mr Bryant was
mistaken in some of his reasoning respecting the signi¬
fication and derivation of particular words ; and even if he
had been more correct in these instances, the conclusions
which he has deduced from his etymologies would by no
means have been perfectly legitimate. Jablonsky seems
to have exhibited one of the strongest examples of this
dangerous abuse of learning, in which he has been fol¬
lowed not only by Mr Bryant, but by several other mo¬
dern writers equally visionary, who have commonly been
very imperfectly acquainted with the languages on which
their conjectures depended, and have been still moie
deficient in that sort of common sense and correct feel¬
ing, confirmed by experience, which constitutes the most
essential part of the qualifications of a critic, and the wan
of which can never be compensated by the most unwea¬
ried labour of a mere mechanical commentator.
3. Some remarks which had been made on particular
passages of Mr Bryant’s work led him to publish A
dication of the Apamean Medal; of the inscription NB »
and of another coin, in the Archceologia, vol. iv. art. * >
buy
yant. 22, 23. 4. He deviated somewhat more widely from the
W usual objects of his researches, and apparently without
any decided advantage over his adversary, in An Address
to Dr Priestley, on the doctrine of philosophical necessity,
8vo, 1780. 5. He also published in the same year Vindi-
cue Flavians, or a vindication of the testimony o-iven bv
Josephus concerning our Saviour, 8vo. y
6. Unfortunately for the credit of his critical discrimi¬
nation in matters of old English literature, Mr Bryant
was the author of Observatio?is on the Poems of Thomas
Rowley, in which the authenticity of these poems is ascer
tamed, 2 vols. 12mo, 1781. If there could be any ex¬
cuse for the commission of forgeries like that of Chatter-
ton, n would be found in their serving as a valuable test
of the degree of confidence which it is justifiable to place
m decrees of the most powerful critics respecting
other questions of a more ambiguous nature
n7! M/ HAT coiy,'ilV“ted to the publication of the
Duke of Marlborough s Collection of Gems, the Latin ex¬
planations contained in the first volume, fol. 1783. 8. He
inserted in the Archeeologia, vii. 387, some Collections on
the Zingara or Gipsey Language, which has been since
sufficiently proved to be one of the many derivatives of
the old Sanscrit. 9. Some time afterwards he published
an anonymous Treatise on the Authenticity of the Scriptures
and the truth of the Christian religion, 1792. 10. This
was succeeded by his Observations upon the Plaques in¬
flicted upon the Egyptians, 8vo, 1794.
11. His opinions respecting the existence of the city of
Iroy, and the veracity of Homer as a historian, raised up
against him a host of powerful adversaries; and in a ques¬
tion of this nature, upon which the decisions of mankind
are so manifestly influenced by their sensibility to poetical
beauty, and their early habits and attachments, a much
more cautious attempt to innovate might easily have been
unsuccessful. Whatever learning and talents may have
been exhibited in this controversy, it will hardly be believed
by an impartial judge, reasoning on the general probabilities
of the case, that Homer intended the actions of his he¬
roes, any more than their genealogies, to be historically
correct; but, at the same time, it will readily be admit¬
ted that he was much more likely to take, for the scene
of his poem, a town that had really existed, and, for its
subject, a traditional report of a war which had actually
been carried on, than to have invented a fabulous city
and an imaginary warfare, without any historical founda¬
tion whatever. Mr Bryant published on this subject Ob¬
servations on a Treatise entitled Description of the Plain
Troy, by Mr de Chevalier, 4to, 1795. 12. A Disserta¬
tion concerning the War of Troy, and the expedition of
Gieeks, as described by Homer; showing that no
such expedition was ever undertaken, and that no such
ctymBhrygm existed; 4to, 1796. 13. Observations on
4to ijggafyon °f Homer> written by J. B. S. Morritt, Esq.
In t^ie mean time, not discontinued his theo-
S?/ a"d had Publishcd an Essay on The Sen-
1797 S ^ 0 '^U(^(EUS concerning the word of God, 8vo,
.. . is, last work was a volume of Dissertations on
Subjects in the Old Testament, which had been
linrl ^ camP^eted thirty years before. The subjects which
of pPf Ocularly attracted his attention were the histories
(lL, a i’ Sampson, and Jonah; and besides Philo Ju-
cmr,8 aiK dosePbus’ be endeavoured to illustrate
some controverted passages of Justin Martyr, as well as
cussion ^ dePartments °f religious and historical dis-
l^its of Mr Bryant’s maturer life were in general
takon i ,e c ^dcntary; although, in his youth, he had
ns lull share in the cultivation of the manly exer-
B U A
619
cises common to Etonians, and had once the Pond fnrH,™ r>
to save, by his proficiency in swimming, the life of Dr ryenmus
Barnard, afterwards provost of Eton. His conversation Buat-
w^as elegant and animated, his manners mild but firm * he NanSa7'
Sed HSelf t0 p,er 0ther,S’ an'1 Mroselfeasily
pleased. He was much courted m society, and his resi¬
dence at Cypenham, near Windsor, was not unfrequently
marded y "k hi-gh>est Possible ra”k- never
vemhpr'isni f,ed I? h!s el«h1ty-nmth year, the 14th No-
If, her 1804, from the immediate consequence of an ac¬
cidental blow. He left his library to King’s College,
having however, previously made some valuable presents
out of it to the king and to the Duke of Marlborough He
also bequeathed L.2000 to the Society for the Propagation
of he Gospel and L.1000 for the use of the superann uated
collegers of Eton school. {Gentlemans Magazine, Ixxiv.
1 nnd 1«19 i-,Nl?hiSS Llterary Anecdotes, iv. 667, 8vo,
pd; ^ Biographical Dictionary, x.) (L. l.)
j 1ENMUS, Manuel, a Greek writer on music, is
supposed to have flourished under the elder Palaologus,
namely about the year of Christ 1120. He wrote three
books of harmonics, the first of which is a kind of commen¬
tary on Euclid, as the second and third are illustrative of
Ptolemy. Meibomius had given the public expectations
f/ atrans atlon °f thls, fl;ork’ but not living to complete
it, Dr Wallis undertook it; and it now forms part of the
third volume of his works, published at Oxford in three vo¬
lumes folio, 1699.
BRZEZANI, a circle in the Austrian province of Ga¬
licia, extending oyer 2316 square miles, or 1,482,240 acres
and comprehending four cities, fourteen towns, 317 vil¬
lages, and 30,371 houses. The inhabitants in 1817 amount¬
ed to 182,300, of whom 11,320 were Jews; but they have
much increased since that period. The district is woody,
but the rest of the land is highly fertile, and produces good
corn, hemp, flax, tobacco, and fruit. The capital is a city
of the same name on the river Lipa, containing a Greek,
an Armmian, and a Catholic church, with 4650 inhabi¬
tants. Long. 24. 35. 40. E. Lat. 49. 30. 25. N.
BUA, an island in the Adriatic Sea, belonging to the
province of Spalatro, in the Austrian kingdom of Dalmatia.
It is situated on the coast, opposite to Trail; is rich in wine,*
oil, and fruit; and contains six populous villages. There
is in it a remarkable well of asphaltum. Lons:. 14. 10 E
Lat. 43. 8. N. 6
BUA1-NANCAY, Louis Gabriel, Count du, was
born of an old family in Normandy on the 2d of March
1732. At an early age he entered into the order of Malta;
a,nd’bJ a fortunate accident, he became acquainted with
the Chevalier f olard, author of the Commentaries on Po¬
lybius, who received him into his house and superintended
Ins education. Folard had a nephew, who was minister
for kranee at different German courts, and under whom
Buat studied history and diplomacy. He was successively
minister for France at llatisbon and Dresden; but after-
waids, becoming disgusted with this career, he retired
from public life in the year 1776. He died at Naneay,
in Berry, on the 18th of September 1787.
Luat was a man of some talents and considerable literary
attainments, but possessing little knowledge of the world ;
which circumstance seems to have in a great measure
disqualified him for public employment. He appears to
have written with great facility; but his style is very un¬
equal. His works are : 1. Tableau du Gouvernement actuel
de VEmpire dAllemagne, translated from the German of
Schmauss, with notes historical and critical, Paris, 1755,
12mo. 2. Les Origines, ou TAncien Gouvernement de la
France, de l'Italic, et de VAllemagne, published at the
Hague, 1757, 4 vols. 12mo. 3. Histoire Anciennedes Peu-
ples de VEurope, Paris, 1772, 12 vols. 12mo. This is the
620
BUG
B U C
Bubastis largest and perhaps the best work of Buat. 4. Les Ele-
II mens de la Politique, ou Recherches sur les vrais Principes
Bucaneer. ^ rEconomic Sociale, 1773, 6 vols. 8vo. 5. Les Maximes
dn Gouvernement Monarchique, pour servir de suite aux
Elemens, 4 vols. 8vo. There is also ascribed to Buat a
work entitled Remarques d’un Frangais, ou Examen im¬
partial du livre de M. Necher sur les Finances, Geneva,
1785, 8vo. In his youth he had composed a tragedy, en¬
titled Charlemagne, ou le Triomphe des Lois, published at
Vienna, 1764, 8vo. He likewise contributed several arti¬
cles to the journals of his time, on different points of his¬
tory, literature, and political economy; in particular, some
excellent observations on the character of Xenophon, in¬
serted in the fourth volume of the Varietes Litteraires.
(See Biographic Unwerselle.)
BUBAST1S, in the Egyptian mythology, one of the
names of Isis or the moon. The Egyptians bestowed dif¬
ferent names on the sun, either to characterize his effects
or his relations with respect to the earth ; and they follow¬
ed the same method respecting the moon. Chaeremon, a
sacred writer of Egypt, leaves no doubt on this subject.
“ Every thing which is published of Osiris and Isis, all
the sacerdotal fables, allude only to the phases of the
moon and the course of the sun.” Bubastis was one of
the principal attributes of Isis. Theology having personi¬
fied her, formed of her a divinity, in whose honour a city
of that name was built, as described by Herodotus, and
where the people collected from all parts of Egypt at a
certain period of the year. The symbol of this deity was
a cat, which the priests fed with sacred food ; and when it
died they embalmed its body, and carried it in pomp to
the tomb prepared for it. The ancients have explained
this worship variously. The Greeks pretend that when
Typhon declared war against the gods, Apollo transformed
himself into a vulture, Mercury into an ibis, and Bubastis
into a cat, and that the veneration of the people for the
latter animal took its rise from that fable ; but they ascribe
their own ideas to the Egyptians, who thought very differ¬
ently. - However that may be, the cat was greatly honour¬
ed in Egypt; and a Roman soldier having imprudently
killed one, was immediately put to death by the populace.
In the language of the priests, Bubastis was deemed the
daughter of Isis, and even represented her in certain cir¬
cumstances. It is for this reason that the Greeks, who
honoured the moon by the name of Diana, bestowed it
also on this Egyptian divinity. Bubastis, says Herodotus,
is called Diana by the Greeks. The Egyptians attributed
to her the virtue of assisting pregnant women; while the
Greeks and Latins, disciples of the Egyptians, ascribed
the same power to Diana.
BUG, George, a learned English antiquary, flourish¬
ed in the beginning of the seventeenth century. In the
reign of King James I. he was made one of the gentlemen
of his. majesty s privy chamber, and knighted ; he was also
constituted master of the revels. What he mostly distin¬
guished himself by was his writing the History of the
Reign of Richard III.; in which he takes great pains to
wipe oft the bloody stains which have tarnished the cha-
lacter of that prince, and represents his person and actions
in a much less odious light than any other historian has
done. He also wrote, a Treatise of the Art of Revels; and
a work entitled the Third Universitie of England.
BUCANEER, one who dries and smokes flesh or fish
after the manner of the Indians. The name was particu¬
larly given to the first French settlers on the island of St
Domingo or Hayti, whose sole employment consisted in
Hunting bulls or wild boars, in order to sell their hides
and flesh. The name Las also been applied to those fa¬
mous piratical adventurers, chiefly English and French,
who joined together to commit depredations on the Spa¬
niards of America. Of both these we shall give an ac- Bie eer
count.
I. The Bucaneers of St Domingo.—The Spaniards had
not long been in possession of the West Indies and of
the continent of America, when other nations, especially
the English and French, began to seek establishments
there. But though the Spaniards were unable to people
such extensive countries themselves, they were resolved
that no others should do it for them, and therefore waged
a cruel war on all those of any other nation who attempted
to settle in any of the Antilles or Caribbee Islands. The
French, however, were at last lucky enough to acquire
some footing in the island of St Christophers; but by the
time they began to subside into a regular form of govern¬
ment, the Spaniards found means to dislodge them. Upon
this the wretched fugitives, considering at how great a
distance they were from their mother country, and how
near to the island of Hispaniola or St Domingo, the north¬
ern parts of which were then uninhabited, and full of
swine and black cattle, immediately resolved to take pos¬
session of that country, in conjunction with several other
adventurers of their own and the English nation; espe¬
cially as the Dutch, who now began to appear in these
seas, promised to supply them plentifully with all kinds of
necessaries they might require, in exchange for the hides
and tallow they should procure by hunting.
These new settlers obtained the name oihucaneers, from
their custom of bucanning their beef and pork in order to
keep it for sale or for their own consumption. But some of
them soon grew tired of this new way of life, and took to
planting ; whilst many more chose to turn pirates, trusting
to find among those who remained on shore a quick sale
for all the plunder they could make at sea. This new body
of adventurers were called freebooters, from their making
free prey or booty of whatever came in their way.
The colony now began to thrive at a great rate, by the
cheap and easy manner in which the freebooters acquired
the greatest riches, and the profusion with which they
distributed them amongst their old companions, the buca-
neers and planters, for the merest trifles. This brought
numbers of settlers from France in quality of indentured
servants, though they toiled rather like slaves than servants
during the three years for which they generally bound
themselves. One of these men presuming to represent to
his master, who always fixed upon a Sunday for sending
him with skins to the port, that God had forbidden such a
practice when he had declared that “ six days shalt thou
labour, and on the seventh day shalt thou rest,” the bru¬
tish bucaneer replied, “ And I say to thee, six days shalt
thou kill bulls, and strip them of their skins, and on the
seventh day shalt thou carry their hides to the sea shores
and this command was followed by blows. Thus the
colony consisted of four classes; bucaneers, freebooters,
planters, and indentured servants who generally remain¬
ed with the bucaneers or planters. And these four orders
composed what they now began to call the body of adven¬
turers, who lived together in perfect harmony, under a kind
of democracy; every freeman having a despotic authority
over his own family, and every captain being sovereign in
his ship, though liable to be discarded at the discretion of
the crew.
The planters had settled chiefly in the little island of
Tortuga, on the northern coast of Hispaniola; but soon
afterwards some of them having gone to the great island
to hunt with the bucaneers, the rest were surprised by the
Spaniards ; and all, even those who had surrendered at
discretion in hopes of mercy, were put to the sword or
hanged. The next care of the Spaniards was to rid the
great island of the bucaneers ; and for this purpose they
assembled a body of five hundred lance-men, who, by
iianeer.
'W
their seldom going fewer than fifty in a company, obtained
from their enemies the name of the Fifties. But before
detailing the particulars of this attack we shall endeavour
to give some account of the manners and customs of the
people whom it was proposed to extirpate.
Ihe bucaneers lived in little huts built on some spots
of cleared ground, just large enough to dry their skins on,
and contain their bucanning houses. These spots they
called boucans, and the huts they dwelt in ajoupas, a word
which they borrowed from the Spaniards, and the Spa¬
niards from the natives. I hough these ajoupas lay open
on all sides, they were very agreeable to the hardy inha¬
bitants, in a climate where wind and air are so very de
sirable things. As the bucaneers had neither wives nor
children, they associated by pairs, and mutually rendered
each other all the services a master could reasonably ex¬
pect from a servant, living together in so perfect a com¬
munity, that the survivor always succeeded his deceased
partner. This kind of union or fellowship they called
$ e/Mafetofe/’(insailoring), and each other matelot fsailor )
whence is derived the custom of giving, at least in some
parts ol the French Antilles, the name matelotage (sailor-
age) to any kind of society formed by private persons for
their mutual advantage. They behaved to each other
with the greatest justice and openness of heart; it was
considered as a crime to keep any thing under lock and
key ; but, on the other hand, the least pilfering was un¬
pardonable, and punished v/ith expulsion from the com¬
munity. And, indeed, there could be no great temptation
to steal, seeing it was reckoned a point of honour never
to refuse a neighbour what he wanted; and where there
was so little property, it was impossible there should be
many disputes. If any such happened, the common friends
of the parties at variance interposed, and soon put an end
to the difference.
As to laws, the bucaneers acknowledged none but an
odd jumble of conventions made between themselves,
which, however, they regarded as the sovereign rule. They
silenced all objections by coolly answering, that it was not
the custom of the coast; and grounded their right of act¬
ing in this manner on their baptism under the tropic, which
reed them, in their opinion, from all obligations antece¬
dent to that marine ceremony. The governor of Tortuga,
when that island was again settled, though appointed by
the Irench court, had very little authority over them ; and
they contented themselves with rendering him from time
lv c?11? some slight homage. They had in a manner entire-
V shaken oft the yoke of religion, and thought they did a
great deal in not wholly forgetting the God of their fathers.
®.^le surpnsed to meet with nations among whom it is
difficult matter to discover any trace of a religious wor-
up;. and yet it is certain, that had the bucaneers of St
ommgo been perpetuated on the same footing on which
icy subsisted at the time we are speaking of, the third or
ui i generation of them would have possessed as little
religmn as the GafFres and Hottentots of Africa, or the Can-
mbals of the South Sea Islands.
mm eVen as^e their surnames, and assumed nick-
.or n^tial names, most of which afterwards con-
ino- C i •ll| ^ leiUi *arn^es* Many, however, on their marry-
mrpT Un1 Sel(i0m haPPened till they turned planters, took
com, fhaVG itheU- real sVrnames inserted in the French
whinifi ’ ana this Practice gave occasion to a proverb,
n mn ■°n^ remained current in the French Antilles, that
an is not to be known till he takes a wife.
thp m U i re^S ,consis.te(i °f a filthy greasy shirt, dyed with
sbll 00 animais they killed; a pair of trousers
whirl??/6 nuSty 5 a t!lon£ of leather by way of belt, to
ami a i • / i1U,ng a case containing some Dutch knives,
iind of short sabre called manchette ; a hat without
B U c A N E E R.
62]
dPtaa »lpf»p^de&,^'8er^Trfe^ra#«
ofJou.Vl^tod hte
i fewei according to his abilities ; besides a pack of twen
l ,or th,irty a“?"g wll‘ch there was all-ays a couple
ina a^'if I T cIT e“PloTent at ™ ox-Zt!
aad lf 7any tlme they chased a wild hog, it was
lathei foi pastime, or to make provision for a feast than
for any other advantage. But in process of Bme somrof
them betook themselves entirely to the hunting of hogs
whose flesh they bucanned in the following manner : first*
thick lat0 lonS Pieces’ an inch and a half
thick, and sprinkled them with salt, which they rubbed off
after twenty-four hours; then they dried these pieces in
till Thrr61’ a fil'e Tad? °f the Skin and bones of tbe beast,
they grew as hard as a board, and assumed a deen
brown colour. Pork prepared in this manner might be
edPa iTttbthile^6 Vr°nth andIonSer; and when steep-
ed a little while m lukewarm water, it became plump and
a irateful ^ e^broded’ boiled, or otherwise dressed,
npf; at ! s“ ’ sufficient to tempt the most languid ap¬
petite and please the most delicate palate. *
in hunting, they set out at day-break, preceded bv tfip
eagles, and follovyed by their servants with the rest of
7® uogs ; and as they made it a point never to baulk their
beadles, they were often led by them over the mostfright-
fu precipices, and through places which any other mor¬
tal would have deemed absolutely impassable. As soon as
e beagles nad roused the game, the rest of the dogs
struck up and surrounded the beast, stopping it, and keep¬
ing a constant barking till the bucaneer could get near
enough to shoot it, in doing which he commonly aimed at
tne pit of the breast; and when the beast fell he hamstrung
it, to prevent its rising again. But it has sometimes hap¬
pened that the creature, not wounded enough to tumble
to the ground, has run furiously at Ids pursuer, and rip¬
ped him open. In general, however, the bucaneer seldom
missed Ins aim; and when he did, he was nimble enough
to get up the tree behind which he usually had the pre¬
caution to place himself; whilst some of them have been
seen to overtake the beast in chase, and hamstring it with¬
out any further ceremony.
As soon as the prey was half skinned, the master cut out
a large bone, and sucked the marrow for breakfast; leav¬
ing the rest to his servants, one of whom always remained
behind to finish the skinning, and bring the skin, with a
choice piece of meat for the huntsman’s dinner. They
then continued the chase till they had killed as many
beasts as there were heads in the company. The master
was the last to return to the boucan, loaded like the rest
with a skin and a piece of meat. Here the bucaneers
found their tables ready; for every one had his separate
table, which was the first thing, any way fit for the pur¬
pose, that came in their way, a stone, the trunk of a tree,
and the like. No table-cloth, no napkin, no bread or wine,
giaeed their board ; not even potatoes, or bananas, unless
taey found them ready to their hand. When this did not
happen, the fat and lean of the game, taken alternately,
served to supply the place. A little pimento, and the juice
of an orange, formed their only sauce ; contentment, peace
of mind, a good appetite, and abundance of mirth, made
every thing agreeable. Thus they lived and spent their
time, till they had completed the number of hides for
which they had agreed with the merchants; which done,
they carried them to Tortuga, or some port of the great
island.
As the bucaneers used much exercise, and fed only on
flesh, they generally enjoyed a good state of health. They
were indeed subject to fevers; but these were either such
as lasted only a day, and left no sensible impression the day
following, or slight slow fevers, which did not hinder them
from action, and were of course so little regarded, that it
was usual with the patient, when asked how he did, to an¬
swer, <s Very well; nothing ails me but the fever. It was
impossible, however, that they should not suffer consider¬
ably by such fatigues, under a climate to the heat of which
few of them had been early enough inured. Hence the most
considerate among them, after they had got money enough
for that purpose, turned planters;—the rest soon spent
the fruits of their labour in taverns and tippling-houses;
and many had so habituated themselves to this kind of
life, as to become incapable of any other. Nay, there
have been instances of young men, who having early em¬
barked through necessity in this painful and dangerous
profession, persisted in it afterwards, merely through a
principle of libertinism, rather than return to France and
take possession of the most plentiful fortunes.
Such were the bucaneers of St Domingo, and such was
their situation when the Spaniards undertook to extirpate
them. And at first the assailants met with great success;
for as the bucaneers hunted separately, every one attended
by his servants, they were easily surprised. Hence the
Spaniards killed numbers, and took many more, whom
they condemned to a most cruel slavery. But whenever
the bucaneers had time to put themselves into a state of
defence, they fought like lions, to avoid falling into the
hands of a nation from whom they were sure to receive
no quarter; and by this means they often escaped; nay,
there are many instances of single men fighting their way
through numbers. These dangers, however, and the suc¬
cess of the Spaniards in discovering their boucans, where
they used to surprise and cut the throats of the bucaneers
and their servants in their sleep, engaged them to cohabit
in greater numbers, and even to act offensively, in hopes
that by so doing they might at last induce the Spaniards
to let them live in peace. But the fury with which they
behaved whenever they met any Spaniards served only to
make their enemies more intent on their destruction ; and
assistance coming to both parties, the whole island was
turned into a slaughter-house, and so much blood spilt on
both sides, that many places, on account of the carnage
of which they had been the scenes, were described as the
hill of the massacre, the plain of the massacre, the valley
of the massacre, and so forth.
At length the Spaniards grew tired of this mode of pro¬
ceeding, and had recourse to their old method of surprise,
which, against enemies of more courage than vigilance, was
likely to succeed better. This placed the bucaneers un¬
der a necessity of never hunting except in large parties,
and fixing their boucans in the little islands on the coast,
where they retired every evening; an expedient which
succeeded very well, and the boucans, by being more fix¬
ed, soon acquired the air and consistency of little towns.
When the bucaneers had once established themselves, as
here related, each boucan sent out scouts every morning to
the highest part of the island, in order to reconnoitre the
coast, and see if any Spanish parties were abroad. If no
enemy appeared, they appointed a place and hour of ren¬
dezvous in the evening, and were never absent if not killed
or made prisoners. When, therefore, any one of the com¬
pany was missing, it was not lawful for the rest to hunt
again till they had got intelligence of him if taken, or
avenged his death if killed. Things continued in this si¬
tuation for a long time, till the Spaniards made a general
hunt over the whole island, and, by destroying the game,
forced the bucaneers to betake themselves to another
course of life. Some of them turned planters, and thus
increased the French settlements on the coast, or formed
others; whilst the rest, not relishing so confined and re¬
gular a life, entered among the freebooters, who there¬
by became a very powerful body. France, which had
hitherto disclaimed for her subjects these ruffians, whose
successes were only temporary, acknowledged them, how¬
ever, as soon as they formed themselves into settlements,
and took proper measures for their government and de¬
fence.
II. Bucaneers, the Pirates.—Before the English had ef¬
fected any settlement in Jamaica, and the French in St
Domingo, some pirates of both nations, who were after¬
wards so much distinguished by the name of Bucaneers,
had driven the Spaniards out of the small island of Tor¬
tuga ; and, fortifying themselves there, had with an amaz¬
ing intrepidity made excursions against the common ene¬
my. They formed themselves into small companies con¬
sisting of fifty, a hundred, or a hundred and fifty men each.
A boat, of greater or smaller size, was their only arma¬
ment. Here they were exposed night and day to all the
inclemencies of the weather, having scarce room enough
to lie down. A love of absolute independence render¬
ed them averse from those mutual restraints which the
members of society impose upon themselves for the com¬
mon good; and as the authority they had conferred on
their captain was confined to his giving orders in battle,
they lived in the greatest confusion. Like the savages,
having no apprehension of want, nor any care to preserve
the necessaries of life, they were constantly exposed to
the severest extremities of hunger and thirst; but de¬
riving from their very distresses a courage superior to
every danger, the sight of a ship transported them to
a degree bordering on frenzy. They never deliberated
on the attack, but it was their custom to board the ship
as soon as possible. The smallness of their vessels, and
the skill they showed in the management of them, screen¬
ed them from the fire of the larger class of ships ; and they
presented only the fore part of their little vessels filled with
fusileers, who fired at the port-holes with so much exact¬
ness that it entirely confounded the most experienced
gunners. As soon as they threw out the grappling, the
largest vessels seldom escaped them.
In cases of extreme necessity they attacked the people
of every nation, but fell upon the Spaniards at all times.
They thought that the cruelties which the latter had ex¬
ercised on the inhabitants of the new world justified the
implacable aversion they had sworn against them. But
this was heightened by the mortification they felt in see¬
ing themselves debarred from the privileges of hunting
and fishing, which they considered as natural rights. Their
principles of justice and religion in no degree interfered
with their predatory habits ; for whenever they embarked
on any expedition, they used to pray to heaven for the suc¬
cess of it; and they never came back from plundering,
without returning thanks to God for their victory.
The ships which sailed from Europe to America seldom
tempted their avidity, since the merchandise which these
contained could not have been easily sold, nor indeed
very profitable to those barbarians. They always wait¬
ed for them on their return, when they were certain they
were laden with gold, silver, jewels, and all the valuable pro¬
ductions of the new world. If they met with a single ship
they never failed to attack her. As to the fleets, theylo-
lowed them till they sailed out of the Gulf of Bahama; an
as soon as any one of the vessels was separated by acci¬
dent from the rest, it was taken. The Spaniards, w o
trembled at the approach of the bucaneers, whom t ey
called devils, immediately surrendered. Quarter was gran
ed if the cargo proved to be a rich one; if not, a 1
prisoners were thrown into the sea. i u tv
The bucaneers, when they had got a considerable boo y
at first held their rendezvous at the island of Tortuga,
BUCANEER,
neer. order to divide the spoil; but afterwards the French went
^ to St Domingo, and the English to Jamaica. Each per¬
son, holding up his hand, solemnly protested that he had
secreted nothing of what he had taken. If any one among
them was convicted of perjury, a case which seldom hap¬
pened, he was left, as soon as an opportunity offered, upon
some desert island, as a traitor unworthy to live in society.
Such of their number as had been maimed in any of their
expeditions were first provided for. If they had lost a
hand, an aim, a leg, or a foot, they received twenty-six
pounds; whilst an eye, a finger, or a toe, lost in fight, was
valued only at half this sum. The wounded were allowed
half a crown per day for two months, to enable them to
have their wounds taken care of; and if they had not money
enough to answer these several demands, the whole com¬
pany were obliged to engage in some fresh expedition, and
to continue it till they had acquired a sufficient stock to
enable them to satisfy these honourable contracts. The
remainder of the booty was then divided into as many
shares as there were bucaneers. The commander could
only lay claim to a single share; but they complimented
him with two or three, in proportion as he had acquitted
himself to their satisfaction. Favour never had any influ¬
ence in the division of the booty, for every share was de¬
termined by lot. The most rigid justice was extended even
to the dead. Their share was given to the man who was
known to be their companion when alive, and therefore
accounted their heir. If the person who had been killed
had no intimate, his portion was sent to his relations when
they were known ; and if there were no friends or relations,
it was distributed in charity to the poor, and to the churches,
which consented to offer up prayers for the person in whose
name these benefactions were given.
. When these duties had been complied with, they then
indulged themselves in all kinds of profusion. Unbound¬
ed licentiousness in gaming, wine, women, and every kind
of debauchery, was carried to the utmost pitch of excess,
and was stopt only by the want which such profusion
brought on. Those who had been enriched with several
millions were in an instant totally ruined, and rendered
destitute of clothes and provisions. They returned to sea ;
and the new supplies which they acquired were soon la¬
vished in the same manner as before.
The Spanish colonies, flattering themselves with the
hope of seeing an end to their miseries, and reduced al¬
most to despair at finding themselves a perpetual prey
to these ruffians, grew weary of navigation. They gave
up all the power, conveniencies, and fortune, which their
connections procured them, and formed themselves into so
many distinct and separate associations. They were sen¬
sible of the great inconvenience arising from such a con¬
duct, and avowed it; but the dread of falling into the
hands of rapacious and savage men had greater influence
over them than the dictates of honour, interest, and po-
icy. This gave rise to that spirit of inactivity which con¬
tinues to the present time, notwithstanding the agitating
events of which that quarter of the world has since been
the theatre.
The despondency thus produced served only to increase
the boldness of the bucaneers. As yet they had only ap¬
peared in the Spanish settlements in order to carry off
provisions when in want of them. But they no sooner
ound their captures begin to diminish, than they deter¬
mined to recover by land what they had lost at sea. The
richest and most populous countries of the continent were
p undered and laid waste. The culture of lands was as
much neglected as navigation; and the Spaniards dared no
wore appear in their public roads, than sail in the latitudes
which belonged to them.
Among the bucaneers who signalized themselves in this
623
new species of freebooting, Montbar, a gentleman of Lan- Bucaneer.
guedoc, particularly distinguished himself. Having bv '
c lance, in his infancy, met with a circumstantial account
ot the cruelties practised in the conquest of the New World
he conceived an aversion, which he carried to a degree of
frenzy, against that nation which had committed such enor-
mities. The enthusiasm which this spirit of humanity
worked him up to merged in a ferocity still more cruel
than that ot the religious fanaticism to which so many
victims had been sacrificed. The manes of these unhap¬
py sufterers seemed to rouse him, and call for vengeance.
He had heard some account of the bucaneers, who were
said to be the most inveterate enemies to the Spanish
name; and he therefore embarked, with some others, on
board a ship in order to join them.
In the passage they met with a Spanish vessel, at¬
tacked, and, as was usual in those times, immediately
boarded it. Montbar, with a sabre in his hand, fell upon
the enemy, broke through them, and, hurrying twice from
one end of the ship to the other, levelled every thing that
opposed him. When he had compelled the enemy to sur¬
render, leaving to his companions the happiness of dividing
so rich a booty, he contented himself with the savage plea¬
sure of contemplating the dead bodies of the Spaniards,
against whom he had sworn a constant and deadly hatred.
Fresh opportunities soon occurred which enabled him
to exercise this spirit of revenge without extinguishing it.
The ship which conveyed him arrived on the coast of St
Domingo, where the bucaneers on land immediately applied
to barter provisions for brand}?-. As the articles they offered
were of little value, they alleged in excuse that their ene¬
mies had overrun the country, laid waste their settlements,
and carried off all their property. “ Why,” replied Mont¬
bar, “ do you tamely suffer such insults?” “ Neither do
answered they; “ the Spaniards have experienced
what kind of men we are, and have therefore taken ad¬
vantage of the time when we were engaged in hunting;
but we are going to join some of our companions who have
been still worse treated than we, and then we shall have
warm work.” “ If you approve of it,” answered Montbar,
“ I whl head you, not as your commander, but as the fore¬
most to expose myself to danger.” The bucaneers perceiv¬
ing from his appearance that he was the very man they
wanted, cheerfully accepted his offer; and the same day
they overtook the enemy, when Montbar attacked them
with an impetuosity that astonished the bravest, and scarce
one Spaniard escaped the effects of his fury. The remain-
ing part of his life was equally distinguished as this day.
The Spaniards suffered so much from him, both by sea and
land, that he acquired the name of the Exterminator.
His savage disposition, as well as that of the other bu¬
caneers who attended him, having obliged the Spaniards
to confine themselves within their settlements, the free¬
booters resolved to attack them there. This new method
of carrying on the war required superior forces ; and their
associations in consequence became more numerous. The
first considerable one was that formed by L’Olonois, who
derived his name from the sands of Olones, the place of
his birth. From the abject state of a bondsman, he had
gradually raised himself to the command of two canoes,
with twenty-two men ; and with these he was so successful
as to take a Spanish frigate on the coast of Cuba. He
then repaired to Port-au-Prince, in which were four ships,
fitted out purposely to sail in pursuit of him; but he took
them, and threw all the crews into the sea except one
man, whom he saved in order to send him with a letter to
the governor of the Havannah, acquainting him with what
he had done, and assuring him that he would treat in the
same manner all the Spaniards who should fall into his
hands, not excepting the governor himself if he were for-
624
B U C A N E E R.
Bucaneer. tunate enough to take him. After this expedition he ran
w-'v'-w' his canoes and prize ships aground, and sailed with his
frigate only to the island of Tortuga.
At Tortuga he met with Michael de Basco, who had
distinguished himself by taking, even under the cannon
of Porto Bello, a Spanish ship, estimated at L.218,500,
and by other actions equally brave and daring. These
two gave out that they were going to embark together on
an expedition equally glorious and profitable; and in con¬
sequence they soon collected together four hundred and
forty men. This body of men, the most numerous which
the bucaneers had yet been able to muster, sailed to the
Bay of Venezuela, which runs up into the country for the
space of about fifty leagues. The fort which was built at the
entrance for its defence was taken; the cannon were nailed
up; and the whole garrison, consisting of two hundred
and fifty men, were put to death. They then re-embarked
and came to Maracaybo, built on the western coast of the
lake of the same name, at the distance of ten leagues from
its mouth. This city, which had become flourishing and
rich by its trade in skins, tobacco, and cocoa, was desert¬
ed; and the inhabitants had retired with their effects to the
other side of the bay. If the bucaneers had not lost a
fortnight in riot and debauchery, they would have found
at Gibraltar, near the extremity of the lake, every thing
which the inhabitants had secreted, to secure it from being
plundered. On the contrary they met with fortifications
lately erected, which they had the bootless satisfaction of
making themselves masters of at the expense of a great
deal of blood; for the inhabitants had already removed to
a distance the most valuable part of their property. Ex¬
asperated at this disappointment, they set fire to Gibraltar;
, and Maracaybo would have shared the same fate had it
not been ransomed. Besides the sum which they receiv¬
ed for its ransom, they also carried off all the crosses,
pictures, and bells of the churches; intending, as they
said, to build a chapel in the island of Tortuga, and to
consecrate this part of their spoils to sacred purposes.
Such was the religion of these barbarous people, who could
make no other offering to heaven than that which arose
from their robberies and plunder.
But while they were idly dissipating the spoils which
they had made on the coast of Venezuela, Morgan, the
most renowned of the English bucaneers, sailed from Ja¬
maica to attack Porto Bello. His plan of operations was so
well contrived that he surprised and took the city without
opposition. The conquest of Panama was an object of
much greater importance. To secure this Morgan thought
it necessary to sail in the latitudes of Costa-Rica, in order
to procure some guides in the island of St Catharines, where
the Spaniards confined their malefactors. This place was
so strongly fortified that it might to have held out for ten
years against a considerable army. But notwithstanding
this, the governor, on the first appearance of the pirates,
sent privately to concert measures how he might surrender
himself without incurring the imputation of cowardice; and
the result of this consultation was, that Morgan in the
night-time was to attack a fort at some distance, while the
governor was to sally out of the citadel to defend a post of
so much consequence, and that the assailants should then
attack him in the rear, and take him prisoner, which would
occasion an immediate surrender of the place. It was
agreed that a smart firing should be kept up on both sides,
without doing mischief to either. This farce was admirably
carried on. The Spaniards, without being exposed to any
danger, appeared to have done their duty; and the buca¬
neers, after having totally demolished the fortifications,
and put on board their vessels a prodigious quantity of
warlike ammunition, which they found at St Catharines,
steered their course towards the river Chagre, the only
channel whereby they could arrive at the place which was
the object of their wishes.
At the entrance of this considerable river a fort had
been built upon a steep rock, which the waves of the sea
constantly beat against. This bulwark, naturally difficult
of access, was defended by an officer whose extraordinary
abilities were equal to his courage, and by a garrison which
wTas in all respects worthy of such a commander. Here the
bucaneers, for the first time, met with a resistance which
could only be equalled by their perseverance; and it was
a doubtful point whether they should succeed or be obliged
to raise the siege, when a lucky accident happened which
proved favourable to their glory and their fortune. The
commander wras killed, and the fort accidentally took fire;
upon which the besiegers, taking advantage of this double
calamity, made themselves masters of the place.
Morgan left his vessels at anchor, with a sufficient num¬
ber of men to guard them, and sailed up the river in his
sloops for thirty-three miles, till he came to Cruces, where
it ceases to be navigable; and he then proceeded by land
to Panama, which was only five leagues distant. Upon a
large and extensive plain which stretched out before the
city, he met with a considerable body of troops, whom he put
to flight with the greatest ease, and entered the city, which
was now abandoned. Here were found prodigious treasures
concealed in the wells and caves; some valuable commo¬
dities were also taken in the boats which were left aground
at low water; and in the neighbouring forests were like¬
wise found several rich deposits. Having burnt the city,
they set sail with a great number of prisoners, who were
ransomed a few days afterwards, and arrived at the mouth
of the Chagre with a prodigious booty.
In 1603 an expedition of the greatest consequence was
formed by Van Horn, a native of Ostend, but who had
served all his life among the French. His own intrepidi¬
ty prevented his tolerating the least signs of cowardice
amongst those who associated with him. In the heat of
an engagement he went about his ship, observed his men
in succession, and immediately killed those who shrunk
at the sudden report of a pistol, gun, or cannon. This
extraordinary discipline rendered him the terror of the
coward and the idol of the brave. In other respects he
readily shared with the men of spirit and bravery the im¬
mense riches which were acquired in the course of his
marauding expeditions. When he went upon such expe¬
ditions, he generally sailed in his frigate, which was his
own property. But his designs requiring greater numbers
to carry them into execution, he called to his assistance
Grammont, Godfrey, and Jonque, three Frenchmen distin¬
guished by their exploits, and Lawrence de Graff, a Dutch¬
man, who had signalized himself still more than they.
Twelve hundred bucaneers joined themselves to these
commanders, and sailed in six vessels for Vera Cruz.
The darkness of the night favoured their landing, which
was effected about three leagues from the place, where they
arrived without being discovered. The governor, the fort,
the barracks, and the posts of the greatest consequence,
every thing, in short, which could occasion any resistance,
were taken by the break of day. All the citizens, men,
women, and children, were shut up in the churches, whi¬
ther they had fled for shelter. At the door of each church
were placed barrels of gunpowder to blow up the building;
and a bucaneer, with a lighted match, was to set fire to it
upon the least appearance of an insurrection.
While the city was kept in this state of terror, it was
easily pillaged; and after the bucaneers had carried off what¬
ever was most valuable, they made a proposal to the citizens
who were kept prisoners in the churches to ransom their
lives and liberties by a contribution of L.437,500. Ihis
unfortunate people, who had neither eaten nor drunken for
Buesfer.
::aneer.
'Y^
three days, cheerfully accepted the terms which were offer-
ed them. Half of the money was paid the same day, and
the other part was expected from the interior of the
country, when there appeared on an eminence a consider¬
able body of troops advancing, and near the port a fleet
of seventeen ships from Europe. At the sight of this
armament, the bucaneers, without any marks of surprise
retired quietly, with fifteen hundred slaves they had seized’
as a trifling indemnification for the rest of the money thev
expected, the settling of which they referred to a more fa-
vourable opportunity. Their retreat was equally daring.
They boldly sailed through the midst of the Spanish fleet
which let them pass without firing a single gun, and, in
fact, seemed afraid of being attacked and beaten. The
Spaniaids would not probably have escaped so easily if
the vessels of the pirates had not been laden with silver
or if the Spanish fleet had been freighted with any other
effects but such merchandise as was little valued by these
daring freebooters. J
A year had scarcely elapsed since their return from
Mexico, when, on a sudden, they were all seized with a
passion for going to plunder Peru. It is probable that the
hopes of finding greater treasures upon a sea little fre¬
quented, than on one long exposed to piracies of this kind
was the cause of this expedition; but it is somewhat re¬
markable, that both the English and French, and the as¬
sociations of these two nations, had projected this plan at
the same time, without any communication, intercourse, or
design of acting in concert with each other. About four
thousand men were employed in this expedition. Some of
them proceeded by Terra Firma, others by the Straits of
Magelhaens, to the place which formed the object of their
wishes; and if the intrepidity of these barbarians had been
directed, under the influence of a skilful commander, to a
single end, it is certain that they would have deprived the
Spaniards of this important colony. But their natural cha¬
racter presented an invincible obstacle to so rare a union •
for they always formed themselves into several distinct
bodies, sometimes even so few in number as ten or twelve
2° acted together, or separated, as whim or caprice
dictated. Grogmer, Lecuyer, Picard, and Le Sage, were
flit most distinguished officers among the French; David
Samms, Peter Wilner, and Towley, among the English.
tSeSe. ad^enturei's as had got into the South
w? ^ the Straits of Darien seized upon the first vessel
which they found upon the coast; and their associates, who
Sf1 ewm,thflr °Wn Vesse,s’ were not much better pro-
i ^ v however, as they were, they several times
eat the squadrons which were fitted out against them. But
these victories were prejudicial to them, by interrupting
en navigation; and when there were no more ships to
oe taken, they were continually obliged to make descents
upon the coasts to get provisions, or to go by land in order
to plunder those cities where the booty had been secured.
Ihey successively attacked Seppa, Puebla-Nuevo, Leon,
ealejo, I uebla-Viejo, Chinquita, Lesparso, Granada, Vil-
ua, JNicoy, lecoanteca, Mucmeluna, Chiloteca, New Se~
placeSand Guayaqui1’ the most considerable of all these
Many of these places were taken by surprise, and most
them deserted by their inhabitants, who fled at the sight
^ enemy. As soon as the bucaneers took a town, it
v 1 llectly set on fire, unless a sum proportioned to its
Was Paid to.save it. The prisoners taken in battle
e massacred without mercy if they were not ransomed
npi i16 £overn?r or some of the inhabitants; while gold,
nf r S,fi°r Precious stones, were the only things accepted
tor the payment of their ransom. Silver being too com-
hppn .and, ,t0° weighty for its current value, would have
vor^v eSOme ^em* chances of fortune, which
bucaneer.
625
amply avenged o0n the SpWd^d ? ^ ^ IndianS Were
’VVliile such piracies were being committed on the South
GrnammontthHNOrthern WaS thrreatened ^ith the same by
Grammont. He was a native of Paris, by birth a gentle¬
man, and had distinguished himself in a military cfpacitv
in Europe; but his passion for wine, gaming, and wome/
was affabfd iT t0 j°m the pirates> Nevertheless he
was affable, polite, generous, and eloquent; endued with
lities gment’ ai}d a Person of approved valour; qua-
hties which soon made him be considered as the chief of
hod 5knch bucaneefs* As soon as it was known that he
ad taken up arms, he was immediately joined by a num-
had men- J!16 S°VernOT of St Doming, X
ad at length prevailed upon his master to approve of the
project equally wise and just, of fixing the pirates in
some place, and inducing them to become cultivators, was
desirous of preventing the concerted expedition, and for-
badf A the ^,ngs name* Eut Grammont, who had a
g a ter share of sense than his associates, was not on that
account inclined to comply, and sternly replied, “ How can
whhdi dlsaPProve ofa design he is unacquainted with, and
v Inch has been planned only a few days ago ?” This an-
swer highly pleased all the bucaneers, who directly em¬
barked m 1685 to attack Campeachy. ^
f™?/ landed 'vithout opposition. " But at some distance
on the coast they were attacked by eight hundred Spa-
maids, who were beaten and pursued to the town, winch
both parties entered pell-mell together. The cannon they
found there were immediately levelled against the citadel;
but as these had very little effect, they were contriving *
some stratagem to enable them to become masters of the
place, when intelligence was brought that it had been aban¬
doned. 1 here remained in it only a gunner, an English¬
man, and an officer of signal courage, who chose rather
to expose himself to the greatest extremities than basely
to fly from the place with the rest. The commander of
tlie bucaneers received him with marks of distinction, ge¬
nerously released him, gave him up all his effects, and,
besides complimented him with some valuable presents •
such influence have courage and fidelity even on the minds
of those who systematically violate all the rights of society.
ihe conquerors of Campeachy spent two months in
searching the environs of the city to the extent of twelve
or fifteen leagues, and in carrying off every thing which
t ie inhabitants in their flight thought they had preserved.
v\ lien all the treasure they had collected from every quar-
tei was deposited in the ships, a proposal was made to the
governor of the province, who still kept the field with nine
hundred men, to ransom his capital city. His refusal de¬
termined them to burn it, and demolish the citadel. The
I lench, on the festival of St Louis, were celebrating the
anniversary of their king; and in the transports of their pa¬
triotism, intoxication, and national love of their prince, they
burnt to the value of a million of logwood; a part, and a
very considerable one too, of the spoil which they had
made. After this singular and extravagant instance of
folly, of which Frenchmen only would boast, they returned
to St Domingo.
In 1697 twelve hundred bucaneers were induced to
join a squadron of seven ships which sailed from Europe
under the command of one Pointis, to attack the famous
city of Carthagena. This was the most difficult enterprise
which could be attempted in the New World. The situa¬
tion of the port, the strength of the place, and the badness
of the climate, were so many obstacles which would have
seemed insurmountable to any but such men as the buca¬
neers. But every obstacle yielded to their valour and
4 K
626
BUG
BUG
Bucarest
II
Buccari.
good fortune; the city was taken, and booty gained to
the amount of L.1,750,000. dheir rapacious commandei,
however, deprived them of the advantages resulting from
their success. He scrupled not, as soon as they set sail,
to offer L.5250 for the share of those who had been the
chief instruments in procuring him so considerable a spoil.
The bucaneers, exasperated at this treatment, resolved
immediately to board the vessel called the Sceptic, where
Pointis himself was, and which at that time was too far
distant from the rest of the ships to expect to be assisted
by them. And this avaricious commander was upon the
point of being massacred, when one of the malcontents
cried out, “ Brethren, why should we attack this rascal ?
He has carried off nothing that belongs to us. He has left
our share at Carthagena, and there we must go to recover
it.” This proposal was received with general applause.
A savage joy at once succeeded the gloomy melancholy
which had seized them; and without further deliberation
all their ships sailed towards Carthagena.
As soon as they had entered the city without meeting
with any resistance, they shut up all the men in the great
church, and exacted payment of L.218,750, the amount of
their share of booty which they had been defrauded of,
promising to retreat immediately upon compliance with
their demand, but threatening the most dreadful ven¬
geance in case of refusal. Upon this the most venerable
priest in the city mounted the pulpit, and made use of the
influence which his character, his authority, and his elo¬
quence gave to him, to persuade his hearers to yield up
without reserve all the gold, silver, and jewels in their pos¬
session. But the collection made after the sermon not fur¬
nishing the sum required, the city was ordered to be plun¬
dered.
At length, after amassing all they could, these adven¬
turers set sail, when unfortunately they met with a fleet
of Dutch and English ships, then in alliance with Spain.
Several of the pirates were either taken or sunk, with the
cargoes they had on board; and the rest escaped to St
Domingo.
Such was the last memorable event in the history of the
bucaneers. The separation of the English and French,
when the war on account of the Prince of Orange divided
the two nations; the success of the means employed to
promote the cultivation of land among their colonies, by
the assistance of these enterprising men; the prudence
evinced in selecting the most distinguished among them,
and intrusting them with civil and military employments ;
and the protection afforded to the Spanish settlements,
which till then had been a general object of plunder; all
these circumstances, and various others, besides the im¬
possibility of supplying the place of these remarkable men,
who were continually dropping off, concurred to put an end
to a society as extraordinary as any that ever existed.
Without any regular system, without laws, without subor¬
dination, and even without any fixed revenue, they became
the astonishment of the age in which they lived, as they
will be also of posterity.
BUCAREST, or Bucharest, a city in the district of
Ilfow, and the capital of the province of Wallachia. It is
situated on a fine and extensive plain, upon the banks of
the Dumbowitza, which falls into the Danube above the
fortress of Silistria. It is the seat of a Greek archbishop,
and contains sixty churches of that communion, and also
twenty monasteries. It is an ill-built town, the streets being
paved with trees, and excessively filthy. There is a Greek
college, with twelve professors and two hundred and sixty
students. There are some manufactures, and considerable
domestic trade. The inhabitants are stated to be between
50,000 and 60,000. Long. 27. 2. 10. E. Lat. 44. 26. 45. N.
BUCCARI, a city in the Austrian province of Trieste,
and circle of Montano. It is a well-frequented port for
small vessels, being situated on a bay of the same name in
the Gulf of Quarano. It has considerable traffic in wine
and in wood, and a tunny fishery. The inhabitants are
about 2000. Long. 14. 26. 12. E. Lat. 45. 18. N.
BUCCELLAR1I, an order of soldiery under the Greek
emperors, appointed to guard and distribute the ammuni¬
tion bread; though authors are somewhat divided as to
their office and quality. Among the Visigoths buccellarius
was a general name for a client or vassal who lived at the
expense of his lord. Some give the denomination to
parasites in the courts of princes; others make them the
body-guards of emperors; and others, again, fancy they
were only such as emperors employed in putting persons
to death privately.
BUCCELLATUM, among ancient military writers, de¬
notes camp-bread, or biscuit baked hard and dry, both for
lightness and keeping. Soldiers always carried with them
enough for a fortnight, and sometimes much longer, during
the time that military discipline was kept up.
BUCCINA, an ancient musical and military instrument.
It is usually taken for a kind of trumpet; which opinion is
confirmed by Festus, by his defining it a crooked horn,
played on like a trumpet. Vegetius observes, that the
buccina was bent in a semicircle, in which respect it differ¬
ed from the tuba or trumpet. It is very difficult to distin¬
guish it from the cornu or horn, unless it was something
smaller, and not quite so crooked ; yet it certainly was of
a different species, because we never read of the cornu
in use with the watch, but only the buccina. Besides, the
sound of the buccina was sharper, and to be heard much
farther than either the cornu or the tuba. In Scripture,
a similar instrument, used both in war and in the temple,
was called rams-horns, kirenjobel, and sepheroth hagijobelim.
This instrument was in use among the Jews to proclaim
their feast-days, new moons, jubilees, sabbattical years, and
the like. At Lacedaemon, notice was given by the buc¬
cina when it was supper time ; and the like was done at
Rome, where the grandees had a buccina blown both be¬
fore and after they sat down to table. The sound of the
buccina was called buccmus, or bucinus ; and the musician
who played on it was called buccinator.
BUCCINO, a city in the province Principato-Citeriore
of the kingdom of Naples. It stands on the river Botta,
at its junction with the Negro, over which is an antique
Roman bridge. It contains 5320 inhabitants.
BUCENTAUR, a large galley of the doge of Venice,
adorned with fine pillars on both sides, and gilt over from
the prow to the stern. This vessel was covered over head
with a kind of tent, made of purple silk. In it the doge
received the great lords and persons of quality who visited
Venice, accompanied with the ambassadors and counsellors
of state, and all the senators, on benches by him. The
same vessel served also in the magnificent ceremony of
Ascension-day, on which the doge threw a ring into the
sea to espouse it, and to denote his dominion over the
Gulf of Venice.
BUCEPHALA, or Bucephalus, in Ancient Geography,
a town built by Alexander, on the western side of the Hy-
daspis, a river of India Citerior, so called in memory of his
horse Bucephalus.
BUCER, Martin, one of the first authors of the Refor¬
mation at Strasburg, was born in 1491, in Alsace, and
took the religious habit of St Dominic at seven years o
age; but meeting afterwards with the writings of Martin
Luther, and comparing them with the Scriptures, he began
to entertain doubts concerning several things in the R°'
man Catholic religion. After some conferences with lu
ther at Heidelberg in 1521, he adopted most of his sen¬
timents ; but in 1532 he gave the preference to those o
Eucc
E
BUG
:lian Zuinglius. He assisted in many conferences concerning
A nan. rfIlgl°n and m ^ !le was sent for ^ Augsburg to sigS
, Zl, agreement, called the interim, between the Papists and
Protestants. His warm opposition to this project exposed
him to many difficulties and hardships ; the news of which
reaching England, where his fame had already arrived
Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, gave.him an invita¬
tion to come over, which he readily accepted. In 1549 a
handsome apartment was assigned him in the University of
Cambridge, and a salary to teach theology. King Edward
VI. had the greatest regard for him. Being told that he was
very sensible of the cold of the climate, and suffered much
for want of a German stove, he sent him a hundred crowns
to purchase one. Bucer died of a complication of disorders
in 15ol, and was buried at Cambridge with great funeral
pomp. Five years afterwards, in the reign of Queen Mary,
his body was dug up and publicly burnt, and his tomb de¬
molished; but it was subsequently re-constructed by order
of Queen Elizabeth.
BUCHAN, a district of Scotland, lying partly in the
shire of Aberdeen and partly in that of Banff. It gives the
title of earl to the noble and ancient family of Erskine.
BUCHANAN, George, one ol the most illustrious
characters of the sixteenth century, was born about the
beginning of February in the year ‘1506. His father was
Thomas, the second son of Thomas Buchanan of Drum-
mikill; his mother Agnes Heriot, of the family of Tra-
broun. The house from which he descended he has him¬
self characterized as more remarkable for its antiquity
than for its opulence. Thomas Buchanan the younger
obtained from his father a grant of the farm of Mid-
Leowen, or, as it is more commonly called, the Moss, si¬
tuated in the parish of Killearn and county of Stirling.
He died of the stone at a premature age; and, about the
same period, the poet’s grandfather found himself in a
state of insolvency. The family, which had never been
opulent, was thus reduced to extreme poverty: but his
mother struggled hard with the misery of her condition ;
and all her children, five sons and three daughters, arrived’
at the age of maturity. In the year 1531, a lease of two
farms near Cardross was granted by Robert Erskine, com-
mendator of Dryburgh and Inchmahome, to her and three
of her sons, Patrick, Alexander, and George. One of
her daughters appears to have married a person of the
name of Morison; for Alexander Morison, the son of
Buchanan’s sister, published an edition of his uncle’s pa¬
raphrase of the Psalms. Her thh’d son, whose extraordi¬
nary attainments have rendered the family illustrious, is
reported by oral tradition to have been indebted for the
rudiments of learning to Killearn school, which long conti¬
nued to maintain a considerable reputation. Mid-Leowen,
which stands on the banks of the Blane, is situated at the
distance of about two miles from the village; and it may
be conjectured that the future poet and statesman daily
walked to school, and carried along with him his homely
repast. Dr Mackenzie, whose authority is extremely slen¬
der, asserts that he was partly educated at the school of
Dunbarton. His very promising talents recommended
hun to the favour and protection of his maternal uncle,
James Heriot, who, apparently in the year 1520, sent him
to prosecute his studies in the university of Paris. It was
here that he began to cultivate his poetical talents; part-
ly impelled, as he informs us, by the natural temperament
or his mind, partly by the necessity of performing the usual
exercises prescribed to younger students. Some of the
Irench writers most capable of estimating his attainments,
have not neglected to record his obligations to their coun¬
try: Vavasseur has remarked that, although a Scotishman
by birth, he might well pass for a French poet, since all
that he knew of polite literature, and particularly of poetry,
BUC 627
he had acquired in France. Buchanan did not profess to Buchanan
be one of those bright geniuses who can master a new
anguage every six weeks; he incidentally states that his
knowledg. of Latin was the result of ,Jch youtS t
n nrn/he " t0nsU.e’ ? w.hich he hkewise attained
to proficiency, he acquired without the aid of a pre¬
ceptor. The current speech of his native district at that
period may be supposed to have been Gaelic. Of this
anguage it is at least certain that he possessed some
knowledge; and an anecdote has been related which at
once confirms this supposition, and illustrates his peculiar
vein of humour. When in France, having met with a wo¬
man who was said to be possessed with the devil, and
who professed to speak all languages, he accosted her in
Gaelic: as neither she nor her familiar returned any an¬
swer, he took a protest that the devil was ignorant of that
tongue.
Within the space of two years after his arrival in Paris,
ns uncle died, and left him exposed to want in a foreign
country: his misery was increased by a violent distemper,
winch had perhaps been occasioned by poverty and mor¬
tification ; and in this state of hopeless languor he re¬
turned to Scotland at the critical age of sixteen. Having
devoted the best part of a year to the recovery of his
Health, he next assumed the character of a soldier, and
served along with the auxiliaries whom the duke of Al¬
bany had conducted from France. The Scotish forces
cnmmanded by the regent in person, marched towards
the border8 of England, and, about the end of October
1523, laid siege to the castle of Werk. The auxiliaries
carried the exterior wall by assault, but could not long
occupy the station which they had gained. The laro-e
area between the two ramparts, intended as a receptacfe
during the time of war, for the cattle and stores of the
neighbouring peasantry, was at this crisis replenished with
materials of a combustible nature; and when the garrison
found themselves repulsed by the French soldiers, they
set fire to the straw, and speedily expelled thejr enemies
by the flames and smoke. During the two following days,
the assailants persisted in battering the inner wall: when
they had effected a sufficient breach, the French soldiers
again rushed to the attack, and surmounted the ruins;
but they were so fiercely assaulted by missile weapons from
the inner tower, which was yet entire, that after having
sustained some loss, they were compelled to retreat, and
repassed the Tweed. The duke, finding his native troops
disaffected, and the army on the English frontier too for¬
midable from its numbers, removed his camp on the 11th
of November; and as he marched towards Lauder after
midnight, his army was terribly annoyed by a sudden
storm of snow.
Buchanan, who belonged to a fierce and warlike nation,
seems to have caught some portion of the military ardour.
It was his youthful curiosity respecting the profession of
arms which had thus prompted him to mingle in danger;
and he was persuaded that there is a very close affinity
between the studies of literature and of war. In his his¬
tory of Scotland, written at an advanced age, he often de¬
scribes feats of chivalry with great animation. But his
experience in the course of this inglorious campaign did
not render him more enamoured of a military life: the
hardships which he had undergone reduced him to his
former state of languor; and during the rest of the win¬
ter he was confined to bed. In the beginning of the en¬
suing spring, when he had completed the eighteenth year
of his age, he was sent to the university of St Andrews,
where he and his brother Patrick were at the same time
matriculated in what was then called the Pedagogy, and
afterwards St Mary’s College. On the 3d of October
1525 George Buchanan took the degree of A. B.; and it
BUCHANAN.
628
Buchanan, appears from the faculty register that he was then a
pauper or exhibitioner. In this college logic was then
taught by John Mair, a celebrated doctor of the Sorbonne.
Buchanan informs us that it was to hear his prelections
that he had been sent to St Andrews, and that he after¬
wards followed Mair to France. It has been very confi¬
dently stated, that he was now a dependent on the bounty
of this venerable commentator on Peter of Lombardy;
and if the fact could be established by any competent
evidence, the character of Buchanan must be subjected
to severe reprehension ; for he mentions his supposed be¬
nefactor in terms which convey no suggestion of grati¬
tude. Of this generous patronage, however, there is not
even the faintest shadow of evidence; and such a tale
manifestly originated from the misinterpretation of a very
unequivocal passage in Buchanan’s account of his own life.
Upon his return to France, he became a student in the
Scotish College of Paris. On the 10th of October 1527,
he was incorporated as A. B., and he took the degree of
A. M. next March. During the year 1529, he was a can¬
didate for the office of procurator of the German nation;
but his purblind countryman Robert Wauchope, who was
afterwards titular archbishop of Armagh, and who sat in
the council of Trent, was then elected for the ninth time.
Buchanan was thus repulsed on the fifth of May, but on
the third of June 1530 he was more successful. Before
this period, the tenets of Luther had begun to be widely
disseminated, and Buchanan was now added to the num¬
ber of his converts. Having for the space of two years
continued to struggle with the iniquity of fortune, he was
appointed a regent or professor in the College of St Barbe,
where he taught grammar for about three years. His emi¬
nent qualifications for such an employment will not be
questioned, but his services do not seem to have procured
him any splendid remuneration: in an elegy, apparently
composed about this period of his life, he exhibits a dis¬
mal picture of the miseries to which the Parisian professors
ofhumanity were then exposed. His appointment seems
to have taken place in the year 1529. Gilbert Kennedy,
earl of Cassillis, who was residing near this college, hav¬
ing become acquainted with Buchanan, admired his lite¬
rary talents, and was delighted with his conversation : he
was therefore solicitous to retain so accomplished a pre¬
ceptor ; and their closer connexion probably commenced
in the year 1532. The first work that Buchanan com¬
mitted to the press was a translation of the famous Thomas
Linacre’s rudiments of Latin grammar ; which he inscrib¬
ed to Lord Cassillis, “ a youth of the most promising ta¬
lents, and of an excellent disposition.” This Latin ver¬
sion was printed at Paris .in 1533.
After he had resided with his pupil for five years, they
both returned to Scotland. At this period the earl had
reached the age of majority; and Buchanan might only
embrace a favourable opportunity of revisiting his relations
and friends. Their connexion however was not imme¬
diately dissolved. While he was residing at the earl’s
seat in Ayrshire, he composed a little poem which ren¬
dered him extremely obnoxious to the ecclesiastics. In this
poem, which bears the title of Somnium, and is a happy
imitation of Dunbar, he expresses his own abhorrence of
a monastic life, and stigmatizes the impudence and hy-
procrisy of the Franciscan friars. It was his original in¬
tention to resume his former occupations in France, but
James the Fifth retained him in the capacity of preceptor
to one of his natural sons. This son was not, as has gene¬
rally been supposed, the celebrated James Stewart, who
afterwards became regent of the kingdom, but another
who bore the same baptismal name. His mother was
Elizabeth Shaw, of the family of Sauchie ; and he died in
the year 1548. It was perhaps in the year 1537 that
Buchanan entered upon his new charge; for in the course Buchaj
of that year the king made an arrangement with respect
to his four sons. The abbacies of Melrose and Kelso were
secured in the name of Buchanan’s pupil, who was the
eldest. The preferment of a profane scoffer at priests must
have augmented the spleen of the clergy; and the Fran¬
ciscan friars, still smarting from bis Somnium, found means
of representing him to the king as a man of depraved mo¬
rals and of dubious faith. But James had formerly begun
to discover their real character; and the part which he
supposed them to have acted in a late conspiracy against
his own life, had not contributed to diminish his antipathy.
Instead of consigning the poet to disgrace or punishment,
the king, who was aware that private resentment would
improve the edge of his satire, enjoined him in the pre¬
sence of many courtiers to renew his well-directed attack
on the same pious fathers. He accordingly applied him¬
self to the composition of the poem afterwards published
under the title of Franciscanus ; and, to satisfy the king’s
impatience, soon presented him with a specimen. This
production, as it now appears in its finished state, may be
pronounced one of the most pungent satires which any
language can exhibit. No class of men was ever more
completely exposed to ridicule and infamy ; nor is it as¬
tonishing that the popish clergy afterwards regarded the
author with implacable hatred.
But the church being infallible, he speedily recognized
the danger of accosting its retainers by their proper names.
At the beginning of the year 1539, many individuals sus¬
pected of Lutheranism were involved in the horrors of
persecution. Towards the close of February, five were
committed to the flames, nine made a formal recantation
of their supposed errors, and many were driven into exile.
Buchanan had been comprehended in this general arrest;
and after he was committed to custody, Cardinal Beaton
endeavoured to accelerate his doom by tendering to the
king a sum of money as the price of his blood. Of this
circumstance Buchanan was apprized by some of his friends
at court; and his knowledge of the king’s rapacity must
have augmented all the terrors of his situation. Stimulat¬
ed by the thoughts of increasing danger, he made his
escape through the window of the apartment in which he
was confined ; but he had soon to encounter new disasters.
When he reached the frontier of the two kingdoms, he was
molested by the freebooters, who at that time were its
sole inhabitants ; and his life was again exposed to jeopardy
from the contagion of a pestilential disease, which then
raged in the north of England. On his arrival in London,
he experienced the friendship of Sir John Rainsford, an
English knight, who is mentioned as the only person that
protected him against the fury of the papists. He met
with no particular inducement to continue his residence
in England, which was then governed by an atrocious
tyrant. The civilization of France, as well as the parti¬
cular intimacies which he had formed in that country, led
him to adopt the resolution of returning to Paris : but, on
his arrival, he found that Cardinal Beaton was residing
there in the capacity of an ambassador; and his friend
Andrew Govea, a native of Portugal, having invited him
to Bordeaux, he did not hesitate to embrace such an op¬
portunity of removing himself beyond the reach of the
cardinal’s deadly hatred. Of the College ot Guienne,
lately founded in that city, Govea had been nominate
principal; and Buchanan, evidently on his recommenda¬
tion, was now appointed one of the professors. Here he
must have fixed his residence before the close of the year,
for to Charles the Fifth, who made his solemn entry m o
Bordeaux on the first of December 1539, he presente a
poem in the name of the college. ,
The task assigned him at Bordeaux was that of teac i-
nan. ing the Latin language. For an occupation of this kind
he seems to have entertained no particular affection ; but
although sufficiently laborious, it never impaired the na¬
tive elevation of his mind. His poetical studies he now
prosecuted with great ardour; during the three years of
his residence at Bordeaux, he completed four tragedies,
together with various other poems. The earliest of his
dramatic compositions bears the title of Baptistes. He had
applied himself to the study of the Greek language with¬
out the aid of a preceptor, and as a useful exercise had
executed a translation of the Medea of Euripides. This
version he now delivered to the academical stage, and
afterwards suffered it to be printed. Those two tragedies
were performed with a degree of applause which almost
exceeded his hopes. He afterwards completed his Jeph-
thes, and tianslated AlcestiS) another drama of his favourite
poet. These last productions, as he originally intended
them for publication, were elaborated with superior dili¬
gence. The tragedy of Jephthes is conformable to the
models of the Grecian theatre, and is not destitute of in¬
terest. The subject is highly dramatic; it is a subject
which his great exemplar Euripides might have been in¬
clined to select. The situation of a father who had un¬
warily subjected himself to the dreadful necessity of sa¬
crificing a beloved and only child, the repugnant and ex¬
cruciating sensations of the mother, the daughter’s min¬
gled sentiments of heroism and timidity, are delineated
with considerable felicity of dramatic conception. The
tender or pathetic was not however the peculiar province
of Buchanan, whose talents were bold, masculine, and
commanding. The Baptistes, although inferior to the
other tragedy in dramatic interest, is more strongly im¬
pregnated with the author’s characteristic sentiments. Its
great theme is civil and religious liberty; and against ty¬
ranny and priestcraft the poet frequently expresses him¬
self with astonishing boldness. Some of his allusions bear
a very easy application to the late conduct of Cardinal
Beaton. In the tragedies of the ancient Greek poets,
what is termed the prologue is always an essential part of
the drama; but the prologue of the Baptistes resembles
those of Terence. Buchanan seems to have adopted this
model, because it afforded him a better opportunity of
preparing his auditors for the bold sentiments which thev
were about to hear.
During the term of his residence in the College of
Guienne, the satirist of the Scotish clergy did not find
himself totally secure from danger. The cardinal, in a
letter addressed to the archbishop of Bordeaux, request¬
ed him to secure the person of the heretical poet; but as
ms letter had been entrusted to the care of some indivi¬
dual much interested in the welfare of Buchanan, he was
suffered to remain without molestation. Still however
he found himself annoyed by the threats of the cardinal
and the grey friars; but the death of King James, and
the appcanmec 0f a dreadful plague in Guienne, alleviat¬
ed his former apprehensions. Having resided three years
at Bordeaux, he returned to Paris. In 1544 he was offi¬
ciating as a regent in the college of Cardinal le Moine;
and he apparently retained the same station till 1547.
About this period he was miserably tormented with the
gout. I he ardour of his fancy was however undiminish-
ed: in an interesting elegy, composed in 1544, and ad-
t0 -1*8 ^ate colleaSues Tastaeus and Tevius, he
exhibits a dismal picture of his own situation, and grate-
ully commemorates the assiduous attentions of his pre¬
sent colleagues Turnebus and Gelida. It is remarked by
a rrench historian, that three of the most learned men in
tie world then taught humanity in the same college. The
rst class was taught by Turnebus, the second by Bu¬
chanan, and the third by Muretus.
BUCHANAN.
629
Of P°rtU,gal ^ recently founded the univer-Buchanan
sity of Coimbra; and as his own dominions could not af-
ford a sufficient supply of able professors, he invited An¬
drew Govea tp preside over the new institution, and to
conduct fiom France a considerable number of proficients
in philosophy and ancient literature. Govea accordingly
returned to his native country in the year 1547, accom¬
panied by Buchanan and other associates. The affairs of
Europe presented an alarming aspect; and Portugal seem¬
ed to be almost the only corner free from tumults. To
the proposals of Govea he had not only lent a willing ear
but was so much satisfied with the character of his asso¬
ciates, that he also persuaded his brother Patrick to join
this famous colony. To several of its members he had
formerly been attached by the strictest ties of friendship •
these were Gruchius, Garenta^s, Tevius, and Vinetus,’
who have all distinguished themselves by the publication
of learned works. The other scholars of whom it consist¬
ed were Arnoldus Fabricius, John Costa, and Anthony
Mendez, who are not known as authors: the first was a
native of Bazats, the other two were Portugueze. All
these professors except P. Buchanan and Fabricius had
taught in the College of Guienne. To this catalogue
Dempster has added other two Scotish names, those of
John Rutherford and William Ramsay. Govea died in
the year 1548; and after Buchanan and his associates
were deprived of his protection, the Portugueze began to
persecute them with unrelenting bigotry. Three of their
number were thrown into the dungeons of the inquisition,
and aftei having been subjected to a tedious imprison¬
ment, were at length arraigned at this direful tribunal.
According to the usual practice, they were not confront¬
ed with their accusers, of whose very names they were
ignorant. As they could not be convicted of any crime,
they were overwhelmed with reproaches, and again com¬
mitted to custody.
Buchanan had attracted an unusual degree of indigna¬
tion. He was accused of having written an impious poem
against the Franciscans, yet with the nature of that poem
the inquisitors were totally unacquainted. He was also
charged with the heinous crime of eating flesh in Lent,
and yet with respect to that very article, not a single in¬
dividual in Portugal deemed it necessary to practise ab¬
stinence. Some of his strictures relative to monks were
registered against him, but they were such as monks only
could regard as criminal. He was moreover accused of
having alleged, in a conversation with some young Portu¬
gueze, that with respect to the eucharist, St Augustin
appeared to him to be strongly inclined towards the opi¬
nion condemned by the church of Rome. Two witnesses,
whom he afterwards discovered to be Ferrerius and Tal-
pin, made a formal deposition of their having been assur¬
ed by several respectable informants that Buchanan was
disaffected to the Romish faith. After the inquisitors
had harassed him for the space of nearly two years and a
half, they confined him to a monastery, for the purpose
of receiving edifying lessons from the monks; whom, with
due discrimination, he represents as men by no means
destitute of humanity, but totally unacquainted with reli¬
gion. In their custody he continued several months ; and
it was about this period that he began his version of the
Psalms, afterwards brought to so happy a conclusion.
That this translation was a penance imposed upon him by
his illiterate guardians, is only to be considered as an idle
tale: it is much more probable that a large proportion of
the good monks were incapable of reading the Psalms in
their native language. When he was at length restored
to liberty, he solicited the king’s permission to return to
France: he was however requested to protract his resi¬
dence in Portugal, and was presented with a small sum of
630
BUCHANAN.
Buchanan, money till he should be promoted to some station worthy
of his talents; but his ambition of Portugueze preferment
was not perhaps very violent, for he still remembered with
regret the learned and interesting society of Paris. In a
beautiful poem, entitled Desiderium Lutetia;, and appa¬
rently composed before his retreat irom Portugal, he pa¬
thetically bewails his absence from that metropolis, which
he represents under the allegory of a pastoral mistress.
Having embarked in a Candian vessel, which he found in
the port of Lisbon, he was safely conveyed to England.
Here however he did not long remain, though he might
have procured some creditable situation, which he himself
has not particularized. He returned to France about
the beginning of the year 1553. Soon after his arrival in
Paris, he was appointed a regent in the College of Con-
court ; and in the year 1555 he was called from that charge
by the celebrated Comte de Brissac, who engaged him as
the domestic tutor of his son Timoleon de Cosse.
During the five years of his connexion with this illus¬
trious family, he alternately resided in Italy and France.
In the mean time several of his poetical works were pub¬
lished at Paris. In 1556 appeared the earliest specimen
of his poetical paraphrase of the Psalms; and his version
of the Alcestis of Euripides was printed in the course of
the subsequent year. This tragedy he dedicated to Mar¬
garet, the daughter of Francis the First, a munificent prin¬
cess, whose favour he seems to have enjoyed. His engage¬
ment with the family of Brissac terminated in the year
1560, when the civil war had already commenced. It
was perhaps the alarming aspect of affairs in France that
induced Buchanan to hasten his return to his own coun¬
try. The precise period of his return has not been ascer¬
tained ; but it is certain that he was at the Scotish court
in January 1562, and that in the month of April he was
officiating as classical tutor to the queen, who was then in
the twentieth year of her age. Every afternoon she read
with Buchanan a portion of Livy. This author is not
commonly recommended to very young scholars; and
indeed the study of the Latin language is known to have
occupied a considerable share of her previous attention.
The era at which Buchanan finally returned to his na¬
tive country was highly important. After a violent strug¬
gle against the ancient superstition, the principles of the
reformed faith received the sanction of parliament in the
year 1560. For the doctrines of the reformation he had
long cherished a secret affection; and he now professed
himself a member of the protestant church of Scotland.
The earl of Murray, as commendator of the priory of St
Andrews, possessed the right of nominating the principal
of St Leonard’s College ; and a vacancy occurring in the
year 1566, he conferred the office upon Buchanan. The
tenure of his appointment seems to have imposed upon
him the task of reading occasional lectures on divinity.
On his return to Scotland, he determined to publish, in
a correct manner, the poetical works which he had com¬
posed at many different periods of his variegated life. Of
his admirable version of the Psalms, the date of the first
complete edition is uncertain, for it has been omitted in
the book itself; but a second edition appeared in the year
1566. When he consigned his Psalms to the printer, he
was probably engaged in superintending the classical stu¬
dies of Queen Mary; and to that accomplished and hope¬
ful princess he gratefully inscribed a work destined for
immortality. His dedication has received, and indeed is
entitled to the highest commendation for its terseness,
compression, and delicacy. Buchanan had recommended
himself to the queen by other poetical tributes: one of
his most beautiful productions is the Epithalamium which
he composed on her first nuptials ; and several of his mis¬
cellaneous poems relate to the same princess. Nor was
she insensible of his powerful claims upon the protection Bud;
of his country. In the year 1564 she had rewarded his li¬
terary merit by conferring upon him the temporalities of
Crossragwell Abbey, which amounted in annual valuation
to the sum of L.500 in Scotish currency. The abbacy
had become vacant by the death of Quintin Kennedy.
But while he thus enjoyed the favour of the queen, he did
not neglect his powerful friend the earl of Murray. To
that nobleman he inscribed his Franciscanus during the
same year. The date of the earliest edition is uncertain;
but the dedication was written at St Andrews on the 5th
of June 1564, when he was perhaps residing in the earl’s
house. He at the same time prepared for the press his
miscellany entitled Fratres Fraterrimi, a collection of sa¬
tires, almost exclusively directed against the impurities of
the popish church. The absurdity of its doctrines, and
the immoral lives of its priests, afforded him an ample
field for the exercise of his formidable talents; and he has
alternately employed the weapons of sarcastic irony and
vehement indignation. His admirable wit and address
must have contributed to promote the cause which Luther
had so ardently espoused; and Buchanan ought also to
be classed with the most illustrious of the reformers. In
the year 1567 he published another collection, consisting
of Elegice, Silva;, Hendecasyllabi. To this miscellany was
prefixed an epistle to his friend Peter Daniel, a learned
man, who is still remembered for his edition of Virgil,
with the commentary of Servius. His Miscellanea were
not printed till after the death of the author. Of his
short and miscellaneous pieces the subjects are sometimes
indeed of a trivial nature; but even those lighter efforts
serve to evince the wonderful versatility of his mind.
His epigrams, which consist of three books, are not the
least remarkable of his compositions ; the terseness of the
diction, the ingenuity and pungency of the thoughts, have
deservedly placed them in a very high class.
Of the general assembly convened at Edinburgh on the
25th of December 1563, Buchanan had sat as a member,
and had been appointed one of the commissioners for re¬
vising the Book of Discipline. He sat in the June assem¬
blies of 1564 and the three following years, and likewise
in that of December 1567. He was a member of various
committees, and evidently had no small influence in the
affairs of the church. Of the assembly which met at
Edinbui*gh on the 25th of June 1567, he had the honour
of being chosen moderator.
The nation was now in a state of anarchy, and the
change of affairs drew Buchanan into the vortex of poli¬
tics. The recent conduct of Queen Mary, whom he once
regarded in so favourable a light, had offered such flagrant
insults to virtue and decorum, that his attachment was at
length converted into the strongest antipathy. The simple
and uncontroverted history of her proceedings, from the
period of her pretended reconciliation with Darnley to
that of her marriage with Bothwell, exhibits such strong
moral evidence of her criminality as it seems impossible
for an unprejudiced mind to resist. “ There are indeed,
as Mr Hume has remarked, “ three events in our history,
which may be regarded as touchstones of party-men.
An English Whig, who asserts the reality of the popish
plot, an Irish Catholic, who denies the massacre of 164L
and a Scotch Jacobite, who maintains the innocence of
Queen Mary, must be considered as men beyond thy
reach of argument or reason, and must be left to the:r
prejudices.” Buchanan accompanied the regent Murray
when he visited England for the purpose of appearing be¬
fore Elizabeth’s commissioners. On the 4th of October
1568, the conference was opened at York; but in t.ie
course of the ensuing month it was transferred to West-
minster. This singular transaction was managed wit
an.
■>u
.man.great address on both sides: nor was Buchanan the least
^ powerful of Murray’s coadjutors ; he composed in Latin a
detection of Queen Mary’s actions, which was produced
to the commissioners at Westminster, and was afterwards
circulated with great industry by the English court. His
engaging in a task of this kind, as well as his mode of
executing it, has frequently been urged as a proof of his
moral depravity; and, to augment his delinquency, the be¬
nefits conferred upon him by the unfortunate queen have
been multiplied with considerable ingenuity. It is cer¬
tain that she granted him the temporalities of Crossrag-
well Abbey; and beyond this single point the evidence
cannot be extended. Nor was this reward bestowed upon
a man who had performed no correspondent services. He
had officiated as her classical tutor, and had composed
various poems for the entertainment of the Scotish court;
but the dedication of his Psalms might almost be consi¬
dered as equivalent to any reward which she conferred.
If Buchanan celebrated her in his poetical capacity, and
befoie she ceased to be an object of praise, it certainly
was not incumbent upon him to approve the atrocious ac¬
tions which she afterwards performed. The duty which
he owed to his country was a prior consideration, and
with that duty his further adherence to the infatuated
princess was utterly incompatible.
The earl of Murray and his associates returned to Scot¬
land in the beginning of the ensuing year. Buchanan’s
Detection, which was not published till 1571, seems to
have been entrusted to Dr Wilson, who is supposed by
Mr Laing to have added the “ Actio contra Mariam Sco-
torum Reginam,” and the Latin translation of Mary’s
first three letters to the earl of Bothwell. The good re¬
gent did not long survive those transactions: on the 23d
of January 1570 he was shot in the street of Linlithgow
by Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh, whom his clemency had
formerly rescued from an ignominious death. The assas¬
sin had been confirmed in his enterprise by the approba¬
tion of his powerful kinsmen. The indignation of Buchanan
was naturally roused against the house of Hamilton; and
e had sufficient cause to suspect that their dangerous
sc ernes were not yet completed. Under such impressions
as these, he composed “ Ane Admonitioun direct to the
trew Lordis, Mantenaris of the Kingis Graces Authori-
tie 5 in which he earnestly adjured them to protect the
young king, and the children of the late regent, from the
perils which seemed to await them. It was apparently
m the course of the same year, 1570, that he wrote ano¬
ther Scotish tract, entitled Chamceleon. In this satirical
production he very successfully exposes the wavering po¬
litics of the famous secretary Maitland. Soon after the
assassination of his illustrious friend, Buchanan was re¬
moved to a situation of no small importance; he was ap¬
pointed one of the preceptors of the young king. For
t ns preferment he appears to have been indebted to the
privy council, and others of the nobility and gentry, who
assembled in consequence of that disastrous event, for
the purpose of providing for the public security.
uring his infancy, the prince had been committed to
e charge of the earl of Mar, a nobleman of the most
unblemished integrity. In 1570, when Buchanan entered
upon his office, James was only four years of age. The
cnef superintendence of his education was left to the
ear s brother, Alexander Erskine. The preceptors asso-
Ckket Buchanan, were Peter Young, and the two
a bots °f Cambuskenneth and Dryburgh, both related to
e noble family of Mar. Young, who was respectable for
Rapacity and learning, wras of a disposition naturally
d ; and his attention to his future interest rendered him
cautious of offending a pupil who was soon to be the dis¬
penser of public favours. But the lofty and independent
BUCHANAN.
631
WaS T t0,?e controlfe'J !>y the mere Buchanan.
.II S! -. * co,d caution: the honourable task which
the voice of his country had assigned to his old age, he
discharged with simple integrity, and, so far as he himself
rrrneJV le TaS-h,ttle s?licit^^at impression
the strictness of his discipline might leave on the mind of
ns royal pupil. James, who was of a timid nature, long
remembered the commanding aspect which his illustrious
pi eceptor had assumed. He was accustomed to say of
some individual high in office, “ that he ever trembled at
Ins approach, it minded him so of his pedagogue.” The
young monarch’s proficiency in letters was such as reflect¬
ed no discredit on his early instructors. Buchanan made
nm a scholar, and nature had destined him for a pedant.
Nor was this the only preferment which he now obtain¬
ed. _ His first civil appointment, which he seems to have
retained but a short time, was that of director of the
chancery. The keeper of the privy seal, John, afterwards
Loid Maitland of 1 hirlstane, having been deprived of his
office on account of his adherence to the queen, it was
conferred upon Buchanan in the year 1570. The earl
of Lennox was at that time regent. His situation as lord
privy seal was undoubtedly honourable, and probably lu-
crative. It entitled him to a seat in parliament. This
office he retained for several years; for under the date of
November 1579, he is enumerated among the ordinary
officers of state entitled to a seat in the council. His
entitled to a seat in the~ council, axis
talents and his station evidently gave him no small share
o influence, and he was associated in various commissions
of importance.
Notwithstanding the precarious state of his health, and
the number of his avocations, he found leisure to compose
a most profound and masterly compendium of political
philosophy. It is entitled De Jure Regni apud Scolos,
and was first printed at Edinburgh in the year 1579. Al¬
though it professedly relates to the rights of the crown of
Scotland, it comprehends a subtile and eloquent delinea-
tion of the general principles of government. The work
is exhibited in the form of a dialogue between the author
and Ihomas the son of Sir Richard Maitland. Buchanan’s
dialogue excited a degree of attention which will not ap¬
pear surprising, when we consider the high reputation of
the author, and the boldness of the precepts which he in¬
culcates. In the course of a few years, his tenets were
formally attacked by his learned countrymen Blackwood,
\\ inzet, and Barclay, all of whom were zealous Catholics.
Some of Barclay’s arguments were long afterwards refuted
by Locke. Buchanan was also attacked, though in an
indirect manner, by Sir Thomas Craig, and by Sir John
Wemyss. Craig was a lawyer of much learning and abi¬
lity, and his treatise on the feudal law still continues to
be held in great estimation. Sir George Mackenzie, the
servile tool of a most profligate court, undertook to de¬
fend against Buchanan the same maxims of polity; and it
must be acknowledged that “ the right divine of kings to
govern wrong,” was a very suitable doctrine for the minis¬
ters of Charles and James. In the course of the seven¬
teenth century, his leading principles were also oppugned
by Sir Lewis Stewart, a lawyer, and by Sir James Turner,
a. soldier. The former wrote in Latin, the latter in Eng¬
lish, but neither of their productions has been printed;
and the republic ofletters has sustained no detriment by
their long suppression. He was incidentally assailed by
many foreign authors, who seem in general to have been
bewildered by the current doctrine of the divine and in¬
defeasible right of kings, and the passive obedience of sub¬
jects. This was indeed the doctrine of Catholics and Pro¬
testants, of civilians and divines. Grotius, though born
under a free republic, and certainly a man of a great and
liberal mind, did not entirely escape the contamination of
632 BUCK
Buchanan, those slavish maxims which were so prevalent during the
age in which he lived : the right of resisting any superior
power which happens to be established, he has discussed
in a manner that could hardly offend the completest despot
in Europe. There is perhaps too much justice in the re¬
mark of Rousseau, that it is his most common method
of reasoning, to establish the right by the fact. It is
one general fault of those writers, to found their theories
on passages of scripture which are not didactic or exege-
tical, but merely historical. This obsolete perversion they
seem to have derived from the authority of those early
theologians who are commonly styled the fathers of the
church; and who, if not always very safe guides in mora¬
lity and in biblical criticism, are certainly exceptionable
guides in political science. The degrading doctrine of
passive obedience was inculcated by Salmasius, Bochart,
Usher, and indeed by several very able men who approach¬
ed much nearer to our own times: it was even inculcated
by the famous Dr Berkeley, in some metaphysical dis¬
courses preached before the university of Dublin in the
year 1712. It is however a doctrine which no Briton,
capable of reflection, and possessed of ordinary sincerity,
will now hesitate a single moment in rejecting with the
utmost indignation.
But the full measure of Buchanan’s ignominy has not
yet been related. In the year 1584 the parliament con¬
demned his dialogue and history as unfit to remain for
records of truth to posterity; and, under a penalty of two
hundred pounds, commanded every person who possessed
copies to surrender them within forty days, in order that
they might be purged of “ the offensive and extraordinary
matters” which they contained. In 1664, the privy council
of Scotland issued a proclamation, prohibiting all subjects,
of whatever degree, quality, or rank, from transcribing or
circulating any copies of a manuscript translation of the
dialogue. And in 1683, the loyal and orthodox university
of Oxford doomed to the flames the political works of
Buchanan, Milton, Languet, and other heretics. This
university, says Cunningham, debauched the minds of the
youth with its slavish doctrines, and pronounced a severe
judgment against Buchanan for vindicating the rights of
the kingdom. The Scotish legislature, the English uni¬
versity, and the popish tribunal of the inquisition, seem to
have viewed this unfortunate speculator with equal ab¬
horrence. And what are the terrible doctrines that once
excited so violent an alarm ? Buchanan maintains that
all power is derived from the people ; that it is more safe
to entrust our liberties to the definite protection of the
laws, than to the precarious discretion of the king; that
the king is bound by those conditions under which the
supreme power was originally committed to his hands;
that it is lawful to resist, and even to punish tyrants.
When he speaks of the people as opposed to the king, he
evidently includes every individual of the nation except
one. And is a race of intelligent beings to be assimilated
to a tract of land, or a litter of pigs; to be considered, ab¬
solutely and unconditionally, as the lawful patrimony of a
family which either merit, accident, or crime, may ori¬
ginally have elevated to the summit of power ? In this
country and this age it certainly is not necessary to re¬
mark, that man can neither inherit nor possess a right of
property in his fellow-creatures. What is termed loyalty,
may, according to the circumstances of the case, be either
a virtue or a vice. Loyalty to Antoninus and loyalty to
Nero must assuredly have flowed from different sources.
If the Roman people had endeavoured to compass the
death of Nero, would this have been foul and unnatural
rebellion ? The doctrine of punishing tyrants in their
persons, either by a private arm, or by the public forms of
law, is indeed of a delicate and dangerous nature; and it
A N A N.
may be considered as amply sufficient, to ascertain theBi
previous right of forcible resistance. It will always be 0
extremely difficult, if not impossible, to find a competent
tribunal and impartial judges. But if mankind are at
length roused to the redress of enormous wrongs, the
prince who has either committed or sanctioned an habi¬
tual violation of the best rights of the people, will seldom
fail to meet with an adequate reward ; and in spite of all
the slavish theories of his priests and lawyers, mankind
will not long be reasoned out of the strongest feelings of
their nature. Divine right and passive obedience were
never more strenuously inculcated, than in the reign of
Charles the First.
In the seventy-fourth year of his age, Buchanan com¬
posed a brief sketch of his own life. The last production
which he lived to complete was his history of Scotland,
JRerum Scoticarum Historia. In the year 1582, it issued
from the press of Alexander Arbuthnot, printer to the
king. It bears the royal privilege, and is dedicated to the
young monarch. Between the original formation of his
plan, and the publication of the history itself, nearly twen¬
ty years must have elapsed; but it is to be supposed that
he long revolved the subject in his mind, and had pro¬
ceeded to amass the greater part of his materials, before
he applied himself to its composition ; and during that in¬
terval, his attention had been distracted by various pur¬
suits, political as well as literary.
Buchanan has divided his history into twenty books.
The first three ought rather to have been exhibited in
the form of an introductory dissertation, for the historical
narrative properly commences with the fourth book. His
preliminary enquiries are directed to the geographical
situation, the nature of the soil and climate, the ancient
names and manners, and the primitive inhabitants, of the
British islands. The third book consists of a series of
quotations from the Greek and Latin authors. The whole
of this introductory part displays his usual erudition and
sagacity; and, in the opinion of Archbishop Usher, no
writer had investigated the antiquities of his country with
superior diligence. In these disquisitions he evinces his
knowledge of the Celtic as well as of the classical lan¬
guages. In the earlier part of his narrative, he has re¬
posed too much confidence on his predecessor Boyce.
He appeals to several other Scotish historians; and he
unquestionably had access to historical documents which
are no longer extant. He has occasionally availed him¬
self of the collateral aid of the English and French writers.
Of the earlier reigns his sketch is brief and rapid; nor
has he attempted to establish any chronological notation
till he descends to the beginning of the fifth century. It
must indeed be acknowledged that he has repeated the
fabulous line of our ancient kings ; but that continued till
a much later period to be regarded as an article of na¬
tional faith. Like most of the classical historians, he is
too remiss in marking the chronology of the different facts
which he relates. From the reign of the great King Ko-
bert, his narrative becomes much more copious and in¬
teresting ; but the history of his own times, which were
pregnant with remarkable events, occupies far the largest
proportion of his twenty books. In some of the transac¬
tions which he records, his own affections and passions
were deeply concerned, and might not unreasonably be ex¬
pected to impart some tincture to his style. His indigna¬
tion against the ill-fated queen he shared with a very large
proportion of his fellow-subjects ; and many of her actions
were such as could not fail of exciting the antipathy o
every well-regulated mind. The composition of his his¬
tory betrays no symptoms of the author’s old age and in¬
firmities; his style is not merely distinguished by its cor¬
rectness and elegance, it breathes all the fervent anima-
inan.
aanan. tion of youthful genius. The noble ideas which so fre¬
quently rise in his mind, he always expresses in language
nf’ riinrr»If tr I T I j.:  • ,
BUCHANAN.
633
of correspondent, dignity. His narrative is extremely
perspicuous, variegated, and interesting; it is seldom de¬
ficient, and never redundant. His moral and political re¬
flections are profound and masterly. He is ready upon
all occasions to vindicate the unalienable rights of man¬
kind; and he uniformly delivers his sentiments with a
noble freedom and energy. It is with the utmost pro¬
priety that the learned Conring has commended him as a
man of exquisite judgment. Thuanus remarks that al¬
though much of his time had been spent in scholastic oc¬
cupations, yet his history might be supposed the produc¬
tion of a man whose whole life had been exercised in the
political transactions of the state; the felicity of his ge¬
nius, and the greatness of his mind, having enabled him
so completely to remove every impediment incident to an
obscure and humble lot. And, in the opinion of Bishop
Burnet, “ his stile is so natural and nervous, and his re¬
flections on things are so solid, that he is justly reckoned
the greatest and best of our modern authors.”
The publication of this great work he did not long sur¬
vive. His usual vein of pleasantry did not entirely desert
him on his death-bed. W hen visited by John Davidson,
a distinguished clergyman, he devoutly expressed his re¬
liance on the atoning blood of Christ; but he could not
refrain from introducing some facetious reflections on the
absurdities of the mass. He expired soon after five o’clock
in the morning of Friday the 28th of September 1582, at
the age of seventy-six years and nearly eight months.
His remains were interred in the cemetery of the Grey-
friars : Calderwood informs us that the funeral took place
on Satin day, and was attended by “ a great company of
the faithful.” v o i j
Buchanan had experienced many of the vicissitudes of
human life, and had been tried by prosperity as well as
adversity. His moral and intellectual character procured
him the same high respect from the most enlightened of
his contemporaries. His stern integrity, his love of his
country and of mankind, cannot fail of endearing his me¬
mory to those who possess congenial qualities; and such
en ors as he actually committed, will not perhaps be deemed
unpardonable by those who recollect the condition of hu¬
manity. He was subject to the nice and irritable feelings
w ich frequently attend exalted genius, enthusiastic in
us attachment, and violent in his resentment, equally sin¬
cere in his love and in his hatred. His friends, among
whom he numbered some of the most distinguished cha¬
racters of the age, regarded him with a warmth of affec¬
tion which intellectual eminence cannot alone secure.
His conversation was alternately facetious and instructive :
us wit and humour are still proverbial among his coun-
trymen. Such of his contemporaries as could best judge
° bis conduct and character, evidently regarded him as
a man of sincere piety.
Nor was the genius of Buchanan less variegated than
is ire. In his numerous writings he discovers a vigorous
an mature combination of talents, which have seldom
een found united in equal perfection. To an imagina-
lon excursive and brilliant, he unites an undeviating rec-
1 ude of judgment. His learning was at once elegant,
various, and profound: Turnebus, who was associated
i lm 'n ^le same c°frege, and whose opinion is en-
1 ed to the greatest deference, has characterized him as
a man of consummate erudition. Most of the ancient
writers had limited their aspiring hopes to one depart¬
ment of literature; and even to excel in one, demands the
lappy perseverance of cultivated genius. Plato despaired
o securing a reputation by his poetry; the poetical at-
empts of Cicero, though less contemptible perhaps than
they are commonly represented, would not have been suf- Buchanan,
hcient to transmit an illustrious name to future ages.
Buchanan has not only attained to excellence in each
species of composition, but in each species has displayed
a variety of excellence: in philosophical dialogue and
historical narrative, in lyric and didactic poetry, in elegy
epigram, and satire, he has scarcely been surpassed either
in ancient or modern times. A few Roman poets of the
purest age have excelled him in their several provinces;
but none of them has evinced the same capability of uni¬
versal attainment. Horace and Livy wrote in the lan¬
guage which they had learned from their mothers; but
its acquisition was to Buchanan the result of much youth¬
ful labour. Yet he writes with the purity, the elegance,
and freedom of an ancient Roman. Unfettered by the
Classical icstraints which shrivel the powers of an ordi-
nary mind, he expatiates with all the characteristic energy
of strong and original sentiment; he produces new com¬
binations of fancy, and invests them with language equally
polished and appropriate. His diction uniformly displays
a happy vein of elegant and masculine simplicity, and is
distinguished by that propriety and perspicuity which
can only be attained by a man perfectly master of his
own ideas, and of the language in which he writes. The
variety of his poetical measures is immense, and to each
species he imparts its peculiar grace and harmony. The
style of his prose exhibits correspondent beauties, nor is
it chequered by phraseology unsuitable in that mode of
composition. His diction, whether in prose or verse, is
not a tissue of centos; he imitates the ancients as the
ancients imitated each other. No Latin poet of modern
times has united the same originality and elegance; no
historian has so completely imbibed the spirit of antiquity,
without being betrayed into servile and pedantic imita¬
tion. But his works may legitimately claim a higher or¬
der of merit; they have added no inconsiderable influx
to the general stream of human knowledge. The wit, the
pungency, the vehemence, of his ecclesiastical satires,
must have tended to foment the genial flame of reforma¬
tion ; and his political speculations are evidently those of
a man who had nobly soared beyond the narrow limits of
his age.
Of the works of Buchanan there are two collective edi¬
tions, the earlier of which was published by Ruddiman.
Edinb. 1 /15,2 tom.fol. The editor’s masterly acquaintance
with philology, and with the history of his native coun¬
try, had eminently qualified him for such an undertaking.
The accuracy of the text, and the utility of his illustra¬
tions, are equally conspicuous. He has prefixed a copious
and satisfactory preface, and, among other appendages,
has added a curious and critical dissertation De Metris
Buchananceis. His annotations on Buchanan’s history are
particularly elaborate and valuable; but it is to be la¬
mented that his narrow politics should so frequently have
diverted him from the more useful tracts of enquiry.
Where political prejudices intervene, he is too eager to
contradict his author; and he often attempts, by very
slender and incompetent proofs, to extenuate the authen¬
ticity of his narrative. In illustrating the moral and lite¬
rary character of Buchanan, he spent many years of his
life. With great zeal and success, he afterwards vindi¬
cated his paraphrase of the Psalms against the objections
of Benson; but his political prejudices seem to have in¬
creased with the number of his years. His controversies
with Love and Man were conducted with sufficient perti¬
nacity ; though it must be acknowledged that the advan¬
tage of learning, and even of candour, generally inclines
to Ruddiman’s side. Another edition of Buchanan’s works
was published by Burman, a most indefatigable apd useful
labourer in the department of philology, and a man of
4 U
r—
634
Buchen
Buckler.
BUG
much more taste and talent than some of our readers may
perhaps be inclined to suppose. Lugd. Bat. 1725, 2 tom.
4to. He has reprinted his predecessor’s notes, disserta¬
tion, and other appendages, and has himself interspersed
some critical annotations.1 (x>)
BUCHEN, a city in the bailiwick of Bischofsheim, in
the duchy of Baden. It stands on the river Morrn, and
contains 2340 inhabitants, carrying on various trades, among
whom are many families of Jews.
BUCK, a circle in the Prussian government of Posen,
formerly part of Poland. It extends over 371 square miles,
or 237,440 acres, and contains six small cities and 117
villages, with 30,170 inhabitants. It is a woody, and in
great part a sandy district. The chief place, of the same
name, contains 222 houses and 1425 inhabitants.
BUCKDEN, a town of the hundred of Toesland, in the
county of Huntingdon, sixty-one miles from London, on
the great road to York. At this place there is a fine pa¬
lace, the country residence of the Bishop of Lincoln. The
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 869, in 1811 to 914, and
in 1821 to 973.
BUCKEBURG, a city, the capital of the dominions of
the prince of Schauenburg-Lippe. It stands on the side of
a hill, at the foot of which runs the river Aa, about seven
miles from Minden. It has nothing remarkable except
the castle of the prince, with a park around it, and the usual
appendages of miniature royalty. The city is finely situ¬
ated, and contains 2120 inhabitants, who chiefly depend
on the court. Long. 8. 57. 21. E. Lat. 52. 15. 47. N.
BUCKENHAM, New, a market-town of the hundred of
Shropham, in the county of Norfolk, ninty-five miles from
London. The market is held on a Saturday. The inha¬
bitants amounted in 1801 to 664, in 1811 to 691, and in
1821 to 720. Old Buckenham, one mile and a half dis¬
tant from the above, though not a market-town, is the
most populous of the two places, the inhabitants amount¬
ing in 1801 to 845, in 1811 to 937, and in 1821 to 1134.
BUCKINGHAM, the chief town of the county of that
name, fifty-seven miles from London, on the river Ouse,
over which there are three stone bridges. The streets are
crooked and narrow, and the houses not remarkable for
beauty. The assizes are held here alternately with Ayles¬
bury, and also the quarter sessions. There is a good
market on Saturday. The inhabitants amounted in 1801
to 2605, in 1811 to 3001, and in 1821 to 3465.
Buckingham, Georye Villiers, Duke of. See Villiers.
Buckingham, John Sheffield, Duke of. See Shef¬
field.
BUCKLER, a piece of defensive armour used by the
ancients. It was worn on the left arm, and composed of
wickers woven together, or wood of the lightest sort, co¬
vered with hides, and fortified with plates of brass or other
metal. The figure was sometimes round, sometimes oval,
and sometimes almost square. Many of these bucklers
were curiously adorned with figures of birds and beasts,
as eagles and lions, and of the gods, the celestial bodies,
and all the works of nature; a custom which w7as derived
from the^ heroic times, and from them communicated to
the Grecians, Romans, and Barbarians. The scutum, or
Roman buckler, was composed of wood, the parts being
joined together with little plates of iron, and the whole
covered with a bull’s hide. In the middle was an iron
boss or umbo jutting out, to glance off stones and darts,
and sometimes to press violently upon the enemy, and
drive all before them. The scuta are to be distinguished
from ihe clypei, which were less in size, and quite circu¬
lar. This species of shield belonged properly to other na¬
B U C
tions, though for some little time it was used by the Ro¬
mans. The scuta themselves were of two kinds, the ovata
and the imbricata; the former being a plain oval figure;
the latter oblong, and bending inward like half a cylinder.
Polybius makes the scuta four feet long, while Plutarch
calls them mdvosig, reaching down to the feet; and it is very
probable that they covered almost the whole body, since
in Livy we meet with soldiers, who stood on the guard,
sometimes sleeping with their head on their shield, having
fixed the other part of it in the earth.
Votive Bucklers, those consecrated to the gods, and
hung up in their temples, either in commemoration of
some hero, or as a thanksgiving for a victory obtained
over an enemy, whose bucklers, taken in war, were offered
as trophies.
BUCKRAM, in commerce, a sort of coarse linen cloth
stiffened with glue, and used in the making of garments,
to keep them in the form intended.
BUCKS, or Buckinghamshire, an interior county of
England. It is bounded on the north-west and north by
Northamptonshire, on the west by Oxfordshire, on the
south by Berkshire, and on the east by Bedfordshire and
Hertfordshire, and in part by Middlesex, the southernmost
part of the county, which ends in a point, approaching to
within twelve or fourteen miles of London. It is in the
form of a crescent, but, owing to indentations, very irre¬
gular in its breadth, being in the widest part only twenty-
two miles. In length it is about fifty miles, and in extent
about seven hundred and thirty square miles, or four hun¬
dred and seventy thousand statute acres, including roads,
rivers, and the sites of towns.
The southern part of the county is beautifully diversi¬
fied with hill and dale, is well wooded, has abundant and
transparent streams, and is in a state of cultivation which
exactly corresponds with the features of the district. The
centre of the county is less picturesque, though some of
the spurs of the hills which protrude into the vale of
Aylesbury have a striking effect. The northern part is
less beautiful, though the soil is commonly fertile. The
principal rivers which convey to the sea the waters of this
county are the Thames and the Ouse. The former rises
in the vale of Aylesbury, enters Oxfordshire at Thame,
and after various sinuosities again approaches Bucking¬
hamshire at Henley, and becomes the boundary between
it and Berkshire, till it receives the waters of the Coin,
and passes by London to the sea. The Ouse, which drains
the northern part of the county, comes out of Northamp¬
tonshire, receives the water of the Lysell at Newport-
Pagnell, runs through Bedfordshire before it becomes na¬
vigable, and finally enters the sea at Lynn. The grand
junction canal, which brings the coal districts into connec¬
tion with the metropolis, passes through the northern and
middle parts of the county, and, by means of subsidiary cuts,
to Buckingham, Aylesbury, and Wendover, and extends
the dispersion of cheap fuel over a wide district, which
formerly suffered severely from the scarcity and dearness
of that necessary of life.
A part of that range of hills consisting of chalk and
flints, which begins in Norfolk, and extends to Dorset¬
shire, is here denominated the Chilterns. The soiHn ge¬
neral is poor, and the climate bleak; but by assiduous
cultivation, it produces moderate crops of barley, and some
wheat, and feeds both sheep and horned cattle. The vale
of Aylesbury, by which it is bounded to the south, is a dis¬
trict rich in the productions of the dairy; in wdieat, beans,
and especially in grazing pasture, it is also highly fertile.
There is a part of the county7 adjoining to Bedfordshire,
hue, m
Bu
1 See the second edition of Dr Irving’s Memoirs of the Life and Writings of George Buchanan. Edinb. 1817, 8vo.
B U C
leking. near Leighton-Buzzard, consisting of barren heaths; but
Mtoe. with this exception, the whole may be considered as high-
ly fertile and well cultivated. According to the returns
of rental under the property-tax, the average rent of land
in Buckinghamshire by the acre, when compared with
that of all England, was as 713 to 595; and was exceed¬
ed by no county except Leicester, Somerset, Warwick, and
Hertford. The largest landed proprietors are the Gren¬
ville and Cavendish families, Mr Drake, Sir John Dash-
wood King, Loid Caiiington, Mr Dupre, and some others
The manufactures of Buckinghamshire are by no means
considerable in number or extent. A few years ago the
females weie generally occupied in making pillow lace
both from thread and silk; but the progressive improve¬
ments in machinery have enabled the people of Nottino-.
ham and other parts of the kingdom to offer a substitute
in machine lace so much cheaper, and equally beautiful,
that the tiade has been diminished to a very insignificant
demand. There are several extensive establishments for
making writing paper, on the transparent streams near
Wycombe. At Amersham there are manufactories both
of cotton and silk, which of late years have been extend¬
ed. The chief trade of the county is that which arises
from the internal navigation, by which heavy commodi¬
ties, such as coals, iron, timber, and limestone, are sup¬
plied to the inhabitants. 1
The civil division of the county is into the eight hun¬
dreds of Buckinghamshire, Burnham, Cottesloe, Desbo-
rough, Ashenden, Aylesbury, Newport, and Stoke. It
contains nine towns, a hundred and eighty-one parishes
and twenty-six hamlets. The bishop of Lincoln is the
supeiioi ecclesiastic, and administers his jurisdiction by
the archdeacon of Bucks ; but four of the parishes within
the county are peculiars of the archbishopric of Canter-
bury, and four others are in the diocese of London and
archdeaconry of St Albans. The county forms a part of
the Norfolk judicatory circuit, and the assizes are held
alternately at Buckingham and at Aylesbury ; the quarter
sessions always at the latter town.
The following titles are derived from this county,viz. Duke
of Buckingham, Earl of Buckinghamshire, and Marquis of
Aylesbury. Three members are returned to the House
ot Commons by the county.
, Tbe population of Buckinghamshire, and the inhabited
ouses, at the four decennial enumerations, have been as
lollows:
Years. Males. Females. Total. Houses.
1801 52,094 55,350 107,444 20,443
}811 56,208 61,442 117,650 20,986
1821 64,867 69,201 134,068 24,876
T. 1831 71,734 74,795 146,529
ihe fannhes, according to the census of 1821, who were
chiefly engaged in agriculture, were 16,640; those employ¬
ed in trade, manufactures, or handicraft, were 8318; and
those not comprised in either of the preceding classes
were 3909.
The most attractive object in this county of a public
nature is the college at Eton. This establishment, found¬
ed m 1440 by the unfortunate King Henry VI., is distin-
guished by the beauty of the valley in which it stands,
ie flourishing state ot its endowments, and the number of
eminent men who have there received the first rudiments
o knowledge. The chapel is a fine specimen of the archi¬
tecture of the age in which it was erected. The number
f Pupds has generally amounted to between three and
our hundred, with the exception of the king’s scholars,
mostly the sons of families of the first rank.
Although some of the most magnificent seats of noble¬
men and gentlemen have been suffered to go to decay,
such as Bulstrode, formerly belonging to the Dukes of
B U C
635
Portland, and now to the Duke of Somerset; and Eye- Bucking,
thorpe, the property of the Earl of Chesterfield; yet many hamshife
remain to adorn the county of Bucks. The most eminent „ II
is that of Stowe, belonging to the Duke of Buckingham, vEucovar-
celebrated for its grounds, its collection of pictures and   
statues ; to which may be added, Cliefden on the Thames,
belonging to the Countess of Orkney; Dropmore, to Lord
Grenville ; Wooton, to the Marquis of Chandos; Stoke
I ark, to J. I enn, Esq.; Hampden, to the Earl of Bucking¬
hamshire ; Hedsor, to Lord Boston; Wilton Park, to J.
Hupre, Esq.; Latemers, to Lord George Cavendish ; Hart¬
well, the residence of the late King of France, to Dr Lee •
Shardelos, to Mr Drake; Taploe House, to Marquis Tho-
mond ; Wycombe Abbey, to Lord Carrington; Wycombe
Fark, to Sir John Dashwood; Chequers, to J. Russell, Esq.;
and Kimble Magna, to Sir Scroope Barnard.
'Ibis county has been the birth-place or the residence
of several distinguished individuals. Brown, usually call¬
ed Capability Brown, celebrated for his taste and skill in
ornamental gardening, was born and first employed at
Stowe ; Bishop Atterbury was born at Milton Keynes; Sir
Kenelm Digby, “ the prodigy of learning, credulity, valour,
and romance,” was born at Gaythurst, near Newport-Pag-
nell; Hampden the patriot, Waller the poet, and Ingoldsby
and Desborough the parliamentary generals, were all re¬
lated to each other, and natives of Bucks. It was the re¬
sidence of Milton during two periods of his life ; and the
house near Chalfont, St Giles, which he inhabited, is still
to be seen. Edmund Burke, Cowper the poet, and Her-
schel the acute and indefatigable astronomer, were inha¬
bitants of Bucks. The observatory of the latter, and his
powerful telescopes, still remain at Slough, and are use¬
fully employed by his talented son.
Ihe name of this county has been traced by some to
the Saxon word Buc, which signifies a buck; but with
moie probability by others to the word Biic/i, which sig¬
nified the beech, a tree which was the most abundant,
especially on the Chilterns. Before the invasion of the
Romans it was included in the division of the Catieuch-
lani, and after their conquest in their third province of
Flavia Casariensis. During the Heptarchy it was a part
of the kingdom of Mercia, having had eighteen successive
kings.
The chief towns, with their population in 1821, were the
following:
Marlow 3863
Newport-Pagnell 3103
Eton 2475
Princes Risborough....l958
Beaconsfield 1736
Winslow 1222
BUCOLIC, in ancient poetry, a kind of poem relating
to shepherds and country affairs, which, according to the
generally received opinion, was of Sicilian origin. Buco¬
lics, says Vossius, have some conformity with comedy.
Like it, they are pictures and imitations of ordinary life;
with this difference, however, that comedy represents the
manners of the inhabitants of cities, and bucolics the oc¬
cupations of people in the country. Sometimes, continues
he, this last poem is in the form of a monologue, and
sometimes in that of a dialogue. Sometimes there is ac¬
tion in it, sometimes only narration, and sometimes it is
composed both of action and narration. The hexameter
verse is the most proper for bucolics in the Greek and
Latin tongues. Moschus, Bion, Theocritus, and Virgil,
are the most renowned of the ancient bucolic poets.
BUCOVAR, a small circle in the Austrian kingdom of
Hungary, surrounding the city of the same name, ex¬
tending over two hundred and sixty-six square miles or
170,240 acres. The city stands at the junction of the
Aylesbury 4400
Buckingham 3465
Amersham 2612
Olney 2333
Great Missenden 1735
Wendover 1607
G36 BUD
Buda Buka with the Danube. It contains one Catholic and two
I! Greek churches, with seven hundred houses, and 6300
Buddseus- inhabitants, chiefly employed in the cultivation of vines,
the rearing of silk-worms, and the spinning of silk. Long.
18. 55. 20. E. Lat. 45. 21. 9. N.
BUDA, or Open, the capital of the Austrian kingdom
of Hungary, jointly with the city of Pesth, with which it
is in immediate communication by means of a bridge of
boats leading to Margaret’s Island. It is situated on the
right bank of the Danube, is the residence of the palatines,
and the seat of the boards of the several departments of go¬
vernment and of ecclesiastical affairs. The public build¬
ings worthy of notice are the castle, in which the crown of
Hungary is kept, the town-house, the orphan-house, and
some of the churches. The inhabitants are about 28,500.
They find employment in manufactures of leather, cutlery,
silk, and woollen goods, and in the cultivation of the vine¬
yards in the vicinity, which yield an excellent red wine.
Long. 18. 55. 25. E. Lat. 47. 29. 44. N.
BUDHUUS, William, descended of an ancient and il¬
lustrious family, was' born at Paris in 1467. When young
he was placed under masters; but barbarism prevailed so
much in the schools of Paris, that Budaeus took a dislike
to them, and spent his whole time in idleness, till his pa¬
rents sent him to the university of Orleans to study law.
There he passed three years without adding to his know¬
ledge ; so that his parents having recalled him to Paris,
found his ignorance no less than before, and his reluctance
to study, and love to gaming and other useless pleasures,
much greater. They talked no more to him of learning of
any kind; and as he was heir of a large fortune, they left
him to follow his own inclinations. He was passionately
fond of hunting, and took great pleasure in horses, dogs,
and hawks. But when the lire of youth began to cool, and
his usual pleasures to pall upon his senses, he was seized
with an irresistible passion for study; and having dis¬
posed of his hunting equipage, he abstracted himself from
all business, in order to apply himself wholly to study; in
which, without any assistance, he made a rapid progress,
particularly in the Latin and Greek languages. The work
which gained him greatest reputation was his treatise De
Asse, the first edition of which was published at Paris in
1514, in folio. His erudition and high birth were not
his only advantages; for he had an uncommon share of
piety, modesty, gentleness, and good-breeding. The
French king, Francis I. often sent for him, and, at his
persuasion, and that of Du Bellay, founded the royal col¬
lege of France, for teaching the languages and sciences.
Ihe king sent him to Rome in the character of ambassa¬
dor to Leo X., and in 1522 made him master of requests.
The same year he was chosen provost of the merchants.
He died at Paris in 1540. His works, extending to four
volumes in folio, were printed at Basel iii 1557.
BUDDfEUS, John Ihancis, a celebrated Lutheran
„ divine, and one of the most learned men Germany has
produced, was born in 1667, at Anclam, a town of Pome¬
rania, where his father was minister. He studied with
great distinction at Greifswald and at Wittenberg; and
having attained to eminence in languages, theology, and
history, was appointed Greek and Latin professor at Col-
burg ; afterwards professor of morality and politics in the
university of Halle ; and at length, in 1705, professor of
divinity at Jena, where he died in 1729, after having ac¬
quired a very great reputation. Plis principal works are,
1. A large historical German Dictionary, Leipsic, 1709,
folio ; 2. Historia Ecclesiastica Veteris Testamenti, Halle,
1709, four vols. 4to ; 3. Elementa Philosophice Practical,
tnstrumentalis et theoreticce, three vols. 8vo, which has
passed through a great number of editions; 4. Sdecta
Juris Nature et Gentium, Halle, 1704, 8vo; 5. Miscellanea
BUD
Sacra, Jena, 1727, three vols. 4to ; 6. Isagoge Historico- Bm
Theologica ad Theologiam Universam, singulasque ejus
partes, two vols. 4to, a work much valued by the Luthe¬
rans ; and, 7. A Treatise on Atheism and Superstition.
BUDDHA or Buddhu, one of the two appearances of
Vishnu, assumed for the purpose of deluding the enemies
of the gods, and effecting their destruction by leading
them to profess heretical opinions, and thus to reject the
Hindu religion. In the Bhagawat, a work held in high
esteem by the great majority of the Hindus, it is express¬
ly declared, “ that, at the commencement of the Kali Yug,
Vishnu became incarnate in Kikata, under the name of
Buddha, the son of Jina, for the purpose of deluding the
enemies of the gods;” that “ the Undiscernible Being,
having assumed a mortal form, preached heretical doc¬
trines in the three cities founded by Maya, for the pur¬
pose of destroying, by deluding, the enemies of the gods,
stedfast in the religion prescribed by the Vedas;” that
praise is due to “ the pure Buddha, the deluder of the
Daityas and Danawas ;” and that, “ by his words, as Bud¬
dha, Vishnu deludes the heretics.” The same legend is
related in a more detailed manner in the Kashi Khand of
the Skanda Purana, and also in the Ganesha Upa-Purana,
in which the appearance of Buddha is described as a ma¬
nifestation rather than an incarnation of Vishnu ; and an
account is given of the circumstances under which it is
alleged to have been made. According to the Puranas,
Divodasa, a king of the solar race, finding Kashi unoccu¬
pied, took possession of the place, and there established
the religion of Vishnu on so firm a foundation, and ren¬
dered his people so virtuous and happy, that the gods
having become alarmed lest they should lose their supre¬
macy, which they maintained by the use of very different
means, applied to Vishnu and Shiva to relieve them from
their anxieties on this head. The two incarnations of the
Supreme Being, however, declared at first that it would be
unjust to deprive so virtuous a prince of his kingdom ; but
Divodasa, having obtained as a boon from Brahma that none
of the deities should remain in his kingdom, or exercise
any power over it, Shiva at length waxed wroth at being so
long banished from his favourite residence, and consented
to fulfil the malignant wishes of the deities. But how was
this to be accomplished ? As long as Divodasa and his
subjects remained stedfast in their religion, they were se¬
cure from injury; it therefore became necessary to lead
them into error as a pretext for destroying them; and
with this view Devi, the twelve suns, and Ganesha, were
employed, but without success. At last, when these minor
tempters had failed, Vishnu appeared, as Buddha, and
effected their apostacy.
From the tenor of this legend may be divined, a priori,
the doctrines which it was necessary for Buddha to pro¬
pagate, in order to induce Divodasa and his subjects to
apostatize from the religion of the Vedas. These in fact
were,—that no credit whatever is due to the Vedas or
Shastras; that it is vain to worship the images of gods;
that sacrifices are cruel and sinful; that there is no such
thing as transmigration of souls; that at death the five
elements in the body dissolve never to reunite ; that plea¬
sure is the grand object of life, and that all acts of absti¬
nence, piety, and charity, are unprofitable ; that the body is
man’s real god, and should alone be worshipped; that plea¬
sant food, fine clothes, and handsome women, form the
grand felicity of man; that this world is without begin¬
ning, and consequently owes its existence neither to cre¬
ator nor cause ; and that Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Budra,
and all the other gods, are mere creatures of fancy an
fear, and never had a being, except in the imaginations
of their worshippers. In short, the ancient Brahminica
Buddha, whether a manifestation of Vishnu according to
/
BUD
ddha. the Shaivas, or an incarnation according to the Vaishnavas
was the propagator of a system of universal scepticism’
embracing not only a disbelief of all religion, but also a
disregard for all virtue, and indeed for every thino- except
mere sensual gratification. He was a false teacher and
impostor, who came to deceive and to mislead, in order to
destroy; not a kind and merciful being, adorned with the
attributes of wisdom and benevolence, and worthy to re¬
ceive all praise and worship, as some have erroneously sup¬
posed. Moreover, his appearance was for a temporary and
local purpose, namely, to render Divodasa the voluntary
cause of his own downfal, and thus to gratify the malice
of the deities who had conceived an aversion to that virtu¬
ous potentate. But the sceptical doctrines which he dis¬
seminated in the course of his delusive manifestation be¬
came aftei wards blended and intermixed with a variety of
others of a totally different description; so that, although
Buddhism has ever continued more or less distinct from
the faith of which originally it formed the negation, it is
exceedingly difficult to trace its progress, and by no means
easy to ascertain its precise character at any given period*
of time. The rejection of the Vedas, and of the religion
founded upon them, seems, however, to be common to all
forms of Buddhism ; and although the Brahmins neverthe¬
less recognise Buddha as an object of worship or reve¬
rence, it is only as a manifestation of Vishnu, one of the
emanations of Brahm, or the Supreme Being, and not as a
false teacher and an impostor, whose object was to deceive
and delude, that he is acknowledged by the sacred caste
of the Hindus. By not perceiving or not attending to this
distinction, all the writers on the subject whose works we
have consulted have entangled themselves in the mazes
of inextricable perplexity and contradiction, and thicken¬
ed the darkness which they laboured to dispel. M. Gui-
gmaut, indeed, has attempted to cut the knot which he
could not unloose. “ Bouddha ne jouit d’aucun culte dans
Unde, says he ; “ ses temples, sesidolesy sont renverses
ou abandonnes; une tenebreuse horreur, une ignorance
feinte ou reelle, une haine non moins violente qu’irre-
neclne, regnent .chez les Brahmanes, sur tout ce qui con-
cerne sa doctrine.” But in another part of his work
{Religions de VAntiquite, vol. i. p. 294), the same author
admits that Buddha has not ceased to be revered by the
Hindu nation; an admission wholly irreconcilable with
the statement contained in the passage just quoted. This
' c.on‘usl°n of ideas, however, proceeds from incorrect no¬
tions as to the character of Buddha; for as long as he is
considered merely as a manifestation of Vishnu, he is held
to be an object of reverence, not as Buddha, but as the
divinity who chose to appear in that form. The Hindus
have never'acknowledged him in any other character; and
consequently all that has been written concerning him
With reference to the religion of India, is wholly irrelevant,
and foreign- to the subject.
According to the fable, Buddha, when he had effected
the apostacy of Divodasa, was prevailed upon by the
Brahmins and holy men to terminate the propagation of
eretical doctrines, upon which he disappeared in a deep
we at Gaya, leaving neither writings nor disciples behind
aim; and it is further believed, upon the credit of tradition,
hat no Buddhists were known in India, until their sect
by Gautama or Godama, with whom
uddha is frequently confounded. Now, in this mythic
account, which is supported by a legend in the Shiva Pu-
rana, we have the true genius of Buddhism displayed. Its
c aracter throughout is essentially negative. When redu-
ced t° its elements or first principles, it consists merely
0 he rejection of the Vedas and of the religion founded
upon them. It is not the Hindu faith ; but under this de¬
nomination of Buddhism there may be, and in point of fact
bud
637
there has been included the most various, not to say incon- Buddha
gruous, tene s and superstitions which it is possible to ima-
gine, and although its negative character is everywhere the
same, its positive character differs in different countries.
HwsCea dG buddhls™ °f Chl-na’ allied to the institutions,
laws and maxims of Fo and Confucius, is in many re¬
spects as different from the Buddhism of the Burman em-
onW a attT f the system of religion founded
on the Vedas and the Shastras. But, nevertheless, it has
some positive general characteristics. The principles of
this sect, as established by Gautama, its founder, about
five hundred years before Christ, are unknown ; but those
now ascribed to him, and professed as his alleged revela¬
tions, may be very briefly stated. The doctrine and law
o Gautama consist chiefly in observing five command¬
ments, and abstaining from ten sins. The five command¬
ments contain prohibitions against killing any animal what¬
soever, from the meanest insect up to man; against the
commission of theft; against the violation of another man’s
wife or concubine ; against falsehood ; and against the use
of wine, or any intoxicating liquor or drug, as opium : and
an exemption from poverty, misfortune, and calamity is
promised to those who keep these commandments durinff
a. successive transmigrations. The ten sins consist in the
killing of animals, theft, adultery, falsehood, discord, con¬
tumelious language, idle and superfluous talk, covetous¬
ness, envy or malice, and the following of false gods:
and he who abstains from all these sins is said to obtain
bila, while every one who observes Sila, in all successive
transmigrations, becomes at last worthy of beholdino- a
gem, and of hearing his great voice, and is exempted from
the four known miseries, namely, weight, old age, disease,
and death. 1 here are also certain positive good works
which ought to be practised, such as Dana, which consists
in giving alms, and Bavana, which consists in repeating
solemnly the three words Aneizza, Docha, and Anatta;
the hist indicating liability to vicissitude, the second ex¬
posure to misfortune, and the third the impossibility of
obtaining exemption from these evils. From this state¬
ment it appears that the two scales of commandments
and prohibitions are singularly ill adjusted to each other;
inasmuch as the duties enjoined are only half the number
ol the sins forbidden, and as the negative and the positive
in morals are blended in both.
The worshippers of Buddha contend with the disciples
of Brahma for the honour of a high antiquity; and this pre¬
tension has been countenanced by some European writers
of high reputation. Sir William Jones, for instance, fixes
the first appearance of Buddhism about a thousand years
before Christ; but his argument rests upon very weak
grounds, and, if the Puranas are admitted to be of any
authority, it is wholly untenable; for whatever antiquity
may be ascribed to Buddha, considered as a manifestation
of Vishnu for the purpose of local and temporary delusion,
there are clearly no grounds, mythological, traditional, or
historical, for placing the origin of this sect higher than
the period of Gautama, or about five hundred years before
Christ, as already mentioned. What we know with cer¬
tainty is, that Buddhism, so called doubtless from its pe¬
culiar character, once predominated throughout a great
part of India; that the doctrines and system of belief
adopted by its votaries were in direct opposition to the
religion founded on the Vedas; that a deadly hatred arose
between the followers of Brahma and the Buddhists, which
ended in the expulsion of the latter; that, nevertheless,
the Brahmins continued to reverence Buddha as the ma¬
nifestation of Vishnu, however much they might have
detested the sect which called itself by his name; that
Buddhism appears to have diffused itself over all the coun¬
tries from Bengal to China inclusive; that in its character
638
BUD
Budgell. and genius it is extremely flexible and accommodating;
and that, in the different countries which it overspread, it
appears to have become amalgamated with indigenous lo¬
cal superstitions of almost every description. (See Ken¬
nedy’s Researches into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient
and Hindu Mythology, p. 248, et seqq.; Transactions of
the Bombay Literary Society, part iii. p. 532; Guigniaut,
Religions de VAntiquite, tom. i. p. 300 ; Heeren, Ideen iiber
die Politik, Sic. vol. viii, p. 127, 4th edit.; Asiatic Re¬
searches, vol. viii. p. 474.) (a.)
BUDGELL, Eustace, an ingenious writer, was the son
of Gilbert Budgell, doctor of divinity, and was born at St
Thomas, near Exeter, about the year 1685. He was edu¬
cated at Christ Church College, Oxford, from which he
removed to the Inner Temple, London ; but instead of
studying the law, for which his father intended him, he
applied to polite literature, kept company with.the genteel-
est persons in town, and in particular contracted a strict
intimacy with Mr Addison, who was first cousin to his mo¬
ther, and who, on his being appointed secretary to Lord
Wharton, lord-lieutenant of Ireland, took Budgell with him
as one of the clerks of his office. Mr Budgell, who was
then about twenty years of age, and had read the classics
and the works of the best English, French, and Italian
authors, now became concerned with Sir Richard Steele
and Mr Addison in writing the Tatler, as he had soon after¬
wards a share in writing the Spectator, where all the papers
furnished by him are marked with an X; and when that
work was completed, he had likewise a hand in the Guar¬
dian, where his performances are marked with an asterisk.
He was subsequently made under secretary to Mr Addison,
chief secretary to the lords justices of Ireland, and deputy
clerk of the council. Soon afterwards he was chosen a
member of the Irish parliament; and in 1717, Mr Addi¬
son, having become principal secretary of state in England,
procured him the place of accountant and comptroller-
general of the revenue in Ireland. But the next year, the
Duke of Bolton being appointed lord-lieutenant, Mr Bud¬
gell wrote a lampoon against Mr Webster, his secretary,
in which his Grace himself was not spared; and upon all
occasions he treated that gentleman with the utmost con¬
tempt. This imprudent step became the primary cause of
his ruin ; for the Duke of Bolton, in support of his secre¬
tary, got him removed from the post of accountant-gene¬
ral ; upon which, returning to England, he, contrary to the
advice of Mr Addison, published his case in a pamphlet.
Mr Addison had now resigned the seals, and retired into
the country for the sake of his health ; Mr Budgell had
also lost several other powerful friends, who had been
removed by death, particularly the Earl of Sunderland
and Lord Halifax. He, however, made several attempts
to succeed at court, but was constantly kept back by the
Duke of Bolton. In the year 1720 he lost L.20,000 by
the South Sea scheme, and afterwards spent L.5000 more
in unsuccessful attempts to get into parliament. This
completed his ruin. He at length employed himself in
writing pamphlets against the ministry, and published
many papers in the Craftsman. In 1733 he began a week¬
ly pamphlet called the Bee, which he continued for above
a hundred numbers, and which is printed in eight volumes
8vo. During the progress of this work occurred the death
of Dr Tindal, by whose will Mr Budgell had L.2000 left
him; and the world being surprised at such a gift from a
man entirely unrelated to him, to the exclusion of the next
heir, a nephew, and the continuator of Rapin’s history of
England, immediately imputed it to his having made the
will himself. Lienee the satirist:
Let Budgell charge low Grub-street on my quill,
And write whate’ei he please except my will.
It was thought that he had sotne hand in publishing Dr
BUD
Tindal’s Christianity as old as the Creation; for he oftenBudu n3
talked of an additional volume on the subject, but never
published it. After the cessation of the Bee, Mr Bud-Bu®
gell became so involved in law-suits, that he was reduced tu
to a very unhappy situation. He was indeed called to the 's*'v
bar, and attended for some time in the courts of law; but
finding himself unable to make any progress, and being
distressed to the utmost, he determined at length to put
an end to his life. Accordingly, in the year 1736, he
took a boat at Somerset-stairs, after filling his pockets
with stones; ordered the waterman to shoot the bridge;
and, whilst the boat was passing under, threw himself into
the river. He had several days before been visibly dis¬
tracted in his mind. Upon his bureau was found a slip of
paper, on which were these words:
What Cato did, and Addison approv’d,
Cannot be wrong.
Besides the above works, he wrote a Translation of the
Characters of Theophrastus. He was never married, but
left one natural daughter, who afterwards assumed his
name, and became an actress in Drury-lane.
BUDNiEANS, in Ecclesiastical History, so called from
the name of their leader, Simon Budnaeus. They not only
denied all kind of religious worship to Jesus Christ, but
asserted that he was not begotten by any extraordinary
act of divine power, being born, like other men, in a na¬
tural way. Budnseus was deposed from his ministerial
functions in the year 1584, and publicly excommunicated,
with all his disciples ; but afterwards abandoning his pe¬
culiar sentiments, he was re-admitted to the communion
of the Socinian sect. Crellius ascribes the origin of the
above opinion to Adam Neuser.
BUD UN, the name of one of the Ceylonese gods. He
is supposed to have arrived at supremacy after successive
transmigrations from the lowest state of an insect through
the various species of living animals. There have been
three deities of this name, each of which is supposed to
have reigned as long as a bird takes to remove a hill of
sand half a mile high and six miles round, by a single
grain in a thousand years.
BUDWEIS, a circle in the Austrian kingdom of Bohe¬
mia. It extends over 814 square miles, or 520,960 acres.
It is situated in the southernmost part of the kingdom join¬
ing to Bavaria. It comprehends eight cities, twenty-nine
market-towns, 891 villages, and 26,985 houses. The inha¬
bitants in 1817 were 170,670, but have since been increas¬
ing as in the other parts of the territory. The chief city
bears the same name, and is situated on the river Moldau,
where it receives the waters of the Malsch. It is a well
built ancient place, with a cathedral, several other churches,
a monastery, and an institution for military education. It
has manufactures of cloth, and for refining saltpetre. The
population amounts to somewhat more than 6000. It is
in Long. 14. 51. 10. E. Lat. 48. 59. 43. N.
BUDZIAC Tartary lies on the rivers Dniester, Bog)
and Dnieper, having Poland and Russia on the north, Little
Tartary on the east, the Black Sea on the south, and Bess¬
arabia on the west. The chief town is Oczakow. It is
subject to Turkey.
BUENAIRE, one of the Leeward Islands, in the West
Indies, lying east of Cura^oa, and belonging to the Dutch.
It is fifty miles in circumference, is mountainous in its ap¬
pearance, and inhabited chiefly by Indians, with a small
mixture of Europeans. It produces nothing but a few
cattle, goats, large quantities of poultry, and of late years
a considerable quantity of salt. On the south-west side
there is a good harbour. It is fifty-two miles east of Cu-
ra^oa. Long. 67. 36. W. Lat. 12. 26. N. _ ,
BUENAVENTURA, a Spanish settlement and mission
B U E
enos tli6 coast of New California. Vancouver mentions that
res. the buildings of the mission, the arrangements of the gar-
y-w' dens, and the cultivation of the land in the immediate vi¬
cinity, are in a style superior to that of any of the settle¬
ments in the north. In consequence of the serene wea¬
ther which prevails here throughout most of the year,
the roadstead may be considered as a tolerably good one,’
and anchorage may be had near the shore. But it is much
B U E
exposed to the north-east winds and oceanic swells, which
render the communication with the shore very unpleasant.
Ihere is a want of ram here, which is rather unfavourable
to the raising of European grain ; but the soil and climate
answer remarkably well for the production of all sorts of
ruits appertaining both to the temperate and torrid zones
i non SG1tt ,ement wa! founded in 1782> and contains above
1000 inhabitants. Long. 241. 2. E. Lat. 34. 16 N
639
Buenos
Ayres.
BUENOS AYRES,
The capital of the Argentine republic or united pro¬
vinces of the Rio de la Plata, is situated in the province
of Buenos Ayres, on the southern margin of the river
Plata, in South America. Ihis province is bounded on
the north by the province of Sante Fe and the rivers Pa¬
rana and La Plata, on the east by the La Plata and the
Atlantic Ocean, on the west by the province of Santa Fe
and the Indian territory, and on the south by the coun¬
try of the Indians. Phis latter boundary, previous to
1822, was formed by the river Salado. The greatest dia¬
meter of the province, then consisting of about 200 miles
extended from the mouth of the Salado, at the bay of
Samborombon, in south latitude 36°, in a north-westerly
direction, to the Arroyo en Medio, which separates it
from Santa Fe, in south latitude 33. 20.; the breadth of
the province was estimated at about 70 miles; and the
area included about 1518 square leagues.
In 1740 an imaginary line was drawn across the conti¬
nent, in about 35° of south latitude, to the south of which
t e Indians were understood to confine themselves, and
various forts were constructed for the defence of this fron¬
tier ; but these limits appear to have been little respect¬
ed by either party, since the Indians have been in the fre¬
quent practice of making incursions into the frontier pro¬
vinces, and plundering their inhabitants, or interrupting
the commercial intercourse maintained between the capi¬
tal and the interior provinces situated along the eastern
base of the Andes. The inhabitants of the provinces, and
especially those of Buenos Ayres, have been gradually ex¬
tending their estancias or breeding farms into the territory
ot the Indians south of the river Salado, and more especi¬
ally on the sea-coast of the Atlantic. To render these posses¬
sions more secure, and to extend the jurisdiction of the go¬
vernment of Buenos Ayres, an attempt was made in 1822
to obtain, by purchase from the Indians, the cession of an
extensive tract of land situated to the south of the Salado.
he principal Indian caziques having assembled to meet
the commissioner from the government of Buenos Ayres,
consented to sell their lands, but were so exorbitant in
them demands that the negociation failed, partly through
e influence exercised by those tribes residing near the
i ndes and *n Chili, who were less immediately interested
m the sale of these lands. The failure of these laudable
en eavours to accomplish this object by amicable means
has led to consequences injurious not only to the Indians,
ut to the industrious inhabitants of the province of Buenos
..yres’ Both parties have had recourse to arms. The In-
ians have made repeated irruptions into the possessions
0 the latter, carrying off great quantities of cattle, and
committing other atrocities. The government of Buenos
' ?n t^ie odler hand, has sent various expeditions
into their country; built fortresses ; and established mili¬
ary posts at Laguna Blanca, Cruz de Guerra, Federa-
clon, and other places, on an advanced frontier, extending
nearly to the 38th degree of south latitude, and formed in
part by the insulated ranges of mountains known by the
names of Las Sierras del Volcan, del Tandil, and de la Yen-
tana. Along the coast of the Atlantic they possess esta¬
blishments still farther to the south; the foundation of a
new city, called New Buenos Ayres, was laid in 1827, in
an eligible situation to the north of the mouth of the river
Colorado, which enters the Atlantic in latitude 39. 40. s";
and they have long possessed a fortress and agricultural
Se;,er.T'near th(; mouth °.f the Rio Neg™ de Patagones,
called El Carmen de Patagones, with which Buenos Ayres
has hitherto communicated only by sea; but measures have
been taken to establish a more direct communication by
land with these dependencies. It is evidently the inten¬
tion of the government of Buenos Ayres to extend their
rrontiers to one or other of these rivers; an undertaking
or gieat importance, as it will not only afford protection to
the numerous industrious settlers established to the south
of Buenos Ayres, by forming a defensible and well-defined
frontier, but will open up an extensive line of water com-
mumcation with the interior, and facilitate the conveyance
of the valuable agricultural products of the fertile pro-
vinces which extend along the eastern base of the Andes.
This extensive territory, south of the river Salado, which
has in this manner been added to the province of Buenos
Ayres, possesses a fine climate and very fertile soil. It
is considered as still better adapted for agricultural pur¬
poses than that around Buenos Ayres, especially for the
cultivation of wheat, which is produced there in great
abundance, and with more certainty than at the latter
place. The number of estancias already formed in this
territory is very considerable, having reached the Sier¬
ras del \ olean and Tandil, and they are yearly augment¬
ing in number and importance; only requiring the fos¬
tering care of a paternal government, and protection from
the incursions of the Indians, to insure their prosperity.
Now that the civil dissensions have terminated, it is ex¬
pected that the inhabitants of the provinces which are in
contact with the Indian territory to the south will unite
in the important undertaking of forming a well-arranged
frontier, connected by fortifications ; previously obtaining
the consent of the Indians by purchase and other concilia¬
tory means, before having recourse to the force of arms.
The whole extent of the province of Buenos Ay res Face of the
forms one continuous and unbroken plain, of great fertility, country,
and covered with perpetual verdure. Proceeding from
the city upwards along the margin of the river Plata, the
ground is somewhat more elevated than the surrounding
country; but to the westward the same level surface ex¬
tends across the Pampas, until it reaches the confines of
the province of Cordova, where the country gradually rises
in elevation as it approaches the base of the mountainous
range of Cordova. To the south and south-east the coun¬
try presents the same monotonous appearance, unless
where interrupted by some inconsiderable elevations near
the origin of the river Salado, and farther south by the
insulated range of mountains already mentioned, called
Tandil, Volcan, and La Ventana.
Throughout this territory, especially towards the south,
and in the vicinity of the river Salado, there is a consi-
640
BUENOS AYRES.
Buenos derable number of lakes, to many of which that river
Ayres, forms an outlet. Some of these are very shallow, and are
only filled with water during the rainy season, at which
times also considerable tracts of country become so much
inundated that they cannot be passed except on horse¬
back. On the approach of summer, and when exposed
to the powerful influence of the sun, the evaporation is so
great that these inundations and many of the lakes dis¬
appear, leaving the country in a very dry and parched
condition, and very deficient in the necessary supplies of
water.
To this great equality of surface may be attributed the
very few rivers, even of moderate size, which are to be
found in such an extent of country. They are in general
easily forded, unless when swelled by long-continued rains.
The small river called Riachuelo, or the Narrow River,
which joins the river Plata about a mile to the south of
the city of Buenos Ayres, affords a good example of their
size. Near its mouth it is not above thirty yards in breadth,
and has a depth of water not exceeding two fathoms ; con¬
sequently it does not admit even moderate-sized vessels,
but affords an excellent haven for small vessels and light¬
ers, employed in the landing of goods and the embarka¬
tion of produce.
The Rio Salado, which is the largest of these rivers,
rises on the confines of the Pampas to the south of the
fort of Melincue; runs in a south-easterly direction, be¬
ing connected in its course with a considerable number
of lakes; and enters the Atlantic at the Ensenada de
Samborombon, near the mouth of the river Plata. At
twelve leagues from its mouth it is about GOO feet in
breadth, and so deep that passengers require to be fer¬
ried over. The importance of this river was unknown
until the late war with the Brazils, when, in consequence
of the strict blockade of the port of Buenos Ayres by the
Brazilian squadron, all access to the country by the or¬
dinary channels was cut off. The inhabitants were com¬
pelled by necessity to find out other avenues by which to
communicate with the sea; and as, on examination, the
mouth of the river Salado was found to be well adapted
for the admission of shipping, it became during the war
the principal rendezvous for the Argentine privateers,
their prizes, and other vessels; a circumstance which for
a time gave a new aspect to that part of the country.
But much inconvenience was experienced in carrying on
the traffic thus created, from the want of good roads. The
discovery of so good a port for small vessels at the en¬
trance of the river Plata will, however, prove of import¬
ance to this part of the country, when the population has
been augmented, and greater advances have been made
in agricultural industry, for which the district in question
is peculiarly well adapted. A number of small rivers rise
in the hilly country near the Sierras del Volcan and Tan-
dil, and run into the Atlantic.
The Ensenada de Barragon, distant about thirty-six miles
to the south-east of Buenos Ayres, forms a safe and com¬
modious anchorage for shipping, which is well protected
from the prevailing winds; but it is not much frequent¬
ed except by vessels engaged in the mule trade, or re¬
quiring to be careened. The province contains various
thriving and populous towns and villages, among which
may be enumerated San Jose de Flores, San Isidro, Quil-
mes, Las Conchas, Luxan, Chascomus, San Pedro, San
Nicolas de los Arroyos, and others. The latter, San Nico¬
las, which is situated at the north-western extremity of
the province, on the margin of the river Parana, is likely
to becorne a commercial station of much importance, from
its vicinity to the Rio Tercero, and its favourable posi¬
tion for communication with the provinces of Cordova and
of Cuyo.
The level surface which so uniformly characterizes the
whole' province of Buenos Ayres affords little scope for
variety in its vegetable productions ; still the aspect of the
country is marked by many striking peculiarities. Dif¬
ferent kinds of clover and other leguminous plants, inter¬
mixed with grasses, constitute the great mass of the ve¬
getation ; give to the country its verdant appearance ; and
form an inexhaustible source of nutriment, not only to the
deer and other wild animals which are so abundant, but
to the numerous herds of cattle and horses which may be
seen grazing in all directions.
The country is naturally destitute of wood, and, with
the exception of an occasional natural copse of the tala
shrub, of very inconsiderable height, nothing resembling
trees is to be seen. The ombu {Phytolacca dioeca), how¬
ever, sometimes makes its appearance, to diversify the
scene and relieve its monotony. Trees of this kind gene¬
rally point out to the traveller the site of some habitation,
near which they are usually planted ; since, from the great
rapidity of their growth, they soon become conspicuous at
a distance, and afford a grateful shade to the inhabitants
during the hot season of the year. They are otherwise
very useless, on account of the spongy nature of the trunk,
which is so soft that it has sometimes been used as wad¬
ding for artillery during the wars which prevailed in the
country.
In the more cultivated districts of the province, and
especially in the neighbourhood of the city, numerous
plantations are met with of peach trees, which are culti¬
vated for fire-wood, and form a very profitable investment
of land and capital, as they grow with great luxuriance,
and may be cut down every four years; so that by di¬
viding a plantation equally, a fourth part may be cut down
yearly, which is sure to meet with a ready sale, being the
principal fire-wood used in Buenos Ayres. The fruit,
which is produced in great abundance in such plantations,
is applied to no useful purpose except the feeding of pigs
and poultry.
The immense forests of thistles which spring up at cer¬
tain seasons of the year tend more to diversify the scene¬
ry of this country than any other cause. These consist
of two species, well known in Europe, but principally of the
cardoon {Cynara Cardunculus), and have both in all pro¬
bability been introduced from Europe. Having met with
a soil and climate congenial to their nature, they have ex¬
tended themselves over an immense tract of country, in
some directions upwards of one hundred miles; and they
are in such abundance, and so vigorous in their growth, as
to exceed in height the tallest man mounted on horseback,
and to form an apparently impenetrable thicket on each
side of the road. This scene may be witnessed in its
greatest perfection during the early months of summer,
more especially in November; and contrasted with the
same country during the winter season, when the whole
has disappeared from the surface of the earth, it con¬
veys to the mind a striking instance of the luxuriant vege¬
tation of the country. When young and tender, these this¬
tles constitute a favourite article of food for cattle, which
form numerous and devious paths in the thickets when
in search of food at a later period of the season. Along
these they are easily traced by the practised eye of the
gaucho, who fearlessly rides along, his body and limbs being
protected from injury by means of a portion of dried bul¬
lock’s hide, judiciously placed before him, and extending
a little way on each side of the horse. These thickets have
on some occasions been used as a place of concealment
by such as lay in wait to attack the unwary traveller, and
have occasionally been employed in aid of military ope¬
rations during thq civil dissensions which have so fre¬
quently prevailed in these countries since their separa-
Bu|0
A,i
Vegj
tion.
jenos
nvres.
tion from the dominion of Spain. ... _U11111 uie same
scenery assumes a desolate appearance, as the thistles are
BUENOS AYRES.
ce", d“h'l,ctio" of/'>e .^ole, and the desertion
ot the nest. As a proof of their provident care for their
641
vv^ h uu 1 1 J • i t us Uie tnisues are of th
then withered and drooping, and become so dry, that if vouno- hrnnd R ;c ‘a; a i"'”‘UC111- cait; ror tneir
by any accident they catch fire, and a breeze of wind pre- LI ?0 a fit le di.t, ^ 6 parents ro11 several
vails, the conflagration spreads with such rapidity irfall sf thnf fb^ f dlstan^1fr,om t,uleir nest>and break the shell,
directions as occasional!v tr> dncH-™,  .-r i. , 80 kecome filled with maeuots and • ,lri.:..u
Buenos
Ayres.
directions as oc'casional,; t„“ de^/ZchTgStur snprivsSef’Tf51'^"“bm°gf‘Sand'vWch
produce, and great numbers of cattle and other animals Tim ^ Sa l ^ ^ heU’y0rUng brood on coming forth,
who are unable to escape. In the neiVhhm,rWA ^ , f bir<? takes charge of rearing the vouny hrnnd.
who are unable to escape. In the neighbom^dT^ ^he^Xrti^
city at this season they are cut down in great quantities rstriHmf Performs Wltb Sve^ attention. ^
and sold for the purpose of heating- ovensea lT,TlS: ?utriches thus emP'oyed meet each other,
and sold for the purpose of heating ovens. ~'Thefl^ thJT™ ^ eT°ye(l meet each other’ fight for
" ■ Jry^the ^ ^ ^ ^ drying
of this thistle are in common use in the country for the nff u *" j
purpose of coagulating milk, which they accomplish in the ' The en, lJr0od1S' , .
same manner as rennet. A niionfR./„e n . • The country abounds m game of various descriptions
i D O r* 1 IIV wilrl rl 11 ~  j • i * *
same manner as rennet. A quantity'of these florets‘is espedafivTihl ^ gamG °f Va.r!°US descriPtions,
bout in warm milk for a few the fimer partrid?es’ ai?d quads:
A :als.
tied up in a rag and stirred about in warm milk for a few thk --i - - .
minutes. This thistle is also used as a vegetable at table StUPld a® t0 alIow themselves to be
The tender footstalks of the leaves, and the young stems' StS end of t’ y,meanS °f “ n0°Se faste"e(I
when boiled and the outer skin removed, have the flavour nf n ’ i ^ Can6; T bj nding' round them in the form
of artichokes. ’ 3 6 the ^0XXl of a C?rc may be S^duaUy approached so close
Deer are so abundant in those parts of the countrv C bJ the stl'oke of the rider’s whip. They
which are least inhabited, that some^mndreds may occa7 much abundant, and being easily caught, are
sionally be seen at the same time along the hoS but Hvei i°f f0°d-, °n the bailks of tbe
they are not much molested, as their flesh is of little value and in d f68 f*C - gJrea,t abundance of water-fowl;
in a country where good beef is so abundant The^ W nfT 1 ^ " bU‘d C,°Sely resembling the lap-
chos are very numerous in the province of Buenos Ayres spine of ^ aPPearance. and habit, but having a
This animal resembles a rabbit in appearance and habit’ shoulder d7 ^ 1.nch.Iong Projecting forward from each
but is somewhat larger. Biscachos burrow in the tound Venom" ®frVing ,l as, a P°^rful weapon of offence,
and have numerous openings to their subterranean abodes’ vin mous r^Ptd?sor never met with in this pro-
where they remain concealed duHnrthrday le bui Ince^LZ mhahltantS are ex?mPt f-m the am!oy-
they sally out at night and devour-great auantiHes nfm-aC • ° 1 base nu™erous insects which abound so much
corn, and green crops. Theirholls w^T^l g aSS' m.the Provfncef, fkrtber to the north. Mosquitos, how-
and covered over with grass and herbage are dan^rou^ and’i^l^810^ 7 °CCU1 at certain seasons of the year,
to those riding on horseback, and occasionally give rise il ” 2," . damP situations. Ideas are also abundant
#7 n7 ,be r- attent,on has ■»* be“ •» -*«»«»
Uops,„fb;inu„d:;'i„g°7trer;e^^^^^ haBTS °fr,,,e rae®ftheTn> a"d a„imalS(Fossil
^ oul wh™ they .re S? Bu^S 'the
faumiin^he p’rov^nce^wlmre’tliey^redisdn'vuirhed'by Uie Hve^L0"68 °fiff * “'7“' Wa70un(1 °" th<i banKf the
names of quirquincho, mataco and mul'do Thev'ire 7 • i r • uxan’ fifteen leagues from Buenos Ayres, when
caught when found slemfing^theTun 7 formiaS som^xcavat.ons, in the year 1789. It was re¬
ed as an article of food when roasted in their shell Thp 2PtHe t0 kSPain’ and is now in the cabinet at Ma-
zorrino, which is not unfrequentlv met with is nUmit fi ' ' \ 01 e recendy a tooth of the same animal was dis-
sizeofa rabbit, of a chestnut colour and mark, \ 1 covered neaJ Al'eco, about sixteen leagues farther west;
side by two white fines Its annear-inee h e?Ch a"d °n y a few ^ears aS° various bones of a similar de-
when attacked or molested it ejectswith'considerable^orce
S die!, 1 TfSB,ng “ 0;lour so i">olernble, that its vicinity todon were recentiy dfscovered to the s„“h of he
rietd fts eC’ Thirst Wh° '“I rCC ,Salad»- »y Mr widbine Parishes b"
defiant • . ’ 18 seives lfc as a powerful means of late consul-general at Buenos Ayres - and one of thnlp
by the taTrisT^^Ti cauSbt and suspended skeletons, in nearly a complete state, has lately been
fluid, which is con tain ed tn °a baa ZZ* °f. e7't]t,ng t]his brought t0 England by that gentleman. The circumstance
Thp Smuli \ r, • lag at tbe root of the tail. of these organic remains having been found in a shell
is met with in rn f-d^1! PSt,?C 1 ?r nandu (Strutkio Rhea) somewhat resembling that of the tortoise, gives much ad-
allv in ppv considerable abundance on the Pampas, usu- ditional interest to this discovery. Occurfencersuch as
alon^the'^pla^n^^These hh-d11''7 ^ g^d^ng raPldly these lead to the conclusion tit in former dmes diese
horseback at full «hpp 1 b ^ ^ hunt(;d b^ tbe natlves on tribes of animals have existed in considerable numbers on
bolas formed of tCh ^ b7 meanS 7 the theSe aIluvial Plains; and many similar discoveries may be
hidp5’ torraed of three balls or round stones, covered with anticipated in future. 7
fathomb \eZth ^1)7 , The mineral Prodactions of this country possess very fit- Minerals
them round t ht acquin7nS a“ ^petus by whirling tie interest. A rock or a stone is scarcely anywhere to be
dexterity that thp hird^n^^ thr0W WIth SUCh f6” throughout the province. Some gypsum has been
easily domesri 1 ^ tf . <ddom escaPf; the young are found in the neighbourhood of Buenos Ayres, and lime in
propensity to swalf’ b become troublesome from their several parts of the country. Such stones as are required
they can find ti! T any thll?g metallie which for paving the streets, or in building, are brought from the
seeds hprh= ’ f-11 fo0<L!? tbe naturaI s.tate consists of island of Martin Garcia, at the mouth of the Uruguay, or
dered as rntfll '"uu iW ^ 7°Vng’ ‘J611’ flGsh is C°nsi' as ba,last from EuroPe* Many of the lakes to the south
Which is finnd -fi’ 1 be7 ay a nu,mber efleggs in one nest, of Buenos Ayres are strongly impregnated with salt, and
cealed <aR, f- Wltb drT grass» and not always m very con- hence is derived the name and quality of the water of the
of the ni.mV 10n c.u -ey Seem t0 bave an exact knowledge river Salado. Salt, however, exists in greatest abundance
increasp ^ 1 uir eggS’ aS any attempt to diminish or and purity at Las Lagunas de las Salinas, situated in lat.
vol v Gir numbe^, or even t0 handle them, inevitably 37. 0. S. in a south-west direction from the city, and not
4 M
.
42 BUENOSAYRES.
Buenos far distant from the mountains called La Sierra de la of it reaches Buenos Ayres, as it can be obtained cheaper It ,,
Avres. Ventana. At these lakes, when the evaporation has been from England, and of a superior quality. _ # A k
considerable, salt is procured in great quantities; and to The climate of Buenos Ayres, as its name indicates, is
obtain supplies of this article, considerable numbers of excellent and salubrious, being by its situation equally re>to^
Indians and Creoles are attracted at certain periods; but moved from the extremes of heat and cold. In general,
owing to the distance and expense of land-carriage, little the atmosphere is clear and the sky unclouded.
Meteorological Observations in Buenos Agres during 1822.
1822.
January 
February...
March 
April 
May 
June 
July 
August 
September.
October....
November.,
December..
Thermometer.
Max. Mean. Min.
71-82
73-00
70-83
62-04
58-31
54-32
52-55
51-83
54-64
58-91
68-43
86 70-91
Barometer.
Max. Mean. Min
3004
29-88
29- 82
30- 18
30-05
30-17
30-21
30-41
30-13
29- 91
30- 00
29-58
29-61
29-73
29-76
29-77
29-65
29-84
29-74
29-67
29-61
29-45
29-21
29-33
29-46
29-21
29-23
29-21
29-51
29-32
29-24
29-17
29-15
Hygrometer.
Days
Humid-
19
20
22
30
30
31
31
30
30
28
23
294
Days
Dry.
9
10
8
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
8
38
North
to
East.
Winds.
12
12
12
7
13
14
13
18
13
17
23
16
170
North
to
West.
3
8
6
8
7
51
4
3
3
5
1
3
56
9
3
6
4
2
2
7
6
11
5
5
6
66
South
6
5
7
11
9
9
7
4
3
4
1
6
72
Weather.
Clear. Foggy.
14
16
23
24
24
16 11
14 11
16 13
16 6
15! 8
16
15
Rainv.
13
8
4
9
3
3
6
2
8
8
9
12
209 80 | 85
Thunder
and
Lightning.
28
The preceding table indicates the state of the weather
during the year 1822, and is given as the most complete
which can be obtained, although it does not denote the
extremes of heat and cold which occasionally take place
during other years, and appears to have included a
greater proportion of rainy days than usually occur. In
January 1823 the thermometer rose as high as 94°, and in
February and March following to 93° ; and during the win¬
ter months of 1820 it often fell to the freezing point, and
thin crusts of ice were formed on the shallow pools ai-ound
the city. The mean temperature of 1822 was 62°-30 of
Fahrenheit, and the mean height of the barometer for
eleven months 29-67 inches, showing the elevation of the
city above the level of the sea to be about 300 feet. The
north and north-east winds, especially the former, which
sweep over the low and wooded country of Entre Rios and
the other districts extending along the margins of the
rivers Parana, Uruguay, and their tributaries, are general¬
ly loaded with moisture, and succeeded by heavy rains.
When the winds have prevailed for some time, and before
the rains fall, the atmosphere generally becomes so clear
and transparent that objects may be seen distinctly at a
great distance. During its continuance the moisture of
the atmosphere materially affects the health and feelings
of the inhabitants. The pamperos, or south-west winds,
which traverse a comparatively dry tract of country, are
by far the most agreeable and wholesome which prevail
in this country; and from this quarter the winds some¬
times blow with very great violence. During the summer
months a refreshing breeze arises periodically every even¬
ing from the river to the eastward, and is evidently pro¬
duced by causes similar to those which operate in equa¬
torial regions. Storms of thunder and lightning occa¬
sionally prevail at Buenos Ayres, and are sometimes very
violent and terrific. A remarkable change, indeed, has of
late taken place in the climate of Buenos Ayres, for since
1829 it has rained so very little as materially to disappoint
the hopes of the husbandman and the breeder of cattle. In
the early part of 1832 the drought had reached to such
a height as to convert the whole province into one conti¬
nued bleak and dreary desert, and to produce phenomena
which had never before been witnessed even by the old¬
est inhabitants. On some recent occasions such dense
clouds of dust have been raised by the winds, as to obscure
the rays of the sun completely at mid-day, and envelope
the inhabitants in almost total darkness. When the rains
at length commenced in March, the water in its passage
through the air intermingled so completely with the dust
suspended in the clouds through which it fell, as to de¬
scend in the form of showers of mud, and on some occa¬
sions gave to the white exterior of the houses the appear¬
ance of having been plastered over with earth. Many
flocks of sheep were smothered on these occasions by the
dust, in a similar manner as in the snow-storms which
occur in the mountains of Scotland.
As an evidence of the healthiness of this climate may
be adduced the frequent instances of longevity which
occur. Epidemic diseases are of rare occurrence, and
there are few complaints arising from local causes. Con¬
sumption, pulmonary affections, and inflammatory com¬
plaints, are those which principally prevail. In the coun¬
try the inhabitants enjoy almost uninterrupted good health.
The ravages of small-pox, formerly very destructive in this
country, have been arrested by the introduction of vacci¬
nation, for vrhich an institution has been established under
the direction of Dr Segurola, whose exertions in the cause
of humanity are Avell known and appreciated by his coun¬
trymen. The benefits of this institution have been widely
extended all over these provinces, and vaccination has
been introduced to a considerable extent among the In¬
dians to the south. ,
The city of Buenos Ayres, or, as it was formerly called,ca-
Nuestra Senora de Buenos Ayres, was founded in 1535, }
Don Pedro de Mendoza, and so named in consequence o
the great salubrity and purity of the air. It is situated on
the southern margin of the river Plata, on a rising
elevated about thirty-five feet above the surface or
river, and in long. 58. 23. 34. W. and lat. 34. 36. • •
from Greenwich. It is distant ten leagues from ^/0.‘(?nl -
situated on the Banda Oriental, at the opposite sK®
the river, and seventy-two leagues from Cape Santa i ‘
ria, at the mouth of the river Plata.
uenos
vres.
The city is seen to advantage from the river, its site be¬
ing somewhat more elevated than the surrounding coun¬
try. It occupies a considerable extent of ground, being in
its longest diameter, which runs parallel with the river,
about two miles, and in breadth about a mile and a half!
All the streets cross at right angles, and at regular inter-
BUENOS AYRES.
the servants’ apartments, the kitchen, offices, stable, and
sometimes a small garden.
The windows, which look into the court or the street,
are large, occupying nearly the whole height of the apart¬
ment, and are secured from intrusion by perpendicular
bars of iron, fitted in a frame so as to occupy its wdiole ex¬
fence to the entrance of an invading force, and the de¬
fenders being able to take aim at the assailants with little
exposure of their bodies. Hence the very unequal con¬
test, and the great loss of life, which attended the attempt
of the British troops under General Whitelocke to take
the city by storm. More recently the form of the houses
has been somewhat altered, by the addition of altos or
upper stories, balconies, and various other architectural
improvements. The houses were formerly all built of mud;
but one of the Jesuits introduced the practice of employ¬
ing bricks and lime, which is that now generally in use,
excepting in the houses of the lower classes towards the
outskirts of the city. The walls formed of brick and
lime are plastered outside with stucco or cement, and
whitened.
The entrance to every house is by a large massive gate,
which leads to a square court or patio, round which are
The interior arrangement of their houses has also been
greatly improved in other respects; and they are now com¬
monly, furnished in the English or French style, and in
every respect are more comfortable than formerly.
There are about ten public squares or plazas in the city
of Buenos Ayres, some of which are of small dimensions,
and principally in use as market-places. The largest, which
is of considerable size, is situated opposite to the fort,
and is divided into two unequal parts by the Alcova, a long
building extending from one side to the other, and com
taining a range of small shops, with a corridor on each
side, affording shelter to the public and the market people.
That part of the square which is next to the fort is used
as the principal public market. The other division, which
is by far the largest, and is named Plaza de la Victoria,
forms the principal parade for exercising troops, and. for
the celebration of religious and national festivals. In its
<jji. f 1 4-1 • f, , , . r   ^ VJL anu. iiauuiiai icduvais. Ill US
1 }e vau^s apartments with which it communi- centre is placed a pyramid to commemorate the revolu-
a es. t is usua.ly paved with brick, and has generally tion, having an emblematic figure at each of its four cor-
orme underneath a large cistern or algive, in which the ners, indicative of Justice, Science, Liberty, and America,
ain water is collected from the court and tops of the houses, the whole being inclosed by a light railing. On the west
an preserved for the use of the family. The sides of the side of the plaza, opposite to the Alcova, is situated the
ourt and front of the balconies are frequently ornament- town-house or Cabildo, a large and fine edifice, in which
e wit vines or other climbing and odoriferous plants, are held the different courts of justice, the meetings of the
f i t-aUi.: antS ( Tillandsia), of which several very beauti- municipality, the police establishment, and the various of-
u inds are natives of this country, are also used to or- fices belonging to these departments,
nament dwelling-houses; and when in flower they have a The cathedral is situated on Hhe south side of the
Iery ^mant appearance, and excite additional interest plaza, and, although not finished according to the original
rcm t c peculiarities of their nature, requiring no other design, it occupies an extensive space of ground. It pos-
nouris ment than what they receive from the atmosphere, sesses considerable claims to architectural beauty, and its
n emanding no further care than that of attaching them interior is adorned with somelarge scriptural paintings. The
° Ttf ir°n ra*^nSs ^le windows. other churches, which principally merit attention for their
iat part of the house which is situated on each side architecture and extent, are those of San Francisco, La
0 ie entrance is commonly used for shops or warehouses, Merced, Santo Domingo, and San Nicolas ; besides which
‘in those apartments communicating with the court as there are various churches, in all about fifteen, throughout
pu ic rooms, the bed rooms being situated in the altos, or the city. The university, which is situated in the vicinity
around a second court or patio, to which there is a pas- of the principal square, was built by and for the use of the
sage leading from the first. Beyond these are situated Jesuits when established in the country, and is one of the
643
Buenos
Ayres.
vals of about 150 yards from each other • and they are of tent " U a S° 38 °CTP? ltS whole ex‘
IZSTSSsa ssttassSKi'5 zs-sF *; ? fss."
efficient and well-regulated police in 1821, these defects and b°e seeL bTttae p^ing^g. P0SMl ^ 560
named and the houses are regularly numbered. A street frCXfdeficien^
sen e order and tranquillity. It is only in the more central and cold in winter, from the defective ventilation and the
andbehimirandTff f 1 roofed’w‘th a Parapet before the inmates assembled; but unlesf the doors were kept a
and behind, and afforded, by means of these azoteas, a ready little open to allow the escape of the noxious air which was
nntfh U-mcat.on between the inhabitants of the square, with- generated, it proved most injurious toT^
out their persons bemg exposed to the view of those passing exposed to its influence. The example of the English
along the streets. From this circumstance originated that who introduced chimneys into their houses, and the fupe’
f CT m0deA°f depensije warfare which was rior comfort and healthiness which they enjoy in conse-
fonld iErso^^e^fulW ^ recently deye- ^ materially tended to remove the existing
cZo? rl in. EuroPe; every successive prejudices; and consequently the houses of the natives
A.! .°f^UI dlPgS thusr. forn?lng a formidable line of de- are now also, for the most part, provided with chimneys.
644 BUENOS
Buenos most substantial public buildings in the city. Within these
Ayres. few years an episcopal chapel has been built by the British
residents, forming a new and interesting object in this part
of the world.
The theatre, which is much frequented both by natives
and foreigners, is of mean exterior appearance, but of con¬
siderable size. Besides the Spanish plays and farces per¬
formed here, there are frequent Italian operas, which are
generally well represented, and seem very congenial to the
public taste. A mint has been recently formed in Buenos
Ayres, and is situated in the Consulado, near the plaza.
The machinery has been erected under the able superin¬
tendence of Mr Miers, and is so complete in all its details
as to be highly creditable to all concerned. The political
state of this country since its completion has, however,
been such as to prevent this establishment from being used
for its original purposes.
The post-office is under the charge of a director, and is
managed with regularity, but is very defective in some of
its details. The mails are conveyed by riders on horse¬
back, and with considerable dispatch and regularity; being
sent weekly to Chili by way of San Luis and Mendoza, and
to Bolivia by the route of Cordova, Tucuman, and Salta.
On the arrival of letters from any place, a list is made out
of the whole ; and any one applying for the letters receives
them on paying the postage; a practice which often leads
to the loss of letters, and other numerous inconveniencies.
The fort, which is opposite the Alcova, is situated on
the banks of the river Plata, and in front of the centre
of the city. It is built of stone, and is of considerable
strength, being well mounted with cannon, but can never
be of much importance as a fortification, since no vessel
of war can approach within gunshot of it; and the cannon
are therefore only useful for firing salutes. It has a small
gan-ison, and contains apartments for the president and
his ministers, and the various public offices connected
with the government.
In the neighbourhood of the fort there was recently a
pier or wharf, used for landing passengers. It was built of
stone and earth, the former brought from Martin Garcia,
and cost the Spanish government half a million of dollars ;
but it was of so little use even in landing from boats, except
when the river was full, that it has been allowed to fall into
decay, and has now almost wholly disappeared. The usual
mode of landing goods and passengers is by carts with
high wheels, which are in constant attendance; and some¬
times, when the river is low, they have to proceed a quar¬
ter of a mile into the water before reaching the boat, owing
to the shallowness of the river.
The level space which intervenes between the margin
of the river and the more elevated ground on which the
city is placed, rises very little above the level of the river.
At the end nearest the fort is situated the Alameda, or
public promenade, along which are planted rows of Lom¬
bardy poplars. To this place the citizens resort in the
evenings and on holidays; but, as a place of recreation, it
is very inadequate to the wants of so large and populous
a city. Various improvements are now, however, in pro¬
gress, and a subscription has been raised by the inhabit¬
ants to inclose the whole with a handsome iron railing.
The banks of the river to a considerable extent, where
they are covered with green sward, are usually occu¬
pied by females employed in washing and drying their
clothes; and numerous parties of bathers may be seen
during the summer months enjoying the refreshing in¬
fluence of the waters of the river. The further extremity
of this track often presents a busy and animated scene,
being the resort, on their arrival and departure, of the nu¬
merous troops of waggons which carry on the traffic with
the interior provinces. On the rising ground in this neigh-
AYRES.
bourhood is situated the British Protestant cemetery. Bm (3
Proceeding to the south-east along the margin of the river, Ay,
the Riachuelo presents itself, having a circular basin at its 'w'v
mouth, in which are received small vessels and lighters;
and in its neighbourhood are situated the Saladeros, and
other establishments for slaughtering cattle, and preparing
for exportation the various productions of the country.
Before reaching this rivulet, the elevated bank on which
the city stands has terminated.
The markets are abundantly supplied with provisions,^.],
such as beef, mutton, pork, poultry, and game of various
kinds, and so moderate in price, that excellent beef and
mutton may be purchased at one halfpenny per pound; and
pork, veal, and lamb, at from one penny to three halfpence
per pound. Fish are also obtained in great abundance, at a
moderate price and of good quality. They are necessarily
all fresh-water fish, and consist principally of the pexerrey
or king’s fish, the dorado, the bagre, lisa, and a variety of
others. Vegetables are good and plentiful, but expensive,
excepting pumpkins and Indian corn, both of which are
cheap, and much used for culinary purposes. Fruit, with
some exceptions, is not obtained in such variety, or of so
good a quality, as the climate is calculated to produce if
its cultivation were more carefully attended to. Melons,
musk-melons, sandias or water-melons, oranges, lemons,
figs, pomegranates, and quinces, are the best and most
abundant. Peaches are in immense abundance, but of in¬
ferior quality, as their cultivation is but little attended to.
Potatoes do not seem to thrive in so tenacious a soil, and
are often imported from England. All the vegetables and
fruit produced here, with few exceptions, appear very sus¬
ceptible of improvement, and many additional kinds will
be introduced as industry advances. The vine answers very
well, but has hitherto been cultivated only in gardens to a
very limited extent. Milk is carried about in jars by boys
on horseback, and is expensive, considering the abundance
and cheapness of cows; but the dairy has been little at¬
tended to in this country, excepting by the foreigners
settled there, who almost monopolize the manufacture of
butter and cheese, which they sell at high prices. Bread
is also an expensive article of consumption.
Water for culinary and domestic purposes forms an ex¬
pensive article of housekeeping, as every family which lias
not in the house a cistern of rain water is obliged to pur¬
chase water from the river Plata, brought in carts to all
parts of the city, and sold at about threepence a barrel of
four gallons. The carts formerly employed for this pur¬
pose wrere of a large and clumsy construction, but they
have been greatly improved of late by the foreigners
settled there, some of whom have engaged in this lucra¬
tive occupation. The wrater obtained in this country from
wells, which are necessarily very deep, is of an inferior
quality, and unfit for washing or other domestic purposes,
in consequence of being impregnated with saline or cal¬
careous matter from the subsoil or tosca; consequently
a plentiful supply of good water is a great desideratum in
this city. An attempt was made in 1824 to obtain sup¬
plies of this necessary article by boring, and an engineer
was brought from England with the requisite machinery
for this purpose. It was tried principally at the Retiro,
the most elevated ground in the vicinity of the city; but
after penetrating a hundred and seventy-five feet into the
earth, and expending considerable sums of money, the
undertaking was abandoned, because, much to the disap¬
pointment of the government and the inhabitants, no water
had been obtained. It does not, however, appear so very
difficult an undertaking to obtain a plentiful supply <n^x‘
cellent water from the river, which is only distant a feyv
hundred yards from the Retiro, where a large reservoir
might be formed, and the city supplied by means of pipeS
BUENOS AYRES.
uenos from this source. The water mio'ht he rnnvpvf.fi k*. o ™ ^ .
y™J nal or tunnel t0 the base of the Retiro, whic/is not forty mosT wofitable6?11^ ^ considered as the
feet above it in level, and raised bv means of mnniu ^ f0^ if1. ta^ e ^vestments of capital, the i
similar to that which is “mZved ordinary circumstan
Agrici:
ture.
similar to that whichis employed'in'n^nesforemntyS DlvToTenfv?],?1]^ Under °rdinary circumstances as am
them of water. emptying ply to repay the labour and expense of these establish
them of water
Fuel is also an expensive article of consumption in
Buenos Ayres, the coal used there being brought from
Eag^nd, and fire-wood from Entre Rios and the islands
of the I arana and Uruguay. Considerable supplies, how¬
ever, are furnished by means of the peach trees, which are
cultivated very generally in the neighbourhood.
^All vessels coming to Buenos Ayres, excepting those
ments. The number of cattle which formerly existed in
tins country almost exceeds belief. Before the revolution
they were often killed merely for the sake of their hides
and were generally purchased at a dollar each. But
since that time their value has greatly increased, owing
to the increased demand for exportation, and the diminu¬
tion of numbers occasioned by the political occurrences
which took place subsequent to that period; but even at
of a small draught of water, usually anchor in I p Z '°f -pJaCe subsequent to that period ; but eve
roads, distant about eight or nine miles from the shore1 sohlZ ftheir number. ^ very considerable, and they are
where there is upwards of three fathoms of water In thfs of the ' t0 eig-ht °r ten dol,ars ^ch. The size
situation they usually embark and disembark their caro-oes many sauiTTe* SOmetlmjs |e,T considerable, comprising
by means of lighters; but when unloaded and wahimf fm- quaie leagues; and the number of cattle on the
cargoes, they generally come into the inner roads diftmt vJH* niay.var^ from twenty to forty or fifty thousand,
only about two miles from the shore, where the water is horsed hZ easiIy d,stlnguish his o^n cattle and
much shallower. In neither of these situaHons «Tp tL leu 7 Z'K branded on eacb of them ; the period
well protected from the storms blowing from the eastward^ ao thif onZ tbe70ung animals are collected to under-
but the most violent winds which prevail here are the vam ’ At pnrh I t atl-°n ffeing & Z6 °f festlvlty and enjoyment.
peros from the westward, and JrZ tuZ* fu! T:^! % ?,ach esta?cia’ after stated intervals, a rodeo is held, when
r , _ i      ^ m'-' me uu.ni-
from the westward, and during these the shipping
is sufficiently sheltered by the land.
The river Plata throughout its whole extent, as if to
compensate for its great breadth, is extremely shallow
and requires very careful navigation even for vessels of
a the cattle are collected together and examined, and
ipse winch have strayed from the neighbouring estates are
driven back by the peons or farm servants, who attend on
such occasions from the surrounding estancias, and the ani¬
mals are thus prevented from straying too far. They are re-
water contained h the ri™ thus when heAT„ ? , eed °", tlns1subs,ance at the lak“ a'>3 other places
the eastward up !he river [he floAof he w«er'V| ' ,ab”u"‘ls; ^ i* a common observation, that the
wards is so mud, impeded, tlmt it accumuhtellAr' fif °K f ““'e fd Sheep who feed in ‘•istricts where
and the IpvpI riepe a i ui • §r.ea^v» sa^ abounds is much more savoury than any other* and
of the wrecked vessels On fh goes and remains enacted prohibiting the slaughter of cows, so as to en-
tinned and violent pamperoS STZi "e*“ *he ™ °f ^
during the BrWsh eluS knA6"^,'R 0n “1 ““A"' ?0i"S “ pa^gue in the perfofmanee of long
took place to such mfex tent flvRS f J0Urne>rs* Thfir usual Pace> is a canter or gallop, is
were grounded nnd nn extent Jbat many of tlle vessels very easy, and-causes little fatigue to the traveller Their
to have beentctuaUv boaXd6! shaIIow.wate! aa Pri^ varies from four or five dollars to eighteen or twenty,
a nartv of ZZp ^°aid®d fnd take.n possession of by according to the quality and demand; but they have occa-
ZiZatZ, S on horseback; and in the first volume sionally been purchased in large quantities, for the use of the
government, at three dollars or twelve shillings each. The
large Flemish or dray horse has recently been introdu¬
ced into the country, with the view of employing it in the
traffic with the interior. A great prejudice exists here
against using mares for the saddle; and such is the ridicule
excited among the natives by their use, that only some
foreigners have as yet ventured to introduce the custom.
They are only useful for breeding and treading out corn,
and may be purchased at half a dollar or two shillings
each. They are often bartered or sold to the Indians,
who use them as their principal article of food, and prefer
0f Z Chronicle a still more remarkable occurrence
ot tins kind is recorded. “ In 1793 the waters of this river
Were forced, in the month of April, by a most violent cur¬
rent of wind, to the distance of ten leagues, so that the
neighbouring plains were entirely inundated, and the bed
o e nver left dry. Ships which had been sunk in the
river tor upwards of thirty years were uncovered, and,
among others, an English vessel which was cast away in
. e yea1' 1762* Several persons repaired to the bed of the
nvei, where they could walk about without wetting their
r.e^ulned iaden with silver and other riches which who use mem as tneir p
continZd tT£bTed Un?1er the, WatT-* ™S Phenomenon their flesh to any other. This practice has exercised a
and fTio ee c ays, nt ie end of which the wind ceased, remarkable influence on the mode of warfare which these
bed ” 5 h returned Wltb &reat violence to its natural tribes have carried on against the Creoles, giving them a
exatro-p UfC \an occuuence> although apparently somewhat mobility in all their operations which cannot be attained by
the • f t0i a c1ertain RXtent be accounted for by any other means. Provided with a herd of mares, which
out /]’ erab 6 dep,th . ^ater whlch Prevails through- on such occasions form their only food, they can advance
siirfir 6 Sreater part of this river, and the great extent of or retreat with great celerity, and thereby evade a ren-
ace exposed to the influence of the wind. contre with their opponents. The late Colonel Rauch,
the £ Z6 mg and rearina 0^. cattle constitutes by far however, followed their example, when in command of
indnsf08 .lmP?rtant and extensive branch of agricultural the frontier, by feeding his soldiers on mares’ flesh while
ins' in ^ m*1118 P!'ovinc.e’ Ayb‘ch, in all directions except- on service, and thereby gained the desired superiority
g ie immediate vicinity of the city, is covered with which discipline afforded, over his uncivilized opponents.
645
increase of
Buenos
Ayres.
r>46
BUENOS AYRES.
Buenos
Ayres.
The number of mules reared in this province is inconsi¬
derable compared with that in the interior provinces, where
the ground is harder, and better suited for the rearing of
mules for exportation to Bolivia, and for the use of the
mountainous districts. Sheep were formerly valued only
for their wool, and were purchased for about threepence
each; their flesh was seldom used for food, but was fre¬
quently dried and used as fuel in the burning of bricks;
and there is still a law extant, prohibiting the practice of
driving the sheep alive into the brick-kilns to save the
trouble of previously killing them. They are now more
valuable, both as an article of food, and for their wool and
skins, which are exported. Endeavours have already been
made to improve the quality of the wool by the introduc¬
tion of Merino sheep. The price of sheep varies from half
a dollar to a dollar each.
As the breeding of cattle has principally occupied the
attention of the inhabitants of this country, comparatively
little attention has hitherto been paid to the other branches
of agriculture. Wheat is only cultivated to a small extent,
and in quantity quite insufficient to supply the demands
of the inhabitants. This is owing principally to the fre¬
quent failure of wheaten crops, which in dull and moist
weather are liable to blight, and during other years to total
loss from the long continuance of dry weather. In fu¬
ture this branch of agriculture will probably be principally
confined to the country south of the river Salado, where
the soil and climate are much better adapted to the pro¬
duction of wheat than nearer Buenos Ayres. In the
former district the soil consists of a stratum of black
mould, several feet in thickness, under which is a bed of
clay, resting on sand and gravel, where water is usually
found. In the latter it consists of a chalky yet produc¬
tive mould, unmixed with stones, but resting on a stratum of
iosca, consisting of hardened clay and lime, which is usually
situated from ten to thirty yards beneath the surface.
Barley and maize are cultivated with success; the latter
being produced in great abundance, and extensively used as
an article of food. The great influx of intelligent foreigners
into the province has introduced many branches of agricul¬
ture previously unknown, and materially contributed to¬
wards developing the natural resources of the country.
The introduction of timber and forest trees into the pro¬
vince as an article of culture has excited much attention ;
and efforts are making to form plantations, which will greatly
beautify the country, and eventually supply the inhabitants
with timber, which at present is brought from a great dis¬
tance, and is very expensive.
The fences or inclosures used in this country consist, in
the neighbourhood of the city and the more cultivated
districts, of the tuna (Cactus Peruvianus) and American
aloe (Agave Americana), which grow with rapidity and
luxuriance, especially the latter, whose tall, flowering stem
rises up to the height of twenty-five or thirty feet in the
course of one year, and strikingly evinces the strength of
vegetation in this Climate. It is considered objectionable
as a fence, as its large sheathing leaves afford shelter to
numerous small animals, which destroy the produce of the
fields inclosed. In the more remote districts ditching has
been found to be the only kind of inclosure suited to the
country, the earth which is excavated forming a raised
embankment on the inside. Some of the foreigners set¬
tled in the country have improved this mode of fencing,
by planting rows of the tala shrub along these embank¬
ments.
I.mmigra- ^.n consequence of the long and extensive intercourse
tion. which has been maintained between the inhabitants of
Buenos Ayres and the numerous foreigners established in
their country, they have been deeply impressed with the
importance of an increase in their numbers, having had
ample experience of their greater industry and superior buj
attainments in agriculture and the arts. The authorities, Ay,I
fully participating in these feelings, took effectual mea- ^/L
sures to encourage, by every means in their power, the
ingress into the country of industrious artisans and agri¬
cultural labourers from Europe. Accordingly, on the 13th
April 1824, and 19th January 1825, decrees were issued
by the government, appointing a committee of emigration,
who were provided with the necessary funds and instruc¬
tions to enable them to carry forward this important un¬
dertaking. This committee consisted of citizens, and fo¬
reigners resident and possessing fixed property in the coun¬
try, so proportioned as duly to represent the interests of
all parties concerned. They were directed to take effec- i
tual measures to make known to the industrious classes
in Europe the inducements held out to them to emigrate
to Buenos Ayres, and to employ agents in Europe in
furtherance of the undertaking. They were authorized
to pay a sum not exceeding one hundred dollars, or twenty
pounds sterling, as passage-money for each adult arriv¬
ing in the country; to provide such as required assist¬
ance on their arrival, with food and lodgings for fifteen
days, during which time they were allowed to seek for
employment, and, if unsuccessful at the expiry of that pe¬
riod, the committee were charged wdth the duty of finding
employment for them, and of regulating the contracts and
agreements entered into by mutual consent with their
employers, in such a manner as to secure the rights and
privileges of each party during its continuance, and to
provide for the repayment of the expenses incurred by
the committee, by means of a well-regulated system of
gradual instalments. It was likewise enacted, that emi¬
grants completing the terms of their respective engage¬
ments to the satisfaction of the committee, were entitled
to a preference in the renting of the state lands, each
portion of land not being of less extent than sixty acres,
but greater in proportion to the fitness and means of each.
Under such circumstances, deserving individuals were au¬
thorized to receive from the funds of the committee a loan
of three hundred dollars, or sixty pounds sterling, on which
a per centage was to be paid annually, and the whole re¬
paid by instalments at stated but convenient periods; all
such occupiers of land having the right of possession of
the legal value of the lands, of all the improvements effect¬
ed, and to negociate or transfer them, as also to become the
purchasers of such lands in preference to every other com¬
petitor, when authorized by law to be sold. The emigrants
were to enjoy the protection and guarantee of the laws of
the country, the security of persons and property, and the
enjoyment of all rights and privileges possessed by the
natives; exemption from ail taxes and contributions not
imposed on the rest of the community; and exemption
during a certain period from all civil and military services,
unless voluntary, together with the free exercise of their
religion.
These judicious regulations were speedily carried into
effect by the committee, in the preparation of the Re-
coleta, a large and spacious convent in the vicinity of the
city, for the reception of emigrants and their families on
their arrival, and by the active circulation, in Great Britain,
France, and Germany, of these regulations. The efficacy
of these measures was soon afterwards evinced by the num¬
bers who resorted from these countries to Buenos Ayres.
The following table will show the progress made in this
undertaking during the interval between the time of its
enactment and November 1826, when all further arrivals
of emigrants were prevented by the war with Brazil. It
shows the amount of monies advanced to the emigrants by
the committee, and the extent of the repayments which
had been made, up to April 1828; and the results are highly
BUENOS AYRES.
iienos creditable to the national character of the German*! wlm . ui
res. on account of their industry and correct conduct are much Herman ” ^16 vyc]s aiJ establishment formed for the
esteemed in this country/ The village of Ctooarin, at hood”f“s ^ 1827> in 'he neiShb»“r-
Abstract of Proceedings of Committee of Emigration of Buenos Ayres, from Uth September 1885 to April 1888.
Emigrants.
French, in nine vessels 
Germans, in two do 
English, in two do ’*
French, ) .
Germans and others, J m vanous vessels..
German colony at Chorroarin 
Expenses of establishment at Ilecoleta...,
Contingent expenses 
Total
Men.
617
107
91
56
9
Women.
78
65
Children.
Total.
880
151
62
71
757
243
91
140 1171
Money advanced in Dollars
67,143
31,333
9,205
4,270
1,630
18,956
9,529
71
* «>
2"
0
6
142,068 2
Amount of money advanced L.28,413 13 0 sterling
Da- repaid  15,494 5 0
Money repaid in Dollars.
19,034
31,333
5,170
4
421 4
1,594
18,806
1,109
4
77,471 2
Remaining due April 1828 L.12,919 8 0
The subsequent proceedings of the committee are of
little interest, the continuance of the war, and the other po¬
litical circumstances of the country, having prevented any
renewal of their exertions. On the 20th of August 1830,
the committee was abolished, and their proceedings brought
to a conclusion, by a decree of that period, the existing
authorities disapproving of those political principles which
originally gave rise to its formation. They affirm that ex¬
perience has proved to their satisfaction, that the method
hitherto pursued with the agricultural emigrants in this
country has not been productive of that advantage to the
country or to the emigrants themselves which was at first
anticipated. It has therefore been determined that any
subsequent endeavours to encourage emigration by the
government shall be conducted on different principles from
those formerly pursued.
The efforts to promote emigration to this country were
not, however, entirely confined to the government of Bue¬
nos Ayres, but were participated in by two emigration asso¬
ciations connected with Great Britain. The one formed
in London under the direction of Mr Barber Beaumont,
and named the Rio de la Plata Agricultural Association,
sent out emigrants on various occasions to the number of
more than six hundred persons, and incurred considerable
expense; but it completely failed in accomplishing the
principal objects of its institution, the formation of an ex¬
tensive agricultural establishment in the country. This fail-
me has been attributed by some of those engaged in the
undertaking, but evidently on insufficient grounds, to the
bad faith, apathy, and want of co-operation on the part of
t ie authorities of Buenos Ayres; and it may with much
greater justice be ascribed to the precipitation and mis¬
management of those intrusted with the affairs of the as¬
sociation. The emigrants, injudiciously selected, were
lurried from Great Britain before they had provided effi¬
cient or responsible agents in the country, or had made
toe necessary arrangements for their reception; the con¬
sequence was, that the greater number were kept in a
state of idleness and inactivity at Buenos Ayres for many
months after their arrival, during which time they became
acquainted with the country and its inhabitants, and form¬
ed connections tending to divert them from fulfilling their
engagements to the association, so that only a few of them
ever reached their final destination. The greater part of
tnen- operations were carried on during the war with Bra-
213 when every obstacle was thrown in the way of their
success; and the principal agricultural establishment which
they formed was in the province of Entre Rios, where the
authorities of Buenos Ayres exercised no influence or con¬
trol, more especially during the war. The Committee of
Emigration advanced, in aid of these emigrants, 26,802
dollars, or L.5025. 7s. 3d. sterling, no part of which appears
ever to have been repaid. But although this undertaking
proved a complete failure in as far as the interests of the
shareholders were concerned, yet the emigrants had no
cause of complaint, since all those inclined to be industrious
found plenty of employment and good wages. Some of
them entered on board the privateers and into the naval
service of Buenos Ayres during the war with Brazil, and
greatly distinguished themselves during their various com¬
bats with the Brazilian squadron.
The other association w as of a very different character.
It was formed by the Messrs Robertsons, British merchants
settled in Buenos Ayres, and in connection with some of
the natives possessing influence and capital. They pur¬
chased some adjoining properties at Monte Grande, situ¬
ated about fifteen miles south-west of the city. The emi¬
grants were selected with great care from among the in¬
telligent and experienced farmers of the south of Scotland,
and were conveyed to the new colony with their families,
domestic and farm servants, and all the requisite imple¬
ments of husbandry. The property, which contained up¬
wards of fifteen thousand acres, was divided into nearly
equal portions, and distributed among the principal far¬
mers by lot, a part having been reserved for the formation
of a projected village, and for some other purposes con¬
nected with the establishment; and a comfortable brick
house and offices were built at each farm for the accommo¬
dation of the emigrants.
In April 1828, when the colony had been in existence
three years, and had the fairest prospect of ultimate suc¬
cess, it presented a very interesting appearance. It had
already attracted the attention of the most intelligent citi¬
zens of Buenos Ayres, and of the inhabitants around it. The
farmers had made considerable progress in bringing under
culture the lands which had been apportioned to them, and
which they found almost in a state of nature. While in¬
troducing the Scottish system of farming, they judiciously
adopted those agricultural practices of the country which
were found best suited to the soil and climate, and with the
most decided advantage. Two thousand and fourteen acres
had then been inclosed with well-made ditches, and planted
with young hedges formed of tala, a thorny shrub, natural
to the country, which, on trial, had been found well calcu¬
lated for this purpose. Four hundred and thirty-nine acres
had been planted with forest and fruit trees, in addition
647
Buenos
Ayres.
to the tala thicket, which they found in existence; and
they had abundant crops of maize or Indian corn, but had
failed in their attempts to cultivate wheat. The dairy had
proved a very lucrative branch of industry, the colonists
having in their possession two thousand seven hundred and
fifty-seven head of black cattle, principally milch cows.
They made considerable quantities of butter and cheese,
which, on account of its excellent quality, was quickly sold
in the city at high prices.
Some of the original emigrants had left the colony, but
had been replaced by others of the party of Beaumont;
and the colony then consisted of one hundred and fifty-
three men, eighty-eight women, and eighty-seven chil¬
dren, in all three hundred and twenty-six Scotch; and a
hundred and eighty-eight natives of the country were em¬
ployed in their various domestic and agricultural occupa¬
tions, with which they had become familiarized. A Presby¬
terian chapel had been erected, and a clergyman brought
from Scotland, who, besides his clerical duties, superin¬
tended the education of the children of the colony. The
improvements which they had introduced into the agricul¬
tural practices of the country were numerous and import¬
ant ; but it may suffice to state one or two instances to
evince the advantages arising from their zeal and intelli¬
gence. During the first year of their settlement one of
their number lost some of his crop, in consequence of the
dried thistles in the neighbourhood taking fire and extend¬
ing its ravages to his fields. The conflagration, however,
was speedily extinguished, and prevented from extending
itself farther, by the strenuous and united efforts of all the
colonists. But to prevent a similar occurrence in future,
and to clear their lands from such, intruders, one of their
number invented an instrument which with little expense
and trouble speedily accomplished this object. The wheels,
axle-tree, and trams of a cart were procured; two perpen¬
dicular shafts were made to project downwards from the
axle-tree, having the lower extremity armed with scythes ;
a rotatory motion was communicated to these scythes by the
movement of the wheels of the cart, and they cut across all
the young thistles which intervened between the wheels
in passing. It was moved by a single horse. When this
was done at the proper season, the thistles did not arrive
at maturity or bear seed that year, and were thus gradually
extinguished. The biscachos committed great ravages
among their corn and green crops, and were therefore
rooted out of the colony by the following means. By the
common consent of the colonists, the whole of their bur¬
rows, which are generally found crowded together in cer¬
tain localities, were firmly closed up with earth; and the
same operation was repeated daily for some time, where
new holes were formed, until these animals were either
driven from the district, or perished in their burrows from
excessive labour and deficient food; for they are timid,
and only venture out to feed during the night time.
Since the above period, however, the Scottish colony at
Monte Grande has experienced various vicissitudes tending
to retard its progress. During the civil war which prevailed
in the province in 1829, the whole of their live stock was
swept away by the combatants ; but the colonists having
assiduously cultivated their fields when their neighbours
had suspended their agricultural operations in consequence
of the disturbed state of the country, they sold their pro¬
duce at high prices, the people being almost entirely de¬
pendent on them for some articles, and thereby more than
counterbalanced the losses they had otherwise sustained.
Subsequently they have experienced, in common with all
the rest of the province, the fatal consequences of the long-
continued drought which has almost ever since prevailed,
and against which no foresight or industry could provide,
from these and other causes the original establishment has
been broken up ; and the farms are now held on a different
tenure by several of the original farmers, who have, in
some instances, been joined by their friends and relatives
from Scotland.
Artizans in considerable numbers have likewise resorted
from Europe to this province, and, when industrious, they
have almost uniformly improved their circumstances. They
have plenty of employment, and, as well as the agricultural
labourers, receive high wages. These inducements, the
abundance and cheapness of living, and the protection
of person, property, and religion, which is enjoyed at Bue¬
nos Ayres, only require to be better and more generally
known in Europe to induce a considerable portion of its
redundant population to remove to a country possessing
so fine a climate, with such great natural and social advan¬
tages.
Emigrants from Great Britain have even greater induce¬
ments than others to settle in this country, as, besides the
security and privileges insured to all foreigners settling
among them by the established laws of the country, they
are especially protected by a treaty of amity, commerce,
and navigation, concluded on the 2d February 1825, be¬
tween his Britannic majesty and the supreme authorities
of the united provinces of the Rio de la Plata. This treaty
guarantees a reciprocal freedom of commerce and naviga¬
tion ; security of person and property, even in the event
of a rupture between the two countries ; the right of pos¬
sessing and disposing of property of all kinds by will or
otherwise; exemption from all compulsory military ser¬
vices by sea or land, and from all forced loans or military
exactions; the enjoyment of perfect liberty of conscience,
with the free exercise of religion; and the right of build¬
ing churches or chapels, with the previous consent of the
government, and of forming burial-places for their own use.
.British capital to a considerable amount has already
Been invested in the pui'chase of property in this country,
and in the formation of estancias and other establishments;
and emigrants from Great Britain are received with the
best and most friendly feelings on the part of the inhabit¬
ants, the more intelligent part of whom are strongly im¬
pressed with the conviction, that the future prosperity of
their country will mainly depend on the augmented num¬
ber of industrious emigrants from Europe.
Such emigrants as possess capital, and resort to Buenos
Ayres for the purpose of engaging in the breeding of cattle
or in agriculture, will find valuable properties which may be
purchased at moderate prices. The value, however, varies
considerably according to situation and other circumstances.
The sale of public lands has been prohibited for some years
past, in consequence of the extensive alienation of state
lands which formerly took place, at a time when the price ob¬
tained was very inconsiderable, and altogether inadequate
to their real value. The law of emphyteusis was therefore
passed, which prohibits tbe further sale of public lands un¬
til the country shall be relieved from the debts and other
obligations contracted by the government, and its reve¬
nue otherwise well regulated; it being anticipated that, as
the government becomes more permanent and efficient,
and the population more numerous and industrious, the
increased value of these lands will not only suffice to re¬
lieve the country of these encumbrances, but will furnish
a permanent revenue, so as to enable the government to
lessen the custom-house duties and other taxes. This law
has been considered as favourable to emigrants and na¬
tives desirous of forming estancias or farms, by its preven -
ing the accumulation of large tracts of land in the han s
of capitalists, who might exercise an undue or capricious
influence over such settlers, or retain their lands in an un
productive state; and by enabling settlers at once to em
ploy all their capital in the improvement of the proper y
h I
w, i
Comi
?nos they occupy, instead of sinking a large portion of it in the
res. purchase of land.
These regulations enable the authorities to dispose of
the public lands on leases of not less than eight years at
an annual quitient, estimated at about eighty dollars nr
L.16 sterling, for every square league of land ; the precise
sum, however, is fixed by a jury of the neighbouring pro-
prietors, on a suivey and measurement being made at the
public expense, under the direction of the topographical
board; it being necessary in granting leases, or in the trans¬
fer of property, to have their limits determined by such
means, to render these transactions legal. To the leases of
public lands are annexed the following conditions, namely
that all improvements made on the lands during the lease
shall belong to the lessee, be transferable to his heirs or
successors, and paid for according to valuation, by govern¬
ment, or by his successor, in the event of his leaving the
land at the end of the lease; and that, in the event of the
property being sold by the government, the lessee shall
have a preferable right to become the purchaser over every
other person. To render such leases valid, if for an el
tancia, the tenant is required within two years to have
on the property at least a hundred head of cattle the
requisite number of horses, a hut or dwelling-house, and a
corrul or inclosure for the cattle, for every square league
of land so occupied. At the termination of the leas?, if
desirous of continuing in possession, a renewal of the lease
may be obtained on an increase of rent proportioned to
the augmented value of land, as determined by a jury
ihe promulgation of this law was followed by many ap¬
plications for lands, and numerous estancias have accord-
ingly been formed. Endeavours have been made by in¬
fluential individuals possessing capital, and desirous of ob¬
taining entire possession of some of these lands, to have
this law rescinded, but hitherto without success, or any
probability of such a change; as the general impression
among the influential inhabitants of Buenos Ayres is fa¬
vourable to the permanency of a measure so much calcu¬
lated to maintain the credit and respectability of the coun¬
try and of government.
Ce‘,W0miitS udvantag?0US P°sition’ Buenos Ayres seems
destined to become the great emporium of commerce in
this part of South America, being situated near the con-
fluence of the rivers Parana and Uruguay, where they
tionl 'lK la Plata- An easy communica¬
tion is thereby afforded with those extensive and import¬
ant countries through which these mighty rivers and their
tributanes flow* The Parana, which is consi-
dhlo . rent ftrf:am’ may be navigated without impe-
rWd1-?8 far aS tbe lsland of Apipe, distant fifteen hun-
Sam^M68- 6 °f the river Plata’ at CaPe
rmvh aiia* ^ he river Paraguay, of equal importance,
ay be ascended nearly as far as the Laguna de los Xarayes,
thp coayeys vessels of considerable size to Assumption,
, aPl a Paraguay, in which country vessels of three
nundred tons have been built, and afterwards employed
j°yaSes-. The large and important rivers Pil-
tho a^° an .^e™ej° how into the Paraguay, and extend
ne conimumcatmn by water within a short distance of the
centre °t tfolma, traversing in their course the provinces
vjn a„aat Gran Chaco. Farther south the fertile pro-
widwi0 hucuman and Sant lago del Estero communicate
witli . le Parana by means of the Salado, which unites
derp / at., anta To; and the river Tercero may be ren-
tbp avaiiable, at an inconsiderable expense, in improving
communication with the provinces of Cordova and of
cmyo, situated near the Andes.
othp G- UrUgUay’ !n connection with the Rio Negro, and
into r,,lirnPortaat rivers which unite with it, penetrate far
vol16"1111^101^ Un^ °^en UA an extensive anA fertile
BUENOS AYRES.
Sr,'h^rerbeefSe^’f '‘^1^’ 5“™“
either by the Spaniards oMhefr^cctS, "a6 d h^om’
merce which is earned on by means of tlmse rivers “as
JY Ver-V llm,te<i- T 'e establishment of steam navigation
will powerfully contribute to the extension of industry and
and ‘Janid'itv 'T'1®'’01'' countries> by ‘he certainty
and rapidity of communication which will be the cor-
sequence. By this means a voyage may be made from
Buenos Ayres to Assumption in a fortnight, though under
piesent circumstances it occupies several months^
ihe commercial intercourse of Buenos Ayres with the
mules0randS hflthert0bee" Principally carried o^ by means of
mules, and of waggons drawn by six bullocks each. These
m aggons are of a rude and clumsy construction, being form-
entirely of wood, and are secured and strengthened by
pieces of hide. 1 hey usually travel in troops of from twelve
in fbr1mutuaI P^tection and assistance
n cases of difficulty. Those which travel from Mendoza
or San Juan to the capital, a distance of about nine hundred
miles, generally occupy a month in the journey. By means
of these waggons a very extensive traffic was formerly car-
wbh °V fr°m Buen°Si A}T6S for the suPP]y of Upper Peru
with European productions, and yerba or Paraguay tea
ot which aoout 2,o00,000 pounds were formerly sent every
year to Peru, and ] ,000,000 pounds to Chili. They travel-
led by way of Cordova, Tucuman, and Salta, to Jujuy,
which is situated on the confines of Bolivia, and disiant
1017 miles from Buenos Ayres. But the war of inde¬
pendence greatly interrupted this traffic; and subsequent
events having enabled Bolivia to obtain supplies by a
cheaper and more direct route, it has nearly ceased, ex¬
cepting for the consumption of the intervening provinces
t ie greater part of which will eventually obtain supplies!
and an outlet for their productions, at much less expense,
by means of the rivers Vermejo and Salado, which traverse
tnese provinces.
The commerce of Buenos Ayres, although subject to
many and injurious restrictions under the Spanish reo-ime
was very considerable, as Peru obtained many of its sup¬
plies by this channel. The average annual trade of this
port between 1792 and 1796 was as follows:
c . Imports. Exports.
bPain • • • •     L.535,587 L.982,049
Havannah  go,397  15,059
T'raa  5,264  4,723
Coast of Africa  66,705  27,987
L.627,953 L.1,029,818
Ihe extent and value of the foreign commerce of Bue¬
nos Ayres have since become very considerable, having gra¬
dually increased in importance since free intercourse has
been permitted with other countries. The external wars
and civil dissensions in which its inhabitants have been
engaged have somewhat retarded its progress, but to a less
extent than might have been expected. When its com¬
merce is viewed in relation to the population and re¬
sources of the country, its amount far exceeds that of
the other New South American states, and shows the
gieat advantages it has derived from a free and unre¬
stricted intercourse with other nations, and the liberal
and enlightened principles pursued by the authorities in
regulating this intercourse, and encouraging industry and
enterprise.
In 1821 the number of vessels cleared out at Buenos
Ayres were 322, of which 114 were British; in 1822
there were 304, of which 167 were British; in 1830 there
were 250, of which sixty were British, seventy-one North
American, forty-one national, twenty-six Brazilian, and
the remainder of various nations. During 1821 and the
4 N
650
BUENOS AYRES.
Buenos three following years, the number of vessels which ar-
Ayres. rived at Buenos Ayres laden with goods and produce
from Great Britain were a hundred and twenty-eight,
a hundred and thirty-three, a hundred and thirteen, and
a hundred and ten; but during 1831 only forty-four Bri¬
tish vessels with cargoes arrived at Buenos Ayres, owing to
the depressed state of commerce. The trade of Buenos
Ayres with Paraguay has been almost entirely suspended
during the last twelve years, in consequence of the extra¬
ordinary policy pursued by hrancia, the ruler of that coun¬
try; but it will undoubtedly be renewed on a change tak¬
ing place, as its productions are important and in great
demand all over South America, especially the yerba or
Paraguay tea, obtained from the Ilex Paraguayemis ; and
the tobacco, which is of superior quality. Valuable tim¬
ber is also obtained from the same country, with which
an extensive commerce was formerly carried on.
With the exception of Brazil, the commerce of Buenos
Ayres is of more importance to Great Britain than that
of any other of the new states of South America. The
whole exports from Britain to South America and Mexi¬
co, exclusive of Brazil, during four years ending 1825,
amounted to L.12,986,139 sterling; and of this upwards of
one third, or L.4,648,451, was sent to the Rio de la Plata.
The value of the trade of Great Britain with this country
is shown by the following table of exports and imports to
Buenos Ayres in each year from 1806, when it w'as first
opened to foreign commerce, to 1830, with the exception
of 1808, 1809, 1810, 1811, and 1813, the records of which
years were destroyed by fire. The diminution during
1826, 1827, and 1828, was owing to the war carried on
between Buenos Ayres and Brazil, during wdiich period
the port of Buenos Ayres was strictly blockaded by the
naval forces of the latter power.
1806
1807
1812
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
Official
value of
Imports
into Great
Britain.
£
121,686
113,626
101,795
167,414
283,119
314,322
113,942
272,502
244,863
192,668
273,093
373,844
388,338
498,646
477,875
265,630
29,523
143,491
536,051
583,946
Official Value of Exports from
Great Britain.
British and
Irish Produce
and Manufac¬
tures.
£
922,018
177,374
369,346
441,587
421,418
326,743
652,642
673,920
360,311
717,323
633,888
1,232,250
777,679
1,550,393
968,315
415,582
222,590
477,115
1,289,056
1,067,884
Foreign
and Colo¬
nial Mer¬
chandise.
£
103,532
31,677
35,617
18,462
7,887
11,674
12,981
16,385
10,842
13,438
37,228
34,082
25,559
31,382
28,792
6,318
8.249
7.249
17,338
12,680
Total
Exports.
£
1,025,550
209,051
404,963
460,049
429.305
338,417
665,623
690.305
371,153
730,761
671,116
1,266,332
803,238
1,581,775
997,107
421,900
230,839
484,364
1,306,394
1,080,564
Declared value of
British and Irish
Produce and
Manufactures
exported from
Great Britain.
£
? Records
destroyed
by fire.
479,136
399,025
311,658
549,294
738,198
389,888
630,303
591,031
981,047
664,436
1,141,920
149,920
371,117
154,895
312,389
758,540
632,172
The commerce of the United States of North America for
one year ending 30th September 1826, with Buenos Ayres,
amounted to 522,769 dollars, or L.104,553. 12s. of imports,
and 379,340 dollars, or L.75,868, of exports, of which
222,832 dollars consisted of domestic produce, and 155,508
dollars of foreign produce. This trade has, however, greatly
extended itself of late years, in consequence of the fatal
effects of the civil dissensions and other domestic calami-.
ties upon the crops. To supply the necessary wants of'
the inhabitants, large quantities of flour have been im¬
ported from North America, which has greatly tended to
impoverish the country. The trade wdth the United States
for flour will no doubt be greatly diminished, or cease al¬
together, if the republic remains tranquil, and is enabled
to attend to agricultural pursuits. In former times con¬
siderable quantities of wheat were exported from Buenos
Ayres to Brazil.
The imports into Buenos Ayres consist of manufactured
goods from Europe, Asia, and North America; wanes and
brandies from France, Spain, and Sicily; Rhenish wines
from Hamburg; gin from Hamburg, Antwerp, and North
America; rum from Brazil and Havannah ; ale, porter,
salt, coals, iron, flag-stones, and other merchandise, from
Great Britain; sugar, rum, and arrack, from the Isle of
France, in exchange for mules; rum, rice, and tobacco,
from the Havannah, in exchange for jerked beef; flour,
pine-boards, planks, and mahogany, from the United States
of North America. The following table shows the nature
and value of these imports during 1829 and 1830.
Dollars.
Cotton manufactured goods 11,203,305
Woolen do. do  3,134,294
Linen do. do  2,239,795
Silk do. do  283,551
Female dresses, ornaments, &c  1,823,640
Wearing apparel, hats, boots, shoes, &c  2,233,684
Jewellery  128,100
Furniture, carriages, and harness  448,709
Machinery and instruments of arts and science 44,922
Books, paper, engravings, music, &c  335,979
Hardware, cutlery, &c ‘.  1,139,911
Wines, brandies, ales, cider, &c  3,904,088
Tea, sugar, coffee, and other groceries  3,150,773
Yerba mate  681,100
Flour    2,256,901
Salt  907,190
Tobacco  631,395
Medicines  63,308
Perfumery  46,524
Naval and military stores  704,545
Glass, porcelain, stone-wrare, &c  608,972
Marble, bricks, stone, lime, and stucco  ^47
Coals and fire-wood 
Spermaceti and tallow candles  23,736
Wax, soap, oils, colours, &c  ^8,55
Timber of all kinds  282,02
Leather and furs  107
Sundry other articles  137,4
BS ioj
As.
Total value in current dollars 36,826,601
Imports in 1829, 36,836,601 dollars at
10d. = ! L.1,534,858 7 6
Do. in 1830, 42,433,270 do. at
6U.      1,165,310 14 7
Total imports of 1829 and 1830...L.2,700,169 2 1
Exports in 1829, 25,561,940 dollars at r nlo m n
10d.-   L.1,065,048 10 0
Do. in 1830, 28,696,358 do. at
6|d. —  807,Uao 1
Total exports of 1829 and 1830...L. 1,872,133 11
The nature and value of the various articles of
from Buenos Ayres during one year, will be seen 1
following table :—
i enos
■'res.
a
*
o
pC
o
•S ^
§ -T3
S £
_©
Op
a
fc- <u
<u
cS fcc
is .a
os .a-
<U r;
O m
<1
02
O
c
<D
3
M
o
<*5
W
JO
e2
BUENOS AYRES.
651
Buenos
Ayres.
652
Buenos
Ayres.
Tariff.
Bank.
IP
BUENOS AYRES.
The regulations of the custom-house at Buenos Ayres
are very good, and business is transacted there with so
much dispatch and precision as to prove very satisfactory
to merchants and travellers. The import, export, and
transit duties payable at the port of Buenos Ayres are as
follow, but liable to yearly revision and alteration.
Import Duties.—Mercury, machinery, and instruments
used in agriculture, the sciences, and the arts; books,
engravings, pictures, statuary, printing presses; wool and
furs for manufactures; embroidery in silk, gold or silver,
with or without jewels ; watches, jewellery, coal, saltpetre,
gypsum, lime, stone for building, bricks, timber, rushes,
and canes, pay five per cent. Raw and manufactured silk,
arms, powder, flints, pitch, tar, cordage, and rice, pay ten
per cent. Manufactured goods and hardware pay seven¬
teen per cent. Sugar, tea, coffee, yerba mate, cocoa, and
provisions, generally pay twenty-four per cent. Furniture,
looking-glasses, coaches, saddlery and harness, wearing
apparel, boots, shoes, liquors, brandies, wines, vinegars,
malt liquors, cider, and tobacco, pay forty per cent. All
other articles pay seventeen per cent. Wheat, when not
exceeding six dollars per fanega, pays four dollars ; when
seven dollars, it pays three dollars; and above seven dol¬
lars, it pays two dollars of duty. Flour pays three dollars
per quintal; salt pays one and a half dollar per fanega;
and hats of silk, wool, or fur, nine dollars each. Export
Duties.—Hides of bulls, oxen, cows, horses, and mules, pay
one dollar each. Salt beef exported in national vessels,
grain, provisions, biscuit, flour, sheep skins, wool, tanned
hides, and all manufactures of the country free of duty.
Gold and silver pay one per cent., but the export of coin¬
ed money is at present prohibited. All other productions
of the province or interior provinces pay four per cent.
Transit Duties.—Goods of maritime introduction, on being
transhipped, pay a fifth part of the amount of duty payable
on their introduction into the country. Goods warehoused
pay two per cent, on being re-embarked. Twenty-five
days are allowed for transhipping, and six months for re¬
embarking goods which have been warehoused, each being
dated from the day of the vessel’s arrival.
A bank of discounts was established in Buenos Ayres
in 1822, with a capital of one million of dollars, which
continued to prosper while it remained a private concern,
and under the management of those most interested in its
prosperity. When the province of Buenos Ayres became
engaged, almost single handed, in a contest with the em¬
pire of Brazil, the exigencies of the government induced
the authorities to use their influence to have it converted
into a national bank, of which the government became
large shareholders, and acquired great influence in its
management. Strenuous efforts were made to extend its
operations to the other provinces, but the introduction of
its paper currency was so firmly opposed in almost every
quarter, that very little has ever gone beyond the province.
The fatal consequences of this measure were soon appa¬
rent in the great and rapid depreciation of the bank paper;
an evil which was increased by every successive issue of
paper to supply the wants of the government during the
war with Brazil, and during the civil dissensions which have
subsequently occurred. From forty-five pence, at which
the paper dollar stood before the formation of the national
bank, it fell at one time as low as fivepence halfpenny,
and, according to the latest accounts, was sevenpence half¬
penny per dollar. The interference of the government
with this institution, of which they became the principal
debtors, has proved ruinous in the extreme to the wealth
and prosperity of the inhabitants. An effort was made by
the authorities to remedy this great evil, by the imposition
of certain extra duties and taxes, from which sources a
sinking fund was created to purchase up and extinguish
the bank currency; and some progress has already been
made in this undertaking, but as yet little compared with Bis
Air
Revenue of 1822 and 1823.
Dollars.
Customs  3,616,349
Stamps  189,208
Port duties    80,012
Property-tax  60,669
Tithes (abolished in 1822)  50,682
Sundry minor duties  277,o48
Sales of public property    ^’iqo
Rents and revenue of do  158,192
the extent of the evil. The bank has thus become so in
timately connected with the financial state of the country,
that it can now only recover its former credit in proportion
as the state is enabled to repay the debts which it has
contracted in relation to this establishment.
The revenue derived by Spain from Buenos Ay res from Rev: le.
1776, when it was formed into a vice-royalty, until 1806,
when it was taken by the English, seldom exceeded seven
hundred thousand dollars annually; which sum not only
comprised the revenue of the provinces of Rio de la Plata,
but also that of Upper Peru. It was derived from the alca-
bala, a duty of from three to five per cent, on all sales and
re-sales, tithes, royal fifths of gold and silver, a poll tax
on the Indians, sales of papal bulls, tonnage duties, &c.
Many of these imposts were very oppressive, and often ex¬
acted with great partiality and injustice. But they ceased
to be productive on the commencement of the revolution,
with the exception of the customs, which were greatly
augmented, in consequence of the extensive trade which
ensued. The revenue derived from the custom-house of
Buenos Ayres for five years ending 1795 amounted to
1,947,849 dollars, giving an annual average of 389,569
dollars; during 1802 it had increased to 857,702 dollars.
Various attempts were made by the new government to
increase the amount of revenue from this source, by an
augmentation of the duties, but with the most injurious
consequences to the revenue, as the high duties created
so extensive a system of contraband trade, in a country
possessing so many facilities for the infraction of the reve¬
nue laws, that on some occasions whole cargoes were land¬
ed without the payment of any duties.
In 1821 effectual measures were taken to remedy this
evil, by remodelling the custom-house, and establishing a
new scale of duties, formed on such moderate and just
principles as tended to remove the temptation to further
violation of the revenue laws. By the new tariff, the
duties imposed on imports were from five to twenty-five
per cent.; all duties being abolished on goods transmit¬
ted to the interior or received from thence, hides ex¬
cepted. The beneficial consequences resulting from these
regulations were apparent, in the immediate termination
of smuggling, and the great increase in the revenue from
the custom-house. The stamps and licenses were proper¬
ly regulated, and extended to public houses. The port
duties were continued, but national vessels were exempted.
A property tax was imposed on capital, merchants pay¬
ing annually eight dollars, manufacturers six, breeders of
cattle two, farmers one, and all others two dollars for
every thousand dollars of property ; every one having less
than one thousand dollars of capital being exempted from
this duty, and, if married, less than two thousand dollars.
The alcabala was abolished, and next year the tithes shared
the same fate. After the improvements made in 1821,
however, the increase of the revenue from the customs
and other sources was very remakable. In 1822 and 1823,
and subsequently, the amount of these, with sales and rents
of public property, has been as follows.
L.916,318. 16s. sterling    4,581,594
Revenue of 1824.
BUENOS AYRES.
uenos
Dollars.
Duties and taxes  2 350 216
Sales of property  ’ 78’5g2
Rents and revenue of do  159,994
«« interest due
L.517,758, 8s. sterling =r  2,588,792
Revenue of 1825.
L.526,629. 3s. sterling = 2,633,148
Revenue of IQSO, and to 30^ June 1831,-18 months.
Customs 12,008,796
Stamps...  668,864
Port duties  ^qq
Property-tax  459 650
New duties for extinction of bank
notes....   1,810,629
Minor duties  121,463
Sales of property  36 011
P ic
4
Rents, dividends, &c  9g2 973
L.453,212. 16s. 8d. sterling - 16,266,086 Ex. 6|d. “P an^ destroying the bank-notes m circulation" or float?
During the early years of the revolution, the revenue present depreciation? Sm^eth November 1829
having proved insufficient to meet the expenses of the this latter sinking fund was first established ilw"
war of independence, various loans were at different nuarv 1832, it has produced 2 481 shed’ to ldth Ja-
times obtained, and these were allowed to accumulate until L.76;291. 6s. lid. slerlfng, whlh Ls beehaTeldv alfleh
1821, when they were examined and found to amount tri ^ tho pvfinptirm fk^    mi y
104., wnen mey were examined and found to amount to to tl.e extinction of the paper currencv The reL 1F •
about four and a half millions of dollars. This debt was times of peace, consider^ exceed. Se "“5,”
then consolidated, and a sinking ta^reaWfo^ "4! ^
n™ !LXl"'Ct!0"’ 'vh,ch ha.s becn.111 operation ever since, years, it will materially contribute to the ultimate p4™°em
p„f m 4.u~ : j. • • " oiiiut:. j—TT1X1 muy cumnoute to trie u tin
t the interim a variety of causes gave rise to the of the public debt. Besides, the public lands are nreservpH
umu a ion of new debts. During 1824 a loan was con- dlvj°^ate as a guarantee to the public creditors • ^
traded in London for one million sterling ^Tx pTceh^ which ought undoub^dTy 0 be tflowed wUhThrrbflc
Th TThnCefbe,nfei^-fivePe-e-- ^^alue l-nds of fhe other provides, ashad anhQuS
of these bonds fluctuated considerably during the conti- share in the good ’ ’ ey nave naa an equal
qual
nuance nf the tj: • ^°"sl.aerahly during the conti- sdare ;n the good or bad consequences resulting from the
• hpi Rivadavian administration, the interest hav- war of independence, the war with Brazil, and the civil
one nee? ‘ eg LI°ndon when due; but only on contentions which have occasionally prevailed in the coun-
1827 hT01' dld th^‘y fa S° T 38 f°rty’ Since 12th July try’ and ^iven rise t0 the accumulation of these debts the
sen,?: ir?rr’ T 'T?81 Whatever has been Province of Bueilos Ayres having on all these occasion?
from fm-tv f T6 bands, h?ve fallen ln value> having varied principally contributed the necessary funds. That effectual
f-... ty 1 twenty, their present value being about twen- measures will be adopted to accomplish this verv
being about twen- measures will be adopted to accomplish this very desirable
£,‘"7 JJC1 UCI11U tni8 ioan, various other additions object as soon as circumstances will permit, cannot he
Brazil of"whM. y t';e.,PUbliC debt durinS tl,e ™'' with d°ubted' as the “tlmritics and the commSy are in ge!
crazil, ot which the following statement, nreaentc or, or, neral strnno-lv imr.roCOo,i *.i,o :   . P
proximate view.
/VI] • ^   r -    VrVyAAJAAJLllJlt V ai C III D tJ-
tolfowing statement presents an ap- oera1 strongly impressed with the importance of regaining
their credit, both at home and abroad; and it 1 ‘ 1 ‘
Funded Debt.
Dollara.
S?nilaPriLTu^:18,26’ at,4 Per cent 2,000,000
Dollars.
<,■ i , . . ’ ’ l,ci  
oince redeemed by sinking fund  472,
809
 5,360,000
1,527,101
2,864,019
Since redeemed by sinking fund 2,,495,981
Funded in 1827, at six per cent   6 000 000
In circulation of the creation of 1831, at six per cent. ' i’soo’ooo Tn 1898 o r,Ql„ h v c n  , '7 “‘“V
Total amnnnt 1 ic a , , , P cent...,-i,&oo,ooo In 1823 a calculation of the population was made from the
local funded debt 11,891,120 bills of mortality of the city and country ; the proportion
°f sV being assumed as the measure of mortality in the
former, and ^ in the latter, which gave 8M36 for the
city and 82*080 for the country. In 1822 and 1823 the
proportion of deaths to births was as 100 to 111 in the citv
653
on the
loan contracted in England at six per cent, during the last
five years; and a^ a loan of four millions' ofcm-rent dol-
Jais, amounting, at 7id.each, to L.125,000 sterlii
Buenos
Ayres.
early mrt^of^SSg subscr*PJ*an *4^luring^the
eany part of 1832, to enable the government to nnv tb«
Sdre’M Urr4k by ““J8*6.111"1 There suraPs beLg
united to the others, will raise the total amount of the
pubhc debt to about four millions sterling
eXCer)ti°n of the loan contracted in London, the
who e of the remaining debt is redeemable in the currency
o the country, and, in consequence of its great deprecia?
tion could easily be paid off at the present time? But
as this can only be accomplished gradually, the rates of
exchange will necessarily rise in proportion to the progress
made in the payment of the floating debt, and on thfg??
neial prosperity of the country. The two sinking fufds
are still in operation for the extinction of the public?debts
tlm np6 t(J rfedeem the Punded debt, the otherPformed from
e new duties imposed for the express purpose of buying
up and destroying thp hanb.r.r.*-Qn  i:,- J °
. . , , T is but doing
justice to the national character for good faith in pecuniary
matters, to state, that prior to the Brazilian war, and the
depreciation of the currency, it was a rare occurrence for
any native of the Argentine Provinces engaged in busi¬
ness to become bankrupt, or to fail in the due perfor¬
mance of his pecuniary engagements.
In 1806, when the city of Buenos Ayres was taken byp„n i
the British, its population was estimated at sixty thousand, tion
Floating Debt.
Balance due the National Bank  16 749 289
Bess the amount of shares held in the bank
by government 3,084,000
Total local debt.
As these items
13,665,289
.25,556,409
tho n  were contracted at different periods, when t ,  —j
exchange varied considerably, the value in sterlino- ]ias been disproved by the same returns, which show the
•A- ~ 1 ^ ^ - 'n nirthft nf rrmlno f f D o f ^4* inn nr • . i
and 100 to 156 in the country, the average of the whole
province being 100 to 131. The assertion that a larger
proportion of females than of males is born in this country
money of the loan, and of the funded and floating debt birtbs of ma,es t0 tiiat of females to be 100 to 95 in the
when contracted, may be estimated as follows:  <;Ity’ and 100 to 96 in the country. The proportion of
Loan on England L.1,000,000
Local funded debt  822,984
Ditto floating debt  1,708,161
L.3,531,145
deaths under fifteen years of age to that of deaths above
this age was 100 to 95 in the city, and 100 to 98 in the
country. The following table of marriages, births, and
deaths in the city and province of Buenos Ayres during
the first six months of 1822, indicates the relative proper?
G54
BUENOS AYRES.
Buenos tions of the white and coloured population, and what pro- since been considerably diminished, in consequence of the jj
Ayres, portion of the latter were then slaves. Their number has operation of the existing laws for the extinction of slavery. A_
City. 
Province.
marriages.
White.
165
289
454
Coloured.
Free.
50
40
90
Not Free.
69
14
83
BIRTHS.
White.
Male.
453
615
1068
Female.
413
604
1017
Coloured.
Male.
168
100
268
Female.
179
97
276
DEATHS.
White.
547
634
1181
Coloured.
Free.
196
149
345
Not Free.
61
16
77
Negro The number of negro slaves in the province of Buenos
slaves. Ayres was never very great; they have seldom been em¬
ployed in laborious works, but principally in the city as
domestic servants, and have generally been treated with
great kindness by their masters and mistresses.. The laws
which have regulated the relation of master and slave in
the Spanish colonies have always been mild and favourable
to the latter, and their condition has been improved by
the revolution. There is a law in this republic which en¬
ables a slave, if dissatisfied with the treatment received
from his owner, to insist on being sold, provided he can
find a purchaser willing to pay the price given for him, or
his full value as ascertained by competent judges ; a regu¬
lation which exercises a most beneficial influence on the
proprietor as well as on the slave. In 1813 it was decreed
by the national congress, on the declaration of indepen¬
dence, that all children born of slave parents after that
date should be free, consequently the number of slaves
has been greatly diminished. During the early part of the
revolution several thousands of the male negro slaves were
purchased by the government from their owners, to serve
as soldiers in the patriot armies, a practice which was dis¬
continued in 1822. From all these causes, the number of
negroes who are not yet free cannot now exceed one twelfth
or one fifteenth part of the population. By the treaty con¬
cluded with Great Britain, all Argentines are prohibited
from engaging in the slave trade. Little attention has
hitherto been paid to the education or moral training of
the free children of slaves; an evil which is now very ap¬
parent, and which ought to have been provided for on
passing the law to which they owe their freedom.
Indians. The aboriginal tribes of Indians who inhabit the south¬
ern part of this continent, east of the Cordillera of the
Andes, are very inconsiderable in number, not exceeding
8000, including men, women, and children, according to
the most authentic information ; but even these have often
proved formidable enemies, from their rapid movements
and unexpected attacks on the Creoles, who, although
more numerous, were often disunited, and without ef¬
fective means of defence. Occasionally on these incur¬
sions they have been augmented by parties of the Arau-
canian Indians from the shores of the Pacific Ocean, who
are closely allied to them in manners and character, use
nearly the same language, and are distinguished by the
same acuteness and intrepidity which have so long cha¬
racterized that nation. It is truly satisfactory to find, that
of late peace and tranquillity has been maintained with
the Indians, and a good understanding established with
them, in consequence of the conciliatory and pacific mea¬
sures recently pursued by the authorities of Buenos Ayres
in their intercourse with these tribes, who now resort in
greater numbers and with more confidence than formerly,
to the capital, where they carry on a traffic with the in¬
habitants, and behave with more order and decorum than
previously. They have evinced some disposition to adopt
the customs and habits of civilized life; and in one dis¬
trict on the frontier the Indian population applied to the
government for the erection of a Catholic chapel. Such
occurrences as these indicate that the present period is
favourable for the introduction of schools for the educa¬
tion of their children, and of those institutions which tend
to the promotion of order and industry. Instances are
not wanting of their aptitude for improvement, and of the
great value they attach to the attainment of knowledge;
but hitherto no effort has been made to improve their
condition ; and they have been taught little by the Creoles
excepting their vices, a large proportion of those who have
hitherto penetrated into their country having been worth¬
less characters, or such as have fled from justice to avoid
the punishment of their crimes. A systematic plan for
introducing civilization among this people, if pursued with
steadiness and good faith, could not fail of success, and
in a few years would convert these tribes, from being the
scourge and terror of the country, into quiet and indus¬
trious neighbours. The further extension of the Argen¬
tine republic towards the south would be greatly faci¬
litated by these means, and very extensive and valuable
tracts of country acquired by purchase at an expense far
inferior to their real value ; every circumstance calculated
to produce a renewal of hostilities on the part of the Indians
would be avoided; confidence and security would be re¬
stored ; and a new impulse would be given to the industry
and enterprise of the country. Hitherto it has been too
much the practice to deprive the Indians of their lands by
fraud or violence, when the same object might have been
more effectually attained by milder means, had good faith
and strict justice been observed towards them. The num¬
ber of foreigners resident in the city and province of Buenos
Ayres is estimated at 12,000, of whom one third are Bri¬
tish, one third French, and the remainder Germans, Ita¬
lians, &c.
Great improvements have taken place at Buenos AyreS£,jucatk
in all the departments of education. In 1821 a university
was founded there by a decree of the government, and an
annual grant of ten thousand dollars given for its mainte¬
nance ; salaries varying from four hundred to one thou¬
sand dollars per annum having been assigned to each of
the professors. The principal departments of education
then and subsequently instituted at this establishment
have been Latin, French, and English, drawing, elemen¬
tary and practical mathematics, logic, moral and natural
philosophy, political economy, civil and national law,
theory and practice of medicine and surgery, materia me-
dica, chemistry, and natural history; and a commencement
has been made in the formation of a national museum.
Provision was also made for the education of those destin¬
ed for the clerical profession. Degrees of law, medicine,
and legislature, are conferred at this university. The go¬
vernment of Buenos Ayres made an offer to the provinces to
educate at this university, at the public expense, six young
men from each province ; an offer which, with few excep¬
tions, was gratefully accepted: but one province in parti-
BUENOS AYRES.
Buenos
Ayres.
655
culai, Mendoza, not satisfied with this number solin’tprl Blioi-i * ^ ii •
permission to send twelve of the youth of that ’province • imnrS^ ^ S01CietJ’.a"d h^ve had much influence in Buenos
o raniioaf wEioR   ^ - -- ’ ■ ;he J sfRS ^ a"d mdustrious habits of the commu- Ayres
' a request which was acceded to, much to the satisfaction nitv ^I'hf 1 i "’T industri°us habits of the commu-
and advantage of its inhabitants. Numbers of young men concerted c.onst1ancy with which the ladies
have also been sent from Buenos Ayres to differentVirts intmQt t o thlS 1"stltutl°n have discharged the duties
of Europe for the improvement of their education P "1 ^ the-m rffleCt ^ hiShest credit on their pa-
Commercial, military, and various other academies and red im^nnf actlve benevo enco, and have already confer-
public schools, on improved principles, have been esta tn^Ko and lasting benefits on their country.
Wished m the city for the education of the children of the to inv^U0 a. COfl"missloo was appointed by the government
more wealthy classes, and, among these, an infant school den-, ^ tlgate the actuaI state of education in all its various
particularly merits attention. Upwards of Seht schools oil. . f throu.*hou.t the An able and judi-
on the Lancasterian system have been formed for the tui mime, eP°rf gI.ven,ln on the 16th March, pointing out
tion of the boys of the lower classes, and are supported estThlT ’"Z16 SyStem pUrSUed at the diff^eat
at the public expense. A school for the education^ the nrnv ™ent* for education, and suggesting various im-
children of foreigners has been established by the British Wace t0 render.them more efficient, and to
residents, and supported by voluntary contributions and dIfent department® in Skater harmony and an¬
other charitable expedients! During7 1830 seven^v-two r^l h, ea-Ch 0t ler’ and under a efficient and
boys and seventeen girls were educated at this schoW. struction coStin^of r^d’than h^Ctofo,.'e; PrjniarJm-
btrucuonJ consisting ot leading, writing, arithmetic, gram-
mar.anri f-.mp* p4!r*tyinpo /a-Pw-»^ir-,  i* * _ •
of female education. On the 12th of April 1823 In instf Thls rePort ^ approved of by the
tution called the Society of Beneficence was established tiro tj168’ ant 18 n.ow m course of being carried into prac-
under the auspices of the government and comnosed nf nf "l ’f.86 regu atlansda not ^P^y10 any other seminaries
about twenty of the most influential ladies oTBuenns °f educai;Ton: excepting those supported at the public ex-
Ayres, to whose care was intrust denartme1^? howevei;’.has taken place in the
intendence of female education throughout the citv and t]Jpffl-^ J ffem.a.eeducatloa’7hlchstlllcontinues under
the province. The system of tuition fdoDted bv fis sn T i suPe1r!nte1ndence of the Society of Beneficence.
si]ate
broidery in all its departments, and are likewise fn snmp ! h i ’ ’ 1 aS heen ^el1 selected and regulated,
Td San Nicola? wRE t plorf’ San Pedro, Chascomus, tion which has extended itself over the country. So¬
lars in W eiSt h mdr?d "h and se/enty-0«e scho- thing, however, tends so much to demonstrate the advances
At the conmmncemen^o^lSSP^Hip1 ? Pe^ia 6 chddren. made in intellectual pursuits by the inhabitants, as the
under the ca? of ^ number of schools great activity of the periodical press of Buenos Ayres,
amounted to fourteen ty’ ^ tbe c^y ai?d Province, Ihe newspapers are numerous, and generally wellcon-
Luxan and Sn U n{7 one8 having been instituted at ducted. They contain much local information connect-
educated -dm ?ernand°; a? the n,umber of females ed with statistics and commerce, numerous advertise-
dred and flu? ^The^ev? !d t0 0ne th°Uf ? two ments’ and intelligence from other countries, more espe-
the societv to’reduce ^ Peiienc®. acfluired has enabled cially from the various New South American states. Three
half of fb/=i.n • j11? fS?ndllt“rf to less tllan one daily newspai^ers are at present published in Buenos Ayres
a, d bf“T. TUr ad • ” 8,;5’ Wh,c ’ Ms sixteen thou- <>ne »f Il'ich has existed for eight years. There are va^
to double tile ,!1 e'1' f x 5'’;''^' jnd at same tlme rious others published once, twice, or three times a week
rated A nnlfe ber.0f St0fS a"d y0an« edu- amonS which are one in the French and two in the En£
schoois and th7Ss Z UC,at'T prevalls,in “l1 thes,e !ish laagaagc : one of the latter, the British Packet, haying
the excention o? ZrT n with been published during the last six years. The free and un?
inthe seCsof the soc er educated restricted liberty of the press was established in 18SI, and
There is c, , , ‘hereafter exercised in its fullest extent until 1828, when
attendinVtW scC, 1 Puhhc examination of the sclioiars party spirit having become greatly excited, some publica-
festival?^ ?ll h„ .S’xaboUtr.tbe,time ceIebrating the tions displeasing to the existing authorities made their ap¬
pearance, and led to the enactment of various restrictions
on the freedom of discussion. Trials for offences of the
press have in consequence since taken place, and no pub¬
lications expressing opinions at variance with the policy of
the ruling authorities have been allowed to make their ap-
. s. ‘-“esc oenuois, aoout me time ot celebrating the
festivals in commemoration of independence. On these
occasions the needle-work and other productions of the
gir s are exhibited to the public, and prizes, provided at the
expense of the government and the society, distributed to
e most deserving. At each festival three other prizes, the
i j i me we lumig auuioiiues nave oeen anowea to make tneir ap~
lars par-E * '^° land[ed’ and tbe others at a hundred dol- pearance, while much difference of opinion has been known
soripHf f ’ p.rovided by the government, are adjudged by the to exist. The preceding administration pursued a very dif-
selvpeli ° 10Sie *erna es wbo have most distinguished them- ferentpolicy, and imposed no restrictions, but trusted to pub-
Thesp ^•g0°1 moi'at conduct, industry, and filial affection, lie opinion for a refutation of any calumnies raised against
pi izes have been distributed annually since the esta- them. The tranquillity, contentment, and prosperity which
-
BUENOS AYRES.
656
Buenos prevailed at Buenos Ayres previous to 1828, when contrast-
Ayres. e(j with the scenes which have followed, sufficiently de-
monstrate the great importance of allowing the utmost
liberty in the expression of opinions on political matters.
Among the literary productions which have issued from
the press may be enumerated the historical work of Dean
Funes, in which are detailed all the events connected with
the revolution and the war of independence ; some drama¬
tic productions of Varela; and recently there has been
published a collection of Buenos-Ayrean poetry, which is
highly creditable to the talents and imaginative powers of
the inhabitants. Among these the national ode written by
the distinguished Don Vicente Lopez, the present minister
for foreign affairs, particularly merits distinction. A sta¬
tistical register was established in 1822, under the aus¬
pices of government, and published monthly for several
years, containing the most minute and circumstantial sta¬
tistical details. A literary society was also established,
which, during its continuance, published periodically the
Abeja Argentina, a work containing much scientific and
useful information. A topographical society was formed,
and the labours of its members have been most useful in
fixing the limits of property throughout the province, the
greater portion having been scientifically surveyed under
its direction. Plans and maps of the various districts
have been constructed, and some of them published. The
results of the whole, and a general map of the republic, will,
it is expected, be soon published under the able auspices
and superintendence of the members of this department.
No sale or transfer of property can now take place in the
province without a previous survey of it being made to the
satisfaction of this department.
Laws. Few alterations have been made in the Spanish laws
which regulated these countries; and these have been
principally for the purpose of rendering them more appli¬
cable to the new political condition of the country. Their
administration has, however, been much improved; judges
have been made independent in the exercise of their func¬
tions; and justices of the peace, to take cognizance of all
cases in the first instance, have been established in the city
, and all parts of the provinces, each being resident in the
centre of his district for the administration of justice; an
institution which has been attended with the most satis¬
factory results. The administration of justice is still, how¬
ever, very defective in many respects. The plan of a new
system has been prepared by the Camera de Justicia,
which, it is expected, will be adopted; but it is objection¬
able in as far as it does not admit of viva voce evidence.
All offences committed by the press are decided by the ver¬
dict of a jury, but no law has yet been made to regulate the
impartial selection of persons qualified to sit on such juried;
they have hitherto been chosen by the government, a power
which appears very liable to abuse. The law of primoge¬
niture does not exist in this country, the property of each
parent, on his or her decease, being divided equally among
all the children; an additional share, however, may be re¬
served and bequeathed by the parent to such of the chil¬
dren as may have been most deserving of such a distinction.
Religion. Since the commencement of the revolution this country
has been deprived of the services of the Bishop of Buenos
Ayres, who was a suffragan of the see of Lima. On that
occasion the government assumed to itself the authority of
the head of the church, the pope having repeatedly refus¬
ed to acknowledge their independence, or to interfere in
their church affairs; and it authorized an ecclesiastical
senate to exercise these functions, which it did until the
23d March 1831, when, in consequence of his holiness
having acknowledged the independence of the republic,
Dr Don Mariano Medrano was selected from a list of two
submitted to him for that purpose on the part of the go¬
vernment, and created Bishop of Aulon and apostolic vicar Bue 3
of the diocese of Buenos Ayres; and he has since been for- Ayi
mally recognized as the head of the Catholic church of''“'■y v
the Argentine republic. The authority has been trans¬
ferred to him which had been previously exercised by the
ecclesiastical senate under the auspices of government;
but this transfer was not accomplished without consider¬
able resistance on the part of that body. The long-con¬
tinued suspension of all direct connection between his ho¬
liness and the church of Buenos Ayres has broken asunder
the link which formerly bound them so closely together;
and the general diffusion of education and intelligence has
produced important changes on the public mind, which will
prevent the Catholic church from ever again attaining that
ascendency in this country which it once possessed.
During the early part of the revolution, the Catholic
clergy, from their activity and influence over the commu¬
nity, exercised a considerable, and often pernicious influ¬
ence in the politics of the country, being generally op¬
posed to the introduction of improvements of every kind.
It became, therefore, a primary object with the govern¬
ment, in its endeavours to remodel the political institu¬
tions of the country, to liberate itself from this source of
distraction. Accordingly, most rigorous measures were pur¬
sued to introduce extensive reforms in ecclesiastical affairs.
A board was named to take possession of the rents of the
convents, and to examine the inmates and internal econo¬
my of these establishments ; all convents were abolished
which contained less than sixteen or more than thirty in¬
mates ; the retiring members of the suppressed convents
were allowed a yearly salary, and permission to proceed to
whatever place they might choose; and no friars were al¬
lowed to enter the province, without previously obtaining
special permission from the government, while every diffi¬
culty was at the same time thrown in the way of further
seclusion, by restricting the age of profession to twenty-
five, and to those obtaining a license from the govern¬
ment. By these means many convents were suppressed,
and their chapels converted into parish churches ; and, un¬
der the new regulations, the service of the church has been
performed with an efficiency and splendour previously un¬
known. The tithes were abolished, and funds provided
by the state for the expense of the churches; and the
salaries of the dignitaries and other ministers of the Ca¬
tholic church were judiciously regulated. These mea¬
sures of reform were carried forward with much vigour,
and powerfully aided by the Centinela, a well-conducted
periodical, instituted for the express purpose, and which
exercised much influence on public opinion. These exer¬
tions proved so completely successful, that at the present
time not more than one or two convents are in existence
at Buenos Ayres, and the greater part of the friars who
have not become secular clergy have left the province.
Two nunneries still exist in this city, but their inmates do
not increase in number; on the contrary, facilities have
been afforded to those nuns who were dissatisfied with their
life of seclusion, to liberate themselves from their vows,
and to leave these establishments; a privilege which has
already been taken advantage of in some instances.
Since the commencement of the revolution a spirit of
toleration has been forming at Buenos Ayres, and becom¬
ing stronger in proportion as their intercourse with foreign¬
ers became more extended ; and it was so much strengthen¬
ed by those vigorous proceedings of the executive in re¬
forming the ecclesiastical affairs of the country, that at
length the government were enabled to establish toleration
legally, which had previously existed only by sufferance.
In concluding a treaty with Great Britain, on the 2d o
February 1825, it was provided that no British subjects
I’esident in the united provinces of the Rio de la Plata
BUENOS AYRES.
nos shall be disturbed, persecuted, or annoyed on amount nf Tr,„ r i
■es- their religion, but have perfect liberty of conscience and mrt nftl (ieS’ 10W?ve!'’ ar® ^ar the most interesting
^ of public worship; the government reserving lherighr„f ?ves deWeZr y ” ‘7 ci^ Tl,ey P°ssess black
formally approving of the formation of all places of public know well I ' l U'L(S, !ian(lsome figures of Spain, and
worship. This article ofthetreatywas sanctioned bv aH the vantLT b 7 °ff ,he!r ?harms t0.,he g^test ad-
members of the congress of the United Provinces, including the ^ n^atne.ss an(l elegance of their attire and
eight of the secular clergy, with only two dissentient voices’ Thev nre nifTf8 ° qtheU carrage. while on the promenade.
On the 12th of October of the same year the provS * V ^ raanners>and Pos-
legislature of Buenos Ayres enacted the followingPlaw in fa- of demeanour as ^ b!lt ten?P5red Wlth 80 m«ch suavity
..nil.- nf follrrlnnc! fnicr-ofirvw .... _ r. . demeanour as tends to diffuse a charm over their so-
657
vour of religious toleration, which was sanctioned by the go¬
vernment, and has ever since been in operation. “ Every
individual in the province of Buenos Ayres shall enjoy the
inviolable right of worshipping Almighty God in the man¬
ner which his conscience may dictate to him ; and the ex¬
ercise of this religious liberty shall only be subject to the
regulations which are prescribed by good morals, public
. i • i •    in uvci tiieir so-
ciety, which is very attractive, especially to foreigners, who
are general y well received. Their evening parties, or ter-
tunas, which are exceedingly agreeable, are frequent and
we attended ; they are diversified by conversation and a
variety of amusements, and generally enlivened by music
and dancing, in which they excel. The Spanish costume
Has now nearly become obsolete, and their dresses are
order, and the established laws of the country.” That prac- cenerallv ?0SaIete’ and their dresses are
tical toleration fully exists in Buenos Ayres, is proved bv The Indies nf V the, 1<rei?cb and English fashions,
the existence there of one Protestant Enisconffelim-e/ in.many insta"<*s formed
•s
the existence theie of one Protestant Episcopal church,
two Presbyterian chapels, two Sabbath evening schools’
and a Bible society.
Since the administration which accomplished these im¬
portant changes in the religious institutions of this coun¬
try ceased to exercise its functions, its successors have
relaxed somewhat in the strictness with which the regu¬
lations were enforced, and some indications have been
given of a desire to restore, in some respects, the exclu¬
sive system which formerly prevailed, but fortunately with
little prospect of success ; for the measures of ecclesiastical
reform previously adopted were too efficient, and pursued
with too much vigour and success, and the inhabitants
have become too intelligent ever again to submit to the
religious thraldom to which they were formerly subjected.
The manners and customs of the inhabitants of Buenos
Ayres have undergone many remarkable changes since
the country became independent. The general diffusion
of education and intelligence, the extensive intercourse
maintained by its inhabitants with other nations, and the
influence and example of the numerous foreigners who
have been temporary or permanent residents among them,
have all powerfully contributed to improve their moral,
intellectual, and social condition, and to place them in a
position more in accordance than formerly with the pre¬
sent state of civilization in other parts of the world. In
these respects they have made greater progress than any
other of the new states, and exercise an extensive and
beneficial influence on the moral and political opinions
of their contemporaries all over the South American con¬
tinent. The natives of Buenos Ayres are active, intelli-
gent, and enterprising, and may be met with in most parts
of South America, engaged in commerce, agriculture, and
other branches of industry. They are polite and affable
in their manners, sober and temperate in their habits,
and possess considerable vivacity and good natural abi-
ities; they are, however, not remarkable for intense ap¬
plication or perseverance, but rather fickle, and prone to
novelty, owing perhaps to the circumstance of their having
ived in times so fraught with change and innovation ; and
this^ tendency is evinced in a variety of ways. They are
matrimonial alliances with the foreigners settled amongst
t lem, and have, with few exceptions, proved most amiable
and exemplary wives. The social and domestic habits of
the strangers, especially those from Great Britain, give
t lem in many instances a decided preference over their
own countrymen in the estimation of the fair sex of Buenos
yres, as the latter are much more in the habit of passing
t icir leisure and evening hours in the coffee-houses, or in
other society, than in the midst of their own families.
I lie peasantry ox gauchos of Buenos Ayres have many
lemarkable peculiarities in their character, arising from
their manner of living and the occupations in which they
are principally engaged. They pass the greater part of
their time in the open air, and are almost continually
on horseback. I heir horses are saddled in the morning,
and kept in readiness for use during the whole day, as
no one. in this country ever thinks of walking even a
short distance on foot. They are rather indolent in their
domestic habits. 1 hey live in rude habitations formed
of mud and reeds, possessing very few conveniencies, and
only some rude articles of furniture. Their food princi¬
pally consists of beef, besides which they possess few
luxuries; yet seem very happy and well contented with
their situation, having few external wants, and enjoying
a considerable extent of personal liberty and independ¬
ence. They are kind and hospitable to strangers, courte¬
ous in their manners, and often possess many estimable
qualities.
Crimes of an atrocious nature, such as murder and rob¬
bery, rarely occur among them. Such deeds have occa¬
sionally been perpetrated during the civil dissensions, but
have in almost every instance been committed by de¬
serters from the army, and not by the peasantry of the
country. As an evidence of the confidence which is
with justice reposed in their honesty, may be adduced
the well-known fact, that, until a late period, couriers and
others have been in the constant practice of carrying
quantities of gold and silver from Chili, Bolivia, and the
interior provinces, to Buenos Ayres; and although gene¬
rally alone and unarmed, very few instances have occurred
of their having been robbed or maltreated. Travellers,
fnnrl i i 7- 7 . -7 vi uieir naving neen ronnea or maltreated, .travellers,
wflp fSS-’ i S?.t t le fashlons t0 the other provinces, both natives and foreigners, are continually traversing the
j. St, 'n& ,they are Jontated, they are often country in all directions, and have in general enjoyed the
cid up to ridicule for their attention to external appear- same immunity.
ances. Being now more occupied than formerly in useful
and rational pursuits, they are less addicted than heretofore
to gambling and other demoralizing amusements. The di¬
versions of the carnival have been discountenanced; the
cruel practice of cock-fighting has lost much of the interest
and importance it once possessed ; and bull fights have long
since been abolished, as tending to brutalize the feelings of
ie community, and unworthy of a civilized nation.
VOL. v.
The gauchos are all trained from their earliest years in
the art of horsemanship, and acquire great dexterity in the
management of their steeds and in the performance of
all the evolutions practised on horseback. The throwing
of the noose or lasso, and the holas, at full speed, is gene¬
rally performed with so much precision and certainty, that
the animal they are in pursuit of seldom escapes. But to
perform these feats in perfection requires mucn practice
4 o
Buenos
Avres.
;5s BUENOS
Buenos and early training. It is customary to see little boys em-
Ayres. ploying their mimic lassos and bolas in catching dogs, cats,
poultry, and other small animals. In some parts of the
country young boys first acquire the art of riding by being
mounted on sheep, which are equipped with miniature
saddles and bridles, and are rendered docile and easily
managed by feeding them occasionally with salt, and
otherwise treating them with care and kindness. Parties
of boys may occasionally be seen proceeding to 01 from
school mounted on these little chargers, and vying with
each other in the performance of races and other equestrian
exercises. A gaucho fully accoutred and mounted on hoi se-
back is one of the most independent persons imaginable,
as he carries along with him almost every thing requisite
to supply his immediate wants, dhe saddle is not only
useful during the day-time, but at night serves all the pur¬
poses of a bed, and the majority of the peasantry never use
any other. It consists of two portions formed of tanned
leather; the largest is spread out on the ground, and the
other part serves as a pillow. Th&jergas or coarse woollen
blankets which are manufactured in the country, and some
prepared sheep-skins, which are placed underneath and
over the saddle when riding, serve all the purposes of
blankets during the night, with the addition of i\\eponcho.
When on a journey, or employed at a distance from their
habitations, they carry a supply of provisions in a pair of
alforjas, or small woollen bags, and water in a pair of
chifles or bullock’s horns slung across the saddle. While
on horseback they carry the lasso, coiled up and ready for
use, one extremity being attached to an iron ring on one
side of the saddle, and the bolas to the other side ; by these
means they often supply themselves with game and other
articles of food when necessary. The lasso serves to
secure their horses during the night, or they use two
small portions of hide attached to each other, which are
fastened to the horse’s fore legs, and are removable at
pleasure : this contrivance permits them to feed, but not
to stray .to a distance. The Spanish bit or bridle is uni¬
versally used in this country, and is considered as more
secure than any other, giving the rider the most complete
command of his horse, and enabling him to perform a va¬
riety of evolutions on horseback with great dexterity and
precision. Their reins are formed of plaited hide, and
variously ornamented; they are lengthened out so as to
serve the purposes of a whip and other uses to the rider.
The girths of their saddles are formed principally of a net¬
work of hide, into the meshes of which the rider can at
pleasure entangle the large blunt rowels of his spurs, when
requiring to secure a firm seat on his horse on making
any unusual or difficult exertion.
The dress of the gaucho consists of a short jacket, with
breeches or drawers open at the knees. A woollen or
leathern belt is worn round the loins, to which they secure
a large knife inclosed in a sheath, and a pouch containing
tobacco, and the yesquero or tinder-box, usually formed of
the tail of the armadillo. Their feet and legs are protected
by botas de potro, or boots formed from the skin of the
hind legs of the horse or mare, to form which, the skin is
cut round in the middle of the thigh, and above the fet¬
lock, and then stripped off; the hair is removed by the
knife, and in its moist and pliant state is drawn over the
leg and foot, to adapt itself in drying to the shape of the
limb, the upper part forming the leg of the boot, the
bend at the knee being fitted to the heel, and the lower
part covering the foot. They generally wear a handker¬
chief tied round the head, with the corners hanging down
to keep them cool, and to avoid the annoyance of mosqui¬
tos in warm weather; over it is worn a small straw hat.
The poncho, which is universally worn as an outer garment,
is a most useful and convenient article of dress, especially
A Y R E S.
on horseback, as it covers the whole of the trunk of the Bii 10s
body, leaves the arms free, and, when of good quality, Afes.
throws off the rain. It is composed of a cotton or woollen ^
cloth, woven by the Indians, and is sometimes very hand¬
some, from the tasteful display of the rich colours em¬
ployed in its formation. Ponchos are from six to eight feet
in length, and four or five in breadth, having in the cen- |
tre a slit sufficient to allow the head to pass through; and
they fall down in graceful folds before and behind, being
variously ornamented along the edges. The value and rich¬
ness of the clothing and horse accoutrements of Xhegauchos
vary considerably, according to the wealth and taste of the
individual, some indulging in silver spurs, and various orna¬
ments for their horses of the same metal, but all of them
partaking more or less of the same general character.
It is not intended on this occasion to give an account Po.Ltl
of the political history of Buenos Ayres, which with more stau j
propriety will merit consideration in the article La Plata;
a few observations, however, on this subject are requisite
to illustrate the present state of the country.
During the first years of independence, little progress
was made in organizing the government, or in establishing
the political institutions of the country on an efficient
basis. The measures had recourse to from time to time
were more calculated to serve temporary purposes than to
produce permanent results. A variety of circumstances
conspired to produce disunion and discord among the pro¬
vinces, the greater part of which were in a state of com¬
plete isolation, with separate and independent govern¬
ments, and by their provincial legislatures enacting laws
much more calculated to promote individual and local
interests than to favour the general industry and prospe¬
rity of the country. From these and other causes they
were frequently at variance with each other, and all were
more or less inimical to Buenos Ayres, which they view¬
ed with a jealous and invidious eye, on account of its
superior wealth, and the greater influence which it exer¬
cised in all public affairs. The authorities of Buenos Ayres
were implicated in a plan to give a new form to the go¬
vernment, by the introduction of a foreign prince from Eu¬
rope ; but they completely failed in the attempt, not, how¬
ever, without causing great excitement among the inhabit¬
ants, which terminated in civil war at Buenos Ayres and
the adjoining provinces. These occurrences, however, in¬
terrupted the commerce with the interior, and occasioned
great loss of life and property. During the year 1820,
when these transactions took place, the changes in the
government of Buenos Ayres were frequent, and the autho¬
rity assumed was in some instances of very ephemeral exis¬
tence ; but this state of affairs was brought to a termina¬
tion in October of the same year, by the forcible entrance
into the city of the party under the direction of Don Mar¬
tin Rodriguez, who was soon afterwards elected governor
of the province of Buenos Ayres.
Under his auspices was formed an efficient and enlight¬
ened administration, composed of individuals well quali¬
fied to discharge the important duties intrusted to them,
and unobjectionable to all parties, as they had been some
time absent in the service of their country, and had
taken no part in the political disputes which had previ¬
ously divided the inhabitants. Don Bernardino Ilivada-
via, who had been in Europe on a diplomatic mission, and
had become conversant with the institutions of those na¬
tions farthest advanced in civilization, became the leadei
of the new executive, and by the activity and energy o
his character infused a degree of vigour into all their pro¬
ceedings, which inspired general confidence, insured t e
ultimate success which so eminently attended their a-
bours, and conferred important and lasting benefits on
their country.
S .uenos
In ; vres.
The aspect presenter! by tbe various provinces at tliis
period offered little prospect of success in any attempt to
form an efficient general government by the union of such
discordant materials. It was therefore deemed expedient,
in the first place, to use every exertion to introduce an
improved internal organization into all the provinces, al¬
though still in a state of separation, and more especially into
the city and province of Buenos Ayres, by far the most
important and influential in every point of view, and the
best calculated by its example to produce beneficial conse¬
quences in all the interior provinces.
The attention and active energies of the new govern¬
ment of Buenos Ayres were therefore principally directed
to remodel and improve the various moral and political insti¬
tutions of the city and province, and the changes introdu¬
ced were principally the following:—The provincial legis¬
lature was formed of representatives elected by the direct
suffrages of the citizens; the persons and property of every
one, foreigner as well as native, were rendered inviolable ;
and no imposts or contributions of any kind were allowed'
to be imposed, or any of the public funds to be expended,
except by authority of the legislature. Publicity was
given to all the proceedings of the legislature and of the
government; and the public accounts of all the depart¬
ments were published at stated periods. The imposition
and collection of the public revenue were regulated on
judicious principles, so as not only to augment the amount
of the revenue, but effectually to put an end to the exten¬
sive contraband which had previously prevailed. The
public expenditure was regulated on the most economical
principles. The military officers, and others who had de¬
voted themselves to the service of their country, were re¬
warded according to their respective merits and services.
Hie debts due by the state were consolidated, and means
provided for their gradual extinction. Afterwards, when
circumstances had led to the accumulation of new debts,
the sale of all public lands was prohibited, and they were
preserved as a guarantee for the ultimate payment of the
public debts. These lands, however, were not kept in
an unproductive state, but rendered available for agricul¬
tural purposes by a judicious system of leasing. The ad¬
ministration of justice was also greatly improved, and ren¬
dered more efficient. I he police and other municipal es¬
tablishments were remodelled or improved, and rendered
much more efficient than previously. Education in all its
branches was encouraged and promoted, every facility be¬
ing afforded to the general diffusion of knowledge. The
liberty of the press was established and guaranteed to the
community. Various important reforms in the church
establishment were satisfactorily accomplished, and the
enjoyment of complete religious liberty was established by
law. Industry and enterprise were promoted, and every
encouragement was given to the ingress of industrious
persons from other countries. Savings banks were in¬
stituted to assist the industrious in the accumulation of
their savings. 1 he formation of roads, bridges, canals, and
various other public undertakings of acknowledged utility
and importance, was commenced and prosecuted.
Much energy, zeal, and perseverance, were exemplified
by the government and their supporters in the prosecution
BUENOS AYRES.
659
Buenos Ayres exercised a great and beneficial influence. Buenos
In these the progress of Buenos Ayres towards improve- Ayres.
ment was watched with much interest and attention, and ' <  
the valuable productions of its press were received with
the utmost avidity. The patriotic feelings of the inhabi¬
tants of the provinces were much excited by these occur¬
rences, and the more intelligent among them directed
their attention to the most effectual means of profitino-
by the example given them by their neighbours; accord^
mgly, m some of the provinces, considerable progress was
made in the improvement of their local institutions and
government.
On 1st April 1824 some changes took place in the go¬
vernment. Rodriguez, having completed the legal period of
his service as governor, was replaced in that office by Gene-
lal Las Heras. On that occasion Rivadavia, although re¬
peatedly urged to continue his services, retired from office
and went to Europe, leaving in the entire charge of the exe¬
cutive government his colleagues Don Manuel Jose Garcia
and General Cruz, who, equally zealous and interested
in the success of the measures which had been adopted,
did not relax in their exertions to give them permanency.
I he improved state of the provinces, and the desire evin¬
ced by them for a general union, indicated the time as
propitious to the formation of a general government. The
authorities of Buenos Ayres therefore sent commissioners
to the various provinces to make the preliminary arrange¬
ments; deputies were assembled from all the provinces;
and the national constituent congress was formally install¬
ed at Buenos Ayres on the 16th December 1824.
I he independence of these provinces had been already
acknowledged by the United States of North America and
Brazil; but on the 2d February 1825 Great Britain also
conferred on them this important act of justice, by con¬
cluding with the government of Buenos Ayres a treaty of
amity,' commerce, and navigation, which w^as approved of
and sanctioned by the general constituent congress, and was
hailed with general satisfaction, from its connecting them
so closely with one of the most powerful European states,
and giving the new republic a respectable status among
civilized nations. In the arrangement of this treaty much
advantage was derived from the liberality and judicious
policy pursued by Garcia, then minister for foreign affairs.
Their independence was acknowledged by France in 1830,
and by the Pope in the following year.
So many innovations in the institutions of Buenos Ayres
as those which have been enumerated could scarcely fail
to produce opposition on the part of those persons whose
interests or prejudices were affected. The clergy in par¬
ticular, in many instances, made use of the influence they
possessed over the prejudices of the people to accomplish
this object, and considerably augmented the number in op¬
position. An attempt was on one occasion made to over¬
turn the administration by violence, and to awaken the
religious prejudices of the community by raising the cry
that their religion was in danger; but the attempt com¬
pletely failed. This party did not renew these violent
attempts, but still continued their opposition, becoming
from various circumstances more numerous and united in
their views. During the debates which took place in the
£ ~  a ill Liic |;i LiiGii Vicvvo. tllC UCUcltUS WHICH IUUK place HI uie
°t these beneficent plans for ameliorating the institutions national congress, they used their influence to thwart the
of this country, and in their progress they were power- policy recommended by the government party; and their
by the publicity given to all their transactions, number being augmented by the accession of many of the
which diffused general confidence; and by the judicious provincial deputies, an origin was thus given to the poli-
use of the periodical press, public opinion was prepared tical party which subsequently assumed the name of fe¬
tor the reception of these innovations. Tranquillity pre- deral (federates).
vailed at this period over all the provinces, and a marked A dispute had subsisted during some years between the
improvement took place in the general prosperity of the government of Buenos Ayres and the court of Brazil, in
country, not only in the city where it commenced, but consequence of the occupation of the province of the
throughout the other provinces, where the example of Banda Oriental by the troops of the latter power; and all
BUENOS AYRES.
660
Buenos the efforts of Buenos Ayres to induce them to retire prov-
Ayres. ed ineffectual. During 1825 General Lavalleja landed
with thirty-two resolute followers in the Banda Oriental;
and having raised the standard against the Brazilians, he
was speedily joined by numbers of his countrymen, and de¬
feated his opponents in various engagements. The provin¬
cial legislature assembled, and requested that their pro¬
vince might be admitted into the Argentine confederation,
which was agreed to by the constituent congress on the
25th October 1825. Upon this ground the emperor of
Brazil declared war against Buenos Ayres on the 10th
December; an example which was followed, on 3d Janu¬
ary ensuing, by the government of Buenos Ayres, with
the full concurrence of the congress. About this time
Rivadavia returned from Europe, bringing with him from
London the ratified British treaty, and was elected presi¬
dent of the Argentine republic on the 7th February 1826
by the constituent congress. The provincial government
and legislature were then dissolved, and the duties of the
former devolved on the president of the republic.
After prolonged discussion, the new constitution of the
Argentine republic was completed, and subscribed on the
24th of December 1826 by all the members of congress.
The form of government agreed upon was the representa¬
tive republican, with unity of regimen ; the representatives
being to be chosen by direct suffrages of the citizens, the
senators and president by electors chosen by the citizens.
Each province was to be under a governor chosen by the
president of the republic from three persons elected by
the inhabitants, and assisted by a council of administra¬
tion elected by the citizens. To become legal, the consti¬
tution required to be approved of by two thirds of the pro¬
vinces. The final adoption of this constitution, which was
considered by competent judges as well suited to the ex¬
isting state of the country, was at first postponed, and final¬
ly prevented, by the active exertions of the federal party in
the provinces, and the increasing difficulties and embarrass¬
ments of the general government, occasioned by the con¬
tinuance of the war with Brazil. But this war had been car¬
ried on with a degree of success which rendered it very
popular with the people. The contest was principally sup¬
ported from the resources of Buenos Ayres and the Ban¬
da Oriental, as they received little assistance, even in men,
from the other provinces; those sent from Mendoza and
other places having been either intercepted, or so dimi¬
nished by desertion, encouraged by the federals, that few
ever reached their final destination. The scarcity of
funds at the disposal of the executive to carry on the war
led to the conversion of the private bank of discounts,
which had previously prospered, into a national bank; an
expedient which soon afterwards produced the most fatal
consequences to the credit and prosperity of the country,
and produced the great depreciation of the currency for¬
merly noticed.
In April 1827 the government made an effort to ter¬
minate the war, by sending Garcia to the court of Brazil to
negociate a treaty of peace under the mediation of the
British authorities ; but the hopes of the government and
of the people were frustrated by Garcia’s deviating so far
from his instructions as to agree to cede the Banda Oriental
to the emperor. This preliminary convention was disap¬
proved of by the president of the republic and the consti¬
tuent congress, and consequently was never ratified. Al¬
though no blame could with justice be attributed to the exe¬
cutive on this occasion, this transaction led to the cessation
of that administration which had been paramount in Buenos
Ayres for upwards of six years, and had produced such
lasting and beneficial consequences to the country. Ri¬
vadavia perceiving that, by continuing in office, he could
no longer preserve the honour or consult the permanent
interests of his country, voluntarily resigned the presi- Bi;03
dency on the 27th of June 1827, and his example was fol- A'i.
lowed by all his ministers. All prospect of forming a per-
manent union of the provinces having now vanished, the
congress dissolved itself, and each of the provinces return¬
ed to its former state of isolation and self-government.
On renouncing the presidency, Rivadavia retired into |
private life, and having since principally resided in Eu¬
rope, he has on no occasion taken part, either directly or
indirectly, in the political transactions of his country. His
merits as a practical politician, which are of the highest
order, will be long held in grateful remembrance by the
more thinking part of his countrymen, and will receive
due homage from posterity; and the numerous and im¬
portant institutions which he established and brought to
maturity will serve as lasting monuments of his sound
judgment and eminent talents. Had the same influence
which proved so beneficial in the only province where his
authority was ever fully established, been equally extend¬
ed to the other provinces, they would by this time have
undoubtedly presented an aspect of prosperity and con¬
tentment which would have formed a striking contrast to
their present desolate condition.
Those persons who favoured the policy of Rivadavia,
and advocated the adoption of the constitution sanction¬
ed by the congress, were called Unitarians (unitarios),
and at first comprised a large proportion of the wealth
and talents of the country; but subsequently they were
joined by many others actuated by less pure and patriotic
motives, who, in assuming the name, forgot the principles
which originally gave rise to the distinction. The spirit
of faction and of individual aggrandisement seems prin¬
cipally to have influenced the subsequent proceedings of
both parties, and to have given origin to the numerous
evils which have befallen their country.
On the resignation of Rivadavia, the management of pub¬
lic affairs was intrusted to Dr Don Vicente Lopez ; and the
provincial legislature having been assembled, Don Manuel
Dorrego was afterwards elected governor of the province,
and obtained from the other provinces full powers to ma¬
nage all their foreign relations. Accordingly, under his
government the war with Brazil was brought to a satisfac¬
tory termination in the latter part of 1828. On the army
being withdrawn from the seat of war, many of the prin¬
cipal officers concerted measures to overturn the influence
of the federal party in Buenos Ayres and the other pro¬
vinces. On the 1st of December 1828, a movement was
successfully made by General Lavalle in Buenos Ayres,
and hostilities commenced with the ex-governor Dor¬
rego. Ele was defeated and taken prisoner at Navarro
on the 9th, and was shot without trial on the 13th by or¬
der of Lavalle. This arbitrary act, which cannot be jus¬
tified on any principle, was productive of the most fatal
consequences, by giving to the civil war that sanguinary
and vindictive character which it has since maintained.
Lavalle became governor of Buenos Ayres, but had to
sustain a contest with the federal party under Don Juan
M. de Rosas, who, possessing great influence with the
inhabitants of the country, cut off his supplies, besieged
him in the city, and at length obliged him to form a con¬
vention on the 24th of August 1829, by which Lavalle
consented to relinquish the government of Buenos Ayres,
and soon afterwards retired to the Banda Oriental. Ge¬
neral Paz, an officer distinguished for his public and pri¬
vate virtues, as well as bravery, obtained the entire as¬
cendency in the central province of Cordova, and was
successful in surprising and totally defeating the federal
forces opposed to him, on the 25th of February 1830; but
he did not, on this occasion, retaliate on his opponents for
the great excesses and cruel assassinations they had per-
lenos
!vres
petrated on the adherents of the Unitarian party, more
especially at La Rioja and Mendoza.
A period oi tranquillity followed the victory of Paz
^ who thereby obtained for the Unitarians the entire as¬
cendency in all the interior provinces; various attempts
were made at conciliation, but without success; and at
length both parties commenced preparations for the ap¬
proaching contest, d he civil war again commenced in
the eaily part of 1851, with evident advantage to the fe¬
deral party, who had at their command all the resources
of Buenos Ayres, and numerous adherents amono- the
peasantry. An accidental occurrence greatly contribut¬
ed to increase the influence and power of the federals
and to dispirit their opponents; for on the 10th of May
General Paz, while engaged in reconnoitring the posi¬
tions of his adversaries, was taken prisoner by a small
party placed in ambuscade. Soon afterwards General
Quiioga cairied the war into the provinces of Cuyo and
La Rioja, and was successful in all his rencontres with the
Unitarians. He followed up his advantages, the Unitarians
retiring from Cordova to the province of Tucuman; and
having met each other at Ciudadela, in that province, on
the 4 th of November, an obstinate and sanguinary battle
ensued, in which the Unitarians were totally defeated and
dispersed. Ihirty-nine ofthe principal officers, who were
afterwards taken prisoners, were shot by order of Quiroo-a,
and the remainder escaped into the province of Salta.
The war was at length brought to a conclusion on the 4th
of December 1831, by means of a convention formed be¬
tween Quiroga and the authorities of Salta, in which it
was expressly provided that all the Unitarian officers should
be obliged to leave the Argentine Provinces. ‘ Thus has
terminated the civil war which prevailed with more or
less violence during the last three years; covered these
fine provinces with desolation and bloodshed; interrupted
the progress of industry in all its branches ; paralyzed the
commerce with the interior; and greatly diminished the
commercial intercourse of Buenos Ayres with other coun-
tnes. The civil war has not, however, been the only cause
o the depressed state of agriculture and commercial in¬
dustry at Buenos Ayres; the long-continued drought which
as prevailed throughout the province during nearly the
w ole ofthe last three seasons has been much more fatal
in its consequences, as it has occasioned the total failure
o the crops, and the destruction of multitudes of cattle,
orses, and other stock. The latest intelligence from Bue¬
nos Ayres, dated 4th April 1832, intimates that this disas¬
trous period had at length happily terminated by copious
rains , that tranquillity prevailed in all the provinces ; and
at, as considerable quantities of produce were coming
irom the interior, commerce was expected to improve.
It will require some years of tranquillity and good go¬
vernment to restore Buenos Ayres and the other pro-
BUENOS AYRES.
661
Buffier.
t0, th/Ir f0rmer ProsPfrity; but with a country Buenos
j ossessed of so many natural advantages, and a popu- Ayres
lation so elastic and enterprising in their character that i * * * * * * * * * 11 * * *
penod under ordinary circumstances cannot be far dis- .
tant. 1 he federal party, who now possess the entire con¬
trol over all these provinces, will have ample opportuni¬
ties of proving how far the system of government which
they have hitherto advocated is calculated to promote the
happiness and prosperity of their country. A treaty of
alliance, offensive and defensive, was formed in 1822 be¬
tween the littoral provinces of Santa Fe, Corrientes,
-fcmtie luos, and Buenos Ayres, the provisions of which,
with little interruption, have ever since been maintained.
In 1830 this alliance was renewed, each province binding
itseif to the adoption of the federal system of government.
Since the termination of the civil wrar several of the inte¬
rior provinces have indicated their desire to unite with
these provinces; an example which will probably be soon
followed by the remainder. But there are well-founded
apprehensions that they will fail in their attempts to
establish a federal republic at all similar to that of the
United States of North America, which they profess to
imitate ; all the provinces excepting Buenos Ayres being
deficient in population, wealth, intelligence, and the other
requisites essential to the establishment of efficient local
governments. As an evidence how imperfectly they know
their true position and interests, it is sufficient to state that
each of the provinces has its own custom-house laws, im¬
port and transit duties being imposed on all commodities
coming from any of the other provinces. The only prospect
of success amidst so many difficulties will be the formation
of a greatly modified federation, in which, however unwill¬
ing the provinces may be to acknowledge it, the province
of Buenos Ayres, from its advantageous position, and its
greater wealth and intelligence, must necessarily maintain
a decided ascendency over them; and if tranquillity can
be preserved, time and experience will eventually convince
them of their true interests, and remove the impediments
which have hitherto prevented their union. The present
institutions of Buenos Ayres have now existed in full opera¬
tion during a sufficient time to establish themselves in the
good opinion and affections of the communit}'; and no ap¬
prehension need be entertained of their permanency, es¬
pecially during the administration of the present governor
Rosas, who has much influence in the province; while by
his active endeavours to promote education, to encourage
industry, and to civilize the Indians, he has merited the
confidence and good will of his countrymen.
Wilcock’s History of Buenos Ayres; Brackenridge’s
Voyage to South America ; Caldcleugh’s Travels in South
America; Account of the United Provinces of Riodela Plata,
translated from the Spanish of Nunez; Beaumont’s Travels
in South America ; Memoirs of General Miller, (u. u.)
i UFFET was anciently a little apartment, separated
rom the rest of the room by slender wooden columns, for
.16 disposing of china, glass-ware, and other articles. It
is now properly a large table in a dining-room, called also
a si eboard for the plate, glasses, bottles, basons, &c. to
e p aced on, as well for the service of the table as for
Magnificence. In the houses of persons of distinction in
ranee, the buffet is a detached room, decorated with pic-
ures relative to the subject, with fountains, cisterns, and
^ *s commonly faced with marble or bronze.
Ififii CLAUDE> a distinguished writer, born in
Th kecame a Jesuit in 1679, and died at Paris in 1737.
ere are many works by this author, showing deep pe-
ne ratl°n and accurate judgment. The principal of these
is entitled Un Cours des Sciences, or a Course of Sciences,
upon principles new and simple, in order to form the lan¬
guage, tlm understanding, and the heart. Paris 1732,
in folio. This collection includes an excellent French
grammar upon a new plan, a philosophic and practical
treatise upon eloquence, an art of poetry, which, how¬
ever, is not reckoned the best part of the miscellany,
elements of metaphysics, an examination into vulgar pre¬
judices, a treatise of civil society, and an exposition of
the proofs of religion ; all full of reflections, just as well
as new. Fie was. the author of several other works, par¬
ticularly, 1. Pratique de la Memoire artificielle, Paris, 1715,
4 vols. 12mo; 2. Some historical works, an Introduction
to the History of the Sovereign Houses of Europe, an
/
662 B U F
Buffon. Abridgment of Spanish History, and an Account of the
Origin of the Kingdom of Sicily and Naples; 3. Various
treatises on religion and piety. In his Cours des Sciences
Buffier has anticipated, though he failed to develope and
pursue to its consequences, that peculiar system of mental
philosophy which resolves all the ultimate principles of
belief into the perceptions or suggestions of what is called
common sense; and indeed it seems pretty ceitain that
Dr Reid has been indebted to the learned Jesuit for valu¬
able hints on nearly all the purely speculative points treat¬
ed of in his Intellectual Philosophy.
BUFFON, George Louis le Clerc, Count of, a
celebrated naturalist, was born at Montbard, in Burgundy,
on the 9th of September 1707. His father, Benjamin le
Clerc, was a counsellor of the parliament of Dijon, and the
son was destined to the same office, if science had not
drawn him away from the law. He studied at Dijon; and
his eager activity, his acuteness, penetration, and robust
constitution, fitted him to pursue business and pleasure
with equal ardour. Flis early passion was for astronomy,
and the young Le Clerc was seldom without Euclid in his
pocket. At the age of twenty he went with an English
nobleman (the young Duke of Kingston) and his tutor to
Italy ; but he overlooked the choicest remains of art, and
amidst the ruins of an elegant and luxurious people he
first felt the charms of natural history, of which he after¬
wards proved the zealous and successful admirer. On his
return to France he fought, on some accidental quarrel,
with an Englishman, whom he wounded, and was obliged
to retire to Paris, where he translated Newton’s Fluxions
from the Latin, and Hales’s Statics from the English, into
the French language. He afterwards went to England at
the age of twenty-five, and remained there about three
months. This concluded his travels. At the age of
twenty-one he succeeded to the estate of his mother, which
was valued at about 300,000 livres, or L.12,000 sterling ;
and he was one of those whose easy or affluent circum¬
stances urge them on to literary pursuits, and clear the
path of some of its thorns. Perhaps this was the period of
his retirement to Montbard, where he spent much time,
and where his leisure was little interrupted; for whilst he
resided in the capital, his office of intendant of the king’s
garden and cabinet occupied much of his time. He loved
company much, and was partial to the fair; but he loved
fame more. He spent fourteen hours every day in study;
yet when we examine the extent of his knowledge and
the number of his works, we wonder at his having exe¬
cuted so much even in that time. At five in the morning
he retired to a pavilion in his vast gardens, and he was
then inaccessible. This was, as Prince Henry of Prussia
called it, the cradle of natural history; but she was in¬
differently accommodated. The walls were naked; and
an old writing-table, with pen, ink, and paper, and an elbow
chair of black leather, were the only furniture of his study.
His manuscripts were in a cabinet in another building,
and he went occasionally from one to the another. The
eras of Buffon’s works are pretty well known. When
each was finished it was put aside, in order that he might
forget it, and afterwards return to it with the severity of
a critic. He was anxious to render it perspicuous; and
if those to whom he read his works hesitated a moment,
he changed the passage. The works of others he often
read like Magliabechi, confining himself to the titles, the
contents, and the most interesting parts ; but he perused
M. Neckar’s Compte Rendu, and the Administration of
the Finances, at length, and spoke of them with no little
enthusiasm. His favourite authors were Fenelon, Mon¬
tesquieu, and Richardson.
M. de Buffon’s conversation was unadorned, rarely ani¬
mated, but sometimes very cheerful. He was exact in his
BUG
dress, particularly in arranging his hair. He sat long at Bu<oa
table, and then seemed at his ease. His conversation was i
at this time unembarrassed, and his guests had frequent- Lie.
ly occasion to notice some happy turn of phrase, or someV,""w
deep reflection. Flis complaisance was very considerable.
He loved praise, it is true, and even praised himself; but
it was with such frankness, and with so little contempt of
others, that it was never disagreeable. Indeed, when we
consider the extent of his reputation, the credit of his
works, and the attention with which they were always re¬
ceived, we need not wonder that he was sensible of his
own value. It would perhaps have displayed a stronger
mind to have concealed it. His father lived to the age
of ninety-three, and almost adored his son ; his grand¬
father to that of eighty-seven ; and the subject of the pre¬
sent article exceeded eighty. He died in April 1788.
Fifty-six stones were found in his bladder; and if he had
consented to the operation of lithotomy, he might proba¬
bly have lived longer. Fie left one son, who, near a high
tower in the gardens of Montbard, erected a low column,
with an inscription, to his memory. This son fell a victim
to the tyranny of Robespierre during the reign of terror
in France.
BUFFOON, a droll, or mimic, who diverts the public
by his pleasantries and follies. Menage, after Salmasius,
derives the word from buffo, a name given to those who
appeared on the Roman theatre with their cheeks blown
up; that, receiving blows thereon, they might make the
greater noise, and set the people a laughing. Others, as
Rhodiginus, make the origin of buffoonery more venera¬
ble, deriving it from a feast instituted in Attica by King
Erectheus, called buphonia.
Buffoons are the same with what we otherwise find de¬
nominated scurrcB, gelcisiani, mimilogi, ministelli, and jo-
culatores, whose chief scene is laid at the tables of great
men. Gallienus never sat down to meals without a second
table of buffoons by him. Tillemont also renders panto-
mimesby buffoons ; in which sense, he observes, the shows
of the buffoons were taken away by Domitian, restored by
Nerva, and finally abolished by Trajan.
BUG, or Bugg. See Entomology.
BUGGERS anciently signified a kind of here¬
tics, otherwise called Paterini, Cathari, and Albigenses.
The word is formed from the French Bougres, and that
from Bougria or Bulgaria, the country where they chiei-
ly appeared. Among other errors, they held that men
ought to believe no scripture but the New lestament;
that baptism was not necessary to infants; that husbands
who conversed with their wives could not be saved; and
that an oath was absolutely unlawful. They were stre¬
nuously refuted by Friar Robert, a Dominican, surnamed
the Bugger, as having formerly made profession of this
heresy. The Buggers are mentioned by Matthew Paris,
in the reign of Henry III. under the name of Bugares.
Circa dies autem illos invaluit hceretica pravitas eoruni qui
vulgariter dicuntur Paterini et Bugares, de quorum errori-
bus malo tacere quam loqui.
BUGIA, a province of the regency of Algiers in Africa.
It is almost surrounded with mountains, and peopled with
the most ancient Arabs, Moors, or Saracens, called ho-
bayles. The province is very fertile in corn.
Bugia, by the Africans called Bugeiah, a maritime town
of Africa, in the regency of Algiers, and once the capita
of the province of that name. It is supposed to be t e
Saldce of Strabo, built by the Romans. Long. 4t. E. La •
35. 30. N.
BUGIE, a town of Egypt, situated on the western shore
of the Red Sea, almost opposite to Zidon, the port town
to Mecca, and about a hundred miles west of it. Long.
36. E. Lat. 22. 15. N.
Older
li
iding.
BUI
BUILDER, in the general sense of the term, an under¬
taker of works of building. With reference to the opera¬
tions of civil architecture particularly, the builder stands
between the proprietor and architect on the one hand, and
the artizan, merchant, and manufacturer on the other: he
engages to the first to carry a certain proposed work into
execution, as he may be directed by the second, and saves
to both of them the trouble and responsibility of procur¬
ing materials and employing workmen.
The builder’s emolument arises from an improved price,
or charges bearing an advance on the prime cost, to remu¬
nerate him for the use of his capital, and his own perso¬
nal application or labour. A builder has the power also
of deriving an advantage from the division of labour, by
employing artizans in those operations only which habit
enables them to execute with the greatest facility.
The builder contracts to do certain specified works for
a certain total sum of money, the amount of which he de¬
termines by a previous estimate ; or to do prescribed opera¬
tions at so much for a certain fixed quantity of every sort
involved, per yard, per rod, per foot, and so on, the amount
to be ascertained, when they are completed, by measure¬
ment ; or he executes works according to instructions or
specifications, leaving the charges to be determined accord¬
ing to the usual and accustomed rates, on the quantities
ascertained by admeasurement. In the two former cases
he is said to work by contract, and in the last by measure
and value. For jobbing, in repairs and alterations, a day
account is kept; that is, a record of the time workmen are
employed, and of the materials used, in performing cer¬
tain operations. This is made out with an advance of so
much per cent, on the prime cost, or wages of the work¬
men and selling prices of the unwrought materials, for
the builder’s profit or remuneration, as before stated.
B U I
663
nrimu-n ^nfV t theoretically acquainted with the Building.
tl rZnik 1 n’iand practically conversant with
the details of all the mechanic arts used in building; as
well to be enabled to carry on his business with advan¬
tage to his own interest, as to the proper execution of the
works he may undertake. He should be qualified to as-
cei tain with the utmost minuteness, from the drawings of a
design, and the specification of the manner in which, and
matter of which, it is to be carried into execution, the
quantity of labour, and materials of every kind and de¬
scription, and the exact value of them all. In this is in¬
volved the necessity of being well acquainted with the mar¬
ket prices of raw and manufactured articles to a very great
extent, and a matured judgment of the quantity of la¬
bour required, or how much time a'workman will take to
produce a certain result. These things, however, which
involve the making of estimates on which to make con¬
tracts, m the practice of this country are generally refer¬
red to a surveyor or measurer, because of the general ig¬
norance and incompetence of builders, or because of the
gi eater aptitude of the latter, in consequence of their at¬
tention being solely occupied by such things.
BUILDING. Any work of civil architecture while in
progress is familiarly termed a building. This substantive
use of a participial term maybe thought to arise from the
old habit of contracting an expression if it be long, and
using a part for the whole : “ the. house or church a build¬
ing, ’ that is, in the course of building, or now being built,
is more commonly spoken of as “ a building” or “ the
building. I he term is less correctly applied to edifices
generally, without reference to their state of completeness
01 incompleteness ; but this use of it should be avoided,
as the term thus becomes less definite, and therefore less
valuable. *
BUILDING.
The art of building comprises the practice of civil ar¬
chitecture, or the mechanical operations necessary to
carry the designs of the architect into effect. It is not
unfrequently called practical architecture; but the adop¬
tion of this term would have tended only to confuse, by
rendering it difficult to make the distinction generally un¬
derstood between architecture as a fine or liberal art, and
architecture as a mechanical art. The execution of works
of architecture necessarily includes building; but building
is frequently employed when the result is not architec¬
ture : a man may be a competent builder without being
an architect; but no one can profess himself a complete
architect unless he be competent to specify and direct
all the operations of building. A scientific knowledge of
the principles of masonry, carpentry, joinery, &c. and of
the qualities, strength, and resistance of materials, though
or the utmost importance to an architect, is not sufficient
of itself, without a minute acquaintance with a great variety
of less ambitious details. Such are those which relate to
the arrangement of a plan for the greatest possible degree
of convenience on the smallest space, and at the least ex¬
pense ; its transference to the ground; the preparation
and formation of foundations ; the arrangement and con¬
struction of drains, sewers, and cess-pools; the varieties
of walling with stone, and of bonding bricks in brick-work;
the merit of the various modes of bonding and tying walls
with timber and otherwise; the arrangement of gutters
on roofs, to get sufficient fall, and to lead the water to the
least inconvenient places for placing trunks to carry it
down ; the arrangement and formation of flues ; the pro¬
tection of walls from damps, of timbers from moisture and
stagnant air, and of metals generally from exciting causes ;
the cost of materials and labour, and the quantity of each
required to produce certain effects. Together with these,
it is important to be practically acquainted with all the
modes of operation in all the trades or arts required in
building. Every thing must be clearly understood, or it
will be impossible properly to specify beforehand, in de¬
tail, every thing and every operation to be done and per¬
formed ; and minutely to estimate, beforehand also, the
absolute cost involved in the execution of a proposed
structure. The power to do the latter necessarily involves
that of measuring work, and ascertaining quantities after it
is done. These things may certainly be referred to the
surveyor or measurer, but they are not the less incumbent
on the architect, who cannot be said to be thoroughly mas¬
ter of building, or the practice of his profession, unless he
be skilled in these operations.
The architect having furnished the specification and
working drawingsofhis design, the first operation is the pre¬
paration of the foundation. (See article Stone-Masonry,
sect. 60.) Much in this particular, it is evident, must de¬
pend on localities. It is not of so much importance that the
ground be hard, or even rocky, as that it be compact, and
of similar consistence throughout; that it be so constituted
as to resist entirely and throughout, or yield equally to the
superincumbent weight. In the latter case, however, there
must be some contrivance to generalize the pressure, or
the piers would sink away from the parts above and below
the apertures. This danger is obviated, if the soil be to¬
lerably consistent, by turning inverted arches, as we shall
show in its place; or, the soil being too soft to offer resist-
G64
BUILDING.
Building, ance in the space occupied by a brick, by planking with
timber or cast-iron frames, by laying one or more courses
of strong thick paving stones, as wade at least as the whole
extent of the footings of the walls, and each stone as large
as may be; or, what in most cases is by far the best, by
laying a compact mass of concreted rubble, sand, and quick¬
lime, which will harden into a solid unbroken bed.
No foundation is more ineligible for a heavy structure
than one that is rocky, especially if the rocks are in small
masses, or, if a sufficient surface is offered of one mass,
in strata which dip considerably: in the former case, from
the rottenness of the soil in which rocks are generally
bedded, and which consists for the most part of their
detritus; and in the latter, from the liability of stratified
rock to crack and slip, against which no precaution is
available. Dry gravelly soils, again, are not only loose and
infirm, but are exceedingly liable to vacuities of various
extent, which are hardly sufficiently provided against by
piling : wet gravel is generally more compact, and may
be better trusted both with and without piles, or with the
concretion before mentioned. A deep compacted sand
will be found firm if a sufficient surface of it be embraced
by the footings, which should be wider in that than most
other cases. In large and deep beds of alluvial deposits
the heaviest building may be laid with security, if the pre¬
caution before suggested be attended to for the equal dis¬
tribution of the pressure throughout. The city of New
Orleans, in a delta at the mouth of the Mississippi, rests
on a bed of mud, which is held together by a bonding of
trunks and arms of trees, but on a broad level bed below.
Here the only precaution taken in erecting a structure of
the greatest magnitude is to make the trenches for the
walls wide and level, and to floor the whole of their sur¬
face with thick planks properly bonded: on these the foot¬
ings are laid, and if any settlement occurs, it is of the whole
edifice, and no injury accrues to any part of it at any time.
Clayey and chalky soils are generally understood to form
the best natural foundations: in these, under ordinary
circumstances, no preparation is required, though for very
heavy and unequally pressing works, such as bridges, which
are placed on piers made as small as they possibly can be,
piling has been considered a necessary precaution. In¬
deed, except perhaps on an extensive horizontal bed of firm
compact rock, no foundation can be considered better than
that afforded by piling in a deep clay. (For the process
of Piling, see the article under that head.)
In the ordinary processes of building, however, the arti¬
ficial preparation of foundations hardly need be consider¬
ed. Common prudence would refer it to professional ma¬
nagement, when such is found necessary; and a work of
this kind cannot contain sufficient information and instruc¬
tion to qualify a man to act professionally on any subject,
and more particularly on those subjects which demand ini¬
tiatory practice and experience. We therefore proceed
to the ordinary routine of practice.
The artificers whose trades come within the immediate
range of the builder’s business are the following: Digger
or excavator, bricklayer, mason, slater, sawyer, carpenter,
joiner, plasterer, modeller, carver and gilder, plumber,
smith, glazier, painter and decorator. Paving is done by
the bricklayer or mason, as it may be of brick or stone,
and tiling by the bricklayer.
Bigger or Excavator.—The digger works with a pick¬
axe and a spade or shovel. With the pick-axe he breaks
down the soil if it be hard or very stiff’, and throws it out
with the shovel; but compacted sand and alluvial soil is
spitted and thrown out with the spade alone, without pre¬
vious breaking down. In the former case, the digger works
onward, or with his work before him, and in the latter back¬
ward, or standing on the part to be thrown out, as a gar¬
dener does. When rock occurs in a foundation, the assist- But in„
ance of the quarryman is requisite to cut through or blast
it, as the occasion may require. The digger must be care¬
ful to produce a perfect level in every direction, and es¬
pecially in trenches for walls ; nor may this be done by pla¬
cing again loose matter, but the level must be produced on
the solid or undisturbed bed.
Digger’s work is valued by the cubic yard, and is gene¬
rally made to include, besides excavating, the removal of
the soil and rubbish. The price per yard is therefore ne¬
cessarily contingent on the stiffness of the soil, the depth
to which the excavations may reach below the surface, and
the distance the stuff is to be removed; so that it is im¬
possible to determine what.the cost maybe, without refe¬
rence to each and all of these particulars, most of which
must be different in every different place ; and all are again
affected by the local cost of labour or wages. A good ex¬
cavator will dig and throw out, of common soil, into a bas¬
ket or wheel-barrow, eight or ten yards per diem; but of
stiff clay or firm gravel, not more than six yards. If the
soil is to be carted away from the site of the proposed
building, it may be more advantageously basketed out of
the foundation, and deposited at once in the cart, whereby
the labour of throwing or shovelling a second time is avoid¬
ed; but if the soil is to be deposited in the immediate vi¬
cinity of the site, or thrown into a barge, wheeling is the
quicker and more economical operation. The quantity of
digger’s work is ascertained by multiplying the length
of the excavation by its breadth, and their result by the
mean depth for cubic feet: these divided by 27 will give
the amount in cubic yards.
Bricklayer.—The manufacture of brick being made the
subject of a separate article, we need only refer to that for
information on the subject; and in the same manner the
components and merits of mortars and cements will be
found in sections 20 et seqq. of the article under the head
Stone-Masonry. A few observations on the composi¬
tion of mortar for bricklaying wall nevertheless be neces¬
sary here.
Particular attention must be paid to cleansing the sand
to be used for mortar, of every particle of clay or mud that
may adhere to or be mixed up with it. Sea sand is ob¬
jectionable for two reasons: it cannot be perfectly freed
from a saline taint, and the particles are moreover gene¬
rally rounded by attrition, caused by the action of the sea,
which makes it less efficient for mortar than if they retain¬
ed their natural angular forms. Lime should not be slaked
until the moment it is to be mixed up with the sand in mor¬
tar, but the sooner that is done after it is burnt the better.
The proportion of lime to sand is generally taken at one
third or one fourth of the whole mass; but if both the ma¬
terials be of good quality, that is, if the lime slake freely,
and become a fine pungent impalpable powder, perfectly
clear from argillaceous or any other foreign matter, and
the sand clean and sharp, and of variously sized particles,
one sixth of lime to sand is quite enough: more is injuri¬
ous. The ingredients should be well mixed and beaten in
a pug-mill, and as little water used as will suffice to make
the compound consistent and paste like. Rain, or any
other soft water, should be used for the purpose of mak¬
ing mortar, and not spring or hard water, though any
other may be preferred to what is brackish even in the
slightest degree. When mortar is made, if not immeui-
ately used it should be put into a close pit or case, and
kept from the air, in which manner it will improve rather
than deteriorate, though it be for weeks or even months:
if however, the moisture be allowed to exude, it will set
and be spoiled. W hen taken out to be worked up, it should
be again well beaten, and wetted sufficiently to work free¬
ly, but no more : nor should it be re-made in this manner
Plats
CX>
wilding, in larger quantities than are required for immediate or
daily use. A quick-setting cement, such as that which
is most commonly used in building in this country, and
known as Parker s or Roman cement, can only be mixed
or gauged as it is required for use. A bricklayer will keen
a labourer fully employed in gauging cement for him alone.
It is mixed with sand in the same manner that lime is in
common mortar, in the proportion of about three or four
of sand to one of cement, according to the quality of the
latter; and the labourer, as he gauges on one board, supplies
the mixture to the bricklayer fit for use on another board
a spadeful at a time : it must then be applied within half
a minute, or it sets and is spoiled.
The average size of bricks in this country is a fraction
under nine inches long, four and a half wide, and two and
a half inches thick; and as their magnitude is limited by
law, or rather by the duty imposed by law, the variation
cannot be great. In consequence of this uniformity of size
a wall of this material is described as of so many bricks in
thickness, or of the number of inches which result from
the multiplying of nine inches by any number of bricks • a
nine inch or one brick wall; a fourteen inch wall, or’of
onebnck and a half (13^ inches would be more correct,
in fact; for although a joint of mortar must occur in this
thickness, yet the fraction under the given size of the brick
is enough to form it); eighteen inch or two bricks, and so
on. A half-brick wall is not, or ought not to be, known,
except in partitions to fill in between quartering or upright
timbers, when it is called brick-nogging; and then not more
than six courses are laid without being bonded by a piece
of wood, called an mtertie, skew-nailed at each end to the
quarters: brick-nogging is either flat or on edge, as the
partition may be 4£ or 2£ inches thick.
The great art in bricklaying is to preserve and main¬
tain a bond, to have every course perfectly horizontal,
both longitudmallyand transversely, and perfectly plumb;
which last, however, may not mean upright, though that
is the general acceptation of the term, for the plumb-rule
may be made to suit any inclination that it is wished the
wall may have, as inward against a bank, for instance, or
in a tapering tower; and also to make the vertical joints
recur perpendicularly over each other : this is vulgarly and
eclinically called keeping the perpends. By bond in brick¬
work is intended that arrangement which shall make the
bricks of every course cover the joints of those in the
course below it, and so tend to make the whole mass or
combination of bricks act as much together, or dependent-
y one upon another, as possible. The object of this will
pe understood by reference to the diagram, fig. 1. Here
vi.it is evident, from the arrangement of the bricks, that any
weigit placed on a would (supposing, as we are obliged
to suppose, that every brick feels equally, throughout its
ole length, a stress laid on any part of it) be carried
aown and borne alike in every course from b to c; in
ne same manner the brick d is upborne by every brick
m ie line ef, and so throughout the structure. But this
orms a ongitudinal bond only, which cannot extend its
influence beyond the width of the brick; and a wall of
ie brick and a half or two bricks thick, built in this man¬
ner, would, in effect, consist of three or four half-brick-thick
,a s’ aptlng independently of each other, as shown in the
P an at *, in the diagram, under fig. 1. If the bricks were
. n?ty<? a? to show their short sides or ends in front, in-
ead of their long ones, certainly a compact wall of a whole
■c in thickness would be produced; but the longitudinal
one would be shortened one-half, as at ^ c h, and a wall
any gi eater thickness, in the same manner, must be com-
posed of so many independent one-brick walls, as at k, in
o p an before referred to. To obviate this, to produce
ransverse, and yet preserve a good longitudinal, bond,
building.
.v . 665
the bricks are laid in alternate courses of headers and n -m-
stretchers, or of ends and sides, as shown in fig. 2, thus
combining the advantages of the two modes o/arranae-
ment a 6 e and g c h fig. \, \n a b c fig. 2. Each brfck
in fig. 2 showing its long side in front, or being a stretcher
will have another lying parallel to it, and on the same level’
on the other side, to receive the other ends of the bricks
showing as headers in front, which in their turn bind bv
breaking the joint between them, as shown in the end df
such a wall at d. Thus a well-bonded nine-inch or one
buck wall is produced. The end elevations of the same wall
at e and/ show how the process of bonding is pursued in
walls of one and a half and two bricks thick, the stretcher
2rbUtte,d mnh.e same COurse hy a header 5 thus, in a
oui teen-inch wall inverting the appearance on the oppo¬
site sides, as seen at <?, and producing the same appearance
in an eighteen-mch wall, as at/ In the diagram under
ng. 4, at g, is the plan of a fourteen-inch wall, showing the
headers on one side and the stretchers on the other, and at
AIS ! le Plan of the course immediately above it, in which
the headers and stretchers are inverted; at k and * are
shown, m the same manner, the plans of two courses of an
eighteen-inch wall. This is called English bond. Thicker
wa s are constructed in the same manner by the extension
ot the same principle.
. .But a bur,ick being exactly half its length in breadth, it
is impossible, commencing from a vertical end or angle, to
make a bond with whole bricks, as the joints must of neces¬
sity fall one over the other. This difficulty is obviated by
cutting a brick longitudinally into two, or transversely into
four, equal parts, making half headers. One of these is
placed next to a whole header, inward from the angle, and
forms with it a three-quarter length between the stretchers
above and below, thus making a regular overlap, which may
then be preserved throughout; these half headers are tech¬
nically termed closers. (See the joints in the heading
courses next the upright angle of the wall fig. 2, and the
first joints inwards from the square ends by the headers
in the plans at ^ and h.) A three-quarter stretcher is ob¬
viously as available for this purpose as a half header, but
the latter is preferred, because, by the use of it, uniformity
of appearance is preserved, and whole bricks are retained
on the quoins or angles. In walls of almost all thicknesses
above nine inches, to preserve the transverse, and yet not
destroy the longitudinal bond, it is frequently necessary
to use half bricks; but it becomes a question whether more
is not lost in the general firmness and consistence of the
wall by that necessity, than is gained in the uniformity of
the bond. It may certainly be taken as a general rule,
that a brick should never be cut if it can be worked in
whole, for a new joint is thereby created in a construc¬
tion, the difficulty of which consists in obviating the debi¬
lity arising from the constant recurrence of joints. Great
attention should be paid to this, especially in the quoins
of buildings, in which half bricks most readily occur ; and
there it is not only of consequence to have the greatest
degree of consistence, but the quarter bricks used as closers
are already admitted, and the weakness consequent on their
admission would only be increased by the use of other bats,
or fragments of bricks.
Another mode of bonding brick-work, which may be
supposed to have arisen from the appearance of the ends
of a wall according to the former mode of arrangement
(see e and/ fig. 2), instead of placing the bricks in alter¬
nate courses of headers and stretchers, places headers and
stretchers alternately in the same course, fig. 3. The plans
below this at c and d are of two courses of a fourteen-inch
wall, with their bond, showing in what manner the joints
are broken in the wall horizontally as well as verticallv on
its face. This is called Flemish bond. Closers are used
BUILDING.
666
Building, equally to English and Flemish bond, in the same manner,
and for the same purpose ; half bricks also will occur in
both, but what has been said with reference to the use of
them in the former applies even with more force to the
latter, for they are more frequent in Flemish than in Eng¬
lish, and its transverse tie is thereby rendered less strong.
Their occurrence is a disadvantage which every care should
be taken to obviate. The arrangement of the joints, how¬
ever, in Flemish bond, presenting a neater appearance than
that of English bond, it is generally preferred for external
walls when their outer faces are not to be covered with
stucco, or plaster composition of any kind; but English
bond should have the preference when the greatest degree
of strength and compactness is consideredof the highest im¬
portance, because it affords, as we have already noticed, a
better transverse tie than the other, and transverse tie is
even more important than longitudinal.
It has been attempted to improve the bond in thick
walls, by laying raking courses in the core between exter¬
nal stretching courses, and reversing the rake when the
course recurs. This obviates whatever necessity may exist
of using half bricks in the heading courses, but it leaves
triangular interstices to be filled up with bats, as the dia¬
gram fig. 4 shows. This represents the plan of a thirty-six
inch or three-brick wall with raking courses at a, between
external ranges of stretchers, and lyingon a complete course
of headers, and at a wall of the same thickness herring¬
boned; courses of headers would bed and cover this also,
and, in the second course above, the raking or herring-bon¬
ing would be repeated, but the direction of the bricks in¬
verted. It will be seen that the latter demands, in addi¬
tion to the triangular filling-in bats at the outer ends of the
diagonally placed bricks, half bricks to fill up the central
line of interstices, rendering herring-boning more objec¬
tionable in that particular, though it has some advantages
over simply raking, or thorough diagonal courses, in some
other points. Neither mode should, however, be recurred
to for walls of a less thickness than three bricks, and that
indeed is almost too thin to admit of any great advantage
from it.
Skilful and ingenious workmen are well aware of the
necessity of attending to the bond, and are ready both to
suggest and to receive and practise an improvement; but
generally the workmen themselves are both ignorant of its
importance and careless in preserving it, even according
to the common modes. Their work should therefore be
strictly supervised as they proceed with it; for many of
the failures which are constantly occurring may be refer¬
red to their ignorance or carelessness in this particular.
Not second in importance to bonding in brick-work is,
that it be perfectly plumb, or vertical, and that every
course be perfectly horizontal, or level, both longitudinal¬
ly and transversely. The lowest course in the footings of
a brick wall should be laid with the strictest attention to
this latter particular; for the bricks being of equal thick¬
ness throughout, the slightest irregularity or incorrectness
in that will be carried into the superimposing courses, and
can only be rectified by using a greater or less quantity of
mortar in one part or another, so that the wall will of course
yield unequally to the superincumbent weight, as the work
goes on, and perpetuate the infirmity. To save the trouble
of keeping the plumb-rule and level constantly in his hands,
and yet to insure correct work, the bricklayer, on clearing
the footings of a wall, builds up six or eight courses at the
external angles (see fig. 5), which he carefully plumbs
and levels across, and from one to the other. These form
a gauge for the intervening parts of the courses, a line
being tightly strained from one end to the other, resting
on the upper and outer angles of the gauge bricks of the
next course to be laid, as at a and b, fig. 5, and with this
he makes his work range. If, however, the length be great, Bui] !g,
the line will of course sag; to prevent which, it is carefully
set and propped at sufficient distances. Having carried
up three or four courses to a level, with the guidance of
the line, the work should be proved with the level and
plumb rule, and particularly with the latter at the returns
and reveals, as well as on the face : a smart tap with the i
end of the handle of the trowel will generally suffice to
make a brick yield what little it may be out, while the
work is so green, and not injure it. Good workmen, how¬
ever, take a pride in showing how correctly their work will
plumb without tapping. To work which is circular on the
plan, both the level and the plumb-rule must be used, to¬
gether with a gauge-mould or a ranging trammel, to every
course, as it must be evident that the line cannot be ap¬
plied to such in the manner just described. To every wall
of more than one brick thick, two men should be employ¬
ed at the same time, one outside and the other in: one
man cannot do justice from one side, even to a fourteen-
inch wall. Inferior workmen and apprentices are general¬
ly employed as inside men, though the work there is of
quite as great importance as exteriorly, except for neat¬
ness, and for that only if the brickwork is to show on the
outside.
In the operation of bricklaying, the workman holds the
trowel in his right hand, and with the left he takes up the
bricks from the scaffold, and lays them in their places.
Spooning or shovelling up mortar from the board with the
trowel, he throws it on the course last laid, and with the
point strews it over the surface to form a bed for that
which he is about to set; whatever bulges or projects oyer
the outer edge of the work below is struck off, and being
caught on the flat face of the trowel, is put against the
side or edge of the last brick laid in the new course. Then
taking up a brick, he presses it down in its place until its
upper and outer angle comes exactly to the line; and if
this be not readily effected by the hand, a slight drawing
blow with the obtuse point of the edge of the trowel does
it, or a tap with the end of the handle both draws it and
settles it down farther than the hand can press it. The
small quantity of mortar that is pressed out in front, by
this operation, being struck off, the joints are neatly drawn
by compressing the mortar with the point of the trowel,
and thus producing a fine smooth surface,—that is, if the
work is to be seen; for if it is to be plastered, the rough
face is left that the plastering may the more readily at¬
tach itself, and the joint is not drawn at all, but the work¬
man proceeds in the same manner with the next brick in
advance along the course, or to fill in behind the one he
has laid in front to meet the work of his mate on the other
side of the same wall. This is the common mode of laym
ing bricks. They should not however be merely laid}
every brick should be rubbed and pressed down in such a
manner as to force the slimy matter of the mortar into
the pores of the bricks, and so produce absolute adhesion.
Moreover, to make brick-work as good and perfect as it
may be, every brick should be made damp, or even wet,
before it is laid, otherwise it immediately absorbs the mois¬
ture of the mortar, and, its surface being covered with dry
dust, and its pores full of air, no adhesion can take place ,
but if the brick be damp, and the mortar moist, the us
is enveloped in the cementitious matter of the mortar, which
also enters the pores of the brick, so that when the water
evaporates, their attachment is complete, the retention
and access of air being thus altogether precluded. u
wet the bricks before they were carried on to the scatt0
would, by making them heavier, add materially to
labour of carrying : in dry weather they would, moreove >
become dry again before they could be used; and or
bricklayer to wet every brick himself would be an unnt
B U I L
jilding. cessary waste of his time : boys might therefore be ad
vantageously employed to dip the bricks on the scaffold*
and supply them in a damp state to the bricklayer’s hand’
A watering pot with a fine rose to it should also be used
to moisten the upper surface of the last laid course of
bricks, preparatory to strewing the mortar over it In
bricklaying with quick setting cements these things are
of even more importance; indeed, unless the bricks are
quite wet to be set with cement, it will not attach itself
to them at all.
ding.
667
As mortar is a more yielding material, used in brick-work
merely for the purpose of making the detached portions of
the staple adhere, by filling up their interstices and pro¬
ducing exhaustion, and the object being to produce as un¬
yielding and consistent a mass as possible, as much of it
should be used as is sufficient to produce the desired re¬
sult, and no more. No two bricks should be allowed to
touch, because of their inaptitude to adhere to each other •
and no space between them should be left unoccupied by
mortar which may produce adhesion. When the bricks are
a raction under two and a half inches thick, no four courses
of bricks and mortar, or brick-work, should exceed eleven
inches m height; and if they are fully that thickness, four
courses should not reach eleven and a half inches. The
result of thick beds of mortar between the bricks is, that
the mortar is pressed out after the joint is drawn, on the
outside, in front; and being made convex instead of slight¬
ly concave, the joints catch every drop of rain that may
trickle down the face of the wall, and are thus saturated ;
the moisture freezes, and in thawing bursts the mortar,
which crumbles away, and creates the necessity which is
constantly recnrrino- ^ 
wall.. The diagram shows the section of a
nine-inch wall, wdth the joints on the side a
as drawn, and on the side b as bulged, in con¬
sequence of the quantity of mortar in them
yielding to the weight above. This, too, is in
addition to the inconvenient settling, which
is the consequence of using too much mor¬
tar in the beds.
In practice, bricklayers lay the mortar on the course last
finished, and spread it over the surface with the trowel,
without considering, or caring for it, that they have put
no mortar between the bricks of that course, except in
the external edges of the outside joints ; that the mortar
is not, or ought not to be, so thin as to fall into the joints
by its own weight; and that unless they press it down, half
tie leight of the space between the bricks remains in
every case unoccupied, and the wall is consequently hol-
ow, incompact, and necessarily imperfect. To obviate
this, it is common to have thick walls grouted in every
course ; that is, mortar made liquid, and called grout, is
poured on to, and spread over the surface of the work,
that it may run in and fill up the joints completely. This,
at the best, is but doing with grout what should be done
yiti mortar; and the difference between the two consist¬
ing merely in the difference in the quantity of water they
contain, mortar must be considered the best; for the ten-
ency of grout is, by hydrostatic pressure, to burst the
wall in which it is employed; and, moreover, it must, by
taking a much longer time to dry and shrink than the mor¬
tar of the beds and external joints, make and keep the
w I? . mass unstable, and tend to injure rather than be¬
nefit it. Pilling or flushing up every course with mortar
is therefore far preferable, and may be done with very
ittle additional exertion on the part of the workmen.
It is a very common thing for two sorts of mortar to be
used in the same wall, a finer and whiter for the outside,
and a coarser for the inside work; the former made of
c eaner and finer sand, and a greater quantity of lime, than
the latter, with the intention of exposing a better lookino- r?,,'! v
and more durable material to the Rewind t^weathe^ ^3
it rn Sah d’ Wei T0 a ready shown’ °%rht to be as clean as
it can be made or mortar under all circumstances ; there-
fore there should be no possibility of making a difference
of and the additi0n °f a greater quantity
ot lime than is necessary to make good mortar makes it
ess durable, and occasions a sacrifice in an important qua¬
lity tor the sake of an unimportant advantage. Moreover
the mortar which contains the greater quantity of lime
will yield or settle more than that which has the greater
proportion of sand.
All the walls of a building that are to sustain the same
floors and the same roof should be carried on simultane¬
ously ; under no circumstances should more be done in one
part than can be reached from the same scaffold, until all
the walls are brought up to the same height, and the ends
of the part first built should be racked back, as at a b, fio-.
and not carried up vertically with merely the toothing
necessary for the bond, as at a b, fig. 3.
Brick-work should never be carried on in frosty weather
nor even when it is likely that frost will occur before the walls
can be covered in and become so dry as not to be affected
hy trost. Covering an unfinished wall with a thick layer
of straw, when frost may supervene, is a very useful pre¬
caution ; on the straw, weather boarding should be laid, to
prevent access of moisture from rain or snow. Merely wet
weather may be guarded against by following the directions
given above as to flushing every course of the work well
up with mortar, so that no interstices be left into which
water may insinuate itself, and by covering the walls with
boards to act as a coping when the men are not actually
at work on them ; the joints in the face of a wall that is
not to be plastered in any way should be protected in this
manner with great care.
In ordinary practice the bricklayer’s scaffolds are carried
up with the walls, and are made to rest on them. Having
built up the walls as high as he can conveniently from the
ground, and from a scaffold on trestles perhaps, he plants a
row of poles, which vary in height from thirty to forty and
even fifty feet, parallel to and at a distance of about four
feet six inches from the walls, and from twelve to fourteen
feet apart. To these, which are called standards, are attach¬
ed by means of ropes other poles called ledgers, horizontal¬
ly and on the inside, with their upper surface on a level with
the highest course of the wall yet laid; and on the ledgers
and wall short transverse poles called putlogs or putlocks
are laid as joists to carry the floor of scaffold boards. These
putlocks are placed about six or seven feet apart, accord¬
ing to the length and strength of the scaffold boards ; and
the ends which rest on the walls are carefully laid on the
middle of a stretcher, so as to occupy the place of a head¬
er brick, which is inserted when the scaffolds are struck
after the work is finished. On the floor of the scaffold
thus formed the bricklayer stands, and the materials are
brought to him by labourers, in hods, from the ground
below, or they are hoisted up in baskets and buckets by
means of a pulley wheel and fall. The mortar is placed on
ledged boards of about three feet square, placed at conve¬
nient distances along the scaffold; and the bricks are strewn
on the scaffold between the mortar boards, leaving a clear
way against the wall for the workmen to move along unob-
structedly. The workman then recommences the operation
of bricklaying, beginning at the extreme left of his course,
and advancing to the right until he reaches the angle or
quoin in that direction, or the place where his fellow-work¬
man on the same side may have begun. Thus he goes on
with course after course until the wall is as high as he can
conveniently reach from that scaffold, when another ledger
is tied to the poles, another row of putlocks laid, and the
668
BUILDING.
Building, boards are removed up to the new level. The ledger and
most of the putlocks, however, remain to give steadiness
to the temporary structure, and so on to the full height
of the wall, piecing out the poles by additional lengths as
may be required. If a scaffold be very much exposed, and
run to a great height, it must be braced. This is done by
tying poles diagonally across on the outside to the stan¬
dards and ledgers, and it may be further secured by tying
the ends of some of the putlocks to the ledgers; but an out¬
side scaffold should never be attached in any way to the
building about which it stands. A scaffold should never
be loaded heavily, as well on account of the work as of the
scaffold itself; for the putlocks resting, as they do, on single
bricks, in a green wall, they exert an injurious influence
on it, which every additional pound weight on the scaffold
must necessarily increase. A constant and steady supply
of bricks and mortar on the part of the labourers, without
overloading the scaffold at any one time, should be strictly
required. It would indeed be an advantage if every scaf¬
fold were made with a double row of poles and ledgers,
one being on the inside, within a few inches of the wall.
This would obviate the necessity of resting the putlocks
on the walls, and do away with putlock holes; but the
inner row of poles would be constantly in the way of the
bricklayer, who could not either set the bricks or draw
the joints so well as if he were unobstructed. Access is
given to scaffolds by ladders, and by inclined planes ; the
former are more commonly used externally, and the latter
internally.
Arches in brick-work are plain, rough, cut, or gauged.
Plain arches are built of uncut bricks, and the bricks being
parallelopipedons, an arch built of them must be made out
with mortar ; that is, the difference between the outer and
inner periphery of the arch requiring the parts of which an
arch is made up to be wedge-formed, as at a,
which the brick is not, the
difference must be made
in mortar, as at b, so that
the inner or lower angles of bricks used for
this purpose should absolutely touch, and the mortar should
be more consistent than that used in ordinary walling; nor
should the centre on which an arch of this kind is set or
built be struck or removed until the work is absolutely dry,
or rather all such arches should be set in cement which
will dry immediately. In consequence of this inherent
defect in uncut-brick arches, in extensive continuous works,
such as sewers, tunnels, vaults, &c. it is advisable to make
them in thin independent rings of half-brick or one brick
thick, as the case may be ; that is, a nine-inch arch should
be in two half-brick arches, as at a, fig. 6, and an eigh¬
teen-inch arch in two one-bricks, as at b, each arch in the
latter case being bonded in itself as in a common nine-inch
wall with headers and stretchers. It is evident that, by
this mode of structure, a greater quantity of the solid ma¬
terial comes into the back or outer ring or arch than into
the lowrer one; and it they had been bonded together into
one arch, as at c, all that difference must have been made
up with mortar. Moreover, whatever pressure comes on
the outer ring is carried by it directly to the inner or
lower, from whose joints, however, the mortar cannot es¬
cape or be pressed out, the inner angles of the bricks, by
meeting, preventing it below, and the bricks themselves
of the upper arch, which conveys the pressure, are them¬
selves opposed to the back of the same joints, so that its
power of resistance is made equal to that of the bricks them¬
selves, except at the ends; which, in such works as we have
supposed, are remote, and may be protected by the use of
cement in their joints, whilst mortar is used in the rest.
Rough arches are those in which the bricks are roughly
cut with an axe to a wedge form, and are used over open¬
ings, such as doors and windows, when the work is to be Build,
plastered on the outside, or in plain back fronts, out- ''"'"yP
houses, garden-walls, &c. when, however, they are neatly
pointed with what is called a tuck or tucked joint. Semi¬
circular and elliptical arches are generally made plain, or
without cutting the bricks; but arches composed of a small¬
er segment of a circle (vulgarly and technically called
scheme arches), if not gauged, are cut or axed. Very flat
arches are technically distinguished from the quicker seg¬
ment, or scheme, by the term camber, from the French
w ord cambrer, to round like an arch. It is arches of this
kind which are generally employed over windows and doors
in external work, and they too are either cut or gauged.
Gauged arches are composed of bricks which are cut
and rubbed to gauges and moulds, so as to form perfectly
fitting parts, as in masonry. Gauging is equally applica¬
ble to arches and to walling, as it means no more than the
bringing every brick exactly to ,a certain form, by cutting
and rubbing, or grinding it to a certain gauge or measure,
so that it will exactly fit into its place, as in the finer works
of masonry. Gauged brick-work is set in a putty instead
of common mortar, but it is seldom used except for arches
in the fronts of houses, &c. which are to be neatly finished.
These are for the most part straight, and are generally from
eleven to twelve inches in depth, or the height of four courses
of brick-work. Their value as arches will be best understood
by reference to the diagram, fig. 7, by which it appears
that all the material between the soffit of the straight arch
or head of the opening b c, and the dotted line b f c, is
useless, the intrados or soffit of the really efficient part of
the arch being at that dotted line itself. This is the arc
of an angle of 60°; its chord, the width of the opening,
being the base of an equilateral triangle constructed on it,
and the joints are the radii of a circle whose centre is at
a. b d and c e, the continuations of the sides of the
triangle or radii a b and a c, are technically termed the
skew-back of the arch. Sometimes the arc is made that
of a more acute angle, in which case the skew-back is less,
that is, the external angles c b d, and bee, are less ob¬
tuse ; a smaller inavailable portion of the arch is thus left
between the arc and its chord, but that portion is less
securely retained under the flatter segment, because the
joints or radii diverge less, or are more nearly parallel.
These gauged arches being, as they for the most part are,
but a half brick in thickness, and not being tied by a bond
to anything behind them—for indeed almost the whole, if
not the whole, of their height, is occupied behind by the
reveal and the wooden lintel—require to be executed with
great care and nicety. It is a common fault with workmen
to rub the bricks thinner behind than before, to insure a very
fine joint in front, which must tend to make itbowoutwards:
it should rather be inverted, if it be done at all, though the
best work is that in which the bricks are gauged to a per¬
fect parallel in their lateral thickness. Fig. 8 is a trans¬
verse section of fig. 7, and the gauged arch, lintel, &c. in
it showing the total disconnection of the gauged arch with
any surrounding brick-work to which it might be bonded.
The absurdity of constructing arches circular on the plan,
especially in a thin unbonded shell of bricks, is so clear
as hardly to require notice.
Gauged facing to a wall is exceedingly objectionable, un¬
less the bricks used for the gauged work be originally a
little larger than those which are to be worked in behind,
whose size should be their gauge, otherwise no bond can
be kept between the bulk of the wall and its face ; and the
same mortar or putty should be used throughout, of equal
consistence, and with joints of equal thickness, or the work
cannot be sound and compact.
Everything relating to the construction of niches, groins,
domes, &c. may be referred to the articles Arch, Bridge,
uilding. and Stone-Masonry ; the difference between stone and
brick, as far as the principle is concerned, being only in
the comparative magnitude of the parts ; for to make per¬
fect arches, &c. it is clear that the bricks must be cut to
the same forms that are required in stone.
It is generally held that nothing but its own components
should be admitted into a brick wall, except what is abso¬
lutely necessary for its connection with the other parts of
a building, such as wall-plates and wood-bricks (and that
these should be avoided as much as possible), templates,
lintels, &c. Wall-plates are required to receive the ends
of the joists, and distribute the weight of the floor to which
they belong equally along the walls. If the joists tailed
singly on the naked bricks, their thin edges would crush
those immediately under them, and the rest of the brick¬
work would escape immediate pressure altogether. Wall-
plates may be superseded by the use of templates; but this
involves the necessity of framed floors, which are carried
by a few large beams, under whose ends stout pieces of
timber three or four feet in length are placed. These are
intended, like a wall-plate, to distribute the weight over a
considerable part of the wall, and prevent the necessity of
placing the beam on the naked friable bricks, and are call¬
ed templates. Lintels are used over square-headed win¬
dows and doors, instead of arches in brick-work. They are
useful to preserve the square form and receive the joiner’s
fittings, but they should always have discharging arches
over them, and should not tail into the wall at either end
more than a few inches, that the discharging arch be not
wider than is absolutely necessary. If, however, discharg¬
ing arches be not turned over them, the lintels should tail
in at each end considerably, and have small templates or
wood bricks placed transversely under them, as shown in
the diagram, fig. 9. This indicates the elevation of the
inside of part of an external wall with a window in it, and
shows the lintel over the latter, with a discharging arch
over it, and wood bricks under its ends, on the jambs of
the opening. Discharging arches should be turned over the
ends of beams, and templates also, as in fig. 10. They may
generally be quadrants of a circle, or even flatter, and
should be turned in two or more half bricks over doors
and windows, and other wide openings, but over the ends
of beams they need not be in more than one half brick.
. Wood bricks are used to prevent the necessity of driv-
mg wedges into the joints of brick-work to nail the joiner’s
work to. They are pieces of timber generally cut to the
size and shape of a brick, and worked in as bricks in the
inner face of a wall, where it is known the joiners have
occasion for something of the kind. This is principally in
the jambs of the windows and doors for their fittings, and
along the walls, at proper heights, for the skirtings or wains-
cotting, as the case may be.
The use of bond timber in brick walls is objectionable,
because of its liability to shrink and swell, to decay, and
to be consumed by fire, in any of which cases the struc-
^re/° ^ belongs is either injured, endangered, or
absolutely destroyed. It is, however, valuable to tie the
angles of walls, and to distribute the various weights equal-
y throughout the walls, thus tending to prevent irre¬
gular settlements, whether arising from any defect in a
oundation, or from an extraordinary imposition of weight
m any particular part. The objections to bond timber de¬
pend on contingencies against which it may be in a great
egree protected by care and judicious management. If
e timber be of a durable sort, sound and well seasoned,
neither shrinking nor swelling need be feared if it be not
P aced in a damp situation, or where moisture can gain
access to it; nor will it decay if it be entirely incased in
any thing, to the total exclusion of the external atmosphere,
timber be laid in the heart of a wall, it should be well
building.
669
bedded in, and flushed round and over with mortar, as Building.
we have shown that bricks should be for other reasons ;  T-
and if it be laid in the face of a wall, it should be only
where its exposed face can be effectually protected from
access of moisture, as when it is covered by the plasterer
Damage by fire is a remote contingency; and as it may be
confidently asserted that bond timber was never the part
ot a structure in which a fire commenced, except perhaps
trom some gross misplacement of it, it is moreover the last
combustible part that a fire could reach, and therefore
when it is arrived at, almost all the damage that can be
done has already accrued. Bond timber certainly may
be, and constantly is, exposed to all the cited contingen¬
cies ; but they generally arise from circumstances which it
may be in a greater or less degree protected from. Flat
wrought-iron bars have been recommended as ties in lieu
of bond timber ; but besides the equal liability of that
metal to decay if it be exposed to damp or to a confined
atmosphere, bars of it cannot be properly worked up or
combined with brick-work; and its susceptibility of changes
of temperature renders it far more unfit than timber to
be compounded with materials whose greatest merits are
firmness, and an inaptitude to change under any circum¬
stances. The frangibility of cast iron makes it also exceed¬
ingly objectionable as a bond or tie in brick walls.
It will be generally found that a brick wall built with
mortar and faced with ashlar has settled inward to a
greater or less extent, as the work has been more or less
carefully performed. Indeed in the nature of things it
cannot be otherwise, unless the brick backing be worked
m some cement which sets and hardens at once; for the
outer face is composed of a layer of unyielding material,
with few and very thin joints, which perhaps do not oc¬
cupy a fiftieth part of its extent, while the back is built
up of an infinity of small parts, with fully one eighth its
height of joints, which are composed of material that
must both yield to pressure and shrink in drying. Some
part of the ill effect attendant on this is obviated by the
bond-stones, which tail in or run through the wall, and
tend to keep the discordant materials together; but still
much of it remains ; and besides this, the internal or cross
walls, which have no stone in them, will either settle down
and shrink away from the external walls, or drag them in¬
ward, as they happen to be well or ill bonded or tied.
For these reasons, brick-work built in this manner with
masonry should be executed with exceedingly well-tem¬
pered mortar, made with no more lime than is absolutely
necessary to cement the particles of sand together, and
the sand again to the bricks, worked as stiff as it can be,
and laid in as thin courses as may be to answer the pur¬
pose required of it. Above all, work of this kind must not
be hurried, but allowed time to dry and shrink as it goes on.
Discharging arches over vacuities having been disposed
of incidentally, we have now only to speak of them under
openings, in which situation their use is to distribute the
superincumbent weight equally over the substructure, or
along the foundation, as the case may be. For this pur¬
pose the arch is inverted, as shown in the diagram, fig. p, ^
14, and by means of it the weight brought down by thecxxxvil.
piers is carried along the footings, which are thus equal- ’
ly borne upon throughout their whole length. Arches
of two half bricks are indicated here, that being suffi¬
cient for ordinary purposes, and to develope the principle;
in large and heavy works, arches of three half bricks, and
even greater, may be judged necessary. Any arc be¬
tween a quadrant and a semicircle may be used with ad¬
vantage ; but an arc of less than 45° cannot be recommend¬
ed for the inverted discharging arch under piers. If it
should so happen that an old well or cess-pool, that cannot
without great inconvenience and expense be filled up with
670 B U I L
Building, sound walling, or in some other efficient manner, or other
S^~Y^ irremediably bad place, occur in a foundation, a,nd fall un¬
der a pier, the ground being sound on either side of it, a
second discharging arch may be formed under the pier
and over the unsound part, resting its legs on, or springing
from, the inverted arch under the opening, and on the
sound ground, as indicated by the dotted arch in the last
quoted diagram, fig. 14.
Not the least important part of the bricklayer’s art is
the formation of chimney and other flues. Great tact is
required in gathering over properly above the fire-place,
so as to conduct the smoke into the smaller flue, which
itself requires to be built with great care and precision,
that it be not of various capacity in different parts, in
one place contracted to a narrow strait, and in another
more widely expanded, and so on. With the present im¬
perfect means of cleaning chimney flues, it is absolutely
necessary that they be of a certain magnitude, which should
be carefully maintained throughout; but it would be bet¬
ter that they were made oval, or wdth the angles taken off
at least, than parallelograms in plan, as the practice is.
Chimney flues ax*e plastered or pargetted with a mortar in
which a certain proportion of cow-dung is mixed, which
prevents it from cracking and peeling off with the heat to
which it is exposed. Experiment has proved that a taper¬
ing and nearly cylindrical flue of much smaller bore than
is now required is the best for carrying away smoke ; and
with a more humane and more efficient mode of cleaning,
such a one would be unexceptionable. Of course, too, the
bore should be regulated by the size of the fire-place, or
rather by the quantity of smoke to which it is required to
give vent.
Sewers and drains which are not cylindrical should be
built with concave bottoms, although the sides be parallel
and the covering horizontal. The concave channel keeps
the stream more together, and enables it the better to carry
its impurities along with it; whereas a flat-bottomed drain
offers a large surface for the particles of soil to attach
themselves to, and the stream of water, being more scat¬
tered, is less efficient in force. All drains in houses and
in other places where it may be necessary to open them
at any time, should be of the form of which a, fig. 11, is a
section, with a flat covering of stone paving, or large,
strong, paving tiles, set and jointed with cement. Gun-
barrel drains, as at b, are the best in exposed situations,
because they are the strongest; but as there is no mode
of cleaning but by breaking them up, if they are too
long to be raked, they should not be employed except
with a considerable fall, and a frequent or constant stream
of water through them, as from a pump-trough, rain-wa¬
ter trunks, &c. They are constructed on a barrelled
centre, which the bricklayer drags on as he advances
with his work, finishing as he goes. Large sewers, which
are accessible from the ends by men to clear or remove
any accidental obstructions, are best circular or ellipti¬
cal ; the latter of the two is generally preferred, be¬
cause, in proportion to its capacity, its height is greater;
but most frequently the sides of large sewers are made
vertical and parallel, with a flat, inverted arch below,
and a semicircular head, as at c. This form, however, it
is evident, is disqualified to resist lateral pressure to any
extent; nor indeed is the circular or elliptical sewer secure
in its arched form, unless the weight above is sufficient
to counteract any force the sides may be subjected to.
No drain should have an inclination or fall of less than
one quarter of an inch to a foot; and where the stream
is infrequent and dull, as much more would be a great
advantage. In building drains it is of great importance
that proper traps should be constructed to prevent the
return of smells and the passage of vermin. At every
DING.
sink there should be a bell-trap, and a well-trap within Buii ]g,
that, or near the hither end of the drain. Suppose a
drain of the form of that shown at a, fig. 11, nine inches
wide and nine inches deep, leading from a kitchen or
scullery to the common sewer of the house, in which it
meets that which comes from the water-closet and other
places. The bell-trap in the sink itself will prevent the
return of smell when it is constantly in use, but it is
liable to be broken and otherwise injured by the ignorance
and impatience of servants and others, or it may become
dry by evaporation in some situations; it is therefore ne¬
cessary to have a trap not so liable to contingencies. Let
a well be made eighteen inches or two feet in diameter,
square or round, and two feet six inches or three feet
deep, across and below the level of the drain, as shown in
the plan, fig. 12, and longitudinal section of the same,
fig. 13 ; it must be built around with brick, in cement, and
be plastered on the inside with the same material, which
will make it capable of retaining fluids. Uprightly across
this well, and in the transverse direction of the drain,
must be placed a sound piece of paving stone, so long that
its ends may be inserted in the sides of the well, as shown
in fig. 12, and so wide that its upper edge shall touch the
covering of the drain, and that its lower may reach six or
nine inches down into the well below the bottom of the
drain. Mortar or cement must prevent the passage of
air between the upper edge of this trap-stone and the
cover of the well and drain, and the trap is complete.
The water coming from the sink flows along the drain
from a to b (fig. 13), where it falls into the well, and fill¬
ing it up to that level, it flows on again from c in the di¬
rection of d, to the cess-pool or common sewer, from
which, however, no smell can return; for the trap-stone
e, the lower half of which is thus immersed in water, com¬
pletely bars the passage. It is evident, however, that if
the well should leak, the water in it may fall below the
lower edge of the stone, and the efficiency of the trap be
destroyed ; but if it be made perfect in the first instance,
there can be no danger of any inconvenience that a bucket
of water thrown in at the sink will not cure. It is from the
drying up of the water in these well-traps (vulgarly call¬
ed stink-traps) that uninhabited houses are so frequently
offensive. It must be clear, moreover, that these traps
form an effectual bar to vermin, and they may there¬
fore be advantageously placed at the entrance of water-
closet drains, to prevent rats from getting at the soil-
pipes, which they will gnaw and destroy if they can get
access to them. Internal drains, or those which go through
a house, should always pass under the doorways if pos¬
sible, and above the inverted arch, which should be al¬
ways found under them, in external walls at least. If,
however, circumstances should render it absolutely ne¬
cessary to take a drain through a wall, an arched ring or
bull’s eye should be made for it to pass by.
Cess-pools should be made cylindrical, and be bricked
round; but whether they are made to retain fluids or not,
can seldom be a matter of consequence, as they are ge¬
nerally put in secluded places, where, if the object be not
to get rid of the waste, there is seldom, at least, any de¬
sire to retain it. In towns and cities where the common
sewerage is as complete as it should be, and water-closets
are used instead of privies, cess-pools are unnecessary, as
the soil becomes so much diluted by the water that goes
down with it, that it flows readily enough through the
private drains to the common sewer, and so on with the
rest, to the common receptacle. Sometimes, indeed, it
may be found necessary to clean out the well-traps, but
this cannot often occur.
The construction of ovens and furnaces, and well-steen-
ing, are certainly within the range of the bricklayer s art,
uilding. but as they are not immediately connected with our present
subject, they do not come within the scope of this article.
Brick and tile paving is performed by the bricklayer*
Brick paving is either flat, or on edge, in sand, or in mor-
tar or cement. Brick flat paving in sand, that is, with
the bricks laid on their broadest surfaces, and bedded in
and on dry sand is very slight and fragile, and brick flat
paving set and bedded in mortar is very little better-
for if the soil, on which the paving is laid be light and
sandy, the bricks are easily displaced by being pressed
unequally; and if it be clayey it will probably be moist
and the thin porous brick absorbing the moisture, will Ge¬
nerally become saturated, and present a damp, unwhole¬
some floor. Paving with bricks on their edges, how¬
ever, forms a much better floor, and is preferable to a
stone paving, if the latter be laid on the ground without
the intervention of footings. Brick-on-edge paving in
sand is generally used in beer cellars, pantries, dairies
stables, &c. as its numerous open joints allow wasted or
discharged fluids readily to escape; and it is both cool
and dry under ordinary circumstances. In mortar or ce¬
ment, bricks on their edges form a sound, dry floor; the
smallness of the surface exposed by each brick in' this
manner leaves them of course less susceptible of partial
pressures, and the depth from the soil to the surface is
such that damp rarely shows through. The paving brick
differs from the common brick only in thickness, "its di¬
mension in that direction being rather less than two inches
instead of two inches and a half, and in beino- rather
harder and more compact. Dutch clinkers are paving-
bncks, smaller and much harder than the English ; they
are six inches long, three inches wide, and one inch and
a halt thick, and are always set on edge and herrino-.
boned ; that is, instead of being placed in parallel lines, they
are set at right angles to each other
thus,—with nevertheless a perfectly
even face. Paving tiles are made
nine inches and a half and eleven
inches and a half square, though they - v v
are called ten inch and twelve inch or foot tiles respec-
tively the former being one inch, and the latter one inch
and a half thick; they are set in courses, as stone paving
would be. Paving tiles make a neater, but not so sound
and durable a pavement, as brick on edge.
Tiling being much less in vogue than formerly, in con¬
sequence of the better appreciation of the superior quali¬
ties of slate for covering roofs, and the moderate cost at
which slates are now furnished to the builder, it no longer
Maintains its separate artificer, but is performed, when it
is required, by the bricklayer. It consists, for the most
part, of two sorts—plain tiling and pan tiling. Plain tiles
are simple parallelograms, generally about ten inches and
^ if u-ni en£>^’ s*x ^nches wide, and five eighths of an
me thick; and each tile has a hole pierced through it
near one end, to receive the wooden pin by which it is
t)?0i i °n lath. The tiles are laid in mortar on
e aths, which in this country are of oak or fir, with an
over ap of six, seven, or eight inches. The greatest overlap
or smallest gauge makes the securest work, though it does
no present so good an appearance externally as a longer
gpU?.e does; and it requires, moreover, a greater number
o tiles and laths, thereby adding materially both to the
weight and the cost. The great overlap and the mortar are
ot i necessary, nevertheless, to prevent the rain and snow
rom driving in between and under the tiles. Plain tiling
requires the pitch of the roof to be at an angle of at least
th ’ ai? .ls.one id16 heaviest coverings that can be used,
ough it is at the same time one of the warmest. The
jes, however, readily and rapidly absorb moisture, which
ey communicate to the laths and rafters under them, to
building.
671
the serious injury of both the latter; and the mortar in BuildW
which they are set requires to be frequently pointed, the
constant atmospheric changes to which it is exposed occa¬
sioning it to crumble and fall away in a very short time
. f,an V.es are parallelograms of irregular surface, straight
llah^r^0' thfir le,n£th’ Which is thirteen inches
and a half, but twisted to this form in the trans¬
verse section. Measuring the whole surface across, a tile
is nine inches wide, but in a right line from point to point
not more than seven, and its thickness is half an inedi; a
small tongue or lip is bent down at one end, from its flat¬
ter convexity on the under side, to hook it on to the lath
>y, instead of a wooden pin through it, as in a plain tile.
1 an tiles are set dry or in mortar, on laths. They are not
a d side by side, but overlapping laterally, thus; conse¬
quently all the overlap they have lon¬
gitudinally is three orfour inches only,
or enough to prevent rain and snow
from driving up under the upper, over
the end of the lower tile ; and thence
Pan tiling is but little more than half
the weight of plain tiling. It is never- —    —
liohieSf a,mu.ch les® farm covering for houses, and is more
able to be inj ured by violent gales or gusts of wind, than
the latter is; but again, it presents a far more pleasing ap¬
pearance to the eye. Pan tiling will not bear a much flatter
pitch than the other, but it is greatly improved by beinP-
pointed on the inside with lime and hair; sometimes indeed
the whole of the work is, as we have said, set in mortar;
but this mode has disadvantages to which pointing inter¬
nally is not liable, and its superiority in other respects is
questionable. Io both pan and plain tiling there is a
large concave tile used to cover the hips and ridges of a
root. 1 hese are not generally made to overlap each other
in any situation, but are set in mortar, and fastened with
nails and hooks fitted for the purpose.
When the top of a brick wall is not protected by a
roof, it must be covered or coped in some manner, or it
wi soon be destroyed by the weather. Sometimes this
is done by means of a course of bricks set across it on
then edges in cement, and called a barge course, but it
is a very imperfect covering, for water will trickle down
the face of the wall on both sides, as the coping brick
can be no longer than the thinnest wall is in thickness.
I wo double courses of plain tiles maybe put side by side
under the barge course, making a projection over either
face of about one inch and a half; thus, 
Section. Elevation.
This is much better than the barge course alone: but still
the covering possesses no inclination outwards to throw the
water off; the upper surfaces are all horizontal. The same
objection exists to foot-paving tiles, which are also used as
a coping; but none of these methods is available for any
wall above nine inches in thickness. Stone coping, there¬
fore, which may be made of sufficient width, and be both
weathered and throated, is much to be preferred.
One of the greatest faults in the modern practice of
building, both architecturally as a matter of taste, and
practically as a matter of prudence, is, that these copings,
and cornices which serve as such, do not project suffi¬
ciently to protect the face of the wall on which they may
be placed, from the weather. A bold, massive, and well-
projected cornice on a wall serves as a roof or pent-house
to it, and, besides imparting great beauty to the plainest
structure, protects the wall from the premature decay of
672
BUILDING.
Building, its upper part especially, and of the joints generally, if it
be unplastered brick-work, which thereby calls for the con¬
stant repetition of pointing. Effective and pleasing cor¬
nices and blocking courses may be formed with uncut
bricks alone; and these, set in cement, would, with judi¬
cious management, add materially both to the appearance
and durability of brick-work, without the foreign aid of
the plasterer or mason.
From the injury which accrues to the joints of brick¬
work through bad management in its execution, and im¬
perfect protection when executed, arises the necessity so
frequent at the present day of pointing.
Sometimes frost will have supervened before the sur¬
faces of the joints in a wall are dry; consequently the
mortar bursts and peels away, and the whole then re¬
quires to be pointed. Preparatory to this operation the
scaffold, if it has been struck, must be re-erected, the
mortar raked out of the joints to a depth of about three
eighths of an inch, or deeper if the injury have reached
further;—this can be done by a labourer;—a brick-layer
then goes over the whole with a hard hair-brush and wa¬
ter to cleanse and moisten the joints ; and then, with mor¬
tar prepared for the purpose, he carefully fills them all up,
and neatly draws them with his trowel. This mortar
must be of the best quality; it is generally compounded
with a certain proportion of forge ashes, which gives it a
blue tinge, and greatly aids its power of resisting the ac¬
tion of the weather. Cement is sometimes used instead
of this blue mortar. If the wall to be pointed be a front
or other important one, in which peculiar neatness is re¬
quired, every joint is marked with a narrow parallel ridge
of a fine white putty, in the composition of which bone
lime forms a principal ingredient. The former is called
flat-joint, and the latter tuck-pointing. If it be an old wall
that requires pointing, a scaffold must be erected before
it; and where the putlocks cannot be rested on window
sills and the like, half bricks are generally drawn from
the wall to make rests for them, and restored again when
the work is done. The former process is then gone through
with a common wall; but if it require tuck-pointing, the
whole surface is well washed, and then coloured, to look
like new, before the pointing is done. The gauged arches
over the windows and doors are always coloured, and the
joints drawn with peculiar neatness. If in the original
building of the wall the perpends have not been preserv¬
ed, that is, if the vertical joints have not been made to fall
perpendicularly in the alternately recurring courses, the
workman in pointing stops up the old joints, which are ir¬
regular, with putty of a brick colour, and forms false new
ones in the proper places.
The tools and implements mostly employed by the
bricklayer are the trowel, the plumb-rule, the level, the
square, the bevel, line-pins and lines, the raker, and the
hammer, together with a hod and spade for his labourer.
Besides these there are sundry others used in cutting and
gauging bricks, and some which are peculiar to tiling and
paving; but the most material operations can be performed
with those enumerated here. A pug-mill and screens for
mixing and tempering mortar are also auxiliaries of great
importance.
Brick-work is valued by the rod. A rod of brick-work is
a quantity whose superficies is 272£ feet (taken in practice
at the round number 272 without the fraction), and thick¬
ness one brick and a half. Reckoning the one brick and
a half at thirteen inches and a half,—its average extent,—
the cubic foot is to the reduced superficial foot as eight
to nine, so that a cubic rod of brick-work consists of 306
feet, the result of 272 multiplied by nine and divided by
eight. The reduced superficial rod, however, is that com¬
monly used in practice; and the process of measuring, to
ascertain the quantities and bring them to a standard, is Buill
as follows:—
The exact superficies of so much of a wall as may be
of the same thickness is taken, and the number of bricks
it is in thickness placed marginally; all the different por¬
tions or parts being of the same thickness are taken in like
manner, and then deductions, as of window openings and
doorways, are taken as such, in superficies, with their re¬
spective thicknesses placed marginally also. The dimen¬
sions, on being squared, are abstracted in half bricks, the
deductions made of like thicknesses from like thicknesses,
and the whole reduced by multiplying each quantity by
the number of half bricks in the thickness of the parts of
the wall which the margin expresses, and dividing the
product by three (the number of half bricks in one brick
and a half, the standard), the reduced quantity which re¬
sults, divided again by 272, the number of feet in a rod,
gives the quantity of rods and feet in the wall; as, for ex¬
ample,—The front wall of a house is thirty-five feet in length
on the ground floor. (Fig. 14.) It has a basement story
twelve feet high from the top of the footings to the level of
the ground floor, and two and a half bricks thick, which is
a half brick more than the wall above. The footings are
three spreading courses high, each course a half brick thicker
than the one above it. In the basement wall there are a
door and two windows, the former seven feet by three feet
six inches between the reveals, and the latter five feet by
three feet nine inches between the reveals also. The mea¬
surement of thus much will show how all the rest must be
done.
The footings consisting of three equally spreading
courses, the extent of the middle one both in length and
breadth will be an average of them all, so that they may
be taken in one height. To the length of the ground
floor, thirty-five feet, must be added twice three sets-off
of one fourth of a brick at each end of the basement, and
of the two first courses of footings for the length of the
second of them; this is equal to three half bricks, or thir¬
teen and a half inches, which, added to thirty-five feet,
makes thirty-six feet one and a half inch the dimension
of length for the footings, by nine inches, their height;
their average thickness, to
be placed in the margin, is
three and a half bricks, the
highest course being three
bricks, the second three and
a half, and the third or low¬
est four bricks. That is the
first quantity. The next is of
the wall above. The length
(one half brick, for the two
sets-off, added to thirty-five
feet, gives) thirty-five feet
four and a half inches, by the
height twelve feet, two and
a half bricks thick. The de¬
ductions are seven feet by
three feet six inches in one
brick for the door, between
the reveals, and seven feet
four and a half inches by four
feet three inches in one and
a half brick behind the re¬
teals, the rest of the thick¬
ness of the wall, an addition
of one half brick being made
to the height, and of two half
bricks to the width, because of the reveals. The windows
are taken in exactly the same manner, with the same ad i*
tions; but as the two are of the same size, their number
36 \b
f 9
35 4A
■ 12 0
7 0
3 6
7 4}
4 3
5 0
3 9
5 4A
4 6
27 1 Footings.
424 6
24 6
31 4
37 6
Basement wall
from the top of
footings to the
level of ground
floor.
Deduct for door
between the re¬
veals.
Do. behind the
reveals.
Do. for the win¬
dows between
the reveals.
48 Do- behind the
reveals.
Abstract of the above Quantities.
$ brick. Deductions
in i brick.
49 0
94 0
75 0
145 \i
363 14
189 7
2122 6
2312 1
363 1
3)1949 0
272)649 8(2 reds 105 feet 8 inches.
544
.aiding, is marked against the one dimension. The dimensions are
now to be squared, and the squaring is done by duodeci¬
mals, or cross-multiplication. 36 feet H inches X -9 inches
= 27 feet 1 inch; 35 feet 41 inches X 12 feet is = 424
feet 6 inches, and so on with the rest. An abstract is then
made of these quantities in two columns, the first is marked
“ one half brick,” and the second “ deductions in that thick-
n.e®?‘ , fc^e ^rst co*umn is placed the first quantity, mul¬
tiplied by seven, the number of half bricks in three and a
half, which stands marginally to it; 24 feet 6 inches X 7
= 189 feet 7 inches. The second dimension follows in
the same column, multiplied by five, the number of half
bricks in its thickness; the next quantity is a deduction,
that is placed in the second column, multiplied by two
the thickness of the part deducted being one brick and
the rest in the same manner. The abstract being com¬
pleted, the columns are added, and the amount of the se¬
cond deducted from that of the first, and the difference
divided by three, which brings it to the reduced standard
Dividing now by 272, the number of rods and feet in the
given wall appears to be 2 rods, 185 feet, 8 inches. The
quantities are more generally abstracted in one-brick and
one and a half brick columns, with deductions in other
parallel columns, to which thicknesses they are all readily
brought. Ihe single column in one half brick is, however
assumed here as the more simple and the more easily ex¬
plained. J
It must be remembered, that in taking the return or end
walls, the thickness of that which has been already taken
m front is to be deducted from their length, or the angle-
pier or quoin will be taken twice. Work which is circu-
ar on the plan may be taken separately, and charged at a
ngher price altogether, or it may be measured as plain,
and an extra taken at so much the superficial foot. Chim-
ney breasts are taxen as additional quantities, with the
thicknesses they project, and the opening for the fire-
pace is deducted; but the flues are measured as solid,
j the extra labour and mortar in forming and pargetting
them being fully equal in value to the bricks saved.
A rod of brick-work will consume about 4500 bricks,
though the number will be a few more or less than this,
as the bricks happen to be below or above the average
i size, and as the joints are made thicker or thinner. The
quantity of rnoi tar, it is evident, will be affected by the
latter consideration also; but in London it is generally
reckoned at from ninety to a hundred striked bushels, or
irom four to four and a half cart loads, each containing
about one cubic yard, to the rod. The labour on a rod of
brick-work may be taken on an average at the wages of
a bricklayer, and his assistant or labourer, for four days;
is, lowever, does not include making and beating the
mortar, nor scaffolding, which latter must be separately
considered. Many things will, however, affect the time
n wbich the work may be performed, both of the brick-
ayer and his labourer; the former can do one fourth as
muc i moie, at the least, in walls which are to be plastered,
as in t mse. in which he has to keep the perpends and
raw tie joints, &c., and more in thick walls than in thin
ones, and the capability of the latter will depend, inverse-
y> on the rate at which the former can proceed, on the
istance he may have to carry the bricks and mortar to
e foot of the ladder, and mainly on the height he has to
carry the materials up the ladder. In great heights, how¬
ever, the materials should always be hoisted.
auged arches are taken at so much per foot superfi-
ia , in addition to being measured in as brick-work. Both
e veitical and horizontal surfaces are measured to ob-
ifm ple suPer^cies of the arch, or rather of the work upon
tough arches are also taken as an extra superficial
quan ity; but plain arches in vaults, &c. and discharging
vol. y. °
building.
673
made for10 tT CfRside^d ?xt.ras> thdugh an allowance is Budding.
made foi cutting to moulds, for inverted discharging arches 1
at per foot run. ° ° ’
th Vi1 l?e i,aCe,d ?;ith bricks of a more cost3y sort than
that of which the bulk is composed, or worked in a pecu¬
liar manner, it is calculated by the foot superficial, also in
addition to its measurement as brick-work. It should be a
matter of previous agreement whether or not there shall
be an extra charge for plumbing quoins and reveals. Un¬
der ordinary circumstances no allowance is made for it -
but oblique vertical angles, both internal and external,’
which require to have bricks neatly cut to form them,
aie taken at so much per foot running measure. Exter¬
nal oblique angles are technically termed squint-quoins,
and internal, birds-mouth. Oblique angles within a build-
in^ aie taken as mn of cut splay. Cuttings to rakes or
inclined straight lines are taken by the running foot also,
but with reference to the thickness of the wall. Cuttings
to ramps or concave lines are measured and valued in the
same manner. Sailing or projecting courses, preparations
for plaster cornices, and brick cornices themselves, are all
taken at so much per foot run, according to the labour
and materials involved in working them, over and above
the regular charge for the brick-work by the rod.
Every thing, indeed, which adds to the labour of exe¬
cuting brick-work, and consumes more than the ordinary
quantity of materials, is taken in addition, either by the
oot superficial, or by the foot running, or in numbers, as
the setting of chimney-pots, bedding and pointing door
and sash-frames, &c. Bond-timbers, lintels, and wall-
plates, are generally measured in with the brick-work, on
account of the trouble of bedding them, and the delay ge¬
nerally occasioned to the bricklayer in setting them. If
they are not included with the brick-work, bedding them
is an extra charge, at so much per foot run ; and then fill¬
ing in between the ends of the joists and beams generally
requires to be taken also.
Brick-nogging is measured by the superficial yard, in¬
cluding the quarterings and interties, and making no de-
auctions but for openings. Drains and sewers are mea-
sured by the foot run, according to their form and caca-
city- The quantity of materials consumed, and labour
required in constructing them, maybe readily obtained by
calculating the one, and observing the quantity a man with
a labourer can execute under the circumstances, whatever
they may be, within a given time.
Paving is measured by the superficial yard of nine feet;
tiling by the square of one hundred feet;—eaves courses,’
ridges, and hips, being extra charges, by the foot run!
Pointing, whether to old or new work, is measured by the
superficial foot; and the scaffolding for it, when scaffold¬
ing is required, is either included in the price per foot for
pointing, or a charge is made for the use of it, together
with the cost of carting, and the men’s time in setting up
and removing it.
Mason.—We must refer to the separate article under
the heads Stone-Masonry and Stone-Cutting for in¬
formation on those subjects generally. It will, however,
be necessary to give a few particulars here on masons’
work, as it has to do with other artificers’ works in the pro¬
cess of building, and especially with reference to various
species of walling, or modes of constructing walls of stone.
From the regular and determined form of bricks, modes
or systems for setting or arranging them may be formed,
and any workman, by habit and an exertion of memory
merely, may become competent to build a brick wall as
well as it can be built; but it is not so with stone used in
common masonry willing. The workman in this material
has for the most part to do with masses of all forms and
of all sizes, and a continual exercise of the judgment is
4 a
(574
BUILDING.
Building, required from him beyond the tact or skill which may be
acquired by practice. For this reason workmen are ge¬
nerally less to be trusted to themselves, or to their own
discretion, in stone than even in brick-laying or walling.
The best or highest sort of stone walling is the easiest
to set; it is that in which the stones are all tooled and
gauged in regular parallelogramic figures, to range in
courses and suit the thickness of the wall to which they
are to belong; and the most difficult to execute properly
is that in which amorphous stones are used,—-the mason
being allowed merely to dress them roughly with his ham¬
mer or axe, and fit them in as he best can to form the most
compact mass: this is called rubble walling.
From the brittle nature of stone, great tact is required
in setting, to prop or bear up the longer pieces in every
part, or they will break across, and thus occasion more in¬
jury than could accrue if their whole mass had been made
up of small pieces. Very long lengths, therefore, should
be avoided, even in regular tooled courses, with which the
bearing is or should be perfectly even, and a settling down
of the work itself is hardly to be feared. There is a cer¬
tain medium which may be preserved; and although the
object is obviously, in stone as in brick walls, to form a
compact mass, as unbroken into parts as possible, a mason
will act more judiciously in breaking a long stone into two
or more shorter ones, and working them in in that state,
though he thus makes two or more additional joints, well
knowing that he has the power of counteracting to a cer¬
tain extent the ill effect of joints made by himself, but
that those made by accident are irremediably injurious.
The observations made in the section of this article on
bricklaying, on the use of mortar, will apply here also. Of
whatever quality the stone may be of which a wall is to
be built, it should consist as much of stone and as little
of mortar as possible. If it be inferior in durability and
power of resisting the action of the atmosphere, &c. to the
mortar, besides the certain fact that the mortar will yield
until it has set hard, and so far act injuriously, no ulterior
good is gained ; and if the stone be the more durable ma¬
terial, the more of it that enters into the wall the better.
Indeed, in rough walling, if the stones be pressed together
until the more prominent angles on their faces come into
actual contact, the interstices being occupied by mortar,
it will be better than if a thick yielding mass were allow¬
ed to remain between them. Absolute contact, however,
should not be permitted, any more than in brick-work, lest
the shrinking of the mortar in drying leave the stones to
such unequal bearing as the prominent parts alone would
afford. Stone being generally of a less absorbent nature
than brick, it is not a matter of so much importance that
it be wetted before setting; nevertheless, adhesion on the
part of the mortar is more certain and more complete if
the stones be worked in in at least a damp state. What
bond is, and the necessity for it, have also been shown in
the preceding section; and bond is of not less importance
in stone walling than in bricklaying. We have also hint¬
ed above at the greater difficulty of understanding, form¬
ing, and preserving it in the former, and can now only add
a few observations in addition that can be of any use, and
these with reference to rubble walling particularly. In¬
stead of carefully making the joints recur one over the other
in alternate coursps, as with bricks and gauged stones, the
joints should as carefully be made to lock, so as to give
the strength of two or three courses or layers between
a joint in one course, and one that may occur vertically
over it in another. In bonding through a wall, or trans¬
versely, it is much better that many stones should reach
two thirds across, alternately from the opposite sides, than
that there should be a few thorough stones, or stones ex¬
tending the whole thickness of the wall. Indeed, one of
the many faults of stone-masons is that of making a wall
consist of two scales or thin sides, with thorough stones
now and then laid across to bind them together, the core
being made up of mortar and small rubble merely. This
is a mode of structure that should be carefully guarded
against. There is no better test of a workman’s tact and
judgment in rubble walling than the building of a dry wall,
or a wall without mortar, affords ;—walls are frequently
built with mortar that without it would have fallen down
under their own weight in a height of six feet, in conse¬
quence of their defective construction;—thus rendering it
evident that they are only held together by the tenacity of
the mortar, which is very seldom an equivalent for a pro¬
per bond of stone. Masons are very apt to set thin broad
stones on their narrow edges to show a good face, by
which the wall is injured in two ways; it tends to the for¬
mation of a mere case on the surface of a wall, and it for
the most part exposes the bed of the stone to the atmo¬
sphere, as a stone is more likely to be broad in the direc¬
tion of its bed than across it.
Rubble walling is either coursed or uncoursed. In the
latter sort, fig. 15, the work is carried on with stones of
any sizes, as they may occur, and without reference to
their heights, somewhat in the manner of the Cyclopaean
walling of antiquity; the interstices of the larger being
filled up with smaller stones. For this work the mason
uses no tool but the trowel to lay on the mortar, the scab-
ling hammer to break off the most repulsive irregularities
from the stones, and the plumb-rule to keep his work per¬
pendicular. The line and level are equally unnecessary,
as the work is independent of considerations which are
affected by them. An attentive and intelligent workman
will, however, make a sound wall with this species of con¬
struction, by fitting the stones well together and packing
them with as little mortar as possible, yet filling every
crevice with it, and carefully bonding through to secure
compactness, transversely at the least.
In coursed rubble walling, fig. 16, the line and level are
used, the work is laid in courses, each course being care¬
fully brought up to the same level in itself, though no at¬
tention is paid to uniformity in the heights of the different
courses. For this species of walling the stones are gene¬
rally roughly dressed by the workman in the gross before
he begins building. He is careful to get parallel beds to
them, and he brings the best face of each stone to a toler¬
ably even surface at right angles to the beds; the ends,
too, receive some little attention, and for this purpose he
uses an axe in addition to his scabling hammer. Ihe
quoins in coursed rubble walling are generally built with
peculiar neatness and precision, and they are set to serve
as gauge courses for the rest. This, when well executed,
makes a sound and excellent wall. It presents, however,
rather a rough and homely appearance, and in finer works
must be covered with stucco or cement, or faced with
ashlar. , .
Ashlar is an external rind of gauged stones in equal
courses, having tooled or closely-fitting joints to give a
wall a neat and uniform appearance; it is axed, tooled,
or rubbed, as may be thought most in character with the
structure, or that part of it to which it is to belong. Ash¬
lar stones, or ashlars as they are commonly called, are
made of various sizes on the surface, as the character o
the edifice may require or convenience demand, and vary
in thickness from five to eight or nine inches. Some o
the ashlar stones must, it is clear, be used transversely us
bond stones, or the facing, having nothing to connect i
with the wall behind, would soon totter and fall, b01^
stones are generally put in alternate courses, with t e
backing to the jambs of openings, such as windows, ant
oftener, if these do not recur within a length of five or six
Bui ng.
HP
aiding- feet; the bond stones themselves, too, should not fall in the
same vertical chain, except when they are in the jambs of
openings, but break in their alternate courses. Ashlar is
commonly set in a fine mortar or in putty. It is generally
recommended that ashlars should not be made regular
parallelopipedons, but run back irregularly to tooth in with
the backing, the vertical joints being left open from about
an inch within the face of the wall, and the upper surface
or bed of the stones made narrower than, though perfectly
parallel to, the lower. These things may exert a slightly
beneficial influence under some circumstances; bu? the
mode of construction involved is so radically bad, that
unless the backing is set in a quick-setting cement, or be
so well packed as to be proof against its general tendency
to settle away from the ashlar facing, no means of the
kind can materially improve it. A well-compacted wall
of coursed rubble, the courses being frequently made up
of whole stones and faced with ashlar, may be made toler¬
ably sound and trust-worthy. Brick backing, with ashlar
facing, cannot be considered as good, though it has the
advantage of not requiring battening and lathing for in¬
side plastering, as the stone-backed wall does. Uncours¬
ed rubble with ashlar has all the disadvantages of both
the preceding, with nothing to recommend it above either
of them.
There are, besides, many sorts of walling or modes of
structure arising from the nature of the materials furnish¬
ed in various localities. I hat of most frequent occurrence,
perhaps, is a manner in which either broken or rounded
flints are used. These depend almost entirely on the
mortar with which they are compacted, and on a coursed
chain, which is commonly introduced at short intervals of
larger stones or bricks, to act as a bond; the quoins, too,
m this species of structure are generally constructed of
dressed stones or brick.
Whatever objections lie against bond timber in brick¬
work apply with equal force at least to the use of it in
stone walls; and it is of less importance generally as a tie
in the latter than in the former, because a chain may be
made by means of metal cramps and dovetails of wood or
cast iion. A chain of this kind does not distribute pres¬
sure, however, as well as a chain of timber bond does, be¬
cause of the liability of the material to fracture when it is
borne upon unequally, and therefore may not be consider¬
ed an equivalent for wall-plates or templates.
. Discharging arches, it must be evident, are as necessary
in and to stone walls as to walls of brick, and they may be
treated much in the same manner.
Rubble walls are scaffolded with single, and ashlar front¬
ed or other gauged stone walls with double fronted scaf¬
folding, the former tailing one end of the putlocks in on
tne wall, and the other having an inner row of standard
poles and ledgers parallel to the outer, making the scaf-
old entirely independent of the wall. In some places,
owever, it is the custom to dispense altogether with an
external scaffold in building stone walls, particularly with
gauged stones. With light and plain work this may be
done without much inconvenience or retardation ; but if
the work be heavy or delicate, considerable delay and in¬
correctness result. Sometimes the finer work, such as
that to mouldings, flutes, and foliate or other enrichments,
is merely boasted or roughed out before the stones are
set, and finished afterwards. This can be done well only
from a secure floor or scaffold, on which the workman may
move freely.
When walls are not entirely of masonry, in the ordinary
course of economic building, stone is frequently used for
copings, cornices, string and blocking courses, sills, land-
!ngs, pavings, curbs, steps, stairs, hearth-stones and slabs,
and chimney-pieces ; to these may be added, quoins and
building.
675
architectural decorations, or dressings f„r windows, doors, Building.
<lc., though both the former and latter are not unfrc- '
quently executed in plaster composition, or cements. Cop¬
ings (see Glossary to the article Architecture) to cover
walls, parapets, &c., are worked with a plain horizontal
bed, two vertical faces, and an inclined or weathered back
or upper surface; either forming an acute angle with the
outer and wider, and an obtuse angle with the inner and
narrower face, to throw the water off, as shown at a,
fig. 19 ; or to both sides from the middle, as at b; the latter
is technically termed saddle-back coping. In both cases
they are made to project over the wall or parapet on both
sides; and in the projected part of the bed under the edge
or edges towards which the inclination is given, a channel
or groove, called a throat, is cut, to intercept the water in
its inclination to run inwards to the wall. On gables or
other inclined planes the coping is neither weathered nor
throated, as the water is necessarily impelled along its
course to the lower end, and not over the. sides. To pro¬
tect the separate stones of a coping course from the dan¬
ger of being displaced by high winds or other accidental
cause, and to form a chain through its whold length, the
stones are linked together by cramps of copper or iron let
into their backs and run with lead. These metals, how¬
ever, especially the iron, for the most part act very inju¬
riously, from their exceeding susceptibility of atmospheric
changes, and their greater or less tendency to oxidation;
indeed, the stone invariably suffers more than the work
benefits from the metal cramps. Tenons, dowels, joggles
or dovetails of stone, or of hard wood or cast iron, applied
so as to be protected from the weather, would be fiir bet¬
ter, and would answer every desirable purpose sufficiently.
Cornices (vide ut sup.') are but ramified copings, and are or
may be subjected to the same general laws. Care must
be taken, however, in arranging them, that their centre of
gravity be not brought too far forward, in the anxiety to
project them sufficiently, lest they act injuriously on the
wall by pressing unequally, and their own safety be also
endangered. String courses (vide ut sup.) economically,
in contradistinction to architecturally, are meant to pro¬
tect a set-off in a wall, by projecting over its lower face in
the manner of a coping (see fig. 17, at c) ; the beds are
worked parallel, and the outer face vertical or at right
angles to them, but so much of the upper surface is wea¬
thered or sloped off as protrudes from the upper part of
the wall to carry the water off; and, for the reason above
stated with regard to copings, the lower bed just within
the outer face is throated. A stone string course, cramp¬
ed or dove-tailed as above, forms an excellent chain round
a brick wall; but the part of it in the wall should be of the
exact thickness of one, two, or more courses of brick. A
blocking course (vide ut sup.) is either a very thick string
projecting oyer or flush with the face of the lower part of
the wall, or it is a range of stone over a crowning cornice
to bring the centre of gravity more in on the wall than it
otherwise would be ; in the former case it is treated exact¬
ly as a string, excepting that, if it be flush below, there is
no occasion for a throat; and in the latter it has a hori¬
zontal bed, parallel vertical sides, and a weathered back
or upper surface. Sills (vide ut sup.) are weathered and
throated like the parts of a string course (see fig. 17, at
a and b); they are laid across the feet or bases of win¬
dow openings, &c. to receive the sash-frame, and carry
the water off from the wall below; distinct sills in the
same line may, indeed, be considered as an intercepted
string course. In the ordinary practice of building, win¬
dow sills are seldom set in brick-walls until they are ab¬
solutely required to set the sash-frames on ; or they are set
but not bedded, except at the ends. The object of this
is to prevent any settlement that may occur in the piers
076 BUILDING.
Building, from breaking the sills across on the unyielding part of
the wall under the windows. A necessity for this, how¬
ever, can only arise from bad construction; for with in¬
verted arches under the openings, and a good bond in the
brick-work, all would settle together, and the sills might
be completely bedded across at once. Landings are plat¬
forms of stone, either over an area before a door, at the
head of a flight of stairs, or as the floor of a balcony. I hey
are made four, five, six, or eight inches in thickness, ac¬
cording to their extent and bearing; il not of one piece
of stone, they are of nicely jointed pieces joggled and
plugged together, and are worked on the face and edges
just as their situation may demand. Stone pavings are of
various kinds, and are prepared, shaped, and laid in vari¬
ous ways. Stone paving that is not exposed to the sun and
air, if next the ground, should be laid on footings of brick
or stone, or it will be constantly damp if the soil be close
and clayey; but in yards, open areas, &c. it may be laid
on the ground, bedded in sand, and jointed with mortar or
cement. Stone paved floors are either on brick arches,
or on a timber floor prepared for the purpose : the latter
is a very bad mode of supporting paving, as the impression
derived from the presence of the latter is, that the floor is
incombustible; but if it be bedded on combustible mate¬
rial, the danger to human life in the event of fire is greater
than if the stone paving did not exist at all. It is worked,
cut, and set more or less expensively, according to cir¬
cumstances. A curb is a range or course of thicker and
stronger stone to bound a pavement, and is either flush
with the paving, showing as a step on its outer edge, or
raised above it to receive a balustrade, and shows on the
outer side as a blocking course ; in the latter situation it
is generally joggled and plugged in the joints. I he term
step or steps alone is generally understood to mean exter¬
nal steps, whether arranged in long or short flights, or the
single step in a doorway into which the door frame is te¬
noned. A step should have a plain horizontal bed, and a
very slightly weathered tread or upper surface; the front
or riser worked plain and vertical, or with a moulded nos¬
ing, and the back sunk with a joggle or bird’s-mouth joint
to receive the step or landing above or behind it. Stairs
are but a flight or combination of steps used internally;
the principles upon which they are constructed will be
found under the heads Stone-Masonry and Joinery.
Hearths are the stone flooring of fire-places ; and a slab is
that part of the floor of a room which lies immediately be¬
fore the fire-place and along the extent of its front. This
slab is supported by a flat brick arch called a brick trim¬
mer, which is turned from the chimney-breast under the
hearth on one side, to the trimmer joist on the other.
(See a section of all these at fig. 18.) Chimney-pieces
consist simply of mantle and jambs; that is, the vertical
sides, and the architrave or transverse covering with its
shelf or cornice. The parts of a chimney-piece are gene¬
rally put together with an adhesive plaster or cement, and
affixed to the wall or chimney-breast behind with cramps,
hold-fasts, and plugs. The material of which chimney-
pieces are composed varies from the coarsest stone to the
finest marble; and the labour on them varies to a still great¬
er extent. Quoin-stones are gauged and wrought blocks
with parallel beds and vertical faces, placed on the angles
of buildings with the intention of adding to their beauty
and strength ; they are used either with brick or stone
walls, and are generally made to project before the face
of that to which they are attached, mostly with a weather¬
ed angular joint, or with a rectangularly grooved or mould¬
ed one. The quoins are coursed with the rest of the
wall if it be of stone, and are made to occupy the exact
space of a limited number of courses of brick in a brick
wall. (See fig. 17.)
Masonry to receive architectural decorations is gene- Bui;
rally worked into the walls as they are carried up; but as
they are seldom homogeneous either in matter or construc¬
tion, the result is mostly the converse of what it purports
to be, for the work is more frequently weakened than
strengthened by the decorative masonry. Stones of which
columns are to be composed, whether each column is to
be of one stone or more, are generally roughly boasted out
before they are set, and are finished afterwards to travers¬
ing moulds and templets with a plumb-rule, whose sides
are cut to the diminution, whatever it may be. Flutes are
cut at the same time and in the same manner. The beds
of the joints in columns should be worked with the great¬
est precision, that they may fit firmly and closely together;
they must not, however, be worked hollow to make a close
joint externally, or the arrises will chip off. It is consi¬
dered a good plan to put a piece of thin milled lead be¬
tween the beds, cut circular, and extending to within a
short distance of the surface, and that the rest be filled
with a fine adhesive putty, made as nearly of the colour of
the stone as possible. This makes a solid bed, and pro¬
tects the arrises effectually; hut it will not do so well for
slight columns, because it narrows the bed so materially.
A joggle or dowel of hard wood or cast iron let into the core
might be a sufficient counteraction, and it would certainly
add to the stability of a polylithic shaft. The other parts
of a columnar composition maybe sufficiently cramped and
joggled together with wood and metals, according to the
situation, though it may be again remarked, that neither
the one nor the other should he used, except where they can
be protected from the access, even, of the atmosphere.
Stone walling is generally measured by the perch of
twenty-one feet superficial, at a standard of eighteen
inches in thickness, or a cubic quantity of thirty-one feet
six inches. Sometimes it is taken by the rod of 272 feet,
like brick-work, but at the eighteen inch standard instead
of the fourteen inch, or a brick and a half, as in the latter
species of walling. The perch, however, as first stated,
is the standard of this country. The quantities may be
ascertained in the same manner that they are in measur¬
ing brick-work, the number of inches the wall is in thick¬
ness being substituted in the margin for the number ot
brick lengths. In abstracting, the superficial quantities
may be taken out in columns under the different thick¬
nesses ; the amount of each column being multiplied by
the thickness in inches, and divided by eighteen, gives
the reduced quantity; but if the work be taken in cubic
quantities, it is evident that the three dimensions of every
part multiplied together brings the whole at once to cubic
feet, and no further process is necessary, unless it be re¬
quired to bring the total quantity into reduced perches,
which may be done by dividing it by thirty-one and a
haif.
The custom being different in different places with re¬
gard to the double measurement of quoins or angle piers,
and as to whether openings, such as windows and doors,
shall or shall not he deducted, because of the greater
care and trouble required in setting and plumbing quoins
and reveals, these particulars should be made matter or
previous agreement. Perhaps the best way is to take the
quantities exactly, and allow a running measurement extra
on the parts requiring more than the usual quantity o
labour, or, the nature of the work being of course obvious
beforehand, the price per perch, per rod, or per too
cube, on the exact quantity, may be made to include t e
proposed extras. In the same manner, chisel-dressing
(that is, facing the stones neatly and truly with the c i-
sel), whether plain or sunk, may or may not be chaige
extra, according to agreement, or, in the absence o a
previous agreement, to the custom of the place. 0
2
i iding.
ascertain the value of stone walling, the cost of every
_ thing that enters into some fixed quantity on the spot
must be calculated, for almost every thing connected with
it varies in almost every place. The original price of the
stone at the quarry; the expense of carrying it from thence
to the place where it is to be worked up; its texture or
comparative hardness, which will materiallyaffect the quan¬
tity of walling a mason may execute in a certain time • the
cost on the spot, of lime and sand, and the height to which
stones must be carried or hoisted from the ground • must
all be ascertained and considered, as well as the wages of
masons and labourers, and the sort of walling proposed to
be executed. 1
Stone used in string and blocking courses, sills, copino-g,
cornices, steps, quoins, columns, entablatures, &c. is mea¬
sured by the foot cube, and the work on it is taken as plain
sunk, or moulded, by the foot superficial. The dimensions
for the cubic quantities are taken on the unreduced block,
or lather on the greatest breadth and thickness which the
finished work exhibits; for instance, the string course
which appears in section at c, fig. 17, would be taken as of
the thickness throughout which it holds in the wall • and
in the same manner, the thickness of the sill at 6 would
be taken under the wooden sill of the sash frame, which
must have been the original thickness of the whole scant-
hng. Stone, sawed into thin slabs for paving, chimney
pieces, &c. is taken by the superficial foot, at a certain
thickness, the value being ascertained from the cubic
quantity and the cost of sawing on the surface, whilst
some articles, being of a fixed breadth and thickness fit¬
ting them to peculiar purposes, are taken by the running
toot; but both these latter modes suppose labour included.
Tlain work is the even surface produced on stone by
the chisel, without the necessity of taking away more
than the mere inequalities, and is equivalent to what the
joiner calls trying-up, that is, making the surfaces per-
tectly straight both longitudinally and transversely, and
so that it shall be quite out of winding, which indeed is a
term to express the result of trying-up. Sunk work arises
trom the necessity of chiseling or hacking away below
the level surface of the plain work, such as the weather¬
ing of copings, string courses, cornices, &c.; and mould¬
ings cut in stone produce what is called moulded work.
Sunk and moulded work are either straight or circular;
circular plain work is certainly spoken of, but incorrectly,’
or every flexure in stone must be produced by sinking.
Ihe joints and beds, that is, the upper and lower hori¬
zontal sides, and the vertical ends of stones, are taken as
plain work, as well as their faces and edges, if they have
een wrought with the chisel to produce the surface; or
heir superficies are taken as sawing or half plain work,
i t surfaces are as the saw left them. An extra charge
IS made on plain work for rubbing to produce a smooth
unc lannelled surface ; and again, a higher charge is made
or p am work if it be equally channelled or furrowed in
vertical lines over the surface; this latter operation is
echnically termed tooling. Whenever any two surfaces
meet in an oblique angle, one of them may be taken as
sunk work, and it will generally be that which is not
paialel to its opposite side. Jt is valued at about two
sevenths more than plain work; and circular sunk work,
at is, circular in the direction of its length, at about
one sixth more than straight sunk. Moulded work is
measured by girding the moulding or mouldings with a
coi or tape, carrying it into all the quirks, and round all
e arnses; the dimension thus given is multiplied by
e length for the superficial quantity. This is valued at
a .ou^ one fifth more than sunk work, and circular mould-
f at about one half more than straight. Narrow joint-
lngs> groovings, throatings, jogglings, &c. are taken by the
building.
677
a°°tnrumbe,«i>r^es’h10les^0tchcs’ cramPs> details, &c
are numbeied and charged at so much a piece, according L -
o le abour and cost involved in making them. The
common pavings, andings, copings, sills, and stem JrZ
rally used in London for ordinary purposes, are of a lami¬
nated stone from Yorkshire, and they are for the most
pan worked to size and shape in the quarry, so that there
can be very little labour on them beyond the mere fitting
and setting, making mortises, fitting coal-plates, traps, &c.
when such are required, unless they be rubbed, which
occasions, of course, an extra charge. York pavings and
andings are taken by the superficial foot, at such a^thick-
ness ; and copings, sills, steps, &c. by the foot run, accord¬
ing to tneir size.
Plasterer, No art in the economy of building con¬
tributes more to produce internal neatness and elegance
and lsJesstabsolutely important, as far as the use
and stability of a structure are concerned, than that of the
£\Seii’ , lt? Very/eneral appiication, too, is of compa¬
ratively late date; for wainscotted walls, and boarded or
Z,ledtw CTaSfd ceiIinSs’ or naked joists alone, are
equently found in houses of even less than a century old
both in this country and on the Continent.
lie plasterer, as the term imports, works in plastic,
adhesive compositions, which are laid on walls, both in¬
ternally and externally, to stop crevices, reduce inequali¬
ties, and produce an even, delicate surface, capable of
receiving any decoration that may be applied to it, either
in colour or otherwise. These compositions are as vari¬
ous as the modes of applying them, the rudest being a
compost of loam, a marly clay, and lime; this is used
only tor the commonest purposes, and being laid on in
one coat, is washed over with a thin mixture of lime and
water, which process is termed white-washing; the high¬
est work of the plasterer is the making an imitation of
marbles and other costly stones, of the purest calcined
gypsum, mixed with a solution of gum and isinglass, and
colouring matter to produce the required imitation. For
the more common operations of plastering, however, com¬
paratively few tools and few materials are required. The
plasterer is attended by a labourer, who supplies his
boards with mortar, and by a boy on the scaffold with
mm to feed his hawk; he is necessarily furnished with a
lathing hammer, a laying-on trowel, a hawk, floats, brushes,
jointing trowels and rules, moulds and straight edges,
together with a screen, spade, rake, and hod, for his la¬
bourer, and a feeding-spade or server for his hawk-boy.
The lathing hammer is chequered on the face with indent¬
ed lines, to make it less liable to slip over the head of the
nail; the upper or back part of the hammer is made like
a hatchet, but very narrow, and on its inner side of edge
there is sometimes a square nick or groove, by means of
which the workman is enabled to draw a nail that has gone
awry. The laying-on trowel is a thin plate of hardened
iron or steel, ten inches long and two and a half inches wide,
rounded at one end and square at the other end or heel;
it is very slightly convex on the face; and to the back’
about the middle of it, the spindle or handle is rivetted
in at right angles, which, returning in the direction of the
heel parallel to the tool, fits into a rounded wooden handle,
by which the workman grasps it. The plasterer is obliged
to keep this implement particularly clean and dry when
he is not actually using it, lest it rust in the slightest de¬
gree, as it is clear that the brown oxide of iron would
sadly discolour his finer work on touching it again with the
trowel. The hawk is a piece of wood about ten inches
square, to receive a small portion of mortar on, for the
convenience of carrying it readily up to the wall or ceil¬
ing, to be there delivered and spread by the trowel. The
hawk is traversed across the back by a dove-tailed piece,
BUILDING.
678
Building, into which the wooden handle is fixed at right angles,
and by this the workman holds it in his left hand. A
hand-float is a piece of board shaped something like a
plastering trowel, with a ledge-handle to it, and is used
to rub over the finished work, to produce a hard, smooth,
and even face. A quirk-float is ot wood also, and is an¬
gularly shaped to work in angles; and a derby is a long
two-handed float, which is that principally used in form¬
ing the floated coat of lime and hair, d he plasterer s
brush is broad and thin, with a stout or slight row of
coarse or fine hair, as it may be required for rough or
fine work. Jointing trowels are thin plates of polished
steel, of triangular shape, the point being a very acute
angle; the handle is adapted to the heel or base of the
tool. They are of three or four different sizes, and are
principally used in making good cornices, and joining
them at their internal and external angles, which is called
mitering. Jointing rules are auxiliary to the jointing
trowel. Moulds are pieces of hard wood cut to the con¬
tour of cornices or separate mouldings, to assist the work¬
men in forming them readily. For work of any importance
the moulds are cut in copper plates, which are inserted
in the wooden stock, and narrow pieces of wood are fixed
to the moulds transversely, to guide and steady them
along the screeds. A straight edge is a board of consi¬
derable length, shot perfectly straight on one edge, to
bring the plastering on a wall or ceiling to a perfectly
even surface, by traversing it'in every direction. A screen
is a large parallelogramic wooden frame, on which metal
wires are fixed at regulated distances from each other,
to act as a sieve. This is propped up in nearly a vertical
direction by a counter-frame hinged to it like a common
step ladder, and the coarser materials which enter into the
composition of plastering mortar are thrown against its
outer face, to separate the particles which are too large for
the purpose from the finer. The sand and lime, too, are
mixed much more efficiently and completely by screening
them together than in any other manner. The spade and
hod are like those of the bricklayer’s labourer. The rake
is used to separate the hair used in the mortar, and distri¬
bute it throughout the mass. The hawk boy’s server is
about the size and shape of a common garden hoe, but the
handle is in the direction of the instrument. With it the
boy rebeats the mortar on the board, to destroy any set it
may have taken, and delivers it in small pats or portions
on to the plasterer’s hawk.
The plasterer’s materials are laths and lath nails, lime,
sand, hair and plaster, of which are formed coarse stuff
or lime and hair, fine stuff, gauge stuff, &c.; and besides
these, a variety of stuccoes and cements, together with va¬
rious ingredients to form colouring washes, &c. are more
or less in request.
Laths are narrow strips of some straight grained wood
(in this country they are generally of fir, though oak laths
are sometimes used), in lengths of three and four feet, or
to suit the distances at which the joists or quarterings
are set, and in thickness a quarter and three eighths of
an inch; those of the former thickness are called single,
and those of the latter lath and a half. Lath nails are
either wrought, cut, or cast, and of course vary in length to
the thicker and thinner laths ; cast nails are in common use
in this country with fir laths. Coarse stuff is composed
of ox or horse hair from the hide, in addition to the lime
and sand mortar of the bricklayer and mason ; this is in¬
tended to act as a sort of bond to net or tie it together,
by being distributed throughout the whole mass, and in
single hairs if it were possible. The hair should be as long
as it can be procured, and free from grease and filth of
every kind. Road drift is unfit to be used for mortar, un¬
less it be completely cleansed from all animal and vegetable
matter, and of all mud and clay. Loamy or argillaceous Bulling
earths are constantly used in the composition of this mor-
tar, as its quality is thought unimportant, so that it can
be made to hang together. The presence of clayey matter
making the mortar unctuous and tenacious, they are used
without or with very little hair; the consequence is, that
the slightest injury affects the work made with them. |
The mortar thus composed readily absorbs and retains
moisture, bursts, and crumbles away; and if it be effec¬
tually protected from injury of that kind, it becomes rot¬
ten in a comparatively short space of time, and frequently
is the means of decay in the laths, and even in the larger
timbers. Nothing but clean sharp sand should be used
with the lime and hair in the composition of this, any
more than of brick mortar. Fine stuff is a mortar made
of fine white lime, exceedingly well slaked with water,
or rather macerated in water to make the slaking com¬
plete ; for some purposes a small quantity of hair is mixed
up with this material. Fine stuff very carefully prepared
of the finest powdered lime macerated so completely as
to be held in solution by the water, thus forming a mere
paste, which is then allowed to evaporate until it is of a
sufficient consistence for working, is called putty. Gauge
stuff is composed of about three fourths of putty and one
fourth of calcined gypsum or plaster of Paris; this may
be mixed only in small quantities at a time, as the plaster
or gauge renders it liable to set very rapidly. Bastard
stucco is made of two thirds fine stuff, without hair, and
one third of very fine and perfectly clean sand (the clean¬
liness or purity of sand may be determined by the facility
with which it may, when in a moist state, be struck off
from the hand without leaving a soil) ; and common stucco
is composed of about three fourths of clean sharp sand
and one fourth of the best lime, well incorporated. This
must be protected from the air from the time it is made
until it is required to be laid on the walls. The cement
best known and most commonly used in this country is
called Parker’s, or Parker’s Roman cement. This mate¬
rial, when of good quality, with fine clean sharp sand, in
the proportion of about three of the former to one of
cement, and well executed, forms an admirable external
coating for walls, and is generally preferable to any other
with which we are acquainted.
The various coatings of plastering are thus designated:
On laths, plastering in one coat simply is said to be laid,
and in two coats, laid and set. In three-coat plastering on
laths, however, the first is called the pricking up, the se¬
cond is said to be floated, and the third set. On brick or
stone wralls, without the intervention of laths, plastering
in one plain coat is termed rendering; with two coats, a
wall is said to be rendered and set; and in three, render¬
ed, floated, and set. Before the plasterer begins to lath a
ceiling, he proves the under face of the joists, to which he
has to work, by the application of a long straight edge,
and makes out any slight inequalities in them, when the
work is not to be of a very superior description, by nailing
on laths or slips to bring them as nearly even as he can.
When the inequalities are great, or if the work is to be
of fine quality, he recurs to the carpenter, who takes oft
inordinate projections with his adze, and nails on propei-
ly dressed slips where the joists do not come down low
enough, and thus brings the whole to a perfect level. This
operation is called firring, that is, putting on pieces of nr,
though it is vulgarly termed and frequently spelt/Mrnwy-
If it be a framed floor of ceiling joists the plasterer has to
work to, it is tolerably sure to be straight; but the car¬
penter must have firred down on the beams or binders to
the level of the ceiling joists, from end to end of them.
When the ceiling joists are nailed to the beams or binders,
however, nothing of this kind need be necessary. I a
i ilding. ceiling is to be divided into compartments or panels, the
projecting or depending portions must be bracketed or
cradled down to receive the laths. It is an important
point to be attended to in plastering on laths, and in ceil¬
ings particularly, that the laths should be attached to as
small a surface of timber as possible, because the plaster¬
ing is not supported or upborne by its adhesion or attach¬
ment to the wood, but by the keying of the mortar itself,
which passes through between the laths, and bends round
over them. If then the laths are in constantly recurring
contact with thick joists and beams, the keying is as con¬
stantly intercepted, and the plastering in all such places
depends entiiely on the portions between them which are
properly keyed. Under a single floor, therefore, in which
the joists are necessarily thick, a narrow fillet should be
nailed along the middle under the whole length of them
all, to receive the laths and keep them at a sufficient dis¬
tance fiom the timber, to allow the plastering to key un¬
der it; and thus too the surface might be made more per¬
fectly even, by blocking out the fillets, and contrariwise,
as it is in single floors that inequalities mostly occur.
This being all arranged, the plasterer commences lathing.
The laths should be previously sorted, reserving the crook¬
ed and knotty, if there be such, for inferior works, and se¬
lecting the best for the work of most importance, so that
the workman shall find none to his hand that is not fit to
be biought in. Taking a lath that will reach across three
or four openings, he strikes a nail into it on one of the in¬
termediate joists, at about three eighths of an inch from
the one before it, and then secures the ends of that and
the one that it meets of the last row with one nail, leav¬
ing the other end of the lath he has just set to be secured
in the same manner with that which shall meet it of the
next bay in continuation. It is of importance also that he
pay attention to the bonding ot his work, either by using
longer and shorter laths in bays or squares, and in break¬
ing the headings, or with laths of the same length, the first
and last courses or bays only having the bond formed by
half laths. In lathing on quartering partitions and battened
walls, the bonding is not a matter of much importance;
nor is the thickness of the timbers behind the latter of so
much consequence as in a ceiling, because the toothing
| which the thickness of the lath itself affords to the plaster¬
ing is enough to support it vertically; but, nevertheless,
the more complete the keying, even in works of this kind,
the better, as the toothing above will not protect it from
any exciting cause to fall forwards, or away from the laths.
Ihe thinner or weaker sort of lath too is generally consi-
deied sufficiently strong for partitions, whilst the stronger
is used for ceilings. Thin weak laths, if used in a ceiling,
are sure to produce inequalities, by sagging with or yield¬
ing to the weight attached to them. A chance one or
two weak ones in a ceiling of otherwise strong laths may
be the ruin of the best piece of work. Care should be
taken therefore not to allow a thin lath, or one of unequal
thickness, to go on to a scaffold with thicker and more
equable ones, lest the workman should, through careless¬
ness or otherwise, put it up with the rest. When the lath¬
ing is completed, the work is either laid or pricked up, ac-
coiding as it is to be finished with one, two, or three coats.
Laymg is a tolerably thick coat of coarse stuff or lime and
hair brought to a tolerably even surface with the trowel
only; for this the mortar must be well tempered, and of
moderate consistence,—thin or moist enough to pass rea¬
dily through between the laths, and bend with its own
weight over them, and at the same time stiff enough to
eave no danger that it will fall apart, a contingency,
owever, that in practice frequently occurs in consequence
of badly composed or badly tempered mortar, or bad work¬
manship, sufficient force not having been used with pro-
building.
679
perly consistent mortar to force it through and form keys. Building.
If the work is to be of two coats, that is, laid and set, '
when the laying is sufficiently dry, it is roughly swept with
a birch broom to roughen its surface, and then the set, a
t m coat °f fine stuff, is put on. This is done with the
common trowel alone, or only assisted by a wetted hog’s
bristle brush, which the workman uses with his left hand
to strike over the surface of the set, while he presses and
smooths it with the trowel in his right. If the laid work
shouki have become very dry, it must be slightly moisten-
ed before the set is put on, or the latter, in shrinking,
wfll crack and fall away. This is generally done by
sprinkling or throwing the water over the surface from
the brush. Tor floated or three-coat work, the first, or
pricking up, is roughly laid on the laths, the principal
object being to make the keying complete, and form a
layer of mortar on the laths to which the next coat may at¬
tach itself. It must, of course, be kept of tolerably equal
thickness throughout, and should stand about one quar¬
ter or three eighths of an inch on the surface of the
laths. \\ hen it is finished, and while the mortar is still
quite moist, the plasterer scratches or scores it all over
with the end of a lath in parallel lines from three to
four inches apart. The scorings should be made as
deep as possible without laying bare the laths; and the
rougher their edges are the better, as the object is to
produce a surface which the next coat will readily attach
itself to. When the pricked up coat is so dry as not
to yield to pressure in the slightest degree, prepara¬
tions may be made for the floating. Ledges or margins
of lime and hair, about six or eight inches in width,
and extending across the whole breadth of a ceiling
or height of a wall or partition, must be made in the
angles or at the borders, and at distances of about four
feet apart throughout the whole extent; these must be
made perfectly straight with one another, and be proved
in every way by the application of straight edges: tech¬
nically these ledges are termed screeds. The screeds are
gauges for the rest of the work; for when they are ready,
and the mortar in them is a little set, the interspaces are
filled up flush writh them; and a derby float or long straight
edge being made to traverse the screeds, all the stuff that
projects beyond the line is struck off, and thus the whole
is brought to a straight and perfectly even surface. To
perfect the work, the screeds on ceilings should be le¬
velled, and on walls and partitions plumbed. When the
floating is sufficiently set and nearly dry, it is brushed
wfith a birch broom as before described, and the third
coat or set is put on. This for a fine ceiling that is to be
whitened or coloured must be of putty ; but if it is to be
papered, ordinary fine stuff, wfith a little hair in it, will be
better. Walls and partitions that are to be papered are
also of this latter, or of rough stucco; but for paint the set
must be of bastard stucco trowelled. This coat must be
worked of exactly the same thickness throughout, to pre¬
serve to the external surface the advantage that has been
obtained by floating. For all but this last mentioned, the
set on floated work, the trowel and brush are considered
sufficient to produce fine and even work; but trowelled
stucco must moreover be hand-floated. In this operation
the stucco is set with the trowel in the usual manner, and
brought to an even surface with that tool to the extent of
two or three yards. The workman then takes the hand-
float in his right hand, and rubs it smartly over the sur¬
face, pressing gently to condense the material as much as
possible. As he works the float he sprinkles the surface
with wrater from the brush in his left hand, and eventually
produces a texture as fine and smooth almost as that of
polished marble. The process of plastering on the naked
brick or stone wall differs but little, except in names, from.
680 B U I L
Building, that we have described as the mode on lath. The single
coat, or equivalent for laying, on lath, is rendering, and it
need differ only in the quantity of hair, which may be less
than is necessary for laying, and in the consistence of the
mortar, which may be made more plastic, to work easier,
and because in a moister state it will attach itself more
firmly to the wall: the wall, however, must itself be wet¬
ted before the rendering is applied. The set is the same,
and is put on in the same manner as to two-coat work on
lath. For three coat, or floated work, the first or rough
rendering should be made to fill up completely whatever
crevices there may be in the work behind it, and be incor¬
porated with it as much as possible. As its name imports,
its surface may, indeed should, be rough; but it is not
scratched or lined as the similar coat on lath is: for this,
too, the wall must be previously wetted, that the mortar
may the better attach itself to it. For the floating, screeds
must be formed as before described, and the consecutive
process is exactly the same as on lath, both for the floated
and for the set coat. In almost every case in wrhich plas¬
tering is to be floated, the workman finds a guide for the
feet of his wall screeds in the narrow grounds which the
joiner has previously fixed for his skirtings; from these
he plumbs upwards, and makes his work perfectly flush
with them.
Mouldings and cornices, as large combinations of mould¬
ings and flat surfaces are called, in the angles of rooms,
immediately under their ceilings, are formed wfith running
moulds, and are generally executed before the setting
coat is put on the walls and ceiling. If the cornice do
not project more than about an inch and a half, or two
inches, from the ordinary work, a backing of lime and hair
will be sufficient; and if any one part only happen to be
more than ordinarily protuberant, a row of nails from six
to twelve inches apart stuck .into the wall or ceiling in the
line of that part will give it sufficient support. But if the
general mass of the cornice be more than that amounts
to, and extend above six or eight inches along the ceil¬
ing, it must be bracketed out, and the bracketing lathed
and pricked up, as for ordinary work. This pricking up,
or other preparation, must of course be perfectly set be¬
fore the cornice is run ; and there should be one fourth of
an inch at least of clear space between the preparation and
the mould in the nearest part. A wooden screed or pa¬
rallel straight edge is tacked with brads on to the wall,
and another on the ceiling, if the cornice be large and
heavy, as guides or gauges for the mould, whose rests are
chased to fit them; and then one man laying on gauge
stuff in an almost fluid state with an angular trowel, ano¬
ther works the mould backwards and forwards over it,
which strikes off what is superfluous, and gives the in¬
verse of its form to the rest. The mould is never taken
down from the work at right angles to the line of it,
but is drawn off at the end, so that none of the parts
of the moulding or cornice is injured or torn by it, which
must otherwise frequently be the case, from the peculiar
forms at times given to the details. If a cornice be too
large and heavy to be executed at once, it may be done
in the same manner at two or more times, in so many
parts; and if any part or parts of a moulding or cornice
is to be enriched, the space for it is left vacant by the
mould, and the enrichment is afterwards supplied. As a
cornice cannot be completed up to the angles by the
mould, it is worked by hand in those situations to a joint.
1 he joinings are termed mitres, and in forming them the
plasterer uses the jointing tools we have already described.
Models for enrichments are made by the modeller, accord¬
ing to the design or drawing submitted to him, and from
them the plasterer makes wax moulds, or, as in ordinary
piactice, the modeller supplies the moulds in which the
DING.
ornament is cast in plaster of Paris. If the ornament be Bui
in recurring lengths or parts, as is usually the case, only v-n
one length or part is modelled, and casts of as many as
are required are taken from the mould; some single or¬
naments, again, which are very large, require to be mould¬
ed and cast in parts, which are put together by means of
cement. When the cast ornaments are sufficiently dry
the pieces are scraped and trimmed, the joints made clean
and even, and they are set in the cornice with plaster of
Paris, with white lead, or with a composition called iron
cement, as the case may require. If the castings have
something in the cornice to rest upon, the first will do;
but if there is nothing to retain or attach them but the
cement, one of the two latter must be used. Flowers
and other ornaments in ceilings which are too large and
heavy to be trusted to adhesive matter alone, must be
screwed on to wooden cradling behind and above them.
In plastering a wall with common stucco, and its use is
mostly for outside work, the first thing to be done is to
remove the dust from it by brushing, and then wetting it
very completely with water ; if the wall to be stuccoed
be an old one, or one of which the joints have been drawn,
the mortar of the joints must be chipped or even raked
out, and the bricks picked, to expose a new and porous
surface to the plastering before brushing and wetting.
The wall is then covered with stucco in a fluid state, ap¬
plied with a broad and strong hog’s bristle brush, like
common white-washing. When this is nearly dry the
stucco must be laid on as in common rendering, unless the
work is to be floated, when the process is nearly similar
to that in floated plastering. Screeds must be formed at
the highest and lowest extremities of the wall, or of that
part of the wall which is in the same vertical line, and is
not intercepted by string courses, and be returned at the
angles, putting the whole surface into a sort of frame.
These must be made perfectly straight and plumb, so as
to be quite out of winding, by the careful application of
the plumb-rule and straight edge. Inner vertical screeds
must then followr at three or four feet apart across the
whole surface, and be made to range exactly with the
outer ones, and then the interstices must be filled in as be¬
fore. As the work is made good it must be well rubbed
with the hand-float, as in the execution of trowelled stucco
internally, to compress the material, and produce a hard,
even, and glossy surface. Preparations for cornices and
other projections from the straight surface of the work
must have been previously made in or on the brick or
stone-wrork, by the protrusion of bricks, tiles, or whatever
may be best suited to form a core, and the mouldings and
cornices are run with moulds, in the manner described for
the same things internally, only that in work of this kind no
plastic material but the stucco itself is used; that is, there
is no preparation of any softer material than the stucco it¬
self put under it. In running cornices in this material, work¬
men are very apt to mix a little plaster of Paris with the
stucco to make it set under the mould, and thus give sharp¬
ness and fulness to the mouldings ; but this should not be
permitted ; for the plaster is not qualified to stand the wea¬
ther as the stucco is, and, if mixed with it, will produce
premature decay. (For information concerning the various
modes of preparing it, see the article Stucco). When the
stucco is perfectly dry, it may be painted in oil colours, or
be coloured in distemper; and in either case it is generally
ruled over the surface with a lead point, to give it the ap¬
pearance of gauged stone-work.
Rendering in Roman cement is executed almost ex¬
actly in the same manner as stucco rendering is, onhy
that it is laid on the saturated wall directly, without the
preliminary operation of roughing in, or washing the sur¬
face with a solution of the material. The same process,
ing.
B U I L D I N
Wtog. too, IS followed in floating this cement, and with the same
^ exceptions; and as, in addition to its superior hardTss
and capacity for duration, it is a quick-setting cemenT
is far preferable to any of the common stuccoes for run
mng cornices, mouldings, &c. Roman cement, or is iH='
vulgarly called by most persons concerned in the opera
tions of budding compo, a contraction of compoE
may, like stucco, be painted in oil or coloured; buHn lead
of a size colour, which is used for almost every other pur
pose in plastering the colour for this compositL is mixed’
with diluted sulphuric acid. This too may be lined and
tinted to imitate stone and stone-work of any description
It may not be amiss here to refer to the causes of the pre-'
mature decay which takes place in stuccoes and ceinents
when used externally os a coating to walls. The primirv
cause is the presence of muddy earth and decked an?
mal and vegetable matter in the sand used with tiiehme’
and cement. To this may be added frequent impur “s
m the limes and cements themselves, particular!? of ar!
gdlaceous matter in the former, and sometimes7to the
o giea- piopoi tions of lime or cement to sand. These
things might, however, remain quiescent for a long time
if the work were well protected from access of moisture’
which is the grand exciting cause. The paint, or distem-
pe. wash, on the surface, is generally sufficient to prevent
t e rain which may beat against a vertical face from
SE T, eSpenlaiy 'f the work have bcen well hand-
floated and trowelled, to make it close and compact ■ but
the evil arises from exposure above, and from Hie num¬
berless horizontal unfloated surfaces which are constantly
presented. These receive and collect the water and cot
vey m streams over the vertical surfaces what is ^ot imme¬
diately absorbed ; and the work thus becoming saturated
frost seizes and bursts it, or warmth calls the vegetative
powers of the impurities in it into action, and the whole
is covered with a green sward. Let the sand of which a
paster composition is to be formed, whether with lime or
ement, be washed until it no longer discolours clean wa¬
ter, and be well compounded with cementitious matter
tZ fr°m1th\,mpurifies With which k is so frequently
M n?ti 1 ! “ W°,rk ,be WC!I ’'‘“'^-floated and trowel,
ed, particularly on the backs or upper horizontal surfaces
of projections, and protected above by projecting eaves
or otherwise; and the work, with common care and attem
anvfhinPainf ,°t!’ d,IStTPerlat intervals> ^st as long as
anywhere^ b6 ^ b6 exPected’ or is ^ last
are\rnfaPh USeful c?vering for external w^alls which
roLh , ^ Pr°Jecting eaves’ ^ plain buildings, is
rough cast. This is executed in the following manner.
hair SUlf^ce 18 P1’®1 roughed in, or rendered witli lime and
material1!When ^ another coat of the same
material is superadded, laid as evenly as it can be without
extpmg’- and 38 S°jn af R piece °r two or three yards in
2 miv, eXetffled’ ^ workman lays on it an almost
havi ^ Xture °f fin.e c ean gravel and strong lime, which
wasL^^i^ mlXed together* This is immediately
tht wi T 1 ?ny. ochre°us colour that may be desired, and
whole dries into one compact mass.
farp1 ,reilovating and repairing plastering, the whole sur-
hflVO x.u washed to remove the dirt which may
attached itself, and as much of the earthy matter of
awj^eV10U^ <?°at °f wkitening or colouring as will come
cmrU ^ laJuries the w°rk may have received, such as
n(™ fractures, are then repaired; and when the
an lsr(iuite dry, the joinings are scraped to produce
Imvo i0 Sui^ace’ aud the whole is again whitened or co-
ance or twice, or oftener, as may be required, to
nainto i bear ^?ut wel1- Stuccoed walls which have been
must be well rubbed with pumice stone, to take
VOL, V.
G.
681
painted?^ Pa‘nt ^ mi,Ch aS P0ssible ^fore they are newly Building.
byJh^yaTs^ert" jiinelqu^ t11,68’ It‘! ? l'61'
under separate beads according to the nature id d kc,‘
laiTand8 s?,6 Id hE"''? 'y'’? ?d
the running foot, and beads and othel very si'4rX“'a U
iriffs are measurprl In oo t ^ srnaJl mould-
by multiplying the W h ’ min qUanuty ,s Pertained
richments are either numbered or takon it 0 "i V1
running foot, making the modellerfan extra cTarge ff
and nTit^ktl, ^
beyond a limited number. This timber “in’in ’,,?,i!’'eCe
and count only all that may occur above e,Vht for n^
difference is made between internal and external amdes
Circular work whether it be convex or concave of eferv
kind, may be charged about one fourth higher than struVht
Stuccoes and other compositions are also valued bv^t e*
yard, and according to the description of the work with
almost similar exceptions to those mentioned wTth regard
to common plastering. Used externally, however alf the
duTm-e^aken??!, angles> tbroutings, lfrooves?chamferst
In the nrectin f ^ rUnn'nS f°0t at sucb a ^tb-
in the piactice of measuring plasterer’s work, it is cus
tomary to take the whole surface at first, and then what-
ever deductions there may be. Thus the side of a room
is measured over all, from the upper edge of the skirtino-
grounds up to the cornice. The windows and doors are
deducted by taking to the outside of their framed grounds
for the width, and from the skirting grounds mfto the
top of those of the door or window for the height. If
there be more than one of each, or either of them, to de-
duct, of course the same dimension will serve for all, mul¬
tiplied by as many times as each deduction occurs. A
ceiling also is generally taken over the whole surface
from cornice to cornice, a chimney-breast or other projec-
t on being made a deduction. It is a moot point whether
the plasterer should not be allowed that part of the ceil-
a?d *aU ,W llch 18 covered by the cornice, as he has
actually finished the whole except setting. When the
t3ienbracket^raCketed’ however’ he ma^ fair,y claim up to
Scaffolding is not generally made an extra charge with
new work; but with old work it is, if scaffolding be ne¬
cessary; for, under ordinary circumstances, the plasterer
is enabled to wash, stop, and whiten the ceilings and walls
or rooms from trestles, with boards laid across them In
lofty saloons and halls, churches, &c. scaffolding is indis¬
pensable, and must then be charged. A scaffold is neces¬
sary, too, to a front that is to be plastered in any way •
but it may be afterwards washed, repaired, and coloured,’
from a ladder, without the intervention of a scaffold.
4 R
682
building.
Building.
Slater.—The principle on which slates are laid is that
which is employed in plain tiling. lo a roof with pro¬
jecting eaves, a wide board is placed over the rafters teet ;
but when the eaves tail into gutters, the gutter-board
is made wide enough to receive the eaves-course. tor
light slating it is necessary to board a roof all over, this
is done by the carpenter, and is called sound-boarding;
but for strong heavy slates, fillets or battens are better;
and these are laid by the slater himself, to suit the lengti
of his slates. Three inches wide and one inch thick is a
sufficient size for them, if the rafters be not more than
twelve inches apart. Against gable or party-walls, a fea¬
ther-edged board called a tilting fillet is laid to turn the
water from the wall.
Before he begins to work on a roof, the slater shapes
and trims the slates on the ground. With a large knife
or chopper called a saixe, sax, or zax, he strikes off t le
unevennesses on one side of a slate, making it as nearly
straight as he can ; he then runs a gauge along it, marking
the greatest width the slate will bear, and, cutting to that
line, makes it perfectly parallel. He next, with a square,
brings the thickest and best end to right angles with the
sides, generally by chopping, but sometimes by sawing;
and then marking upward from the squared foot or tail,
makes two nail holes, where, by calculating the gauge
the slate in hand will bear, he knows the fillet must come.
All the slates being thus gauged to width, dressed, and
sorted in lengths, they are then carried on to the roof by
the labourers in rotation, beginning with the longest and
largest for the lowest courses. The first course the slater
lays is little more than half the length of that which is
intended to cover it, and is necessary to break the joints
at the eaves. This is called the doubling eaves-course;
and the covering eaves-course is brought to the same foot¬
line, completely to cover it. Then to ascertain the gauge :
From the length of the slate deduct the bond, which should
never be less than two inches, and need not be more than
three and a half inches, and the half of what remains will be
the gauge. Thus, if the bond be fixed at three inches, and
the slate is two feet three inches in length, the gauge will
be one foot. This gauge or margin is set up from the foot
of the eaves-course at each end, and a line strained to
mark it along the whole length, and so on, to the ridge
or top, where another half-course is required to complete
the work, and that is in its turn secured by a covering of
sheet lead. To a hipped roof care is taken to complete
every course up to the angle, by cutting slates to fit its
inclination; and these are also covered by an overlap of
sheet lead. In nailing a slate, it must not be strained or
bent in the slightest degree, or it will certainly fly in some
sudden atmospheric change, to which it is of course con¬
stantly liable, even if it escape fracture, from being trod¬
den on by the workmen themselves or by others. Copper,
being less liable to oxidize from exposure to common
causes than any other metal that will answer the purpose,
is generally used for slate nails. Zinc is also used for the
purpose ; and iron tinned and painted nails are sometimes
substituted by dishonesty on the part of the workman or
builder, or bad economy on that of the proprietor. Slat¬
ing should be well pointed on the inside, or torched, as
the operation is sometimes termed, with lime and hair, to
keep out the wind, and prevent snow" from driving in,
which it will do in an almost incredible manner if it be
not thus hindered. Particular attention should be paid
to this, as the neglect of it occasions more damaged ceil¬
ings than even broken slates, and more catarrhs than arise
from broken panes of glass.
A very light and neat covering is produced, by laying
wide slates side by side, and covering their joints with
narrow slips bedded in putty, the overlap at the ends
being no more than the bond is with the usual mode. It Buildil^.
is known as patent slating, and was introduced by the J
late Mr Wyatt, though he never obtained a patent for it.
Indeed it is in principle the mode which was adopted in
ancient Greece in covering the roofs of temples. Neither
boards nor fillets are used, the slate bearing from rafter to
rafter, and to the rafters the slates are screwed. The co¬
vering slips are also screwed, as well as bedded in putty.
Slating of this kind may be laid at no greater elevation
than ten degrees ; whereas, for slating in the ordinary
way, the angle should never be much less than twenty-
five degrees, though large slates with a three and a half
inch bond, carefully laid and well pointed, may perhaps be
trusted at a rise of twenty degrees.
The mode above described of ascertaining the gauge
or margin by the bond, is equally applicable to every sort
of roof-covering that is made up of small inflexible paral-
lelogramic slabs or tablets ; and it should be borne in mind
that the greater the angle is at which the rafters rise, or,
in technical language, the higher the pitch of the roof,
the less the bond may be, and vice versa. With slabs or
tablets that vary in length, too, as slates generally do in
this country as they are brought to market, it is the bond
which it is of importance to observe ; but if they are of
an invariable length, as tiles are, it is sufficient that the
gauge or margin be attended to.
The best slate this country produces is from the quar¬
ries of Bangor in Caernarvonshire, and of Kendal in West¬
moreland. Good slate is also procured in the neighbour¬
hood of Tavistock in Devonshire, and in some parts of
Scotland. The scantlings of slate are cut in the quarries
to set sizes, and these are split into tablets, thicker or
thinner according to the size of the slab and the capacity
of the slate, for the inferior qualities are neither so com¬
pact in material, nor so clearly laminated or schistose, as
the superior, and will not therefore rend so freely. The
sizes of slates best known in the British market are distin¬
guished by the names of ladies, countesses, duchesses, and
queens. Ladies measure fifteen inches by eight, coun¬
tesses twenty inches by ten, duchesses twenty-four inches
by twelve, and queens thirty-six inches by twenty-four;
and they are esteemed in proportion to their magnitude.
Besides these, there is a slate which equals the queen m
extent of surface, but is of very much greater thickness ;
this is called Welsh rag. A smaller slate, again, which is
less indeed than the lady, and is cut from the refuse of
large scantlings, is called a double. In size it does not
often exceed twelve inches by six. Westmoreland slates
are thick and heavy like the W^elsh rag, but do not ge¬
nerally run so large.
The best slate is of a bluish-grey colour, and breaks
before the zax like w'ell-burnt pottery, and will ring in the
same manner on being struck. Whitish or light grey-
coloured slate is for the most part stony: dark blue or
blackish slate, on the other hand, cuts very freely; but it
absorbs moisture, and decays rapidly.
Slater’s work is measured by the square of a hundre
superficial feet. In a parallelogramic piece of slating, as
in a gabled roof with projecting eaves, the length along
the eaves by the breadth or height from that to the ri go>
with the addition to the latter dimension of the gauge or
margin for doubling the eaves, will give the quantitvo
one side. Projections for chimney-shafts or breasts, s y
lights, &c. must be deducted; but an addition must be
made of the run round them by six inches, for cutting an
waste. In a hipped roof the length from point to P0^
of the eaves on one of the long sides of a qnad^i a
ral roof, by the breadth or height, with the ^ltI0” i
before, will give that side and half of each of tie e
The other side will, of course, in the same manner, me
BUILDING. fjoo
Building, the other halves of the ends. The length of the hi™ f , 00
as a superficial dimension in feet, or by twelve incl^ is dov^tadedTotch ^ ?°‘ \ k an oblIque-angled, Building.
added for cutting and waste, and valleys are taken and ^°^ta;Ied notcb; and Nc». 5 shows how joints are notched   
added in the same manner when they occur or letdown on beams and binders, and purlines on princi-
added in the same manner when they occur a- a -   nuca uu pnnci-
Carpenter.—For the scientific principles of carnentrv A n0-C1,18 CUt .into the under edge of the
we must refer the reader to the article under thaUien/ ™ ^ i P1.11,1111® an incb or an lnch and a half in depth, and
and to the articles Roof, Strength of Materials and thiVL^^ NT8!'^61' than,t le beam’ binder> or rafter is in
Timber. Here we have merely to speak of the nrartical nfif" vf8' •1Sotc.hes are also cut down on the upper angles
details of carpenters’ work in the operations of buddine- — u16 bear!n^ Pleces as long as the rider is thick, as deep
indeed, of carpentering, or the practice of carnentrv ^ n?tcb beP°ye. described of the latter is, and so far
sidering it as a mechanical art. ^ " J11 aSf]t0 !.ea,ve a tblcbness o.n its own edge equal to the
The carpenter works in wood, which he receives from d^fmm the.n.otcb V1 ;be riding joist or purline. In the
the sawyer in beams, scantlings, and planks or boards nnt?b « oj16 Jolnt is indicated in its place let down in the
which he cuts and combines into bond-timbers wall nlafes’ m 1 1 ’ ^ anotbeT indlcates the notch in its own edge,
floors, and roofs. He is distinguished from ^10^ ’ T 'T™ eXP°Sed tbe notches in tbe binder. Cogging!
his operations being directed to the mere carcass nf n «F Ca<!klnf as l1 18 vulgarly termed, is the last-mentioned
building,—to tilings which have reference to structure Pecles ° notcl1 extended on one side, and leaving a nar-
only. Almost every thing the carpenter does in and to an unner0fac’e0No°! fo"!” ‘f6 b';“nnS-P.ie“ <]ush with its
edifice is absolutely necessary to its stabilitv and . i u iN°' 1 18 used Principally in tailing
whereas the joiner does not Lgin his S Tad ^ beamSL°n ^ tem-Plate8’aad the cog is her!
carcass is complete; and every article of miners’ wm-L- * ade nan,0.wer1’h®031186,tbe end ePtbe joist or rider corn-
might at any time be removed from a buildinp- wbl, g® ll],imediately beyond the plate, that part which forms
undermining^it or affecting its mosT impo^tanfauali Fes ed' ^ °f '16^ be ^ °n beinS 8traia-
Certainly, in the practice of building, a few things do nr-' Ion ^ cb.T,Ped od °.r t0,n awayj lf Ifc were not kept as
cur which it is difficult to determine’to whose immediate ^ P°.ssib e ’ and.lt 18 n°t of so much importance to
province they belong; but the distinction is nevertbele £uaic against weakening a wall-plate which is supported
sufficiently broad for general purposes The rarnent SS a °n^ wbo e en^b’as a beam’b‘nder> or Principal raft-
with the bricklayer ormason amKme of he miC a? 7’ whlch1rests on dl8tant Point8 a!ane. No. 2 of the same
tificers, constructs the frame or hull; and the joiner with bv fdmmtT8 aa°1ther ™°de of taibog on joists and beams
the plasterer and others, decorates and rigs the vessel notdit Nos Tanih ft 9/° fr°m the ^
zt depends: fr*dh ih;
and wedmno--an«fVb 1 b,’ ‘ &ging> tenoning, pinning, the rider to take a bearing in a notch like that to No 1 be^-
?he adze8 "he saw the mallei hfS are the,rU'?’ thC aXe’ fo,'e'the dovetail commenced, as at No. I, for n theordl
auvers hook „?nT’ » n.^e ’, haTerS’ ■ Chlfls’ g°USeS’ mode “ is weakened in a point of great importance
and a gauge Together with the kvel 3 nl ° J0"?"5 k S’ m, Tenoninf imPIies mortising also, as a matter of course,
sidpc hL ^ 1 & e. , tb 1 • eve and PIumb-rule; be- They are the names of the two operations necessarv to
maul S beetle3 we'dira^da^wh a ? hamniver> a °ne ^^I^-that of producing a connection between Lo
hcqT i *i• .’ oes’ and a crow-bar, may be considered pieces by inserting part of the end of one into a hnlo
to the performance1of^v1orks^ofrcarpentry,^Ute^ necessaiT »f similar size cut in the side or edge of the other. A
tv. c1 e • 4. x ° KS> or carpentiy. tenon is formed by cutting in on each side or ed^e of n
the opposite sidL^ft^niF^3 ?^0^ ^ en,dS’ bUt °n pleCe °f timber’ near its end’ transversely, to a certain
nr tv;Pp 8*te sides> of two pieces of timber, for the purpose depth, or rather, leaving a certain part of the breadth or
wall-plates aF^bondfimW Thl8 18 donf t0 dePth uncut, and then cutting in longitudinally from the
^iey are reauireci of orpauFr ^ to beams when ends as far from each edge as the transverse cuts have
Without joinino- SSpFcTZ be Procared beer? made m depth, thus removing two square prisms and
scarfW Jhnnd&a (bce Carpentry.) The usual mode of leaving a third undivided. This is the tenon. An exca-
fifths thrmF L and wall-Plate8 is by cutting about three vation in the side of a piece of timber, of a certain depth,
the^under'face^f th^oth ? fac.e ^‘he ane,and the direction of its thickness, parallel to its edges,Tnd
the 77tin f 7 7 - ab0lf S1^ °r eight lnches from bounded lengthwise by lines at right angles to them, is a
a mF/or W anTl Jn f 18 ^ cf I termed m°rtise- Tenons and mortise8 ai’e made exactly cor-
fifth/down In tbp onSltudinally flom the end, from two responding size, and are most frequently at equal distances
ther with a sort of u0 ^ PieCGS 3p t0^e‘ fr°m °ne °r the 0ther side or edSe of the two Pieces to be
weio-ht of thp ! i he beaVJ suP.ervening conjoined; and for the most part, too, every angle formed
they slmnl lh J and J° renders it impossible that in the process of tenoning, both internal and external, is
asunder or 7?°^ tea?;\ng ^e fibres a right angle. Tenons are called joggles in some situations,
;vin less thpsF ^ g eight;, (Se? 20;) Neverthe- when they are not intended to be borne upon; and their
reonirp^TX are generalIy spiked, and it is always use is merely to keep the piece of timber to which they
NoLr? • •!, 7 be made t0 fal1 !n or ”nder a Pier- belong steadily in its place, without being liable to slight
ronnp ug 18 eitber square or dovetailed: it is used in accidents from lateral pressure or violence. In combining
thp ing .ie ends °f wall-plates and bond-timber at timbers by means of mortises and tenons, to produce as
nU ng es’ In. Je.ttlag joists down on beams or binders, great a degree of strength as possible, it must be obvious
fio- o]68 i°n P11110.1?3^ rafters, &c. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, that the object to be kept in view is to maintain the end
scrih l XT^ ?riet,es of notches applied as we have de- or tenon of the one as large and efficient as it maybe, and
p JFci a ■ 18 a SimP]e 8(luare notch °.r baIving of the weaken the other as little as possible in forming the mor-
2 a H° ond-timbers or wall-plates at a right angle; No. tise. For the efficiency of the mortised piece in a hori-
uspH -0ye..d notch. ^ No. 3, the notch most commonly zontal bearing, it is clear that as much of its thickness
• i is similar to l\o. 1, but that the ends are allowed should be below the mortise as possible, as at a, fig. 23;
run on so that the one piece grasps the other, and each for if it be put low, as at 6, the superincumbent weight on
BUILDING.
G84
Building, the tenon would more readily split or rend it in the direc-
tion of the grain, as indicated; but the case is inverted
with the tenoned pieces. With the mortise at a the tenon
could only have the efficacy of so much of the piece to
which it belongs as there is of it above its under surface,
which is a very small part of its depth ; whereas with the
tenon at b it would command the power of the greatest
part of the piece. To guard as much as possible against
the danger of too great a mortise and too small a tenon on
one side and the other, and to obviate the difficulty aris¬
ing from the efficiency of one or the other of the two
pieces being affected by putting the tenon too high or too
low, a compound, called a tusk tenon, is used for almost
all horizontal bearings of any importance, especially to
joists and binders, to trimmers, beams, girders, brestsum-
mers, &c. The body of the tenon in this is a little above
the middle of the end, and it runs out two, three, or four
inches, or more, as the case may require. Below it the
tusk protrudes, and above it the shoulder is cut down at
an obtuse angle with the horizontal line, giving the strength
of the whole depth of the timber above the under tusk to
the tenon, and giving it a bearing in a shallow mortise,
whilst a greater depth of the mortised piece than the tusk
rests on receives the body of the tenon, and so protects its
comparatively narrow margin from undue pressure. The
diagram No. 1, fig. 24, shows the tusk tenon, with the section
of a beam into which it is mortised; and No. 2 indicates
perspectively the appearance of the mortise in front. See
also Carpentry.
Pinning is the insertion of nearly cylindrical pieces of
wood or iron through a tenon, to detain it in the mortise,
or prevent it from being drawn out by any ordinary force.
For this purpose the pin is inserted either in the body, or
beyond the thickness, of the mortised piece, as indicated
at c, fig. 24, or at a, fig. 25. WTdging (see bb, No. 2, fig.
25) is the insertion of triangular prisms, whose converg¬
ing sides are under an extremely acute angle, into or by
the end of a tenon, to make it fill the mortise so complete¬
ly, or bind it so tightly, that it cannot be easily withdrawn.
The wedging of tenons also assists in restoring to the
mortised piece of timber much of the strength it had lost
by the excision of so much of its mass, which indeed the
tenon itself does if it fit closely in every direction ; but the
assistance of the wedge renders the restoration more per¬
fect than the tenon could be made to do of itself, by com¬
pressing the fibres of both, longitudinally to those of the
one, and transversely to those of the other, thus removing
the tendency of the mortised piece to yield in any degree
in the weakened part, though it cannot make up the loss
in its tenacity occasioned by the section of its fibres.
In scarfing, cogging, and notching, the shoulders are al¬
ways cut in with the saw; but the cheek is for the most
part struck out with the mallet and chisel, or adze, as may
be most convenient. Tenons should be made entirely with
the saw : mortises are generally bored at the ends with an
auger whose diameter equals their thickness ; the interven¬
ing part is taken out with a wide chisel, cutting in the di¬
rection of the fibre ; and the ends are squared down with a
chisel whose breadth just equals the thickness of the moi’-
tise. Wood pins must be rent to insure the equal tenacity
of their whole mass. Wedges are cut with the saw, but
straight grained stuff is always preferred for them.
Bond-timbers and wall-plates should be carefully notch¬
ed together at every angle and return, and scarfed at
every longitudinal joint. The scarf shown at fig. 20 is
sufficient for the purpose; and the notch at No. 3, fig. 21,
may be preferred where notching is required ; neither pinn¬
ing nor nailing, however, can be of great use to either the
notch or the scarf. Bond-timbers are passed along and
through all openings, and are not cut out until such open¬
ings are to be permanently occupied, that is, windows with BuiW
their sash-frames, &c. because they assist in preventing
irregular settlements, by helping to carry the weight of a
heavy part along the substruction generally, instead of allow¬
ing it to press unduly upon the part immediately under it.
Whatever notches and cogs for beams and joists are re¬
quired in wall and tem-plates, should be made before they
are set on or in a wall; for, as they are always bedded in
mortar, any thing that may break the set must be avoided.
It is incumbent on the carpenter to supply the brick¬
layer or mason with wood bricks in sufficient quantity, and
to direct him where they should be placed to receive the
joiner’s fittings, or the battening, which the carpenter him¬
self may have to put up for the plasterer.
The framed quartering partitions which may be requir¬
ed should be set up in every story before the beams and
joists of the floors are laid, that their horizontal timbers
may be notched on to the wall-plates, and that the joists
or binders may be notched on to them if occasion require
it; but they should be fixed rather below than above the
level of the wall-plates, because they are not liable to set¬
tle down so much as the walls, though even that will de¬
pend in a great degree on the nature of the walling, and
its liability to yield.
The carpenter makes and fixes or sets centres of all
kinds, whether for single arches, vaults, or drains. The
striking out of the centres, in the first instance, is neces¬
sarily contingent on the arches to be turned on thefh, for
the forms of which the carpenter must look to the brick¬
layer or mason, whose instructions for describing arches
will be found under the head Stone-Masonry. Large
centres are framed in distinct ribs, and are connected by
horizontal ties ; whilst small ones are made of mere boards
cut to the required sweep, nailed together, and connected
by battens notched into or nailed on their edges. Preci¬
sion and stability are nevertheless equally and absolutely
necessary, as it is impossible for an arch to be turned or
set coi'rectly on an incorrect or unstable centre.
The timbers or frame-work of floors is called naked floor¬
ing, and it is distinguished as single, double, and framed.
Of these the first, under ordinary circumstances, is the
strongest. Single flooring (see No. 1 and 2, fig. 29) con- plate
sists of one row or tier of joists alone, bearing from oneCXXXl
wall or partition to another, without any intermediate sup¬
port, receiving the flooring boards on the upper surface or
edges of the joists, and the ceiling, if there be one, on the
lower. Joists in single floors should never be less than two
inches in thickness, because of their liability to be split by
the brads or nails of the boards if they are thinner; and they
should never be much more, because of the keying of the
ceiling, which is injuriously affected by great thickness of
the joists. Twelve inches from joist to joist is the distance
generally allowed ; that dimension, however, from centre to
centre of the joists would be better. Strength to almost any
extent may be given by adding to the depth of the joists,
and diminishing the distance between them ; and they may
be made firm, and be prevented from buckling or twisting,
by putting struts between them. These struts are
short pieces of batten, which should not be less
than an inch, and need not be more than an inch and
a half thick, and three or four inches wide, placed
diagonally between the joists, to which they are nailed, m
a double series, or crossing, as indicated by the full and
dotted lines in the diagram, fig. 26; and they should be
made to range in a right line, that none of their effect may
be lost; and these ranges or rows should be repeated at
intervals not exceeding five or six feet. The struts shoui
be cut at the ends with exactly the same inclination or
bevel, to fit closely. Great care should be taken, too, not
to split the struts in nailing; but the trouble of boring
uilding. with a gimlet is saved by making a slight n • • •
^ with a wide-set saw for each nail of whth ^ ir,f1ST
not be less than two at each pnrl l ! ^ here,should
should be clasp-nails. If the struts were ^ S USed
notched into the joists, it ivould add very tfm,
materially to their efficiency, but perhaps
not m proportion to the additional labour it
would involve. This strutting should be ^ CT
materially ^ejts°firmn^f an^md^ed^o^its^tren^t^iby
affected by the necessity which constantly'wcursln nnlf
cuTti: XSn°Tsd fire'S,aCc8 a"dand acrZ™
cuities. 1 rimming is a mode of supporting the end of a
JO st by tenoning it into a piece of tin,her crossTne it and
called a trimmer instead of running it on or into the wall
which supports the ends of the other joists generally A
trimmer requires for the most part to be carried or En„
ported at one or both of its ends by some of the o sts'
stoute^than ifttlieimh,*d^<iiStS’and nre necessardy^made
share of the It 7 t0 beor no more ‘hnn their own
a e of the stress. Commonly it is found enough to
totf incehttrSeerthnd trimrai"? joists from halfan°inch
an inch thicker than common joists. In trimming tusk
tenons should be used ; and the long tongue or mffin’bodv
of the tenon should run not less than twfincheTZough7
compfet ivfiirtr'1’ r d’ moreoveMntT?^
of the latter Th ' ? !he direction of the length
flooring P,riQC,Pa obJect,on’ however, to single
men of hfho'T yiPafeS thvouS^ the attach-
ment of the boaids above and of the ceiling below beino-
lfreadvZ?J01SWthr?Ug,ll0Ut- Another objection, and one
eady referred to, is the necessity of making the ioists
receive' thl !?‘njurethat they wUh diffifulty
eceiye the flooring brads in their upper edges without
sPCd8'int parf1 , emedy for botI' tLe disadvantages
third fi de som.et,mes adopted of making every
h n th ?Th J°1St an inch or an i;ich and a half deeper
than the intervening joists ; and to these, ceiling joists are
g am n‘td’ T a!o.“. - shown m thfdTa!
of COTbc, hMwT S’„ y dlmmlsh>“« ‘he number of points
cei,;r between the upper and lower surface, for the
shall g must be carefully kept from touching the
S°Z J?'StS “f the boor, isi" lessPapt to convey land
joists to hpS °ryi f an,ot ler’ and allows conveniently thin
the floor iTh T Z Whh°Ut affecting thase of
coggino- ihpd clearlyj.however, involves the necessity of
Plantes nn ] de,epfr J01sts down so much more on the wall-
ffiates on which their ends rest.
plan0NoeqflrriS£v(see •Sections No' 1 2. %• 27, and
which are’ cfn 1 ■0n,s-lsts °' tllree distinct tiers of joists,
Thl Lf “ ! • hmdmg, bridging, and ceiling joists.
™. frl Jin" * r "f real SUPP°rt »f.‘be flofr? they
anrl tli t . ’ anc^ carry the bridging joists above
less a„dCsh &JO,Stlbel0W t'«m- Hinders°need not be
hatU if?h “^dn°'t be o'iCh m0re lhan six apart,
lywea’t' Th h g,"’S °r fl0OTm8 j°ists not inordinate-
notched dn bndg'n^J01sts form ‘he upper tier, and are
No 5 1 T T the..bmder5 with the notch shown at
and arP nnlV f 16 ^e‘h",g j°lsts range under the binders,
but Hip °!Clued and naded as shown at No. 1, fig. 27 ;
joists foZk ^ must be taken entirely out of the ceiling
wounded bZ Wer faCG °r 6dge °f tbe binder not he
no good iv/iTu means10!' on any account, and moreover
When It ■ U d be gained in any other respect by doing so.
ness „f ,han °bjact t0 save height in the depth or thick-
tenoned into Tiffe? ?f Ao?r’ th® “'img joists may be
them • m Z 1 binders, instead of being nailed on to
’ thls case the latter must be chase-mortised on
building.
685
they are themZZTe^Z^fiZd^T Z f0™er Whei1 BuiWing.
wedge-formed groove of Z h- Z A C,base 18 a long
mortise, of which it ls indeed an ^ thickneSS °f th^
elongation, so that the tenon at
one end of a ceiling joist being
inserted in the regular mortise
in rilf* r»Tr»rl/-vn    i n •
fi U- j mortise
along6 tte c^Xto fmnl ^ “‘i'1’6 0tber end is d'iren
binder. When ceili^ 1“ ‘"i th° in the next
lower or under faces arp oiin a f1US chase-mortised, their
under face of the binders and theT*6 * 3ittIe b^0W the
down by slips not wider than thp IfFaCe.aCr°SS 18 firred
ing the fifringPlr^bint™^!8 des re'iuir-
would be better gainpd h,r a , tAhe same space
much lower “owl aslhev ml S-,ft, blid«i"K j°i«a
dicated above, b^.erdo^Sll 1
great injury to either hrido-;™ • • tJ e, • dfPth without
eSSSiBSl#
than the depth of the beam itself, and the strength is n
increases^ A^ruZ^ ^ ght aS the Space or bearing
,,rt ar; -M 7 18 IR,deed a wooden arch, whose late-
snb on p iT1 -f C°7Se be greater tbe smaller the angle
subtended by it, and vice versa. It has been a common!v
received opinion, that a truss within the depth of a girder
adds materially to its strength; but experimenZhave
proved that very little advantage is gained by such a one
when executed in the best manner, and that! badly exe-
wflhout k6 lTl°r Wfaker With the trus« ^an
without it. Binders are made dependent on the girders
by. means of double tusk tenons, and on and to thfm the
bndgmg and ceiling joists are attached in the manner
before described. No. 1, fig. 28, shows the transverse sec¬
tion of a compartment or bay of a framed floor; No. 2 the
same longitudinally of the girder, and of the bridging and
ceiling joists, and transversely of the binders. No. 1, fig.
29 is the plan of a single floor of joists tailing in on wall-
p ates with two chains of struts, and trimmed to a fire-
place No. 2 is a floor similar to No. 1, with ceiling joists
XT66?- fl?0nng j°lsts at mtervals, as shown in
thY6f r °* 3 !Sihe PLan of a douhie floor; and No. 4 is
that of a framed floor of joists, bays of which are shown in
section at fig. 27 and 28.
Partitions of timber are called quartering partitions,
and they are generally framed. Common quartering par¬
titions which rest on a wall or floor, and have nothfng to
carry, consist merely of a sill, a head, and common°un-
nghts to receive the lath for plastering: these last may
be simply joggled or tenoned into the head and sill, in the
manner shown at c, tig. 23, and stiffened by struts or
stretching pieces put between them and nailed. When
however, a quartering partition is over a vacuity, or rests
only on certain points, and has, moreover, to sustain a
weight, a floor perchance, it is framed and trussed with
686
Building- king or queen posts and braces, on the principle of a roof;
and the filling in of common uprights or quarters for the
laths is generally performed by joggling them at one end
into either head or sill, and nailing them securely to the
raking braces. In the diagram No. 1, fig. 30, it is supposed
that an opening or doorway is to be made in the partition,
so that the timbers of the truss are placed around it with
queen-posts, and a small internal truss is put over the door-
head to prevent it from sagging, and to carry the long
part of the partition, which we suppose required to bear
a floor, so that the partition acts also, in facb the part of a
trussed girder in the most available form. No. 2 presents
another method of framing a similar partition. .
Shoring or propping up walls or floors, shoring for
sewers, &c. is done by the carpenter. In appearance it is
a simple operation, and under ordinary circumstances it
really is so ; but nevertheless it often demands the exercise
of considerable skill and tact to determine and to counter¬
act the tendency the part or thing to be supported has
in one direction or another.
Pugging floors, firring down joists, and bracketing and
cradling for plastering, and some other things, are ope¬
rations performed indifferently by the carpenter or joiner,
for they are not necessarily connected with the one more
than the other of these two mechanical arts.
The labour of carpenter’s work is valued by the square
of one hundred superficial feet whenever it will admit of
being so measured, and the timber is as generally valued
by the cubic foot. It is customary for the carpenter’s
work to be measured at the same time with the walls and
roof covering, or when the carcass of a building is com¬
pleted, and before the joiner and plasterer commence their
operations; for then it is all still exposed, and may be
correctly and certainly measured, whereas much must be
taken on trust if the measurement be deferred until the
works are completely finished.
Bond timber, wood bricks, and wall and tem-plates, are
taken under the same head, and are reduced to cubic feet
of timber at so much per foot, including the labour of
every kind on it. The naked flooring is taken on the sur¬
face from wall to wall, with a description of the nature of
it, whether it be single, double, or framed—if trimmed to
chimneys, party walls, stairs, or to any thing else—if
notched or cogged to wall-plates and partition heads—the
number and size of the large timbers, ceiling joists as
notched and nailed to wall-plates, and as framed or notch¬
ed and nailed to binders or common joists; and every
thing indeed that affects the quantity of labour required
in forming it. The superficial feet are reduced to squares
for the labour and nails involved and used in forming and
fixing or setting the floors. The timbers of which the
flooring is composed are then taken in detail and in cubic
quantities, and are said to be without labour, or with no
labour. Roofing is measured in the same manner, by the
superficial square, for labour and nails, taken on the com¬
mon rafters from ridge to heel; the length of a rafter by
the length of the roof for one side of a common span, and
repeated or doubled for the other, noting also a descrip¬
tion of the roof, whether it be lean-to or shed roofing, if
on purlines and with struts; common span-roofing; curb
roofing; span roofing with purlines and collar beams,
strutted or otherwise, from walls or partitions; span roof¬
ing with framed principals, tie-beams, king-posts or queen-
posts, straining beam, straining sill, struts, purlines, pole-
plates, and so on or as the case may be, and this too for
labour and nails. All the timbers are then taken, measur¬
ing every one to the extent of any tenon or tenons at its
ends, in cubic quantities also, and as without labour.
Bolts, bars, straps, stirrups, &c. are taken separately, and
their dimensions noted ‘from which to ascertain their
BUILDING.
weight. Gutter-boards and bearers are measured and va-
BuiLi
lued by the foot superficial, according to the thickness of ^
the former. Rough boarding for lead on flats, and sound
boarding for slates or lead, are taken superficially, and re¬
duced into squares. Centring to vaults is measured on the
periphery of the arch, or round back of the centre, for the
breadth, by the length, and is valued by the square; to aper¬
tures in the thickness of walls, by the foot, and to camber-
arches, by number, so much a piece. Quartering partitions
are measured by the square for labour and nails, and the ma¬
terial is taken by the cubic foot. Battening to walls is also
measured by the square, but the stuff is generally included
with the labour, as in boarding. Cradling and bracketing is
valued by the foot superficial, and with reference to the
quantity of stuff required or worked up. Any planing that
may have been necessary, and it will happen at times on
beams, joists, &c. when it is not intended to have a ceiling
under the floor, is charged by the foot on the surface, and
any beading or other moulding by the foot running.
It sometimes happens that a superficial quantity for la¬
bour and nails on framed timber cannot be obtained; in
that case the timber is measured by the cubic foot as
framed, or with the labour of framing included with its
own cost, &c. In this case, however, it is necessary to
make a distinction between one quantity and another, as
the labour employed upon an equal quantity of stuff in
framing some parts of a roof is much greater than is re¬
quired in most floors. Many things, such as strong door
and window frames, that are to be worked into the walls,
story-posts, brestsummers, &c. are always taken as framed
timber, with any addition that may occur of wrought, re¬
bated, beaded, &c. as the case may be.
The price or value to be attached to the varieties of
carpenter’s work depends almost as much on the texture or
hardness of the timber employed, as on its cost. W hat the
timber itself should be charged at may be thus determin¬
ed. To its price in the gross at the timber merchant's
must be added the cost of carriage to the spot where it is
to be employed, which will be so much the load of fifty
cubic feet, or so much per foot; then to the cost of each
cubic foot of timber add the price of four superficial feet
of sawing, which will form a fair average for the variously
sized scantlings, and one eighth of the increased amount
to it as an allowance for waste in cutting up and working.
This gives the actual cost, to the builder, of the timber as
it is worked up; and if it is to be charged as with no la¬
bour, his profit and a remuneration for his owm labour of
superintending, &c. alone remain to be included. If, ho^'
ever, labour of any kind is to be charged with the stuff, it
should be added first, and the builder’s profit, &c. taken
on both, or on the increased amount for the price per foot.
The cost of labour depends so much upon such a variety
of circumstances, that it is impossible to aid the inquner
materially in apportioning prices for the various opera¬
tions. In this, as in other things, it is well, when the
parties are not otherwise qualified to determine a sea e o
charges, to observe the time a man or a certain number
of men are employed in executing so much work of a cer¬
tain description, and compare the quantity by measure¬
ment with the time employed in executing it, or rather
with the wages of the workmen for the time. In nxing a
price for labour in carpenter’s work, the size of the timbers,
and the heights they have to be hoisted, together wi i
such scaffolding and machinery for hoisting as maybe
necessary, if the timbers be heavy, and the height an e
pense great, must be considered. As the timber use
shoring is not consumed, a charge is made for use anc wa
to the amount of one third of its value if it be muc i cu P*
and one fourth if but little, in addition to the labour o
ting up and taking down, whatever that may be.
Bife | uilding.
BUILDING.
{!'S':.1}i?,n"cVp,es,0.f j°lne7 als° "iH be found
the openings, set the sash frames, and fill them with old
sashes or with oiled paper on frames, to exclude the
ea ler, but admit light. The flooring joists are then
   wi P1 oved wUh straight-edges, and any inequalities in them -ire
The distinction between the operations'of the'carptm- dow^to tfl1^ ^ ^ floorinS bo^ds are next cut
ter and the joiner is shown in the commencement o/the , n 1 ?eir P- aCuS’ anc thc^ are turned with their faces
preceding section on the trade of the former A ^ay ^Zors8^'11 the Ceilin/Siare d,°ne 5 butfirst the
. .y S rigors, if ciny sre intendpH. arp fnrmorl   ■
S an article under that head in another part of this work"
here we have merely to do with the modes of operation’
and the tools employed by the workman, together with the
manner of estimating or determining the value of his work.
be a good carpenter without being a joiner'at tfl-1 butTie
cannot be a joiner without being competent, at least, to all
the operations required in carpentry. It is, indeed, very
truly remarked in the article Joinery, “ that the rough
labour of the carpenter renders him in some degree unfit
to produce that accurate and neat workmanship which is
KS ofTcrtnesSthe'g^tprec'ilion t II
make him a much slower and less profitable workman than witlfin G ^ T Wldfh fthree or fbur others’ or raiher
the practised carpenter, in works of carpentry. ‘ nai|Pa 2 J- Wldtlh and these are then forced down and
The joiner operates on battens, boards, and planks with This jL *1 °IrcinS having brought all the joints up close,
saws, planes, chisels, gouges, hatchet, adze gimblets and St ZL i g °de’ h°-WeVf ’ and shouId never be used,
other boring instruments, which are aided and directed by ritelv nVn floonng ,s whfn every board is laid sepa-
plinltArl imoc   i_ ,, . y ately, or one at a time, the heading joint or joints beino-
• n .  & ^ ^ > UUL Iirsi Uie PUP’-
g ng floors, if any are intended, are formed, and the purged
c ay is put in on them. Floors are in ordinary cases efther
Fohf ht °lnt °r ,foldlng’ and are edge or face nailed,
holding floors are those in which three, four, or five boards
are laid at a time, with their heading joints all on the
same joist, and of course in the same straight line. In
laymg them, one board being firmly nailed to the joists at
tli6 extrpmifv nf tVio — • i * i
chalked lines, gauges, squares, hammers, mallets, and a
great many other less important tools; and his operations
are principally sawing and planing in all their extensive
varieties, setting out, mortising, dovetailing, &c. A great
range of other operations, none of which can be called un-
U i i ui units DCmST
broken or covered regularly in every case. Straight joint
flooring may be with square joints, when it is entirely face
nailed, or it may be dowelled or tongued, when it is side or
edge nailed only. Dowelling is the driving pins of wood
or iron half their length into the edge of the last laid
important, such as paring, gluing UP) wedding pinnin/ ** * ttheir] Jength 1I.nt/),the edSe of the last laid
fixing, fitting, and hanging, and mlnyZngs besldis which nth2’ °Uter ^ ^ °f mS been skew-nailed, their
depend on nailing, &c. Inch as lavinTfnZ ™ds mto holes prepared for them in the
depend on nailing, &c. such as laying floors, boarding
ceding, wainscotting walls, bracketing, cradling, fiering,
and the like. In addition to the wood on which the joiner
works, he requires also glue, nails, brads, screws, and
hinges, and accessorily he applies bolts, locks, bars, and
other fastenings together with pulleys, lines, weights,
white-lead, holdfasts, wall-hooks, &c. &c.
Battens are narrow boards running from half an inch to
an inch and a half or two inches thick, and from three to
six or seven inches wide. A piece of stuff of too small a
scant mg to be a batten is called a fillet. The term board
is applied to sawed stuff when its width exceeds that of a
batten, and its thickness does not exceed two inches or
two inches and a half. The term plank is applied to large
pieces of stuff whose width is great in proportion to their
nckness, and whose thickness nevertheless does not ex¬
ceed three or four inches. In London these terms are
used m much more restricted senses than they are here
escribed to mean, because of the fixed and regular sizes
and forms in which stuff for the joiner’s use is for the most
part brought to market there. A batten, to a London
joiner, is a fine flooring board from an inch to an inch and
a half in thickness, and just seven inches wide. A board
is a piece cut from the thickness of a deal whose width is
exactly nine inches; and every thing, almost, above that
width, and not large enough to be called a scantling of
timber, is a plank. 6
The joiners’ work for a house is for the most part pre¬
pared at the shop, where every convenience may be sup¬
posed to exist for doing every thing in the best and readi-
s manner; so that little remains to be done when the
carcass is ready, but fit, fix, and hang, that is, after the floors
re aid. Ihe sashes and frames, the shutters, back flaps,
ac s, backs and elbows, soffits, grounds, doors, &c. are all
ramed and put together, that is, wedged up and cleaned
; at the shop; the flooring boards are prepared, that is,
aced, shot, and gauged with a fillister rebate; and all the
re ntraves, pilasters, jamb linings, skirtings, mouldings,
<,fCliare got out> tbat is, tried up, rebated, and moulded,
at the shop.
When the carcass of a building is ready for the joiner,
16 ist thing to be done is to cut the bond timber out of
687
Building.
. - o  xwi mem in uit;
inner edge of the next board, in the way the head of a
cask is held together, and then its outer edge is skew-
nailed in the same manner, and so on. Tongueing is effect¬
ed by grooving both edges of every board, and fitting thin
slips and tongues into them, as described in the article
Joinery. The boards are forced together by pressure
applied to the outer edge; wedges with iron dogs driven
into the joists are commonly used, but they are very ob¬
jectionable instruments. The nail used in face-nailing
floors is called a flooring brad; it has no head, but a mere
tongue projecting on one side of the top of the nail, which
is put in the direction of the grain, that it may admit of
being punched in below the surface level, otherwise the
superficial inequalities could not be reduced when the
floor was completed, because of the projecting heads of
the nails. For side or edge nailing, however, clasp-nails,
nails whose heads extend across on two of the opposite
sides, are used.
Another early operation the joiner has to attend to, is pi rvT
the fixing of the framed door and window and the narrow
skirting grounds (see fig. 35) to which the plasterers may
float their work. The skirting grounds are generally dove¬
tailed at the angles, and are well blocked out, so that they
may not vibrate on being struck, or yield to pressure when
the plasterer s straight-edge passes roughly over their
surface; they must also be set with the utmost truth and
precision. When the floors are cut down and the grounds
fixed, the joiner’s operations in a building should be sus¬
pended until the plasterers have finished, or nearly so,
and then the floors may be laid. By deferring this opera¬
tion until that period, the workmen of the two different
trades are prevented from interrupting each other, and
indeed injuring each other’s work; and joiners always find
employment in the shop preparing, as before intimated.
The preparation flooring boards receive, is planing on
the face, shooting on the edges, and gauging to a thick¬
ness ; the common fillister, or stop rebate plane, being
used to work down to the gauge mark, from the back of
every board, and about half an inch in on each edge. When
a board is to be laid, it is turned on its face in the place it
is to occupy, and the workman with his adze cuts away
from the back over every joist down to the gauge rebate,
688
mpr
BUILDING.
Eulldiug. so that on being turned over it falls exactly into its place,
and takes the same level with all its fellows, which have
been brought to the same gauge ; then follows the process
of laying as before described, and the result must, if the
work be done well, be a perfectly even and level surface.
The slight inequalities of surface which may occur are
reduced with a smoothing-plane, the brads being previous¬
ly punched below the surface if the floor be face-nailed.
See the article Joinery, sections 35 and 36.
In getting out skirtings, if the work be of a superior de¬
scription, the boards should be tried up as if for framing
in every particular except bringing to a width, which need
not be done. The face edges, however, must be worked with
great precision, and moulded or rebated as the case may re¬
quire. Rebating or tongueing will be necessary when the
skirting consists of more than one piece, that the different
pieces may be made to fit neatly and firmly together ; and
all but the lowest piece must of necessity be brought to a
width, as well as tried up in other particulars. A skirting
in a single width is called by that term; but when it is made
up of more than one part it is designated a base : the lowest
board is then called the skirting board, and the upper the
base moulding or mouldings. (Fig. 31 and 35.) The reason
why the skirting board is not brought to a width is, that
the labour would be lost according to the ordinary mode of
fixing it. The board is applied to its place with its lower
edge touching the floor ; but as the most perfectly wrought
floor will be likely to have some slight unevenness of surface
so close to the wall, a straight-edge would not fit closely
down it in every part. The board is therefore propped
up at one end or the other until the upper or faced edge
is perfectly parallel with the average line of the floor, or
rather to be perfectly level. A pair of strong compasses,
such as those used by the carpenter, is taken, and opened
to the greatest distance the lower edge of the skirting
board is from the floor throughout its length; the outer
edge, near the point of one leg of the compasses, is then
drawn along the floor, whilst the point of the other, being
kept vertically above it, is pressed against the face of the
board, on which it marks a line exactly parallel to the sur¬
face of the floor, indicating, of course, every, even the
slightest irregularity there may be in it. If the floor be
not a very uneven one, the excluded part may be ripped
off with the hand or the panel saw, which may generally
be made to follow the traced or inscribed line exactly ;
if, however, the line be a v£ry irregular one, having quick
turns in it, the hatchet must be used. This operation is
called scribing, and the result of it is evidently to make
the skirting fit down on the floor with the utmost preci¬
sion. Care must be taken, in performing the operation,
that the upper edges of the skirtings be not only level,
but that all which are in immediate connection be scribed
to an equal height, that their upper edges may exactly
correspond. Sometimes skirtings are let into a groove
in the floor, as indicated in the diagram, fig. 35, and thus
a slight degree of shrinking is made of less importance,
and scribing rendered unnecessary. Before skirtings are
fixed, vertical blocks are put at short intervals, extend¬
ing from the floor to the narrow grounds, and made ex¬
actly flush with and true to the latter, and are firmly
nailed. These form a sound backing, to which the skirt¬
ings may be bradded or nailed; and so prevent them from
warping or bending in any manner. If, however, the
skirting be not very wide, and be sufficiently stout to
stand without a backing, a fillet only is nailed along the
floor as a stop for its lower edge; but this is rendered un¬
necessary if the skirting be tongued into the floor, as the
tongue will answer every purpose of a stop. The ends
of skirtings should be tongued into each other when it is
necessary to piece them in length; and on returns or an¬
gles the end of one should be tongued into the return- BuiW
ed face of the other in the square parts, and mitred in the ^ w
oblique-angled or moulded.
When a chair-rail or surbase is required, grounds simi¬
lar to those for the base are fixed to range like them with
the face of the plastering ; the surbase itself must be wide
enough to cover the grounds and the joints formed by
them and the plastering, completely; it is in effect a cor¬
nice to the stereobate and the space intervening it, and
the base is generally understood to be wrainscotted, though
it is more frequently plastered.
In framing or framed work, the outer vertical bars which
are mortised are called styles; and the transverse, those on
whose ends the tenons are formed, are called rails. (Fig.32.)
In doors, particularly, the open spaces or squares formed
internally by the rails and styles are divided in the width
by bars parallel to the styles. These are tenoned into the
rails, and are called mountings, or, vulgarly, inuntins. The
frame being formed by trying up, setting out, mortising,
and tenoning, the inner or face edges of the styles, and of
the highest and lowest rails, and both edges of the muntins
and of the inner rails, are grooved with the plough to receive
the edges and ends of the filling-in parts, or panels of the
frame-work. Panels are either flat, raised, or flush. (Fig.
33.) Flat panels are no thicker than the grooves into which
they are fitted, and consequently their faces are as much
below the surface of the framing as the groove is in from
each side of the styles and rails. Raised panels are thicker
than the groove in the framing, but are not so thick as to
reach the surface; nor is the panel thickened through its
whole extent. It fits exactly into the groove, and thick¬
ens gradually for an inch or two, and then sets off at a
right angle with the surface, increasing suddenly three or
four sixteenths of an inch. A panel may be raised on one
side only, or on both sides. Flush panels are rebated down
from one face to the distance the plough groove is in from
the surface of the framing; and the back of a panel thus
rebated on one side is worked down to be even with the
other edge of the groove, leaving a tongue to fit it exactly;
for if it be required to make panels flush on both sides,
it is generally effected by filling in on the back or flatten¬
ed side with an extraneous piece. Framing is not, how¬
ever, often finished in the manner above described, espe¬
cially with raised and flush pannels; mouldings are gene¬
rally introduced, and are either struck or worked in the
solid substance of the framing, or in separate pieces or
slips, and laid in with brads. If a moulding be struck or
laid in on one side only, and the other is left plain, the
framing is described as moulded and square, a flat panel
being in that case understood ; if the panel be raised the
framing will be described as moulded with a raised panel
on one side, and square or flush the other. It may be
moulded with a flat panel, or moulded with a raised panel,
on both sides ; and the moulding may, as before intimated,
be either struck in the solid, or laid in in any of the pre¬
ceding cases. Mouldings which are laid in round the
panels of framing are neatly mitred at the angles, and
bradded, to appear as much as possible as if they were
struck in the solid. In nailing or bradding the mouldings,
the brads should be driven into the frame-w-ork, and not
into the panels. With a flush panel, however, the mould¬
ing is always either a bead, or a series of beads called reeds;
and is, in the case of a single bead, which is most com¬
mon, always struck on the solid frame, and the work i»
called bead-flush; but reeds are generally struck on the
panel in the direction of the grain, and laid in on the pane
across it, or along the ends; this is termed reed-flush. FI us
panels in inferior works have a single bead struck on their
sides in the direction of the grain alone, the ends abutting
plainly, as in the first diagram of a flush panel, and this is
Ming.
PY
termed bead-butt, the fact that the panels are flush beincj
inferred. Die plainest quality of framing, in which it is
square on both sides, is used in the fittings of inferior
bed-rooms, inner closets, and the plainer domestic offices
but always internally; framing moulded on one or both
sides, in rooms and places of a greater degree of import¬
ance, and in places where the work may be more ine-
rally seen ; in some cases a flat panel may be enriched bv
a small moulding laid on its surface, leaving a margin be¬
tween it and the larger moulding at its extremities; this
may be done in drawing-rooms and apartments of that
class, especially if they be in an upper story; and raised
panels should be confined to the framed fittings of dining¬
rooms and other apartments on a ground or principal story.
Framing with flush panels is almost restricted to external
doors, &c. one side of a door being bead-flush, and the
other flat and moulded, perhaps, or the face may be mould¬
ed with a raised panel, and the back bead-flush; and this for
principal entrances. Bead-butt framing is found in exter¬
nal doors to offices, &c. Doors are made four panelled for
the most part when the panels are flat and the framing
square, six panelled when the latter is moulded, and six,
eight, or even ten panelled when the framing is of the su¬
perior descriptions. Doors which are hung in two equal
widths to occupy the doorway, and are hung to the onno-
site side posts or jambs of the frame, are said to be double
margined; that is, the styles or margins are repeated ne¬
cessarily in the middle where they meet. Doorways are
fitted with jamb linings, and architraves or pilasters. Jamb
linings may be framed to correspond with the door on the
outer faces; and when they exceed nine or ten inches in
width they should always “be so, or they may be solid,
farrow and plain jamb linings to inferior rooms are re¬
bated on one side only, and the rebate forms the frame
into which the door is fitted. To superior work they are
rebated on both sides, as if it were intended to put a door
on each side. The jambs are fixed to the inner ed^es of
the grounds; and if they are wide, and not framed,Iback-
ings ai e put across to stiffen them ; and these backings are
dovetailed into the edges of the grounds. Architraves and
pilasters are variously sunk and moulded, according to the
fancy of the designer. They are fixed to the grounds with
their internal edges exactly fitting to the rebates in the
jamos, and they form the enriched margin or moulding of
the frame in which the door is set. Architraves are mi¬
tred at the upper angle, but pilasters have generally a con¬
sole or an enriched block or cap resting on them, to which
they fit with a square joint; both the one and the other
either run down and are scribed to the floor, or rest on
squared blocks or bases, which may be the height of the
skirting board, or of the Jvhole base.
The parts of the outside frame of a sash are distin¬
guished by the terms applied to the similar parts of com¬
mon framing. The upright sides are styles, and the trans¬
verse or horizontal ones, which are tenoned into the ends
of the styles, are rails; but the inner frame-work or divi¬
sions for the panes are called merely upright and cross
bars; the upright being the mortised, and tne cross bars
the tenoned, nevertheless, as with the outer frame-work.
( g. 31.) Sashes are got out like common framing; the
parts are tried up, set out, mortised and tenoned, exactly
in the same manner, allowance being made in the length
o the rails and all tenoned pieces, in the setting out, as in
common framing also, for the portions of the mortised
styles and upright bars, which are worked away in forming
t e moulding and rebate. The meeting rails of sashes
^ noli are in pairs, to be hung with lines, are made thicker
an other parts by the thickness of the parting bead,
and they are bevelled or splayed off, the one from above and
ie other from below, that they may meet and fit closely.
vol. v. ^ ^ J
building.
m
an" le°f ' The ^ tf^’ ^ ^ oJ its^iEhe^
angle. These things being done, the moulded edges are
either mitred or scribed at the shoulders and haunches
tred may ,be pUt toSether- If ^sh bars are mi-
tred at the joints they require dowels in the cross bars to
act as tenons; but if they can be scribed, dowelling is not
required. Sashes are either fixed or hung with hinges, or
frll 'cPUi T’ and H'eightS' Fixed sas,les are pSt into
lUZl 0f\W,hlch ere7P.art maJbe sobd but the stop,
ch must be put in behind the sash to detain it. Sashes
Hung with hinges require solid rebated frames; but there
can be no stops to them except their own movable fasten¬
ings, and the outer stop, which of course the rebate fur-
!wS’ Sashes hung with lines require cased frames to
receive the pulleys and weights. The sill of the frame is
made, as in the former cases, solid, is sunk and weathered,
am is generally made of a more durable material than the
lest of the frame; the sides in the direction of the thick-
ness of the frame are of one and a quarter or one and a
half inch board, very truly tried up, and grooved to receive
a .parting bead; for it must be obvious that sashes hung
with lines to run vertically up and down within the height
of the frame must be themselves in two heights, and must
pass each other in two separate and distinct channels. The
ends of these boards are fixed into the upper face of the
solid sill below, and into a similar board parallel to the sill
which forms a head above, and they are called pulley pieces,
or styles, because they receive the pulleys, which are let
into them near their upper ends. Linings from four to six
inches in width, and from three fourths of an inch to an
inch m thickness, are nailed on to the edges of the pulley
pieces, and to the sill and head above and below, inside and
outside in the direction of the breadth of the sash frame,
and are returned along the head in the direction of its
length. The outside linings are made to extend within
the pulley pieces about half an inch, to form a stop for the
upper and outer sash; and the inside linings are made
exactly flush with their inner faces. The ca°sing is com¬
pleted by fixing thin linings on to the outer edges of the
outside and inside linings, parallel to the pulley pieces, to
prevent any thing from impeding the weights. Thin slips
called parting beads are fitte^ tightly into the grooves
previously noticed in the pulley pieces, but they are not
fixed, as the upper sash can be put in or taken out only
by tiie temporary removal of the parting bead. An out¬
er or stop bead is mitred round on the inside to complete
the groove or channel for the lower sash; the stop bead
covers the edge of the inside linings on the sides and head,
and is fixed by means of screws, which may be removed
without violence when it is required to put in or take out
the sashes. A hole covered with a movable piece, large
enough to allow the lead or iron weight to pass in and out,
is made in each of the pulley pieces, so that the sashes may
be hung after the frames are set, and to repair any accident
that may occur to the hangings in after-use. (Fig. 34.)
It may be here remarked, that sash-frames require greater
truth and precision from the workman than any thing else in
the joiner’s work of a building; and unless the stuff em-
ployed be quite sound and perfectly seasoned, all the work¬
man s care in operating will be thrown away. The fittings
of a window which has boxed shutters consist of back
linings, grounds, back, elbows and soffit, together with
shutters and back flaps, and architraves or pilasters round
on the inside to form a moulded frame. (Figs. 31 and 34.)
Back linings are generally framed with flush panels ; they
fit in between the inside lining of the sash frame and the
framed ground, to both of which they are attached, and
4 s
BUILDING.
690
Building, form the back of the boxing into which the shutters fall
back. They are tongued into the inside lining by their inner
edge, and on their outer edge the ground is nailed, and they
are set at right angles to the sash-frame, or obtusely out¬
wards, as the shutters may be splayed or not. I he back is
the continuation of the window fittings from the sash-sill to
the floor on the inside ; the elbows are its returns on either
side under the shutters, and the soffit is the piece of
framing which extends from one side of the Avindow to the
other, across the head, the width or extent of the shutters.
These are all framed to correspond with the shutters on
the face; but, as they are fixed, their backs are left un¬
wrought. Window shutters are framed in correspondence
with the door and other framed work of the room to which
they belong, in front, and generally with a flush panel be¬
hind : the back flaps are in one or two separate breadths
to each shutter, according to the width of the window and
the depth of the recess; they are made lighter than the
shutters themselves; and they should, when shut to, pre¬
sent faces exactly corresponding with those of the shut¬
ters, both internally and externally. The shutters are hung
to the sash-frame with butt hinges, and the back flaps are
hung to their outer styles with a hinge called a back flap,
from its use. The shutters and their back flaps are hung
in one, two, or more heights, as may be found convenient.
The moulded margin round the boxings of a window on
the inner face are made to harmonize generally with the
similar parts of the doors of the room or place to which it
belongs. The fixing and hanging of window fittings or
dressings are hardly less important, for the accuracy re¬
quired, than the making and fixing of the sash-frame itself;
the slightest infirmity or inaccuracy in any part will be
likely to derange some important operation. Sashes, it may
be remarked, are never fitted until the frames are immov¬
ably fixed, so that if there be any inaccuracy in the latter,
the sashes are cut away or pieced out to make them fit;
but, as they are intended to traverse, the fitting in that case
can only apply to one particular position, and in every one
but that there must be something wrong. Any incorrect¬
ness in the sash-frame, again, must throw the shutters
and their back flaps out; indeed the sash-frame, though
apparently a secondary part of the arrangement, is that
which affects all the rest beyond anything else. When
sashes have been fitted, a plough groove, wide and deep
enough to receive the sash-line, is made in the outer edges
of the styles, for about two thirds of their length, at their
upper ends. They are then primed and glazed, and when
the putty is sufficiently set the joiner hangs them. He
is furnished with sash-line, tacks, and iron or lead Aveights,
which are generally made cylindrical, with a ring at one
end, to which the line may be attached. A sash is weighed,
and two weights are selected Avhich together amount to
within a few ounces of the same gravity. The line is then
passed through the pulley, Avhich Avas previously fixed in
the pulley style; the end is knotted to a weight which is
passed in at the hole left for the purpose, and at a suffi¬
cient distance, which a common degree of intelligence will
readily determine; the line is cut off and the end tacked
into the groove in the style of the sash.
Glue is used principally in putting framed work toge¬
ther, but not at all in fixing; and even for the former pur¬
pose it is much less used by good Avorkmen than by infe¬
rior ones. When the stuff is well seasoned, and the trying
up, setting out, mortising, and tenoning, are Avell and ac¬
curately executed, there is no necessity for glue on the
tenons and shoulders; the Avedges alone need be glued, to
attach them to the sides of the tenons, that their effect
may not depend on mere compression. Joiners are gene¬
rally furnished Avith a cramp, Avith which to force the
joints of framing into close contact; it is either of Avood
acting by means of wedges, or of iron with a screAv. This, Buiipg.
too, is unnecessary with good Avork, every joint of which w
may be brought perfectly close without great violence of
any kind. The cramp will sometimes give bad work the
semblance of good, but it cannot make it really so. If
any cracking and starting be heard in the joiner’s work of
a new building, it generally indicates one of two things;
either the cramp has been required in putting the fram¬
ing together, or, having been put together, it has been
forced out of winding in fixing, and the constrained fibres
are seeking to regain their natural position. A good
Avorkman does not require a cramp, nor will his work, if
he has been supplied with seasoned stuff, ever require to
be strained; and consequently the cracking and starting
of joiner’s work indicates unfit stuff or bad work, or per¬
haps both. It is true that glued joints will sometimes fly;
but Avhen they do, there need be no hesitation in deter¬
mining the presence of both bad work, and stuff in an
improper state.
Floors are measured and valued by the square of a
hundred superficial feet; but any thing beyond the mere
flooring, such as the mitred borders generally put as a
margin to the stone slab of a fire-place, is taken extra by
the foot superficial, or running, as the additional work may
be above or beloAv three inches in width. The first im¬
portant thing to note in measuring a floor is the thickness
of the boards, by which to determine the cost of the prin¬
cipal material. A floor of boards unplaned on the face,
and shot on the edges, laid folding, is the roughest that
can be supposed; with the boards wrought or planed on
the face, and laid in the same manner, will be the next in
advance; and straight joint flooring, in all its varieties, is
the most troublesome, and consequently the most expen¬
sive in common and general use. Whether the boards be
wide or narroAv is a consideration to be noted, an equal
surface being of course more rapidly covered Avith wide
than with narroAv boards ; whether they be gauged, and if
brought to a thickness throughout, or only rebate gauged,
and cut down on the joints with the adze; in what man¬
ner the heading joints are formed and secured; how the
longitudinal joints are executed, whether square, plough¬
ed and tongued, or dowelled; and whether the boards are
face or edge nailed. Solid frames, as for outside doors,
&c. are measured and valued by the cubic foot, labour
being calculated upon the stuff according to the nature
and extent of what may have been applied to it.
With trifling and unimportant exceptions, every thing
else in joiner’s Avork that exceeds three inches in width
is taken by the superficial foot; and the dimensions are
taken on the finished and fixed Avork, so that alloAvances
must be made for Avhatever Avasteimay ha\'e been of neces¬
sity made. The stuff Avorked up by the joiner is ahvays
supposed to have been in planks and boards a certain
number of quarters of an inch in thickness, so that what¬
ever the finished Avork may stand, it is taken as of the thick¬
ness Avhich in quarters of an inch it is next below; thus,
if the 'Styles of a door stand at even less than an inch and
seven eighths, it is taken as a two-inch door; for a piece
of framing is always considered to be of the thickness of
its outer frame-Avork, the description determining the sub¬
stance of the panels. Framed grounds are measured round
on the outside for the length; their width is not that of
the frame, but of the styles and head as they actually are;
and their thickness that of the stuff before it was planed
at all. NarroAv grounds are taken by the foot running,
their width being noted in the description of them. Jamb
linings are measured to the full length they may be of by
their width, the thickness being noted, together with a
description of the work on them,—if they are single 01
double rebated, if framed, and in what manner, &c.
.iilding- The dimensions of a door are generally taken within the
rebates in which it is to hang, with its thickness and de¬
scription noted,—as of four, six, or eight panels, mould¬
ed on one or both sides, with flat or raised panels, &c •
if it be double margined, that is stated, and the amount
of the lap or rebate in their meeting styles is added to the
width, to increase the superficies by so much. The hinges
with which a door is hung, and the lock or other fasten¬
ings which may be on it, are taken, with a description of
their sizes and qualities, immediately after the door itself.
If sashes are in a solid frame they are taken alone, but
sashes in cased frames are measured in and with the
frames. To the clear height between the sill and the
head, three inches are added for the thickness of the sill,
and four inches for the depth of the case at the head, for
the height; and to the width between the pulley-styles is
added eight, nine, or ten inches, as the case may be, for
the breadth of the casing on each side, for the width;
these give the superficies of the sashes and frame. The
sashes and frame are described, with the thickness of the
former, which determines that of the latter; the sill is
described as sunk or merely weathered; the pulley-styles
as of such a thickness ; the pulleys, line, and stuff employ¬
ed in the different parts of the frame as of such and such
qualities and sorts; and whether the sashes be single or
double hung, with what fastenings, &c. The boxings for
the shutters are taken in a superficial quantity, as square
or splayed, if circular on plan, whether with a flat or
quick sweep, or if circular headed, and straight on plan.
The back linings, the backs, elbows, and soffits, the shut¬
ters and the back flaps, are all measured by the super¬
ficial foot, according to their thicknesses and descriptions,
the hinges and fastenings of the shutters and back flaps
being numbered and noted independently of them. The
capping to backs is taken by the running foot; and elbow
cappings are numbered. Moulded architraves are taken
superficially, the length by their girt, or by the run at
such a girt. Skirtings are measured superficially at such
a thickness, as scribed or tongued, as square or moulded,
or rebated for base moulding, as the case may be. Base
and surbase, and indeed all other moulding which girds at
four inches and above, should be taken superficially; and
mouldings which are of less girt may be taken by the run
if they be taken independently of the other work, or that
to which they belong, at all. A moulding projecting from
the face of the work to which it belongs may be assumed
as independent of it; whereas a receding one, if it be small,
will merely add the character of moulded to the work,
and if large will qualify all in immediate connection with
it to be taken as a superficial quantity of moulding. All
circular work, or work which diverges from a straight line,
is noted and charged proportionally to the additional la¬
bour and waste of stuff involved; the shorter the radius
of the arc, or quicker the sweep, the higher must be the
proportioned charge. Things which have been bent to
their fleeted form are less costly in proportion than those
which must have been worked in the solid or glued up in
thicknesses.
Stairs are measured by the superficial foot, the length
of one step being taken by the breadth of a step and riser,
increased by once the thickness of the former for a quantity,
and this multiplied by the number of steps there may be of
the same kind; that is, when the steps are flyers; for in
winding steps the treads and risers are taken in separate
dimensions, for greater accuracy. The thicknesses of the
steps and risers are noted, as well as the mode in which
they are worked; they have either rounded or moulded nos-
!ngs, are housed into the string, or have returned nosings,
the riser being mitred to the string or to cut brackets on
the ends of the steps. Curtail ends to steps are numbered.
building.
The frame-work or bearers on which the stairs rest is in¬
cluded with the stairs themselves. String-boards are taken
according to their thickness and the quantity of work on
them; the grooves or housings in them are numbered,
ihe capping on a close string is taken by the run; but
when the nosings of the steps are returned, the strings
are said to be cut; and if there are any cut and mitred
blocks, they are numbered. Stair skirting is taken as
rakmg and scribed, and as straight, circular, ramped, or
wreathed, by the foot superficial; wooden balusters are
taken by the run, and the mortises or dovetails in which
they are set are numbered; newels are taken by the run
for the stuff and the fixing, and the turnings on them are
numbered. Hand-rails are said to be merely rounded, or
moulded ; they are measured by the running foot; and a
distinction is kept up between the straight, the circular,
the ramps, the wreaths, and the scroll; nuts and screws
in their joints are numbered.
All sorts of framing, whether it be fixed or hung—all
linings above three inches in width—all sorts of ledged
w ork, such as plain doors and shutters, partitions in lofts
and stables, bracketing, cradling, &c.—must be measured
superficially. All narrow linings, very narrow skirtings,
s a beads, fillets, water trunks and spouts, legs, rails,
and lunners to dressers, groovings, flutings, reedings, cap¬
pings, &c. and any work on superficial quantities that
does not pervade the whole, but is in itself peculiar, should
be taken lineally, or by the running foot. Insulated parts,
such as short, interrupted grooves, blocks, pateras, brack¬
ets, trusses, cantilevers, holes, mortises for articles taken
lineally, mitres to cornices, heads and feet to flutes and
i eeds, &c. are numbered and charged at so much a piece.
Ironmongery goods employed by the joiner are numbered
under their different heads, and charged as fixed ; that is,
to the price of a lock is added a charge for the labour
employed in fitting and fixing it, and whatever accessories
it may have required which are not included in its own
cost, such as screws, &c. to a rim or dead lock. To the
price of hinges, however, only the cost of screws should
be added, as the fixing of them is usually included in hang¬
ing the work to which they are attached.
I he cost at which joiners’ work can be executed can only
be determined by calculation and observation. The cost of
the materials employed may be readily determined by dis¬
secting a piece of work and reckoning its contents; but the
labour depends on so many contingencies, that very accu¬
rate observation indeed is necessary to determine the quan¬
tity that may have been required to produce a certain re¬
sult. In carpenters’ work, the material forms the principal
part of the charge ; but in joiners’ work the materials are for
the most part of far less importance than the labour which
has been expended on them. The stuff employed in a
sash must be costly indeed to amount to as much as the
labour of making the sash ; whereas, in most doors, under
ordinary circumstances, the materials may cost as much
as the labour.
Sawyer.— Ihe labour of the sawyer is applied to the
division of large pieces of timber or logs into forms and
sizes to suit the purposes of the carpenter and joiner. His
working place is called a saw-pit, and his almost only im¬
portant tool a pit-saw. A cross-cut saw, axes, dogs, files,
compasses, lines, lamp-black, black-lead, chalk, and a rule,
are all accessories which may be considered necessary to
him.
Unlike most other artificers, the sawyer can do abso¬
lutely nothing alone: sawyers are therefore always in
pairs; one of the two stands on the work, and the other in
the pit under it. The log or piece of timber being care¬
fully and firmly fixed on the pit, and lined for the cuts
which are to be made in it, the top-man standing on it,
691
Building.
L
692 B U I L
Building, and the pit-man below or off from its end, a cut is com-
meneed, the former holding the saw with his two hands
by the handle above, and the other in the same manner
by the box handle below. The attention of the top-man
is directed to keeping the saw in the direction of and out
of winding with the line to be cut upon, and that of the
pit-man to cut down in a truly vertical line. Ihe saw
being correctly entered, very little more is required than
steadiness of hand and eye in keeping it correctly on
throughout the whole length. It is the custom to project
so much of the log over the first transverse bearer as can
be done without rendering it liable to vibrate or be inse¬
cure ; and when all the cuts proposed are advanced up to
that bearer, the end is slightly raised to allow the bearer
to be passed out beyond the termination of the advanced
cuts. The advantage of, or rather the necessity for, the
movable handle at the lower end of the saw is now evi¬
dent, the top-man removing the saw readily from cut to cut
from above, his mate having merely to strike the wedge
in the box one way or the other, to fix or loosen it.
It is absolutely necessary that the top-man should stand
in such a manner on the log or piece operated on, that a
line down the centre of his body shall fall exactly upon
the line of the cut he is to work on, and be as exactly per¬
pendicular to it and to the plane of the horizon. He must,
therefore, when the cut is near the outer edge, be pro¬
vided with a board or plank, one end of which may rest on
something firm at a short distance from the log, and the
other on or against it, to put the outer foot on, and so keep
himself in such a position that he may always, and with¬
out constraint, see his saw out of winding, and so that a
spectator standing on the fore end of the pit may see the
saw an imaginary line passing down the centre of the
workman’s body, and the line of the cut in exactly the
same vertical plane. The labour of the top-sawyer should
consist solely in lifting the saw up by the handle as high
as his arms can carry it, and that of the pit-man in draw¬
ing it down with a slight pressure or tendency onward,
sufficient to make it bite into the timber as much as his
strength will enable him to make it cut away. The only
assistance the pit-man should give in lifting the saw is in
holding it back that the teeth may not drag against the
cut in the ascent; and all the top-man should do in cut¬
ting downward is to keep the teeth steadily and firmly in
contact with the part to be eroded. Good workmen may
work with a narrower or closer set to their saw than bad
ones can, though the wider or more open set saw is more
liable to make bad work. It works more slowly and con¬
sumes more stuff than the close set; but it is not so likely
to hang in the cut with the unnecessary pushing up of the
pit-man and jerking down of the other, as if it were set
more closely. A good top-man, nevertheless, is of much
more importance, though he be badly mated, than the con¬
verse. Indeed the best possible pit-man could not work
satisfactorily with a bad top-man, and therefore the latter
is always considered the superior workman, and on him
devolves the care of sharpening and setting the saw, &c.
In the operations of the carpenter and joiner much de¬
pends on the manner in which the sawyers have perform¬
ed their part. The best work on the part of the carpenter
cannot retrieve the radical defects in his materials from
bad sawing; and although the joiner need not allow his
work to suffer, bad sawing causes him great loss of stuff
and immense additional and otherwise unnecessary labour.
Planks or boards, and scantlings, on coming from the saw-
pit, should be as straight and true in every particular, ex¬
cept mere smoothness of surface, as if they had been tried
up on the joiner’s bench ; and good workmen actually pro¬
duce them so. Saw-mills, too, by the truth and beauty
with which they operate, show the sawyer what may be
DING.
effected; for though he can hardly hope to equal their Bui fc*
effect, he may seek to approach it.
Sawyers’ work is valued at so much the hundred super¬
ficial feet; the sawing on a board or squared scantling
being once its length, by a side and an edge, or half the
amount of its four sides. In squared timber, however, it
is generally valued at so much per load of fifty cubic feet,
four cuts to the load, any cuts exceeding that number
being paid for at so much per hundred feet; in this case
the length of the cut by its depth gives the superficial
quantity of sawing in it. Pieces again of determined and
equal length and breadth, such as the deals and planks
commonly used for joiners’work in this country, admitting
of a regulated scale, the sawing that may be required in
them is valued at so much the dozen cuts.
Modeller.—The modeller copies, in a solid material, the
drawings of designs which may have been prepared for
enrichments, in whatever material they are to be cast,
whether in plaster, in metals, or in composition of any
kind, for the plasterer, smith, or decorator. The model is
made in a finely tempered and plastic clay, or in wax; and
the modeller works with his fingers, assisted by a few ivory
or bone tools for finishing off neatly and sharply, and for
working in parts which he cannot reach with his fingers.
He is generally the best workman who can do most to¬
wards producing the required forms with his fingers un¬
assisted by artificial tools, as a greater degree of ease and
freedom almost always results from the use of the hands
alone. The model being completed, it is moulded, that
is, moulds are made fitting it exactly in every part, and
fitting exactly to each other at the edges, and in these,
casts are made to any extent that may be required.
The modeller having some pretensions to be considered
an artist rather than a mere artificer, he is for the most
part paid according to his merits as such, rather than for
so much time, according to the ordinary mode of deter¬
mining the value of artificers’ works.
Carver and Gilder.—The carver is strictly an indepen¬
dent artist, whose business it is to cut ornaments and en¬
richments in solid and durable material, such as wood and
stone, so that, like the modeller, he must be paid accord¬
ing to the taste and power he may exhibit in his works,
rather than as a common artificer. Carving has, however,
been in a great measure superseded by modelling and
casting, so that the carver is hardly known in economic
building except in connection with the gilder. Gilding
may indeed be applied to castings as well as to carvings;
but the former being, almost as a matter of course, less
sharp and spirited in their flexures and details, as well as
less firm in substance than the latter, castings can less bear
to be further subdued by the application of foreign matters
to their surfaces than carvings may.
Gilding is the application of gold leaf to surfaces, which
require, however, to be previously prepared for its recep¬
tion. The work is first primed with a solution of boiled
linseed oil and carbonate of lead, and then covered with
a fine glutinous composition called gold size, on which,
when it is nearly dry, the gold leaf is laid in narrow slips
with a fine brush, and pressed down with apiece of cotton
wool held in the fingers. As the slips must be made to
overlap each other slightly, to insure the complete cover¬
ing of the whole surface, the loose edges will remain un¬
attached ; these are readily struck off with a large sable
or camel-hair brush, fitted for the purpose ; and the joints,
if the work be dexterously executed, will be invisible.
This is called oil gilding, and it is by far the best fitted
for the enrichment of surfaces in architecture, because it
is durable, and is easily cleaned, and does not destroyer
derange the forms under it so much as burnished gilding
does. This latter requires the work to be covered with
s i jilding. various laminae of gluten, plaster^ and bole, which last is
building.
693
mixed with gold size, to procure the adhesion of the leaf.
The most durable mode of gilding metals in common use
is by amalgamation.
The surfaces generally operated on by the gilder are so
diverse, that the real value of his work can be determined
satisfactorily only by taking his time and the materials
employed and consumed in executing a piece of work.
Plumber.—Lead, as the name imports, is the material
in and with which the plumber operates. The previous
preparation, casting and milling of lead into sheets, pipes,
&c. and the composition and uses of solder, will be found
described under the head Plumbery.
The principal operations of the plumber are directed to
the covering of loofs and flats, laying gutters, covering
hips, ridges, and valleys, fixing water trunks, making cis¬
terns and reservoirs, and laying on the requisite pipes and
cocks to them, fixing water-closet apparatus, setting up
pumps, and applying indeed all the hydraulic machinery
required in economic building. His tools are knives, chisels,
and gouges for cutting and trimming, rasps or files and
planes for fitting and jointing, a dressing and flatting tool
for the purposes its name expresses, iron hammers and
wooden mallets for driving and fixing, ladles in which to
melt solder, grozing irons to assist in soldering, a hand-
grate or stove which may be conveniently moved from
place to place, for melting solder and heating the grozing
irons, a stock and bits for boring holes, and a rule, com¬
passes, lines and chalk for setting out and marking, together
with weighing apparatus, as the quantities of most of the
materials used by the plumber must be either proved or
determined by weight. A plumber is always attended by
a labourer, who does the more laborious work of carrying
the materials from place to place, helps to move them
when they are under operation, melts the solder and heats
the grozing irons, attends to hold the one or the other, as
neither may be set down or put out of hand when in use,
and assists in some of the minor and coarser operations.
In boarding roofs, flats, and gutters for lead, clasp-nails
or flooring brads should be used; and the first care of the
plumber should be to punch them all in from an eighth to
a quarter of an inch below the surface, and stop the holes
carefully and completely with putty, or a chemical process
will ensue on the slightest access of moisture if the iron
heads of the nails come in contact with the lead, and the lat¬
ter will, in the course of no long period, be completely perfo¬
rated over every one of them. Neither should lead in sur¬
faces of any extent be soldered, or in any manner fastened
at the edges, without being turned up so as to make suffi¬
cient allowance for the expansion and contraction which
it is constantly undergoing during the various changes in
the temperature of the atmosphere. It may be taken, in¬
deed, as a general rule, that solder should be dispensed
with as much as possible. Like glue to the joiner, it is
indispensable in many cases; but like glue also, it is in
common practice made to cover many defects, and much
bad work, that ought not to exist.
, Sheet lead, whether cast or milled, is supplied of va¬
rious weight or thickness; and it is always described as
of such a weight in pounds to the superficial foot. This
varies from four to ten or twelve, so that the weight to
the foot being ascertained, the whole weight of any quan-
UtY °f the same thickness may be determined by admea¬
surement. There are very few purposes, indeed, in build¬
ing, in which lead of less than six pounds to the foot
should be used, and very few in which the weight need
to exceed ten. For roofs, flats, and gutters, under or¬
dinary circumstances, eight-pounds lead is a very fair
and sufficient average; for hips and ridges, lead of six
pounds to the foot is thick enough; and for flashings five-
pound lead need not be objected to. Cast lead is to be
preferred for the former purposes, because its surface is 2^5
harder, and it is somewhat less susceptible of meteoric
vicissitudes than milled ; but the latter bends better, and,
presenting a neater appearance, may be preferred for hips,
ridges, flushings, &c. As the sheets are generally made
of limited length and breadth, the cast being about six¬
teen or eighteen feet, and the milled from the latter di¬
mension to twenty-five feet in length, and the one and
the other seldom exceeding six feet wide, to avoid solder-
ing the lateral joints are made on rolls, and longitudinally
in falls or drips. A roll is a piece of wood made about
wo inches thick and two or three inches wide, rounded
on one edge, and fixed with that edge uppermost, so as to
come a few inches within the width of a sheet of lead
that the edges may be turned up and folded round and
over it, being lapped by, or lapping the similar edge of the
adjoining sheet, (Fig. 37.) Lead sufficiently stout, dressed
neatly and closely down to the boards under it, and over
the rolls at its edges, will require no fastening of any kind,
unless it he on a very inclined plane, and have no stop be¬
low. Rolls occur for the most part in roofs and flats, and
drips principally in gutters. The drip is formed in the
first instance by the carpenter in laying the gutter boards
according to an arrangement with the plumber. It is a
difference made in the height of the gutter of about three
inches, where one sheet terminates in length, and meets
another in continuation. Hie end of the lower is turned
up against the drip, and that of the upper is dressed
down over it, so as effectually to prevent water from driv¬
ing under it. Gutters should have a current of at least
a quarter of an inch to the foot, and in flats it should not
be much less; ends and sides which are against a wall
should turn up against it from five to seven inches, ac¬
cording to the circumstances; and the turning up under
the slates, tiles, or other roof covering, to a gutter, should
be to the level of that against the wall at the least. The
turning up against the wall should be covered by a flash¬
ing. This is a piece of lead let into one of the joints of
the wall above the edge of the gutter lead, and dressed
neatly down over, to prevent water from getting in behind
it. (Fig. 36.) Lead on ridges and hips not being in suffi¬
cient masses to be secured by its own weight, must be se¬
cured by nails.
In making cisterns and reservoirs, unless they be cast,
the sheets of lead must of necessity be joined by solder¬
ing; but the water they are intended to contain protects
the lead from the frequent and sudden changes it is in
the other more exposed situations subjected to.
Water trunks and pipes are made of a certain number
of pounds weight to the yard in length, to every variety
of bore or calibre that can be required. Water trunks or
pipes are fitted with large case heads above, to receive
the water from the gutter spouts, and with shoes to de¬
liver the water below ; they are fixed or attached to the
walls of buildings with flanches of lead, which are secured
by means of spike nails. Service and waste pipes to cis¬
terns, &c. are generally supported and attached by means
of iron holdfasts.
Plumbers’ work is for the most part estimated by the
hundredweight of a hundred and twelve pounds, though
there are of course many things which must be taken in
detail, by the pound weight, by number, and even by size.
It has been already shown in what manner the quantity
of lead consumed may be determined, whether it be in
sheets or in pipes ; the weight per superficial foot of the
one, and per lineal foot or yard of the other, being known,
and it is always ascertainable, the dimensions of the vari¬
ous parts or portions of the work readily give the total
amount in hundredweights or tons. The waste of lead
L.
BUILDING.
694
Building, in working is very trifling, as cuttings all go to the melt-
ing pot again with little or no loss but that of refounding
or casting; and even old lead is taken by the lead mer¬
chant in exchange for new, at a very trifling allowance
for tare and the cost of re-working. Water closet appa¬
ratus, pumps, cocks, bosses, ferules, washers, valves, balls,
grates, traps, funnels, &c. can all readily be counted and
noted according to their sizes and peculiarities; and so
may the various requisite joints in pipes, and attachments
of cocks, &c. to the pipes, which must also be taken in
addition to the articles themselves. The prices of all
these goods, from the sheets of lead and the pipes, to the
smallest articles used by the plumber, may be ascertained
from the wholesale merchants and manufacturers ; an ad¬
dition of thirty per cent, to these prime costs will, under
ordinary circumstances, afford the builder or tradesman
an ample profit, and payment, with sufficient profit on
them also, for labour, solder, and nails, excepting cost of
carriage, and any other contingent expense, which must
be added to the gross. The materials may, however, be
taken with a recognized profit added to the prime costs
and the actual labour expended ; and solder and nails work¬
ed up maybe reckoned from observation, or account kept
of the workmen’s time, &c.
These things are mentioned more particularly, because
a nefarious custom has obtained in this country, and is
still allowed to a very great extent, by which the plumber
is permitted to take not only an extortionate profit on his
goods, but actually to charge twice for labour and the ac¬
cessories. There is nothing more common than to find in
a plumber’s account a charge for lead (meaning sheet-lead)
and labour, at so much per hundredweight,—charges for
pipe of a certain bore or diameter at so much per foot,—for
so many joints in pipe of such a size,—that is, for the labour
and solder consumed and expended in making them,—and
so on through all sorts of things, the account winding up
at length, or being interspersed from time to time, with
so many pounds or hundredweights of solder, and so many
days’ work ot plumber and labourer ! The now prevalent
custom of artificers’ work being done by general builders
by tender and contract, has considerably lessened the in¬
jury to the public from this abuse, and proved it to be
really so by the moderate profits the same men will con¬
tent themselves with if they make a tender, who would
persist in charging at the old rate if they were instructed
to do the work without being bound by a contract. Such
too is the effect of custom on the courts of justice in
England, that the abuse referred to has been protected by
them, and probably would be so still, because it was the
custom and had been allowed !
Smith and Founder.—The goods supplied by the smith
are charged by the pound according to the quantity of
labour on them, and the founder has generally an average
charge for iron castings at so much per hundredweight or
per ton. The working up or fitting and fixing of iron-work
devolves for the most part on the carpenter in whose
, favour it is taken, generally however, in combination with
some of his own peculiar works.
Glazier.—The business of the glazier may be confined
to the mere fitting and setting of glass; even the cutting of
the plates up into squares being generally an independent
art, requiring a degree of tact and judgment not neces¬
sarily possessed by the building artificer. (See the arti¬
cles Glass, Manufacture of, and Glass-Cltting.) The
glazier is supplied with a diamond cutting tool, laths or
stiaight-edges of various lengths, a square, a glazing-knife,
a hacking-knife, hammer, duster, sash-tool, and rule ; and
his^ materials are simply glass, putty, and priming or paint.
Ihe glass is supplied by the glass-cutter in squares or
panes, of the sizes and qualities required for the parti¬
cular work to be executed. The putty is made by the Buiiimr
glazier himself or by a labourer, of fine clean powdered
chalk or whitening, and linseed oil, well mixed and com¬
bined, and kneaded to the consistence of dough. No more
putty should be made at once than is likely to be worked
up in the course of a day, as, the oil drying out, it becomes
hard and partially set, and is therefore less available for
its purposes. Priming is a thin solution of white, with a
little red, lead in linseed oil. When the sashes come to
the glazier from the joiner, they have been fitted into their
places, and only require to be glazed before they may be
permanently set or hung. Supposing that no preliminary
process is required, such as stopping (the result of bad
joiner’s work) and knotting (and knotty stuff should not
be admitted in sashes), the sashes require to be primed.
The priming is laid on every part of the sash except the
outer edges of the styles and of the bottom and top rails,
with the sash tool or painting brush, that is, if the sashes
are intended to be painted; for if not, the rebates only must
be primed. The object of this is to prepare the material
of which the sash is composed for the reception of the putty,
which would not otherwise attach itself so readily as it does
after this preparation. The priming being sufficiently dry,
the workman cuts the panes of glass down into their places,
making every one fall readily into the rebates without bind¬
ing in any part; indeed the glass should fit so nicely as not
to touch the wood with its edges anywhere, and yet hard¬
ly allow a fine point to pass between it and the sash-bar or
rebate, the object being to encase it completely in putty,
and yet that the putty should not be in greater quantity
than is absolutely necessary. The glass being fitted or
cut down, the workman takes the glazing-knife in his right
hand, and a lump of putty in the palm of his left, the sash
being laid on its face, that is, with the rebates upward, be¬
fore him; with the knife he lays a complete bedding of
putty on the returning narrow stops of the rebates, all
round to every pane. This being done, the panes of glass
are put in on it as they have been fitted, and every one
is carefully rubbed down with the fingers, forcing the putty
out below and around the edges of the glass, until they are
nearly brought into contact with the wood or other mate¬
rial of the sash. The rebates are then filled in with putty
behind, the mass forming exactly a right-angled triangle,
its base being the extent of the stop of the rebate, and its
perpendicular the depth from the glass to the outer edge
of the rebate ; the third side or hypothenuse is neatly
smoothed off, and the sash being then turned on its edge
and held uprightly by the left hand, the protruded putty
of the bedding is struck off with the knife, and the section
of it neatly drawn. The sashes are now deposited on their
faces, to allow the putty to set, and then they may be hung
and painted. To very large squares, and to plate-glass,
small tacks or spuds are used ; but it is much better to do
without them if prudence will permit it.
Lead-work, as it is termed, is the glazing of frames rather
than of sashes with small squares or quarries of glass,
which are held together by reticulations of lead; and
these are secured to stout metal bars, which are fixed to
the window frames. The leaden reticulating bars are
grooved on their edges to receive the quarries, and are
tied by means of leaden ribands or wires to the saddle
bars, which, in their turn, are affixed to the stouter bars
before mentioned, if the bay or frame be so large as to re¬
quire both.
Glazing is valued by the superficial foot, the squares or
panes being measured between the rebates in which they
are set. The value of plate-glass is very much affected
by the sizes of the panes, every additional inch in extent
of surface adding materially to the cost of production of
the whole piece or plate; it must therefore be carefully
noted according to its magnitude. Common window glass
is divided into best, seconds, and thirds, and is charged
higher as the panes increase in size, because for large
panes the table cuts to waste more than in cutting small
ones. In ordinal y practice, panes containing two super¬
ficial feet and under are classed together; then from two
feet to two feet six inches, and so on; and according to
the quality of the article. Flatting, bending, grinding,
staining, &c. are all subjects of separate and independent
charge.
Lead lights are taken by the superficies generally of a
hundred feet, lead and glass being included in the same
charge, which, however, depends on the size of the quar¬
ries. Stay and saddle bars are taken separately, accord¬
ing to their number and magnitude.
Painter•—The processes of economical painting will be
found described in an article under the head Painting.
The real object of painting is to protect wood, metals,'
and stuccoes from being readily acted upon by the atmos¬
phere, by covering their surfaces with a material which is
capable of resisting it. A continued succession of mois¬
ture and dryness, and of heat and cold, soon effects the
decomposition of woods, causes oxidation in most of the
metals used for economical purposes, and destroys the
generality of stuccoes if their surfaces be exposed naked¬
ly to it. A solution of ceruse or white lead in linseed oil
spread over them prevents these injuries in a great mea¬
sure, and for a considerable period of time; and as the
application of such an unction can be repeated without
much trouble or expense as often as occasion may require,
it may be said to furnish a protection against the cited
contingencies. In addition to the utility of painting, it is
also available as an ornament, by bringing disagreeably or
diversely coloured surfaces to a pleasing and uniform tint,
or by diversifying a disagreeable monotony of tint, to suit
the taste and fancy; and this is done in a great measure
by the addition of various pigments to the solution before
mentioned.
. The painter works with hog’s bristle brushes of various
sizes, which, with the exception of pots to hold his colours,
a grinding stone and grinder or muller for grinding or tri¬
turating them, a pallet and a pallet knife, are almost his
only implements. His materials are comparatively few also;
but for some purposes these require a great variety of in¬
gredients, the preparation and combination of which, how¬
ever, devolves principally on the manufacturer or colour-
man, and not on the painter himself.
The first thing the workman has to attend to in paint¬
ing wood-work, is to prepare its surface for the reception
of paint, by counteracting the effect of anything that may
tend to prevent it from becoming identified with the ma¬
terial. Thus, in painting pine woods of any kind, the resin
contained in the knots which appear on the surface must
be neutralized, or a blemish will appear in the finished
work over every resinous part. Inequalities or uneven¬
nesses of surface, too, must be reduced with sand-paper
or pumice-stone, or made up with putty. The necessary
process for killing knots, just referred to, will generally
leave a film, which must be rubbed down ; and the heads of
nails and brads having been punched in, will present in¬
dentations, which should be stopped. In painting or lay¬
ing on the colour, the brush must be constantly at right
angles to the face of the work, only the ends of the hairs,
in fact, touching it, for in this manner the paint is at the
same time forced into the pores of the wood and distri¬
buted equally over the surface; for if the brush be held
obliquely to the work, it will leave the paint in thick
masses wherever it is first applied after being dipped for
building.
695
a fresh supply into the pot, and the surface will be daub-
ed but "o' painted. Painting, when properly executed,
." y’-T a sliming, smooth, and glossy appearance,
as if it formed a film or skin, but will show a fine and rel
gular grain, as if the surface were natural, or had received
a mere stain without destroying the original texture. Imi¬
tative grainmgs, however, and the varnishes which are
intended to protect them, and make them bear out, neces¬
sarily produce a new and artificial texture; and for this
reason they are all to a greater or less extent disagreeable,
Jmw well soever the imitations may be effected.
As it must be presumed that all the wood submitted to
t le operations of the painter, which has passed through the
hands of the joiner, was already well seasoned and properly
dry, it is only necessary to say generally, that work should
be free from moisture of any and every kind before paint is
applied to it, or it will at the least prove useless, and pro-
baMy injurious rather than beneficial. This remark ap¬
plies alike to wood and to plastered work, both internal
and external; that is, whether they be subjected to the
more violent changes of the weather or not. Dampness or
moisture in woods, and stopped in or covered up with paint,
will, under ordinary circumstances, tend to their destruc-
tion ; and in stuccoes it will spoil the paint, and most pro¬
bably injure the plastering itself too.
Painters work, on extended surfaces, is valued by the
yard superficial, according to the number of coats, or the
number of times the paint has been applied to the surface,
and to the manner in which, and matter with which, it is
finished. On skirtings, surbases, narrow cornices, reveals,
single mouldings, sills, string courses, &c. it is measured
by the foot run ; sash-frames and the squares or panes of
sashes are numbered, the latter by the dozen; and so are
other things which do not readily admit of being measur¬
ed. Rich cornices, expensive imitations, &c. are taken by
the foot superficial; and preparations before the work can
be commenced are most fairly charged for by the time they
occupy and the materials they consume. The work is ta¬
ken as one, two, three, four, or more times in oil, common
colour; or so many times finished of a certain colour that
is more expensive than what is called common; or as so
many times, and flatted of such a colour, the flatting being
an extra coat; or as painted so many times, and grained
and varnished. Common colours are those which are pro¬
duced by the addition of lamp-black, red-lead, or any of
the common ochres to white-lead and oil; blues, greens,
rich reds, pinks, and yellows, &c. being more costly, are
taken as such. Unfiatted white is a common colour;
flatted, it classes with the rich colours. If the same sur¬
face be painted of two different tints, it is said to be in
party colours, and an allowance is made in the price for the
additional trouble of finishing in that manner. Carved
mouldings and other enrichments having to be picked in
with a pencil or small brush, that the quirks, &c. be not
choked up, must be taken extra, by the run or by num¬
ber ; and if the picking in be in party colours, the labour
is necessarily greater than if the work be plain.
What is termed decorating, is divided between the
painter and the paper-hanger. Decorations must neces¬
sarily depend upon the taste and skill required or employ¬
ed in producing them; and the remuneration must also of
course be contingent. Decorative papers are paid for by
the piece or yard, a piece being made in this country
twelve yards long and twenty inches wide, and the hang¬
ing is charged at so much the piece. Borders are charged
by the yard for the material, and by the dozen for hang¬
ing. Sizing and otherwise preparing the walls are con¬
sidered extra to the charges for hanging. (h. h.)
696 B U K
Builth BUILTH, or Bualth, a market-town in the county of
II Brecknock, in South Wales, 177 miles from London. It
Bukharia. jias ]jtt]e tracJe> and only a small market on Saturday. The
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 677, in 1811 to 815, and
in 1821 to 946.
BUKHARIA, Bukhara, or Bockhara, an extensive
region of Asia, in Usbeck or Independent Tartary. We have
no data to define the exact limits of this country, which vary
in extent, as in most Asiatic states, according to its power.
The habitable part of the-country is small in proportion
to the desert by which it is mostly surrounded, and which
may be considered as in a great measure its boundary. It
is divided in this manner from Khyvah or Khaurezm on
the west and north-west ; to the north and north-west
stretch vast tracts of desert, thinly sprinkled with the tents
of the Toorkoman and other barbarous tribes, and only
interrupted by the Jaxartes or Sihoon ; upon the east it
is bounded by Kokaun or Ferghanah, and Hissar; and
the Oxus, with the mountains from which it flows, may be
said to form a rude boundary to the south. The country
extends, according to the best estimate that can be ob¬
tained, about seven hundred miles from north to south,
and three hundred and fifty from east to west. But we
are greatly in want of accurate information concerning its
extent, and, according to the different theories of'geogra¬
phers, large districts are either withdrawn from or annex¬
ed to it. W7e know but little, of the nature of the country,
further than that a great part of it is a flat and sandy de¬
sert, though it contains large tracts which are fertile and
well cultivated. It is watered by the Sihoon or Jaxartes
on the north, and by the Amu or Oxus on the south ; and
there is a vague report that a lake called Taran lies in
the central districts. The country near the city of Buk¬
haria is described as in a high state of cultivation, and
thickly studded with well-inhabited villages for forty miles
around. Beyond the circle of cultivation commences an
arid desert, which surrounds on every side the fertile spot
in which Bukharia is situated. Towards the south-east,
as the country approaches the great Himalaya range, arfd
the sources of the two great rivers between which it lies,
it is rugged-and mountainous. Fraser, who during his
residence in Persia collected the most satisfactory and
recent information which we possess respecting Bukha¬
ria, mentions that in this quarter there is a mountain
abounding in gold, which being washed down by the tor¬
rents, is intercepted along with the sand by means of
sheep-skins placed in the water; the metal is extracted
by amalgamation with quicksilver, which is evaporated by
heat, leaving the gold in a pure state. Silver is also found,
but in what manner is not known. Many other valuable
products are enumerated, among which are rubies, lapis
lazuli, and marble. About a hundred and fifty miles due
east from the city of Bukharia lies the celebrated city of
Samarcand, now presenting a heap of ruins. The first two
flays journey is, for about sixty miles, through a succession
of villages, gardens, and cultivation, to Karmina, a large
and populous village; the third to Zea-o-Deen, a village;
the fourth to Khet-e-Courgam, a considerable town; the
fifth to Samarcand. Four days’ journey south-east of Buk-
haria is the district and town of Karchee, of no great mag¬
nitude, and deficient in water. The country around pro¬
duces little else than wheat and barley. About a hundred
miles east of the capital, and separated from the open
country by a chain of low hills, lies the town of Kheish
or Sheher-e-Subz. This district is said to be blessed with
a fine climate and an abundant supply of water. It is
verdant and richly wooded, interspersed with valleys that
yield abundantly fruits and grain, and it contains many
flourishing villages. The town of Kheish, which contains
from twenty to thirty thousand inhabitants, and is sur-
B U K
rounded with fine gardens, displays, along with its environs, Buliria.
a beautiful combination of wood, water, and mountain 'w-kj
scenery. The chief of this district is said to be only no¬
minally dependent on Bukharia, to whose sovereign all
the allegiance that he owes is to furnish a contingent of
troops in case of need. There are several other districts
nominally dependent on the sovereign of Bukharia ; name¬
ly, the district of Ooratuppeh, eleven days’ journey or
three hundred and thirty miles east-north-east of Bukha¬
ria ; and the district of Flissar at the same distance, in
a direction east-south-east. It is described as fertile and
well watered ; and its chief town, Deh No, is large and
populous.
Bukharia being an elevated table land, its climate is mo¬
dified by the height of the ground ; and in winter the cold
is severe. The rivers are frozen over, and remain in that
condition for about three months ; and even the great Oxus
is passable for caravans. During all this period the wind
is dry and piercingly cold, and the ground is covered with
snow. Light rains are common during the three months
of spring, every three or four days, from the west. In sum¬
mer the wind generally blows from the north-west, and is
frequently scorching, especially during the first two months
of summer. Bukharia is without the range of the tropi¬
cal rains, but there are light showers in summer; and in
autumn heavy rains set in from the west.
Such parts of the country as are not desert are fertile,
and yield two crops in the year, one in spring, the other
in autumn. The spring crop consists of a species of wheat
and barley, jowarree, and various other grains; cotton,
madder, with sweet and water melons, cucumbers, &c.
The autumn crop consists of another species of wheat and
barley, which are chiefly reaped at this season, and a little
jowarree. Besides the moisture derived from the hea¬
vens, the fields in the spring are watered from wells by
means of Persian wheels ; and during the autumn by water¬
courses, which are supplied by embanking the streams of
rivers. Bukharia yields a variety of excellent fruits, such
as apples, pears, quinces, plums, peaches, apricots, cherries,
figs, pomegranates, mulberries, grapes, melons, &c. The
musk melons especially are mentioned as remarkable for
size and flavour, often weighing twenty pounds, and being
fresh and good for eight months in the year.
The population of Bukharia consists of the Oosbecks or
Usbecks, a Tartar tribe ; the Taujiks, a race widely diffus¬
ed over all those countries; and the Toorkomans, of vari¬
ous tribes. Of these the Usbecks are by far the most nu¬
merous, in the towns and villages as well as in the tents
of the desert. They are for the most part of a short and
stout make, their complexion is clear and ruddy, with the
hair thick and the beard thin, abroad forehead, high check
bones, and small eyes. Their dress consists in summer ol
a cotton shirt and drawers, and in winter of a woollen
shirt, over which they throw a silk or woollen wrapping
gown, tied round the waist with a girdle. In cold weather
they wrap themselves in sheep-skin, or in a coat of thick
felt. In summer they wear a painted cap of silk ; in win¬
ter one of broad cloth lined with fur. Bandages of cloth
are rolled round the legs instead of stockings, and boots
are in general use. The women wear a pair of trousers
and shift of silk or cotton, and over this is thrown a robe
like that of the men ; the dress of both sexes being very
similar. The Usbecks who dwell in the tents live in parties
of from two hundred to a thousand families ; each of these
tribes has a ruler or chief; chosen by common consent,
who adjusts all disputes, and acts in the capacity of judge.
In serious matters, two or three chiefs are called to decide;
and if they cannot agree, they refer the matter to the cau-
zee, an oflicer appointed by the king, and held in general
awe. The chief or the beg collects the revenue, which
ilukharia. he pays to the kings officer or aumr], who'is sent to him
to receive the sheep, camels, oxen, or other animals that
are due, m the proportion of one in forty, from the flocks
or herds of the desert; a price is then fixed on them
which is paid in money to the king’s officer. All these
tribes are in perfect subjection to the king, who discou¬
rages the confederacy of large tribes, and even directly
prevents it. In the towns the women never appear with¬
out veils; but among the wandering tribes they have no
such concealment, and with their faces uncovered they
carry on all their usual domestic occupations of working,
making clothes, cooking, carrying water, &c. Fraser, dur¬
ing his residence in Persia, received from all those with
whom he conversed, very favourable impressions of the
Usbecks of Bukharia. They are said, he observes, “ to be
honest, just, sincere, good tempered, generally well dis¬
posed, and by no means either cruel or treacherous to
be less given to quarrels and murderous revenge than their
neighbours, less stained with foul crimes and proflio-acy,
to be hospitable and kind; and the same traveller adds,*
“ froin what I have heard, strangers, after passing through
the dangers of their frontier, would probably be well treat¬
ed, and secure. Several facts, however, which are stated by
Mr Fiaser do not certainly agree with this favourable cha¬
racter. Among these he relates an adventure of a native
of Kabooshan who went to Bukharia on business, and who,
being, suspected by the king, wras called before him and
questioned; but attempting to disguise his real charac¬
ter, he w'as seized as an impostor, and thrown into prison,
where he was nearly starved to death, and was at last
taken out and sold in the public market as a slave. He
retained his clothes, in which he had sewed a sum of money,
with which he afterwards purchased his freedom, and re¬
turned to his own country, where he told the story to Mr
Fraser. With regard also to the purity of their morals,
several persons, who had good opportunities of knowing,
informed him that the most odious vices were practised,
even more openly than in Persia. To Europeans all ac¬
cess to these countries is denied by the intolerance of the
people, who would insult them, and probably put them to
death, or sell them for slaves. They evince the same
hatred of the Mahommedans who differ from them ; and
t ey aie at constant wrar with the Sheahs (they themselves
being zealous Soonies), whom they make no scruple, and
even think it praiseworthy, to sell for slaves. The Us¬
becks, true to their lartar origin, delight in war, and pride
themselves in being the bravest and most robust of the
tartar race. Some say they are fond of horse flesh ; but
this is denied. There is no doubt, however, of their fond¬
ness for the national drink, called kimmiz, an intoxicating
liquor prepared from mare’s milk by shaking it violently
I? a f01', several hours. They are also fond of tea.
ley are patient of hunger, thirst, and fatigue, and are re¬
nowned for their activity in predatory war.
^le Taujiks the origin is not known. They are
widely diffused, however, over all the countries of the
East, and are generally distinguished from the various
r?5es Tar^ars by their commercial, industrious, and pa-
Cihc habits, and by their residence in cities and in fixed
abitations rather than in tents. The Taujiks are all en¬
gaged in commerce, being either merchants, tradesmen,
or mechanics ; but they are described as being dissolute and
corrupt. They bear a small proportion in Bukharia to the
Usbecks, from whom they differ in appearance and fea¬
tures, being of ordinary stature, and fair complexion, with
black expressive eyes, a hawk nose, well-shaped face, fine
black hair, and thick beards. The Toorkomans, who are
wandering Tartars, ferocious and warlike in their habits,
and divided into a variety of tribes, form a very scattered
population. They inhabit chiefly the banks of the Oxus,
vol. v.
BUKHARIA.
697
but t lv ? I k S£attT.d throughout the desert; Bukharia.
but they are also to be found in greater or smaller num- ^ 
beis all over the more fruitful and well-watered country
to the south and south-east of Bukharia. ^
The government of this country, as of most countries
in Asia, is a despotic monarchy, in which the king is per¬
fectly absolute, the fountain of all authority and power.
Ihe u emah and heads of religion alone have influence to
control him; and these the present monarch, Shah Hyder
has brought under his power, and he has even put some
of the most highly esteemed among them to death without
the smallest disturbance. They hold, however, the first
rank in the state. One class of these priests claim their
descent trom the caliph Abubekr, and are accounted the
gieatest among these holy personages; while they derive
so much weight from their wealth and their extensive pos¬
sessions, that they have been in some measure consider¬
ed as independent of the king. But they do not enjoy the
first rank among the ecclesiastics. That distinction belongs
to an officer, the head of another class, who sits on his ma¬
jesty s right hand, on an elevated seat; and after him come
the chief cauzees and muftis, with the rest of the ulemah
or priestly order. The omrahs, or nobles belonging to
the army, only occupy the second rank before the king,
sitting on his left hand; and the first of them is the com-
mander-in-chief, followed by his officers in their respective
ranks. Then come the civil functionaries and confidential
slaves, according to their offices. The king’s treasurer,
who has the highest rank of any civil officer, stands always
in front of the throne. In its arrangements the court is
said to resemble that of Afghanistan, but to be far more
splendid, the officers wearing rich gold brocade, and em¬
broidered broad-cloth dresses, but no jewels.
Bukharia and the cultivated country around is divided
into seven districts, each district containing many villages,
and each village having its separate system of government.
Ihe chief authority in the district is in the elder or pre¬
sident, chosen by the inhabitants for his respectability,
wisdom, and learning. His office is permanent, and in¬
deed is commonly hereditary. His business is to decide
in all disputes, to collect the revenue, and to levy the mi¬
litia ; and he is aided in these matters by inferior officers,
chosen, as he is himself, by the people. The sovereign of
the country is, however, the chief judge; and when he at¬
tends to his duties, and dispenses justice with impartiality,
his example is copied in all the other departments of his
government, and there is less occasion to employ dele¬
gates of high rank. But all depends on the personal cha¬
racter of the king, and when he is negligent and corrupt,
similar evils run through every branch of the public ad¬
ministration. In these rude and lawless countries life
and property are not secured, as in Europe, by permanent
institutions ; the inclinations and passions of the monarch
form the only rule of his conduct; and where the people
are not plundered and oppressed, they owe this immunity
from outrage, not to the protection of fixed laws, but to
the gracious dispositions of the reigning sovereign.
The public revenue arises from a tax on land, which
amounts to a tithe of the produce ; a tax of one fortieth on
flocks, money, and other movables; and a custom duty,
which amounts to a fortieth, on the entrance and exit of
all goods. There is a capitation tax also on all inhabitants
who are not of the Mahommedan faith, of from sixpence to
two shillings a head. Of the amount of the revenue de¬
rived from these various sources we have no account that
can be depended on. It is expended by the king in the
maintenance of the army, on the priesthood, including
benefactions to religious, charitable, and learned institu¬
tions, and all other contingencies of government. His
own expenses are supplied from the capitation tax. Va-
4 T
098
B U K H A R I A.
Bukharia. rlous accounts are given of the military establishment of
S~*~Y~***/ Bukharia, and of the number of the troops. By some
writers they have been estimated at a hundred thousand,
by others so low as thirty thousand; but this discrepancy
may be accounted for by supposing the one number to apply
to the troops which may be called out in cases of emer¬
gency, and the other to the troops which are kept always
in readiness. The army consists entirely of cavalry, who
are armed with a very long lance, a sword, and a shield :
a certain number, probably a third, have matchlocks; and
they all wear long knives and daggers at the waist.
Bukharia is an entrepot of the general trade which is
carried on between the east and the west of Asia; and as
it enjoys peace and security under the equitable adminis¬
tration of its present monarch, Shah Hyder, its trade is
extensive, and a regular intercourse is maintained with
Russia by the way of Orenburg, with Persia through
Mushed, with Herat, Cabul, Peshawer, Shikarpore, Bu-
duckshan, Cashmere, China, and all the countries which
depend on them. Two caravans pass every year be¬
tween Russia and Bukharia, consisting of from four to
five thousand camels each. Russia sends into Asia iron,
steel, copper, brass, quicksilver, hardware, plated goods,
gold and silver embroidery; furs, broad cloths, white
and coloured cotton manufactured goods, cochineal, re¬
fined sugar, paper, and a variety of such articles. The
exports from Bukharia are black lamb-skins, certain ma¬
nufactures of cotton and silk, lapis lazuli, rubies from
Buduckshan, torquoises from Persia, antique gems, coins,
medals, and various other antique utensils, and arms.
These latter articles are found among the ruins of the
ancient cities which formerly flourished in this country.
The extensive ruins of one city, Khojahwooban, lie buried
under sand, in which it is the practice to dig after rain,
when many articles of value are found, particularly plate,
utensils of gold and silver, all which are eagerly purchased
by the Russian merchants, who give for them five times
their weight, and an exorbitant price for carved gems,
both cameos and intaglios, some of which are of extraor¬
dinary beauty. Four or five guineas each were asked from
Fraser while he was in Persia for oval stones of cornelian,
garnet, and sardonyx, on which figures were cut, some of
which exceeded five-eighths of an inch in length ; and the
same traveller mentions, that for a sardonyx cameo about
an inch and a half long by ah inch broad, bearing the
head and shoulders of a queen, exquisitely cut, L.700 or
L.800 were refused by a Persian virtuoso. Bukharia im¬
ports from Persia the shawls and woollen goods of Ker¬
man, and the silk stuffs of Yezd and Ispahan ; from the lat¬
ter place also gold and silver embroidery, copper-ware, and
other articles ; from Cashan, Hamadan leather, loaf, candy,
and raw sugar. Besides their own productions of lamb¬
skins, cloth made of camels’ hair, coarse coloured silk
handkerchiefs, tobacco, &c. they send the indigo, cochi¬
neal, chintzes, and cotton manufactures of India. From
Cabul, Peshawer, and Shikarpore, and the countries which
lie to the south and east, Bukharia receives wool, tur¬
bans, white cotton cloth, chintz, sugar in all shapes, yel¬
low stick for dye, spices, black pepper, &c. The returns
are made in horses, copper, silk vests and cloth, and va¬
rious other manufactures; plated and gilt copper wire
imported from Russia; silk and silk stuffs, tea and China
ware. From Kashgar, Yarkund, and the countries on the
side of China, are brought large quantities of tea, China
ware, and all the productions of China; and the articles
exported are the same as those already enumerated. Buk¬
haria carries on an extensive trade in horses, for which,
outside the capital, there is a market every Saturday,
Monday, and Thursday. They are exported in consider¬
able numbers to Afghanistan, whence they find their way
to India. These horses of Bukharia, though they are BuL ria
strong, and well enough suited to the country, are far in- ^
ferior to the Persian and Toorkoman breeds. They have
a very large and powerful breed of asses, which are great¬
ly valued for the road. The currency of this country
consists of tillas, a gold coin worth ten shillings and six¬
pence, and of tengehs, a silver coin, value sixpence. Bills
of exchange are not common, nor are they well under¬
stood ; and when an order is given by a merchant or his
agent at a distant place, a rate of exchange is exacted of
from twenty to twenty-five per cent.
Bukharia was known to the ancients under the name
of Sogdiana ; and was too far removed to the east ever to
be brought under the wide-spreading dominion of Rome.
But it has shared deeply in all the various and bloody re¬
volutions of Asia. It is mentioned by the earliest histori¬
cal writers of Persia; and, about the year 856, Yacoob-bin-
Leis is said to have been invested with the government of
that province by the caliph. About twenty years after, it
was conquered by Ismael, the first sovereign of the Sas-
sanean dynasty, whose successors held it until the re¬
nowned Malek Shah, third of the Seljook dynasty of Per¬
sia, passed the Oxus about the end of the eleventh cen¬
tury, and subdued the whole country watered by that
river and the Jaxartes. In the year of the hejira 594,
A. d. 1216, Bukharia was again subdued by the celebrated
Mahomed Shah Khauresme, who enjoyed his conquest but
a short time ere it was wrested from him by the irresis¬
tible power of Ghenghis Khan in a. d. 1220. The country
was wasted by the fury of this savage conqueror ; but re¬
covered some share of its former prosperity under Octai
Khan, his son, whose disposition was humane and benevo¬
lent. His posterity retained the dominion of this country
until about the year 1500, when Tamerlane with his mighty
host bore down every thing before him, and spread far
and wide the terror of his arms. His descendants ruled
in the country until about the year 1500, when it was
overrun by the Usbeck Tartars, in whose possession it still
I'emains. The present king claims his descent from Shei-
bahnee Khan, who reigned in Bukharia about the beginning
of the sixteenth century, and who was a descendant of the
great Ghenghis Khan. His dominion extended over the
countries north and west of the Caspian, now subject to
Russia; and being driven from these, he retreated to Buk¬
haria, and extended his sway over Balk, Buduckshan, He¬
rat, Merve, and Khaurezm. He was slain in a great battle
with the Persian king, after a reign of twenty-two years;
and was succeeded by his nephew Obeidoollah, who con¬
quered part of Khorassan, including Mushed, where he
committed great devastation, putting multitudes of the in¬
habitants to the sword. He was succeeded by his cousin
Isander Khan, who reigned twelve years, in the course of
which he is said to have built twelve hundred mosques,
caravanserais, and water cisterns, for the convenience
of travellers; and the latter was succeeded by Abdoolla
Khan, who reigned thirty years. His son Abdool-momen
was deposed by the Omrahs after a reign of six months.
His cousin Wullee Mahomed Khan succeeded, and reigned
eighteen years, when he left the throne to his son Koolee
Khan, who after a reign of sixteen years became blind,
and resigning the kingdom to Seyed Nadir his half-bro¬
ther, went on a pilgrimage to Mecca, where he died. Sey¬
ed Nadir reigned twenty-four years, and amassed great
treasures. He had twelve sons, one of whom, Abdool
Azeez, rebelled against him, and seized upon the throne,
in consequence of which the father retired to Mecca,
where he ended his days. Abdool Azeez, after reigning
thirty years, first at Bukharia, and afterwards at Ba ,
resigned his throne to Koolee Khan, and, following t e
example of his father and uncle, retired to Mecca. 18
iiukharia
bi other reigned twenty-four years, and was succeeded by
his youngest son, Obeidoola Khan, whilst his elder brother
reigned at Balk These two rival chiefs went to war, and
were succeeded by their younger brother, Abool Feize
Khan, who being of an indolent disposition, lost the greate?
Shah0Lhl]S740mini0nS'l V WAS m his reign that Nadir
fehah, m 1740, crossed the Oxus, and having advanced
within three days’journey of the capital, sent messengers
to demand of the lung whether he meant to oppose&his
further progress. The king of Bukharia, sensible of his
weakness, submitted to his clemency; and on being re-
quned to furnish a supply of provisions for his army, at
the rate of two mauns of wheat and one of barley for every
louse in the capital, he sent the requisition according to
the Bukharia measure, of which one maun is equal to
sixty Persian mauns; with which Nadir Shah was so
pleased, that he departed from his dominions, and con¬
firmed the king on his throne. He was finally dethroned
by Raheem Khan; a usurper, who, by his vigorous admi¬
nistration, restored order and tranquillity throughout his
dominions; and dying without male issue, Dauniar Beo\
his uncle, and a descendant of the royal stock, was raised
by common consent to the throne. He was a weak prince,
and was succeeded by his son Shah Murad, who by his
capacity and talent extended his territories, on the one
side to the Jaxartes, Jihon, Sihoon, or Seer river, and on
tie other beyond the Amoo or Oxus, reconquering Balk
from the Afghans, and Merve from its Persian governor,
which he destroyed, and it has remained desolate ever
smce. He reigned sixteen years, and was succeeded by
his son Shah Hyder, who now rules in Bukharia, and who
is described as mild, pacific, unambitious, charitable, just,
and religious even to bigotry. The above account of the
rulers of Bukhana was received by Mr Fraser when he
was at Mushed in 1822, from a hereditary historian of the
family, m presence of the king’s brother, then residing
at Mushed. Me have no data from which to form even a
conjecture as to the population of Bukharia. The inhabit¬
ants are chiefly collected in the great towns and their de¬
pendent villages ; and by Mr Irvine, who accompanied Mr
SeratTsOWa mbaSSy t0 AfSha"ist“’ -ti-
Fraser’s Narrative of a Journey into Khorassan; Sir J.
WofP H*story°fPersia; Kinneir’s Geographical Me-
moir of Persia; Elphinstone’s Account of the Kingdom of
tsttbul and its Dependencies. ■ (f ) ^
caJiml n?fnIA’ u Bokhara> a ^ge and opulent city, the
situated about twenty miles
from u-h-'i °f.the koJnk, a tributary stream of the Oxus,
mi river the city is distant about fifty miles. It
aSTT ? ?S-lng ground’ and ^ of very great extent;
tin t°U^ 1 -S Sa1^ t0 cover less ground within the walls
ian Ispahan, it contains only well-built and well-inhabit-
a houses, without any intermixture of ruins. The houses
\n general two, and even three stories high, built of
Tin 11CV an^ °/te.n strengthened by wooden frame-work.
fm86 °<' an infenor description are also constructed of
hrirL'68 °a *:imber work> filled up with mud and fragments of
„ i ’ aie Postered over with a coat of lime cement,
hnfi n?an7 0 ^hem are handsomely decorated with painting,
povii 1I!.slde] and out. It is surrounded by a loftv wall of
ann taced and covered at the top with unburnt bricks,
ofli laVmig bn<;b.towers at certain distances from each
bacT* ule Wad no.t in good condition, and the earth
ong been mouldering away; so that neither the wall
vai. °'vers could make any defence. The wall has twelve
g es, iom which a continuous line of bazars, with rows
• . 10ases and gardens, extends for ten or twelve miles
0 , e country, the space inhabited without the walls
gay exceeding the space within. On the north-east of
BUKHARIA.
699
the town stands a citadel, on an eminence, having sixteen Bukhnn,
guns and mortars, great and small, without car ^
lymg on the ground; near it is a large well-built mosoue
where the king himself, on Frida/s, reads the service -
market P^iT1^ 111 ^ m°Sques’ and acts as imaum. A
market is held every day at noon before this mosque and
citadel, where stands a gallows, on which murderers, high¬
way robbers, and such as have robbed three times are
hanged by the king’s orders. In the centre of the city is
a large edifice, having a-dome built of stone and lime,
onT P Whljh-ar? f°Ur streets> one of them closed up at
A market i?b n ^ ^ ^ the sh°pS °f the booksellers.
A market is held here every morning. There are. besides
several other bazars, which are chiefly roofed in from the’
veather, and numerous caravanserais for travellers. Buk-
taria has long been renowned among the eastern cities for
Us sanctity and learning, and it abounds in mosques and
medressas or colleges beyond all other buildings. Among
te former is still extant the mosque from which Ghenghis
tan harangued the people on his entrance into the city,
tere are about eighty colleges, chiefly built of stone, and
containing from forty to two hundred and even three
hundred chambers, each calculated to contain two students.
Ihose colleges are supported by the rents of land or of
shops m the bazar, amounting to from one hundred to five
thousand rupees a year. To build and to endow colleges
is reckoned a pious work, and wealthy men contribute
liberally to such objects; and they are also promoted by
the king who gives to them, out of the taxes, from five to
fifteen tillas a month, each tilla being of the value of 10s. 6d.
Ihe city also, contains numerous tombs of pious devotees,
which are visited from religious motives, and some of
which are richly endowed and highly decorated. The
town is chiefly supplied with water from the river Kohik,
which passing, as already mentioned, about twenty miles
to the north-east of it, after leaving the hills near Samar-
cand, feeds several canals, that water the town and all the
adjacent gardens. Once in fifteen days water is made to
flow into the reservoirs of the town ; and it is on this sup¬
ply that the inhabitants depend, as there are no wells in
the surrounding plain. The water is said, however, not
to be wholesome ; and after using it during the spring and
summer months, sickness begins to prevail; the guinea
worm in the skin is so common, that few escape it; fevers
and complaints of the bowels are common; and though
there are numerous practitioners, the science of medicine
is at a low ebb, being chiefly followed by ignorant pre¬
tenders.
Bukharia is a great emporium of trade, and an entrepot
for. the productions of China and the countries of Eastern
Asia, as well as for those of Persia and Western Asia,
which are respectively interchanged for each other. The
account of its extent and population given to Fraser, to
whom we are indebted for all our knowledge of this great
eastern city, was, that it contained within the walls a bun¬
dled and twenty thousand houses ; and that in the suburbs
and fhimediate dependencies it contained as much more.
“ I his., says Fraser, “ may be a great exaggeration ; but
there is, he adds, “ no doubt that this city contains a
population far exceeding that of any other city in Asia
which we know of, except Pekin and some others in China,
and Calcutta, with one or two others in India.”
This great city was taken by Ghenghis Khan in the year
1220; and that cruel conqueror, after giving to the inhabi¬
tants assurances of immunity and protection, on conditions
which were very strictly fulfilled by them, being enraged
at discovering that some officers belonging to the hostile
army of Mahommed Shah had been protected by certain
of the townsmen, their relations, gave up the city to fire
and sword; and the greater part of its habitations being
700 B U K
Bukharia. built of brick, its destruction was complete. “ The sun,
says Fraser, “ which rose upon its rich and crowded ba¬
zars and thickly inhabited edifices, went down at night
upon a waste of smoking ashes, among which there was
not one house standing except some mosques and public
buildings, which being built of brick, survived the flames.
The city was rebuilt by Octai Khan, the son of Ghenghis ;
and it gradually recovered its former prosperity, which it
still retains. Long. 62. 45. E. Lat. 39. 27. N. (f.)
Bukharia, Little. This country, which is to the east
of Great Bukharia, is very imperfectly known to Europeans.
It lies amid deserts, and is bounded on the north by the
country of the Kalmucks and Eygur; on the east by the
desert of Kobi; on the south by the mountains of Thibet;
and on the west by Great Bukharia. It is computed, but
on no very satisfactory grounds, to extend seven hundred
miles in length from east to west, and two hundred miles
from north to south. It consists chiefly, according to the
descriptions given of it, of one vast chain of mountains,
with subordinate ridges diverging from it through sandy
deserts. The plains are fertile, and among the mountains
pleasant valleys are interspersed, watered by streams from
the mountains. When this country was visited by the
missionary Goez in 1603, it was divided into two king¬
doms, Kashgar to the west, and Kalis to the east. It was
previously divided into four states, with very imperfectly
defined boundaries. The Mahommedan states and cities of
Kokaun, Khojend, Yarkund, and Kashgar, are contained
within Little Bukharia. Kokaun is a city of modern date.
Khojend, which is sixty miles west by south, is a city of
great renown, built on the left bank of the Seer or Jaxartes.
Kashgar, about six hundred miles east of Kokaun, is a great
commercial resort, containing ten thousand houses. Yar¬
kund, which is in east longitude 78. 27. E. and in latitude
38. 19. N., is a large and flourishing place, and the country
around is described as fruitful and well watered. All this
country was subdued by Ghenghis Khan in the beginning of
the thirteenth century, and it devolved on his second son,
Yakatay Khan. In 1550 Yarkund, Kashgar, Hissar, Aksoo,
Kuchar, Toorban, Eelah, and others, were under the do¬
minion of the Moguls, the descendants of Timur. In
1683 they were subdued by the Kalmuck Tartars, whose
king resided at Eelah, and appointed governors over the
other cities. Previous to this revolution, the chief influ¬
ence in the country was possessed by certain lords or
great men, called Kaujahs, consisting of two classes,
namely, the Aktaglick and Karataglick. The Kalmucks,
the rulers of the country, being wasted by a plague that
broke out among them, the Aktaglick Kaujahs rose up in
arms against them, and after, as is probable, exterminat¬
ing them, they fell upon the Karataglicks, expelled them
from the kingdom, and seized on the supreme power. At
this season they put to death an ambassador who chanced
to arrive from the khan of Khatay, the emperor of China,
Kien Long. Incensed by this insult, the Chinese monarch
invaded the country with a large army. Being joined by
the adverse faction of the nobility, he, after many Severe
conflicts, prevailed against the Aktaglicks, who were mostly
destroyed; and ever since that period, which was in the
year 1759, the country has remained under the dominion
of the Chinese.
Mr Fraser, when he was at Mushed, conversed with
many intelligent merchants, and among these with one
Hussun Mervee, who had repeatedly travelled through
those countries ; and they all concur in the same represen¬
tation of the peace and happiness which they enjoy under
the active police of the Chinese government. The mo¬
ment a traveller or merchant enters their dominions, an ac¬
count is taken of his person, equipage, and goods, and dis¬
patched by an express on the road through which he is
B U L
to travel. By this he is recognised, and receives permis- E
sion to pass along through the guards and watchmen, || |
who are everywhere upon duty, and so vigilant, that if *a.
a traveller loses any thing on the road, he is sure to have
it restored to him ; and no disorders or robberies can take
place without the instant pursuit, and generally the seizure
and punishment, of the culprit. This account of the ex¬
act order which prevails throughout all parts of the Chi¬
nese territories was confirmed by the account of another
well-informed merchant, Selim Beg, who declared that
“ the moment the limits of Bukharia are passed, a most
important change is to be perceived in the manners of the
people, and particularly among the Eels; all is peace and
tranquillity; there is neither robbery nor pilfering; and
there is perfect security even for the smallest parties, or
for individuals. This security increases the nearer you
approach the Chinese territories, and when once within
these limits all risk ceases.”
The Chinese derive a revenue in these conquered coun¬
tries from two sources, namely, a tax on merchandise, and
a species of monthly capitation tax, to which all males ex¬
ceeding the age of twelve are subjected. This tax varies
with the circumstances of the individual, from a halfpenny
to fifteen or sixteen shillings. To each city is attached a
Mahommedan judge and two Chinese collectors, all un¬
der the control of a chief, who resides at Kashgar, with
various other inferior officers. (f.)
BUL, in the ancient Hebrew chronology, the eighth
month of the ecclesiastical, and the second of the civil
year. It has since been called Marshevan, and answers to
our October.
BULAH, a large village of Upper Egypt, two miles to
the west of Cairo, to which city it serves as a harbour.
It contains a custom-house, magazines, and a large bazar.
Here the baths are very fine.
BULAM, or Bulama. See Bissagos.
BULARCHUS, a Greek painter, the first who intro¬
duced, among the Greeks at least, different colours in the
same picture. He flourished in 740 b. c.
BULB, a kind of large bud, generally produced under
the ground, upon or near the root of certain herbaceous
plants, hence denominated bulbous. See Anatomy, Ve¬
getable.
BULEUTiE, in Grecian Antiquity, were magistrates
answering to the decurions among the Romans. See De¬
curio.
BULFINCH. See Ornithology, Index.
BULGARIA, a province of European Turkey, extend¬
ing from the mouth of the Danube, along that river till it
meets the Timok above Widdin, on the borders of Servia.
The Danube forms the whole of its northern, and the pa¬
rallel chain of the Balkan its southern boundary. It is
about three hundred and fifty miles long, extending from
the Black Sea to Servia, by from forty to fifty broad.
This province was the Mcesia Inferior of the Romans,
and derives its present name from the Bulgarii or Bulgares,
one of the northern hordes who abandoned their dreary
plains to seek a more propitious climate in the south.
They left the Wolga in the sixth century, and crossing
the Danube near its mouth, established themselves in the
inviting country which lies between that river and the
mountains, extending westward from the shore of the Eux-
ine. Here they defied all the efforts of the Greeks of the
lower empire to dispossess them; and their various and san
guinary conflicts form a considerable portion of the history
of that period. They carried on many contests with the
emperors of the East; but in the eleventh century tiey
were at length confined within certain limits, and the coun
try was reduced to the state of a province. On the de¬
cline of the Greek empire, however, it was finally broug
B U L
ulgaria. under the Turkish yoke by Bajazet, when the Turks had
established themselves in the neighbouring province of
Rumeha, the ancient Thrace.
The country, except in the neighbourhood of the Da-
nube and the Euxine, is mountainous; but the sides of the
smaller hills afford excellent pasture, and the soil is ex-
ceedingly rich and fertile. It is irrigated by a number of
rivers and streams, the tributaries of the Danube. The cli¬
mate is mild, and the productions accordingly are various
and abundant. There is a profusion of grain, cattle, wine
wood, iron, &c.; and the province is looked upon by the
Turks as the granary of Constantinople. The people have
entirely laid aside the warlike character which distinguish¬
ed their ancestors. The avocations of the greater number
of them are pastoral, and their character corresponds with
that which is always identified with this mode of life. Mr
Walsh, the most recent traveller who has visited the* pro¬
vince, gives the following graphic and interesting descrip¬
tion or the appearance and character of the people. “ Of
all the peasantry I have ever met with,” says he, “ the
Bulgarians seem the most simple, kind, and affectionate •
forming a striking contrast with the rude and brutal Turks’
who are mixed among them, but distinguished by the
strongest traits of character. On the road we frequently
met groups of both, always separate, but employed in the
same avocations; the Turks were known by turbans, sashes,
pistols, and yatigans ; but still more by a ferocity of aspect,
a rude assumption of demeanour, and a careless kind of
contempt, that at once repulsed and disgusted us. They
never turned their buffaloes or arubas out of the way to
let us pass, or showed the smallest wish to be civil or ob-
hgmg; on the contrary, they were pleased if they pushed
us into a bog in the narrow road, or entangled us among
trees or bushes. Any accommodation in houses was out
of the question ; if we approached one for a drink of milk
or water, we ran the hazard of being stabbed or shot. The
Bulgarians were distinguished by caps of brown sheep¬
skin ; jackets of cloth, made of the wool undyed of dark
brown sheep, which their wives spin and weave; white
cloth trousers, and sandals of raw leather, drawn under
the sole, and laced with thongs over the instep ; and they
carried neither pistol or yatigan, nor any other weapon of
offence; but they were still more distinguished by their
countenance and demeanour The first is open, artless,
and benevolent; and the second is so kind and cordial,
that every one we met seemed to welcome us as friends.
Whenever their buffaloes or arubas stopped up the way,
ey were prompt to turn them aside ; and whenever they
saw us embarrassed, or obliged to get out of the road, they
were eager to show us it was not their fault. Their houses
were always open to us, and our presence was a kind of
ju nee to the family; the compensation we gave scarcely
deserved the name, and, I am disposed to think, if not of-
ered, would not have been asked for. Turkish women we
SaW ’• ®u^Sar*an women mixed freely with us in
e..01?les^c way> and treated us with the unsuspecting
cor lahty they would show to brothers. Their dress was
neat, clean, and comfortable; it generally consisted of a
jacket and petticoat of dark blue cloth, with a bright bor¬
er of list round the edges or down the seams ; and a shift
o hemp and cotton, very large, hanging far below the pet-
icoat, and gathered in full folds round the neck and arms,
and worked or wove with lace-like borders. Married wo-
men wear handkerchiefs on their heads, with a long lap-
pel hanging on the back behind; girls have their heads
uncovered, with their hair braided and ornamented with
liferent coins. All wear ear-rings, bracelets, and rings on
dr fingers, even girls of three and four years old, and
a go barefooted. They are exceedingly industrious, and
are never for a moment without their spindle and distaff;
B U L
they frequenty asked f„r needles, and I greatly regretted
I had not brought a few scissors and other female^iniole
Their’"]!!'1' ’fouW h?ve been highly acceptable to them.
Iheir vi lages generally consist of forty or fifty houses
scattered without order or regularity. Their houses ore
aht„°nf P"- - - clean an^t
tides which are femourirTuXf^oL6^^^^^^
ismo^ h’ and ?IJ0the^ r.lfle gun-barrels. But that which
is most congenial to their rural habits is the preparation
the otto or attar of roses, a great part of which comes
to England. Rose trees are very plentiful, and gardens
are laid out for the purpose of cultivating them. The lan-
guage of the people is a dialect of the Sclavonian, and
beais a resemblance to the Russian. Only a few elemen¬
tary books have been printed in this language, and it has
never been reduced to grammatical rules. The books in¬
troduced are m Greek, but that language has made no pro¬
gress amongst the people, and the consequence is that they
t™^1 \terate; Their religion is Christianity, which
they embraced on their arrival in the district. They be-
long t° the Greek church, subject to the Greek patrfarch
of Constantinople, who appoints their bishops. There is
whlf™ ? attacIled t0 every two or three villages a priest,
10 performs the duties of his vocation in each occasion-
aUy; but, unless m a very few places, they are destitute of
c lurches, schools, and books. The principal towns, such
as Sophia, Shumla, lernevo, &c., will be described as they
occur alphabetically. ^
The Bulgarians have extended themselves beyond the
liimts defined at the commencement. They have crossed
the chain of mountains, and now occupy almost exclusive¬
ly a considerable portion of Rumelia. They are gradually
advancing, and in course of time, if their barbarous neigh¬
bours allow them to proceed, they are likely to cultivate
the almost solitary desert which lies between the Balkan
and the sea. The population of Bulgaria is estimated at
about 1,800,000.
BULK of a Ship, the whole space in the hold for the
stowage of goods.
BuLK-Heads are partitions made athwart the ship with
boards, by which one part is divided from the other; as
^.ie. great cabjn5 gun-room, bread-room, and several other
divisions. The bulk-head afore is the partition between
the forecastle and gratings in the head.
BULK AU, a city in the Austrian province of the Lower
Ens, and the circle of Marhartsberge, on a river of the
same name, containing 301 houses, and three thousand
one hundred and fifty inhabitants.
BULKH, or Balk. See Balk.
BULL, Dr John, a celebrated musician and composer,
was born in Somersetshire about the year 1563. He re¬
ceived his education under Blitheman. In 1586 he was
admitted at Oxford to the degree of bachelor of music,
having practised in that faculty fourteen years; and in
1592 he was created doctor in the university of Cambridge.
In 1591 he was appointed organist of the queen’s chapel,
in the room of his master, Blitheman.
Bull was the first Gresham professor of music, having
been appointed to that station on the special recommen¬
dation of Queen Elizabeth. But however skilful he might
be in his profession, he was not, it seems, able to read his
lectures in Latin ; and therefore, by a special provision in
the ordinances respecting the Gresham professors, made
in the year 1597, it is declared, that because Dr Bull was
recommended to the office of music professor by the queen’s
most excellent majesty, his lectures should be permitted
to be altogether English, so long as he should continue
music professor there, he being unable to speak Latin.
701
Bulk
II
Bull.
702 B U L
Bull. Dr Ward, who has given some particulars of Dr Bull,
'***~r~*~' in his Lives of the Gresham Professors, relates, that upon
the decease of Queen Elizabeth he became chief organist
to King James, and had the honour of entertaining his
majesty and Prince Henry at Merchant Tailors’ Hall, with
his performance on the organ. The same author states,
that, in 1613, Bull quitted England and went to reside in
the Netherlands, where he was admitted into the service
of the archduke. Wood says that he died at Hamburg;
others state that he died at Lubeck.
Bull, George, bisbop of St David’s, was born at Wells
in 1634, and educated at Exeter College, Oxford. The first
benefice he enjoyed was that of St George’s near Bristol,
from which he rose successively to be rector of Sudding-
ton in Gloucestershire, prebendary of Gloucester, arch¬
deacon of Llandaff, and in 1705 bishop of St David’s.
This dignity he enjoyed about four years, and died in
1709. During the usurpation of Cromwell he adhered
steadily, though still with great prudence, to the forms of
the church of England; and in the reign of James II.
* preached very strenuously against the errors of popery. He
wrote, 1, A Defence of the Nicene Faith ; 2, Apostolical
Harmony; 3, Primitive Apostolical Tradition ; and other
works.
Bull, among ecclesiastics, a letter written on parch¬
ment, sealed with lead, and issued by order of the pope,
from the Roman rota or chancery. It is a kind of aposto¬
lical rescript or edict, and is’ chiefly in use in matters of
justice or grace. If the former be the intention of the
bull, the lead is hung by a hempen cord; if the latter, by
a silken thread. It is this pendant lead or seal which is,
properly speaking, the bull, and which is impressed on
one side with the heads of St Peter and St Paul, and on
the other with the name of the pope and the year of his
pontificate. The bull is written in an old round Gothic*
character, and is divided into five parts, the narrative of
the fact, the conception, the clause, the date, and the salu¬
tation, in which the pope styles himself servus servorum, or
the servant of servants. These instruments, besides the
lead appended to them, have a cross, with some texts of
Scripture, or a religious motto, on it. Bulls are granted for
the consecration of bishops, the promotion to benefices,
the celebration of jubilees, and many other purposes.
Bull. See Mammalia, Index; also Agriculture,
Index.
Bull-Fighting, a sport or exercise much in vogue among
the Spaniards and Portuguese, consisting in a kind of com¬
bat of a cavalier or torreador against a wild bull, either on
foot or on horseback. This sport the Spaniards received
from the Moors, among whom it was celebrated with great
pomp. Some think that the Moors might have received
the custom from the Romans, and the latter from the
Greeks. Dr Plot is of opinion that the
ga/ among the Thessalians, who first instituted this game,
and of whom Julius Caesar learned and brought it to Rome,
were the origin both of the Spanish and Portuguese bull¬
fighting, and of the English bull-running. See Spain.
Bull-head. See Ichthyology, Index.
Bull in Ccena Domini, a particular bull read in the
pope’s presence every year, on the day of the Lord’s Sup¬
per, or Maundy Thursday, and containing excommunica¬
tions and anathemas against heretics, and all who disturb
or oppose the jurisdiction of the holy see. After the
reading of the bull, the pope throws a burning torch in
the public place, to denote the thunder of this anathema.
Golden Bull, an edict or imperial constitution made
by the.Emperor Charles IV., and hence called Caroline,
reputed to be the magna charta or the fundamental law
of the German empire. It is called golden, because it has
a golden seal, in the form of a pope’s bull, tied with yel-
B U L
low and red cords of silk; while on one side the emperor Buz
is represented sitting on his throne, and on the other the ''—■'L;
capitol of Rome. Till the publication of the golden bull,
the form and ceremony of the election of an emperor were
unsettled, and the number of the electors was not fixed.
This solemn edict regulated the functions, rights, privi¬
leges, and precedence of the electors. The original, which
is in Latin, on vellum, is preserved at Francfort. This or-
donnance, containing thirty articles or chapters, was ap¬
proved of by all the princes of the empire.
Silver Bulls were not in so frequent use, though in¬
stances of them are to be met with.
Leaden Bulls were sent by the emperors of Constan¬
tinople to patriarchs and princes; and they were also used
by the grandees of the imperial court, as well as by the
kings of France, Sicily, and other countries; and by bi¬
shops, patriarchs, and popes. It is to be observed that
the leaden bulls of these last had, on one side, the name
of the pope or bishop inscribed. According to Polydore
Virgil, Pope Stephen III. was the first who used leaden
bulls, about the year 772 ; but instances of them are to be
met with as early as the times of Silvester, Leo I., and
Gregory the Great. The latter popes, besides their own
names, strike the figures of St Peter and St Paul on their
bulls, a practice first introduced by Pope Paschal II. But
why, in these bulls, the figure of St Paul is on the right,
and that of St Peter on the left side, is a question which
has occasioned many conjectures and disputes.
Waxen Bulls are said to have been first brought into
England by the Normans. They were in frequent use
among the Greek emperors, who thus sealed letters to
their wives, mothers, and sons, and were of two sorts, one
red and the other green.
BULL/E, in antiquity, a kind of ornament much in
use among the ancient Romans. Mr Whittaker (History
of Manchester, vol. i. p. 79) is of opinion that they were
originally formed of leather among all ranks of people;
and it is certain that they continued so to the last among
the commonalty. He also imagines that at first the bulla
was intended as an amulet rather than an ornament; and
in proof of this he mentions that the bullae were frequently
impressed with the figure of the sexual parts. It is uni¬
versally asserted by the critics that the bullae were made
hollow for the reception of an amulet; but this Mr Whit¬
taker contradicts, from the figure of a golden one found at
Manchester, which had no aperture by which an amulet
could have been introduced. Pliny refers the origin of
the bulla to the elder Tarquin, who gave one along with
the praetexta to his son, because at the age of fourteen he
had with his own hand killed an enemy; and, in imitation
of him, it was afterwards assumed by other patricians.
Some, however, affirm that the bulla was given by that
king to the sons of all the patricians who had borne civil
offices; whilst others allege that Romulus first introduced
the bulla, and gave it to Tullus Hostilius, the first child
born after the rape of the Sabines. As to the form of the
bullae, they seem to be originally made in the shape ol a
heart; but they did not always retain this form, any more
than they were always made of leather. As the wealth
of the state and the riches of individuals increased, the
young patrician distinguished himself by a bulla of gold,
whilst the common people wore the amulet of their an¬
cestors. When the youth arrived at fifteen years of age,
they hung their bullae round the necks of their gods lares.
The bullae were not only hung round the necks of young
men, but also round those of horses, and were sometimes
allowed even to statues ; whence the phrase statute bullatte-
Bull^: was also the denomination given to divers other
metallic ornaments made after the same form; and m
this sense bailee seems to include all gold and silver orna-
B U L
“‘41 iBullse
llialdus.
ments of a roundish form, whether worn on the hahits of
men, the trappings of horses, or the like. Such were the
decorations used by tile ancients on their doors and belts.
The bullae of doors were a kind of large-headed nails fas¬
tened on he doors of the rich, and carefully brightened
or polished. The doors of temples were someUme? adorn-
ed with golden bullae.
Bull*: also denotes a table hung up in the public courts,
to distinguish which days were fasti and which nefasti,
andtheiefore answering in some measure to our calendar.
. BULLEYN, \V illiam, a learned physician and bota¬
nist, was born m the Isle of Ely in the early part of the
reign of Henry VIII., and educated at Cambridge. Bo¬
tany being his favourite study, he travelled through va¬
rious parts of England, Scotland, and Germany, chiefly
wit i an intention to improve his knowledge in that science.
In the reign of Edward VI. and of Queen Mary, Mr Bul-
leyn appears, from his remarks on the natural productions
of that country, to have resided at Norwich, or in the
neighbourhood, and also to have spent some time at Blox-
nall in Suffolk; but he afterwards removed to the north
and settled at Durham, where he practised physic with
considerable reputation and success. His great patron at
this time was Sir Thomas Hilton, knight, baron of Hil-
ton, and governor of Tinmouth Castle in the reign of Phi¬
lip and Mary. In 1560 he went to London, and soon
after his arrival was accused by William Hilton of Bidick
of having murdered his brother Sir Thomas, our author’s
friend and patron. He was arraigned before the Duke of
.Norfolk, and honourably acquitted. This Hilton after¬
wards hired some villains to assassinate the doctor • but
the attempt proving ineffectual, he had him arrested on
an action for debt, and sent to prison, where he remained
for a long time. During this confinement Dr Bulleyn
composed several of those works which established his re¬
putation as a medical writer. He died in January 1576, and
widi bTh1 tL Stt?lle1S’S.’ CriPPlegate, in the same grave
with his brother the divine, who had died thirteen years
before, and in which John Fox the martyrologist was inter¬
red eleven years afterwards. Dr Bulleyn appears from his
writings to have been well acquainted with the works of
he ancient Greek, Roman, and Arabian physicians. He
wrote, 1, ihe Government of Health, 1559, 8vo • 2, A
regimen against the Pleurisy, 8vo, London 1562; 3, Bui-
5, ml" ^efence against all Sickness, Soreness,
and Wounds that doe daily assault Mankinde ; London,
printed by John Kingston, 1562, folio, including the Go-
vernment of Health; 4, A Dialogue both pleasant and
pietifull, wherein is a goodhe regimen against the fever
pestilence, with a consolation and comfort against death ;
London, 1564, 8vo, 1569, 8vo. There is a wooden print
of the author prefixed to the first edition of his Govern-
1^ 1722 Hea th 5 alS° a Sma11 engraved bJ Stukeley
BULLIALDUS (the latinized form of Boulliau, or
ouillaud), Ismael, an eminent astronomer, was born at
Boudun in Prance in 1605. He travelled in his youth for
ie sake of improvement; and afterwards published several
Dm' f^ongoWhich are. the Allowing, viz. 1, De Natura
Pli'M • ^vo’ Philolaus, 1639, 4to; 3, Astronomia
i o aica, opus novum, in quo motus planetarum pernovam
et veram hypothesin demonstrantur, Loudun, 1645, folio;
’ Astronomiae Philolaicae Fundamenta clarius explicata et
serta adversus Zethi Wardi impugnationem, 1657, 4to ;
A a a Spiralibus Demonstrationes, 1657, 4to; 6,
Act Astronomos Moneta duo, 1667; 7, Ptolemmi Tracta-
tus de Judicandi Facultate, 1667, 4to; 8, Opus Novum
t Arithmeticam Infinitorum, 1682, folio; and other
s". , e plso wrote a piece or two upon geometry
anthmetic. In 1661 he paid Hevelius a visit at
B U L
703
Bundel-
cund.
ns, and died there in 1694. P J at rd‘
zeriand taN1504E’ HENRY’ b?rn at in Swit-
and in lo04, was an eminent Zuinglian minister q
great supporter of the reformation, and one employed in
many ecclesmstmd negociations. He composed aynum-
e of works, among which may be mentioned the Chro-
mcle of Zurich, the History of the Reformation, and the
ZmSn0 157S.PerSeCUt'0"S °f the C1’Urch’ He died at
m BVLLI0N’ uncoined gold or silver in the mass. Those
metals are so called, either when smelted from the native
oie, and not perfectly refined, or when they are perfectly
refined, but melted down in bars or ingots, or in any un^
^l^y, °f any degree of fineness. 7
UMM, a city of Persia, in the province of Kirman
of which it was the frontier town until the Afghans
weie expelled the country. It is situated in a plain in
the vicinity of high mountains, usually if not always
covered with snow. About twenty yeaVs prior to isfo
this dty had been the scene of repeated contests; the
Afghans, assisted by the neighbouring Beloches, frequent¬
ly attempting the reduction of it, in retaliation for the in-
The WT6 /nt° the-r country by the Persian troops.
I he fortifications are in consequence so greatly stren-th-
ened that they are now accounted the strongest in Per¬
sia. I hey have an elevated site, and consist of a very
high and thick mud wall, a deep, broad, and dry ditch,
with six large bastions on each face, exclusive of those at
the corners, which are higher by many yards than the
otheis. I he whole is built of mud, mixed with straw and
fibrous substances; and it has a gate between the two
centre bastions on the southern face. On the most ele¬
vated -part of the eminence on which the town is situated
stands the citadel, well fortified with a lofty wall, and
towers at each corner, and containing the governor’s palace,
and buildings belonging to it. Bumm is a very ancient,
and was formerly a magnificent city, equal indeed to any
in 1 ersia; and the widely scattered ruins around the fort
attest its former splendour and its immense extent. The
town was greatly embellished by the Afghans, who in¬
vaded the country and made themselves masters of it
in 1719. The fountains were magnificent; and some of
them threw up water to an amazing height. The gardens
were also very extensive; and Lieutenant Pottinger, when
he visited this place, saw the remains of a garden, equal
to several acres of ground, still retaining traces of hav¬
ing been walled in, with elegant summer-houses. The
place is famed for its pomegranates, which are superior
in flavour and juiciness to those of Sheeraz or Bagdad,
where the best in the world are supposed to be pro¬
duced. ^ The bazar is large, and supplies are reasonable.
Since 1/19 it has undergone various revolutions; and it
was here that Lootf Alleekhan, the last of the Zund fa¬
mily who disputed the succession to the throne, was made
prisoner, and put to death, about the year 1794. The
spot where he was seized, when in the act of mounting
his horse to escape, is still marked by a pyramid made of
the skulls of his adherents, by order of his cruel competi¬
tor Agha Mahommed Khan Kajjar, the first of his family
who reigned in Persia. Long. 58. E. Lat. 29. 17. N.
BUNDE, a circle in the Prussian government of Min-
den, extending over 125 square miles, containing 5308
houses, in two towns, ten villages, and forty-seven ham¬
lets, inhabited by 35,370 persons. The chief place, of the
same name, on the river Else, contains 1458 individuals,
mostly occupied in spinning.
BUNDELCUND, or Bandelkhand, an extensive dis¬
trict of the province of Allahabad, in Hindustan, between
704
Bundel-
cund.
Inhabit¬
ants.
BUNDELCUND.
the rivers Cane and Betwah, occupying a superficies of
about 11,000 square miles. The south-west frontier lies
in about 24° north latitude, and 80° 45' east longitude,
and the territory extends about two degrees farther north.
In general the face of this country is mountainous, high,
and rocky; its vegetation is scanty, and the inhabitants
do not bestow much care on the cultivation of it. The
summits of many of the hills,^ however, are covered with
low copses, amidst which there is but little grass inter¬
spersed. Other parts of the district exhibit a close jungle ;
and there are portions, consisting of fertile soil, which are
brought under suitable culture. ,
The most valuable of all fossils, diamonds, have been
long found here, particularly near the town of Purna or
Pannah. The mines producing them are situated in a
range of hills called by the natives Bund-Ahill, extending
above twenty miles in length by between two and three
in breadth, and are said to be partitioned into twenty-one
divisions ; but we do not know that the whole belong to
Bundelcund. Of these, the mines of Maharajepoor, Raje-
poor, Kimmerah, and Guddaseah, contain the finest dia¬
monds ; and one dug from the last has been reputed the
largest in the world. It was kept in the fort of Callinger,
among other treasures of Rajah Himmut Bahadur. Seve¬
ral different rajahs are proprietors of the mines, each hav¬
ing the charge of his own, without any interest in the pro¬
duce of the rest. A superintendent is appointed to inspect
the produce ; and every diamond, when found, is register¬
ed, valued, and, if the rajah does not choose to keep it, is
offered for sale. When sold, he receives two thirds of the
value. In the reign of the emperor Acbar, the mines of
Pannah produced to the amount of L.100,000 annually,
and were then a considerable source of revenue; but for
many years they have not been nearly so profitable, and
it appears that about the year 1750 the government did
not derive more from them than about L.50,000 per an¬
num. Their present value is not exactly known. Accord¬
ing to tradition, the mines were discovered by a fakir or
religious mendicant.
The country at a distance from the mountains is agree¬
ably diversified with clusters of eminences or small hills,
separate from each other, exhibiting a picturesque appear¬
ance ; and the inhabitants invariably build their villages
at the bottom of a hill. They are seldom seen in any
situation, and it is chiefly around the villages that the
small quantity of grain raised in the district is cultivated.
But Bundelcund not being a fertile country in itself, grain
is brought from the banks of the Jumna and the Ganges.
Many other commodities are supplied from the Deccan,
or middle region of the peninsula ; and large herds of bul¬
locks are seen continually passing to the hilly part of the
territory. The forests abound with tigers, and the nhil-
gau or white-footed antelope, as also the wild boar, which
are all hunted by the chief men of the country.
The inhabitants, who are called Bondelas, are a brave
and warlike people, entertaining high notions of indepen¬
dence, and impatient of constraint or indignity. They act
under the full impulse of those violent passions which
sway the inhabitants of the East, and lead to catastrophes
of a nature unknown to Europeans. An instance of this
once occurred, when the fortress of Adjyghur, besieged
by the British troops, was evacuated by the garrison.
4 he removal of the family of the refractory zemindar who
had occasioned hostilities having been directed, his fa¬
ther-in-law was desired to prepare the females of the fa¬
mily for it. Instead of doing so, however, he murdered
the whole with their children, eight in number, and then
put an end to his own existence. But what was still more
extraordinary, the perpetration of this horrible deed was
apparently with the consent of the sufferers, and without
any complaint from them. The Bondelas are either Brah- Burk
mins or Rajpoots. About Ditteah and Jhansi they are a cu
stout and handsome race of men, exhibiting an appearance 'w"' r/
of opulence and contentment. They commonly go armed
with a bow and spear, both of which are of excellent quali¬
ty ; and they know very well how to use them. They tes¬
tify no apprehension in engaging veteran troops. Owing to
the intestine commotions which long pervaded this district,
every man carried arms; and many, availing themselves
of superior force, attacked and plundered travellers, or le¬
vied contributions from them on pretence of guarding the
passes which they had necessarily to traverse among the
hills. Very little of their manners and customs is known.
Women occasionally burn themselves along with the bodies
of their deceased husbands, according to a remarkable re¬
ligious principle diffused in the East, which now seems
universally on the decline. The inhabitants dwell in towns
and villages, of which the latter are much better than most
others in India; and they have numerous strong forts,which
they are accustomed to take and defend with determined
vigour.
There are several considerable towns in the district, Chief
such as Pannah, Pirna, or Purna, where the rajah resides, towns,
on account of its proximity to the diamond mines; Chat-
terpoor, Ditteah, Callinger, Jyghtpoor, and Jhansi. Chat-
terpoor, thirty miles distant from Pannah, and six hundred
and ninety-eight from Calcutta, is extensive and well built,
the houses consisting chiefly of stone. Formerly it was iti
a flourishing condition, a place of great and active commer¬
cial transactions, and a kind of depot for goods carried be¬
tween the Deccan and Mirzapour, which is also in the pro¬
vince of Allahabad, and one of the principal trading towns
of Hindustan. The goods were afterwards transported by
numerous bullocks and camels to the places of their desti¬
nation ; and so much commerce was conducted here, that
when Chatterpoor preserved its greatest importance, the
duties levied amounted to L.50,000 yearly. It was found¬
ed by one of the rajahs of Bundelcund, and was occasion¬
ally his residence. Ditteah or Dutteah is a large town,
surrounded with a stone wall, and provided with gates. It
extends a mile and a half in length by nearly as much in
breadth, and is populous and well built, the houses being
of stone, and covered with tiles. A spacious edifice, with
seven cupolas, stands at the north-west extremity, and
was the former residence of the rajahs ; but a palace has
recently been built for them on an eminence without the
towrn, close to which is a considerable lake. The district
of Ditteah was tributary to the Mahrattas, and the rajah
could raise two thousand horse and as many infantry,
esteemed excellent troops. Some years ago they testi¬
fied how much they were to be dreaded, in an engagement
with the veteran forces under M. de Boyne, a famous
French general in the Mahratta service, where all the
skill and ability7 of the commander could scarcely preserve
the latter from destruction. But among the most import¬
ant places of Bundelcund is Callinger, the chief town ot
a subdivision of this district, which seems to have once
been an independent government, and now includes ten
pergunnahs or circles of villages. It has a fortification
built on a lofty rock, of great extent, and is deemed im*
pregnable by the natives. The walls are said to be six or
seven miles in circuit; a hundred and seventy pieces o
cannon are mounted on them, and a garrison of five thou¬
sand men is necessary for their defence. Nevertheless,
its natural strength has enabled a smaller number to sus¬
tain long sieges ; and the earlier invaders of Bundelcun
have been compelled to retire, after unsuccessful blocka es
protracted during several years. So lately as the ye^
1810, the British army having attempted to take it j
storm, was repulsed with great slaughter. However,
garrison of this fortress probably dreading a repetition of
the assault, evacuated tile place during the night No for
tress can be more secure against the irregular approaches'
of an Indian army. Here the rajah kept his milita -y stores
and treasure, and it was also the residence of the Euro
bundelcund.
705
peans in his service. It is twenty or thirty miles from Pan
nab, and lies ,n 24° 58' north latitude. Jhansi is a con¬
siderable town, but smaller than Ditteah, commanded by
a stone fort on a high hill in 25° 31' north latitude, and
thirty-two miles distant from Chatterpoor. There is .i dis
tnct dependent on the town, which, from having been
seventy or eighty years in the uninterrupted possession
of he peshwa or chief of the Mahrattas, is in a more Iran-
quil state, and better cultivated, than most of the neigh¬
bouring territories, which have undergone frequent chanires.
Hence it is frequented by caravans from various commer¬
cial towns of India; and its wealth is augmented by a trade
m cloths, and the manufacture of carpets, bows, arrows
and spears the principal arms of the Bondela tribes. In
the year 1790 it afforded a revenue of about L.50,000 an¬
nually. There is an ancient city called Ouncha, but now
in decay, whose rajah was formerly the head of all the
tribes of Bundelcund, and from whom their chiefs receiv¬
ed tokens of their investiture. A castle which stands here
or in the neighbourhood, resembles a Gothic building, and
is said to have been erected by a rajah of old, who in one
day gave orders for building fifty-two forts. This may ac¬
count for the places of strength seen in Bundelcund, for
which the particular character of its surface is extremely
favourable. J
Besides these, there are several towns, villages, and
fortifications of consequence in this district; but recent
events have rendered the preservation of the latter of less
importance to their owners.
From ancient times Bundelcund has been divided into
many petty territories, whose chiefs have incessantly dis¬
turbed the peace of their subjects by predatory incursions
on each other. The successful capture of strongholds in
the mountains was an encouragement to the subsistence
o waifare; and in addition to the numerous ordinary
sources of dispute, it is not unlikely that their joint inte¬
rests in the diamond mines contributed to excite dissen-
smn. ough the predominance of power induced some
one of the contending parties to claim the superiority, it
was reluctantly acknowledged by the rest; and hence, in¬
stead of a common bond of union to defend the country,
it was weakened by the distractions of the whole. The
rajahs of Calhnger are mentioned by Mahommedan writers
as eai y as the year 1008; but it does not appear to have
been incorporated with Bundelcund for several centuries
a terwards. Some time in the sixteenth century, it is
said that a Bondela, living in Benares, removed to a fort
m ^ district of Ouncha, then governed by a rajah, whose
confidence he speedily obtained. This Bondela had a
aughter of exquisite beauty, of whom the rajah became
enamoured, and demanded her in marriage. But her fa-
ici, considering the proposal as a grievous insult from
one whom certain circumstances now unknown prompted
iim to regard as his inferior in rank, he, in concert with
is aughter, plotted a diabolical revenge. Acquiescence
was given on the part of both; and the rajah was invited
y is bride to the house of the Bondela, where the cere-
raony was to be performed. Here a magnificent enter¬
tainment was prepared, of which he partook plentifully
a ong with his attendants; but it was soon succeeded by
excruciating tortures: poison had been treacherously ad¬
ministered; and when the victims became incapable of
e ence, they were barbarously massacred. The Bondela
en placed himself on the musnud of the rajah, which
ie enjoyed peaceably until his death. He was succeeded
vol. v.
of Ouncha Band hi Sin’,7''°Se desc.e"<la"t !s the rajah Bundd
„ • 'to Samed an accession of power bv his cund
services to the Soubahdar of Allahabad. C he is ac
cused of being a great plunderer ; and his history is stab-
ed by the assassination of the celebrated Abul Fazel
prune minister of Acbar, which is said to have been 00^
itted by a banditti under his command. Nay, it is
affirmed that he acted in compliance with the wThes if
Jehangeer, the emperor’s son, who was jealous of Abul
I azel s influence over his father, and who, on his accession
to the throne of Delhi, intrusted Ber Sing Deo with the
government of all Bundelcund, then called Dungush. On
descending to a later period, we find that this territory
was invaded during the government of the rajah Chatter-
saul, about the middle of last century, by the chief of
Furruckabad; and the rajah, to aid h£ in repelling the
row^S^ ^V01- SUpP°rt t0 the Peshwa> S?wai Baje-
row. Success having attended them, he adopted Sewai
Bajerow as his son, and partitioned Bundelcund between
nbis^thiT S°nS’ aI1°ttl!1S him a third of his domi-
iTsno nnn ^ rfVCniT °f wh,lch was estimated at about
tW V ?’ PatLunder an express stipulation
that his posterity should be protected by the peshwa in
independent possession of the remainder. The rest of
ns male issue, said to exceed fifty, were in a state of de¬
pendence on their two brothers. In time this division
opened the way to dissensions, a civil war ensued, and
the consequent weakness of the chiefs afforded an oppor¬
tunity for other invasions. Ali Bahauder, an illegitimate
grandson of Bajerow, held a command in the army of
ocindia, the noted Mahratta chief; and in the same
aimy was the rajah Himmut Bahauder, who not only com¬
manded a great body of cavalry, but was the spiritual
head and military leader of a numerous sect of devotees
called Gosseins. Both seem to have fallen under the dis-
p easure of the peshwa; and the latter, after retiring to
ms estate m 1786, soon united with the other in attempt¬
ing the conquest of Bundelcund. The rajah Himmut
seems to have had it in contemplation to establish a sove¬
reignty elsewhere; and about the year 1787 he was ac¬
tively engaged in assisting the prince Mirza Jurvaim Buklit
in raising an army; but the death of the latter, which hap¬
pened suddenly in 1788, probably allowed him more leisure
to attend to the other object in view. He and his associates
agreed that a large portion of the territory to be conquer¬
ed should be assigned to himself, and its revenue applied
to the support of certain troops which he engaged to
maintain in the service of Ali Bahauder. The projected
invasion took place in 1789, when Ali Bahauder conquer¬
ed much of the district in the name of the peshwa, of
whom he rendered himself nearly independent; and in a
short time the whole was subdued except some fortresses,
which the Mahrattas have never been able to reduce.
Some years elapsed before the complete establishment
of their authority; but an arrangement was made with
the peshwa, whereby he was acknowledged lord paramount
of all the conquests effected in Bundelcund by Ali Ba¬
hauder, who engaged to obey him as his sovereign, and
to pay him tribute. But the latter contrived to evade
both conditions ; and, after being occupied fourteen years
in endeavouring to subjugate the country, died in 1802,
during the blockade of Callinger, which, during ten years,
he had fruitlessly endeavoured to capture. Ali was suc¬
ceeded by his eldest son, Shumshere Bahauder, then ab¬
sent at Poonah ; and Himmut Bahauder, who, to retain
his own influence, had for years been exciting disaffection
among the different chiefs, now appointed a relation of
Shumshere, the young rajah, regent of Bundelcund until
his return.
A war next broke out between the British and the
4 u
706 BUN
Bunder. Mahrattas. Himmut Bahauder endeavoured to accom-
plish the transference of this district to the former, while
Shumshere was determined to oppose them vigorously.
In September 1803 Colonel Powell crossed the river
Jumna for the purpose of entering Bundelcund, and was
joined by Himmut, with a body of thirteen or fourteen
thousand men. The united forces, arriving on the banks
of the river Cane, which passes the fort of Callinger, and
falls into the Jumna near the town of Oorah, found the
army of Shumshere on the opposite side. It was nume¬
rous, occupied a great extent, and was strongly posted;
but, after a short cannonade on both sides, it precipitately
retreated.
At this time a proposal was made by the Mahrattas,
and acceded to by the British, for the cession of a portion
of the territory of Bundelcund in lieu of certain districts
in the Deccan, which had been ceded to them by a for¬
mer treaty. Forces were then stationed in Bundelcund
for the protection of other parts; and successive engage¬
ments of a conciliatory nature were formed with Shumshere
and all the rest of the chiefs, whereby the British autho¬
rity was rendered paramount. Himmut Bahauder had
previously secured an advantageous arrangement for him¬
self; and his death ensuing in the year 1804, government
provided for his family, and assumed possession of his ter¬
ritory. The troops who had been retained in his service,
a kind of irregular force, now dispersed. Still, however,
the tranquillity of the country was liable to be disturbed ;
and indeed the cession of some parts of it by the Mahrat¬
tas was only nominal, as they had never been able to oc¬
cupy the strongholds themselves. Thus it was judged
expedient by the British to bestow a considerable tract in
1807 on a descendant of the rajah Chattersaul, who had
been long dispossessed amidst contending factions, on con¬
dition of guarding the passes, and preserving his territory
in peace. Other arrangements were made, conceding to
the chief of Galpee, on the confines of Bundelcund, a por¬
tion of the interior, in lieu of the city and district of Cal-
pee, and several villages on the Jumna. Meantime it be¬
came necessary to besiege the fortress of Callinger; but
notwithstanding the British forces had captured many
strongholds of the Indians, previously deemed impregna¬
ble, they were unsuccessful in attempting to take it by
assault, and, as already observed, gained possession by the
garrison retiring in the night. Its reduction proved a
great accession of power, and tended materially to tran¬
quillize the district, which had previously been incorporat¬
ed with the British empire in the East, and a civil esta¬
blishment constituted for the regular management of its
affairs.
The possession of a country such as Bundelcund, occu¬
pying 11,000 square miles, is of considerable consequence
in several respects; and it has been suggested that the
revenue derived from it might be materially augmented,
by assuming the direction of the diamond mines of Pan-
nah. Nevertheless the occupation of the whole does not
seem to have been judged an important object, more es¬
pecially as, by the arrangement above alluded to with the
chief of Calpee, he was left in the enjoyment of a third
part of them, to which he was originally entitled.
BUNDER, or Bender Abbas, or Gomberoon, the
ancient Harmozia, a fortress of Persia, in the province of
Pars, situated in a barren country, in a bay of the Gulf of
Ormuz. It is subject to the imaum of Maskat, and is for¬
tified with double walls. It was at one time the first sea¬
port of Persia, and is still a place of considerable trade.
The customs amount to 20,000 rupees, above L.2000 a
year, for which, and the tribute of Minab, the imaum ac¬
counts to the king of Persia. It is eighteen miles south¬
east of Bushire. Long. 56. 12. E. Lat. 27. 18. N.
BUN
Bunder, or Bender Reig, or Port of Sand, a town of Burt
Persia, in the province of Ears, which stands close to the llij
eastern shore of the Persian Gulf. It is surrounded by a®untJi.
miserable mud wall, flanked with round towers, on which 'w'v'
are placed three or four useless guns. This town was the
seat of a venerable freebooter, Meer Mahund, whose ex¬
ploits are partly related by Niebuhr; and during his life it
was a place of so much strength as to resist the repeated
attacks of Kurim Khan, by whom, however, it was at last
taken, after a long siege. The works were razed to the
ground; and the town has so much declined since that
period, that it does not contain above 300 or 400 inhabit¬
ants. It is thirty-five miles north of Bushire.
BUNEL, Peter, one of the most elegant writers of his
time, was born at Toulouse in 1499, and died at Turin in
1547. He left behind him some Latin epistles, Epistolce
Ciceroniano Stylo Scriptce, remarkable for the elegance
and purity with which they are written. Bunel, says
Bayle, “ was an honest man, the very person whom Dio¬
genes wanted. His letters are written with the greatest
purity, and contain curious facts.” The most correct edi¬
tion is that of Graverol, Toulouse, 1687, 8vo.
BUNGAY; a market-town of the hundred of Wangford,
in the county of Suffolk, 107 miles from London, on the
river Waveney, which divides it from the county of Nor-
folk, and is navigable to the sea at Yarmouth. It is a well-
built town, comprising two parishes with their churches,
and the ruins of an ancient monastery and of acastle. There
is but little trade except on the Thursday’s market. The
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 2349, in 1811 to 2828,
and in 1821 to 3290.
BUNN ASS, a river of Hindustan, in the province of
xYjmeer, where it has its source. It is a rapid stream,
about half a mile in breadth in some parts, though during
the dry season not above twenty yards of this space contain
water. It loses itself in the Kakreze.
BUNTING. See Ornithology, Index.
BUNTINGFORD, a market-town of the hundred of
Edwintree, in the county of Hertford, thirty-two miles
from London, on the river Rib. It is situated in three dif¬
ferent parishes. The church is very ancient, and stands
nearly a mile from the town.
BUNTWALLA, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of South Canara, situated on the north bank of the river
Netravati, which is navigable above the reach of the tide
for canoes. It contains about three hundred houses, and
is fast improving, being the thoroughfare for the trade be¬
tween Mysore and Canara. The inhabitants are mostly
Brahmins of an inferior caste. Long. 75. 9. E. Lat. 12.
48* N- . - u
BUNTZLAU, a circle in the Austrian kingdom ol Bo¬
hemia. It extends over 1578 square miles, or 1,009,920
acres, and comprehends twenty-three cities, eighteen
towns, and 1034 villages, with 57,640 houses. The in¬
habitants amount to 352,756. A range of lofty mountains
separates this circle from the kingdom of Saxony. Ine
chief place is New Buntzlau, on the river Iser, containing
two monasteries, six churches, and about 4000 inhabitants,
partly employed in making woollen goods, but chiefly m
tanning leather. f
Buntzlau, a circle in the Prussian government o
Liegnitz, extending over 372 square miles, or 238,
acres, and containing two towns and sixty-two villages)
with 6965 houses and 40,074 inhabitants. It is a hilly 18
trict, the greater part being covered with woods, but very
fertile in the valleys. The capital has the same name, i
a fortified city on the river Bober, and a considerable p a
for earthen ware, linen, and calico-printing manmactur
It has two Catholic churches and one Lutheran, b it a
inhabitants.
B U P
,oot BUNWOOT, an island about eighteen miles in circum-
lus £erence! * inf> ^ °^ok harbour, in Magindanao. It has
rj, springs, but many ponas of fresh rain water. In 1775
this island was ceded to Captain Forrest for the East India
Company, by the sultan of Magindanao. Lons. 124 28
E. Lat. 7. 14. N. S
SUNYAN, John, author of the Pilgrim's Progress, was
orn a stow, near Bedford, in 1628. He was the son
of a tinker, and in the early part of his life a great repro¬
bate, having served as a soldier in the parliament army
but being at length deeply struck with a sense of his sins’
he laid aside his profligate courses, became remarkable
for his sobriety, and applied himself to obtain some de¬
gree of learning. About the year 1655 he was admitted
a member of a Baptist congregation at Bedford, and w'as
soon after chosen their preacher ; but in 1660, having been
seized and tried for presuming to preach, he was sen¬
tenced to perpetual banishment, and in the mean time com¬
mitted to jail, where necessity obliged him to learn to
make long-tagged thread-laces for his support; and, to add
to his misery, he had a w-ife and several children, includ¬
ing a daughter who was blind. In this unjust and cruel
confinement he w^as detained twelve years and a half, and
dunng that time wrote many of his tracts ; but he was at
ength discharged by the humane interposition of Dr Bar-
low. \\ hen King James’s declaration for liberty of con¬
science was published, he wras chosen pastor of a congrega¬
tion at Bedford. He at length died of a fever at London,
on the 31st of August 1688, aged sixty. He also wrote
an allegory, called the Holy War. His Pilgrim's Progress
has been translated into most European languages ; and
his works have been collected together, and printed in
two volumes toho. “ The characteristic peculiarity of the
Pilgrim s Progress," says an able writer, “ is, that it is the
only work of its kind which possesses a strong human in¬
terest. The allegory of Bunyan has been read by many
thousands with tears. This wonderful performance, while
it obtains admiration from the most fastidious critics, is
loved by those who are too simple to admire it....In the
wildest parts of Scotland the Pilgrim's Progress is the de-
hght of the peasantry. In every nursery it is a greater
favourite than Jack the Giant-killer. Every reader knows
, the straight and narrow path as well as he knows a road
m which he has gone backward and forward a hundred
times. I his is the highest miracle of genius, that things
which are not should be as though they were,—that the
imaginations of one mind should become the perpetual
recollections of another; and this miracle the tinker has
wrought. {Edinburgh Revieiv, vol. liv. p. 452.)
BLOT, in sea affairs, a sort of close cask, or block of
w-ood, fastened by a rope to the anchor, to determine the
place where the anchor is situated, that the ship may not
come too near it, to entangle her cable about the stock, or
the flukes of it.
Caii Buoys are in the form of a cone, and of this con¬
struction are all the buoys which are floated over danger-
ous banks and shallows, as a warning to passing ships, that
they may avoid them. They are extremely large, that
ey may be seen at a distance ; and are fastened by
strong chains to the anchors which are sunk for this pur¬
pose at such places.
, Coble Buoys are common casks employed to buoy up
e cables in different places from rocky ground.
‘ 1 a celebrated sculptor, and native of the
is and of Chios, was the son, grandson, and great grandson
o sculptors. He had a brother, named Athenis, of the
same profession, and they flourished in the sixtieth Olym¬
piad, being contemporary with Hipponax, a poet of an
ugly and despicable figure, with whom they diverted them¬
selves by representing him under a ridiculous form. There
BUR
707
e several statues at Rome executed by them ; and they Buphonia
worked only on the white marble of the isle of Paros> P||
Pausarnas mentions Bupalus as a good architect as well Bur<*-
as sculptor, but says nothing of Athenis. hardt.
BUI HONIA, in antiquity, an Athenian feast or cere-
mony, go denominated from a bullock being slain therein
with quaint formalities. From the origin of the buphonia!
it may be concluded that by the laws of Attica it was for-
u den to kill an ox; but it once happened, at the feast
o the dupoba, that an ox ate the corn or cakes which had
been dressed for the sacrifice, which so enraged Thaulon
the priest, that he presently killed the animal and fled. On
tins the Athenians, dreading the resentment of the sods,
and feigning themselves ignorant who had committed the
fact, brought the bloody axe before the judges, where it
was solemnly arraigned, tried, found guilty, and condemn-
ed; and, in memory of this event, a feast was instituted
under the denomination of buphonia, in which it was still
customary for the priest to fly, and judgment to be given
respecting the slaughter of the ox.
JJKSoS?; See IcHTHYonoGY, Index.
BURCKHARDT, John Ludwig. This traveller, cele¬
brated for his extensive journeys in the East, was descend¬
ed from an ancient family in Switzerland, who had been
long established at Kirchgarten, near Lausanne. His fa¬
ther, John Rudolph, had been tried by a French military
commission on a charge of having delivered up the tete du
pont at Hunmngen to the Austrians, and, though acquit¬
ted, received such treatment from the French republican
authorities as made a lasting impression on his mind, and
induced him to remove his family from the territories
where their power predominated, and to establish them at
Basle. He then entered into a Swiss corps in the service
of England.
i Lu.dwiS wa? the e,'ghth son> and born about the year
l/So. Having acquired the usual classical instruction at Ba¬
sle, he was placed at the university of Leipsic; and, after a
residence there of two years, according to a custom very
usual with German students, of dividing the time of their
academical course among several universities, he concluded
his studies, and took his degree, at Gottingen. During his
residence at the latter seat of learning, his talents, appli¬
cation, and good conduct had gained him the esteem and
respect of the professors, but especially of the celebrated
Blumenbach. When he resolved on proceeding to Eng¬
land, Blumenbach gave him a letter of introduction to Sir
Joseph Banks, who, with the other members of the Afri¬
can Association, to whom he was introduced, accepted his
offer of travelling to explore the interior of Africa. After
the plan of his journey had been settled, he diligently pre¬
pared himself for it by application to those studies which
were most appropriate. He passed his time partly in Lon¬
don and partly at Cambridge in acquiring a knowledge of
astionomy, chemistry, mineralogy, medicine, and surgery.
He suffered his beard to grow, accustomed himself to the
dress and manners of the East, and diligently learned to
read, write, and speak the Arabic language; in all which
pui suits he was much assisted by Browne, who during his
travels in Africa had acquired not merely a knowledge of,
but an ardent attachment to, the languages and customs
of Mahommedan nations.
After these preparations, and receiving his instructions
from the society, he left England, and in April 1809 reach¬
ed Malta, whence he proceeded to Aleppo in the follow¬
ing October. Being determined to acquire the Arabic lan¬
guage in perfection, he appeared there as a Mussulman
under the name of Ibrahim Ibn Abdallah; and, durino-
more than two years passed in that part of Asia, he had
so perfected himself in the language as not to be distin¬
guished from the natives, and acquired such accurate
708 BUR
Burden, knowledge of the contents of the Koran, and of the com-
mentaries upon its religion and laws, that after a critical
examination, the most learned Mussulmen entertained no
doubts of his being really what he professed to be, a learned
doctor of their law.
During his residence in Syria he visited Palmyra, Da¬
mascus, Lebanon, and the other parts of that interesting
country, and thence repaired to Cairo in Egypt, with the
intention of joining a caravan, and travelling to Fezzan, in
the north of Africa. In 1812, whilst waiting for the de¬
parture of the caravan, he was induced to make a journey
to the Nile, as far up as Mahass; and then, in the charac¬
ter of a poor Syrian merchant, he made a journey through
the Nubian desert which Bruce had traversed, passing
by Berber and Shendy to Suakim, on the Red Sea;
whence he performed the pilgrimage to Mecca by way of
Jidda. In this journey his privations and sufferings seem
to have been of the severest kind. He returned thence
to Cairo in a state of great exhaustion, but in 1815 tra¬
velled to Mount Sinai, whence he returned again to Cairo
in June 1816, and there made preparations for his in¬
tended journey to Fezzan, and to explore the sources of
the Niger.
Several hindrances prevented his prosecuting this in¬
tention, till at length, in April 1817, when the long-ex¬
pected caravan prepared to depart, he was seized with an
illness which ended his life. He had from time to time
carefully transmitted his journals and remarks, and a very
copious series of letters; so that nothing which appeared
to him to be interesting in the various journeys he made
has been lost. But it is much to be lamented that the
life of a man so well qualified as Burckhardt should not
have been prolonged, till he had been enabled to solve
many of the doubts respecting the interior of Africa, which
has excited the curiosity of mankind from the most re¬
mote ages.
The communications from Burckhardt have at several
periods been furnished to the public in very ample forms,
with appropriate maps; and much light has been thrown
by them on the geography of the countries he visited, and
on the manners, laws, religion, and commerce of their in¬
habitants. His Journey along the Banks of the Nile from
Assouan to Mahass, on the Frontier of Dongola, was publish¬
ed in 1819, in 4to ; and the volume contained also a descrip¬
tion of a Journey from Upper Egypt through the Deserts
of Nubia to Jidda in Arabia. To this is added an Appen¬
dix, with an Itinerary from the Frontiers of Bornou by
Bahr el Ghazal and Darfour to Shendy ; and also notices
of the country of Soudan, west of Darfour, and vocabularies
of the several languages.
In 1822 a volume was published containing a Tour from
Damascus in the countries of Libanus and Anti-Libanus;
a Journal of an Excursion into the Flaouran in 1810; a
Journey from Aleppo to Damascus in 1812; a Journey
from Damascus into the Haouran in 1811 ; a Journey
from Damascus through the Mountains of Arabia Petrsea
in 1812 ; and a Journal of a Tour in the Peninsula of
Mount Sinai in 1816.
In 1829 was published a posthumous volume of Tra¬
vels in Arabia, in 4to (2 vols. 8vo). This is a very inte¬
resting work, containing the narrative of a Journey to
Mecca and Medina during the time when the former city
was the scene of the great Hadj or pilgrimage, as also the
best account yet given of the Wahabee power.
In 1830 appeared another volume, entitled Manners and
Customs of the Egyptians, 4to; but this, consisting chiefly
of the proverbs current among the people of Cairo, is not
of equal value with his former publications. (g.)
BURDEN, or Burdon, in Music, the drone or bass,
and the pipe or string which plays it; hence that part of
BUR
a song which is repeated at the end of every stanza is BurU
called the burden of it. A chord which is divided so as || I .
to perform the intervals of music, when open and undivid- ®urgf
ed, is also called the burden. v'~Yf '
Burden of a Ship is its contents, or number of tons it
will carry.
BURDWAN, a district of Hindustan, in the province
of Bengal, situated between the twenty-second and twen¬
ty-fourth degrees of north latitude, and on the western
side of the Hooghly river. It is bounded on the north by
Birboom and Ranjeshy, on the south by Midnapoor and
Hooghly, on the east by the river Hooghly, and on the
west by Midnapoor and Pachete. This district is about
seventy-three miles long by forty-five broad, and is per¬
haps the best cultivated and most p^ductive of any simi¬
lar extent of territory in India; while it appears like a gar¬
den in a wilderness, being surrounded by the jungles of
Midnapoor in Orissa, of Pachete, and of Birboom. Its pro¬
ducts are grain, cotton, silk, sugar, and indigo, which it
yields in great abundance, and of excellent quality. The
chief towns are Burdwan, Bissunpoor, and Keerpay; and
the principal rivers are the Hooghly and Dummoodah.
The inhabitants are estimated at two millions, one six¬
teenth of whom are supposed to be Mahommedans. Gang
robbery has been very prevalent here, as in all the lower
districts of Bengal; but of late years it has been greatly
repressed by the energy of the government.
BUREN, a circle in the Prussian government of Min-
den, and province of Westphalia. It extends over 262
square miles, or 167,680 acres, and contains four towns,
fifty-one villages, sixteen hamlets, and 28,228 inhabitants.
It is generally a very poor district, but affords some iron,
lead, and salt. The chief place, from which the circle
takes its name, stands on the Alme, where it joins the
Allfte. Before the expulsion of the Jesuits it was the
property of that order, and contains now only 1380 inha¬
bitants.
BURFORD, a market-town of the hundred of Bamp-
ton, in the county of Oxford, seventy-three miles from
London, on the river Windrush. It is celebrated as the
place where an ecclesiastical synod was held in 685, to
determine on the time for celebrating Easter; for a battle
between Cuthred, king of the West Saxons, and Ethelbald,
king of the Mercians ; and for a victory by Fairfax in 1649
over the army of Charles I. The church is a large and
handsome fabric, with a lofty spire. There is very little
trade. The market is held on Saturday. The inhabitants
amounted in 1801 to 1516, in 1811 to 1342, and in 1821
to 1409.
■'g
1
t
!
r
I
s
BURGAGE, or Burgage-tenure, is where the king or
other person is lord of a borough in which the tenements
are held by a rent certain. A borough is distinguished
from other towns by the right of sending members to par- c
liament; and where the right of election is by burgage-
tenure, that alone is a proof of the antiquity of the bo¬
rough. Tenure in burgage, therefore, or burgage-tenure,
is where houses, or lands which were formerly the site of n
houses, in an ancient borough, are held of some lord m
common soccage, by a certain established rent. These
tenures seem to have withstood the shock of the Norman
encroachments, principally on account of their insignifi¬
cance, as a hundred of them put together would scarcely
have amounted to a knight’s fee. Besides, the owners or
them, being chiefly artificers, and persons engaged m
trade, could not with propriety be put on a military esta¬
blishment like that founded on the tenure in chivalry;
and hence the free soccage in which these tenements aie
held seems to be a remnant of Saxon liberty, which may
account for the variety of customs affecting many of the
tenements held in ancient burgage.
bur
I ;age- Burgage-holding, in Scotland, is the tenure by which
Ung the Property in real burghs is held under the king, and is
bur
I originally constituted by a charter from the crown'Fn faTour
UW ofttTh.e h"r^’ the effect of which is, that every proprietor
within the burp-h holds Ins nmr.oi.fT, a: <.1.. _r> J i •
within the burgh holds his property directly of the kinu as
superior, for the reddendo, rx>w merely nominal, of watching
and warding, or “ service of burgh used and wont.” The
title of a disponee to a burgage property proceeds on a re¬
signation made by delivery of staff and baton in the hands
of the magistrates, in virtue of a procuratory granted by the
vassal last infeft, and followed by an infeftment given by
the magistrate in favour of the disponee, without the in¬
tervention of any precept or charter by progress. The
title of an heir in burgage subjects is sometimes complet¬
ed by a precept of dare constat and infeftment, but more
frequently by a single act called a cognition and seisin.
I he proper vassal in burgage-holding being the whole
community, which, in a legal sense, never dies, the ordi¬
nary casualties are not exigible; and the nature of the
tenure also properly excludes such infeudations, although
8. D3S6 infeftment in cin cinnucilrent out of burgage proper-
ty, given by a bailie of the burgh as bailie in that part,
and the town-clerk, as a common notary, has been held as
effectual. No widow s tierce is due from burgage subiects
BURGAU, a city, the capital of a magistracy of the
same name, in the circle of the Upper Danube, of the
kingdom of Bavaria. The district extends over sixty-five
square miles, and contains, besides the city, one market-
town, with thirty-five villages and 11,408‘inhabitants.
Ihe city is situated on the river Mindel, has an ancient
palace or castle, and 2530 inhabitants.
BURGEBRACH, a town, the chief place of a magis¬
tracy of the same name, in the circle of the Upper Maine,
and kingdom of Bavaria. The judicature extends over
195 square miles, and contains, besides the town, fifty-eight
villages, with 13,430 inhabitants. The town is small, and
has only 114 houses.
BURGER, Godfrey Augustus, a celebrated German
poet, boin on the 1st of January 1748, at Wolmerswende, a
village in the principality of Halberstadt, where his father
was Lutheran minister. In his childhood he discovered
little inclination to study; the Bible and the Canticles
alone had any attraction for him : these he knew by heart;
and his first attempts in versification were imitations of
the Psalms, which, notwithstanding their defects, gave
proofs of feeling and a correct ear. It is to this first di¬
rection of his studies that we are to attribute the biblical
phrases, the allusions to Christianity, and the theological
style, if we may be allowed the expression, which we find
even in his amatory poetry. He was fond of solitude,
and indulged in all the romantic sentiments which de¬
serts and the gloom of forests inspire. From the school
o Aschersleben, where his maternal grandfather resided,
and which he quitted in consequence of a severe chastise¬
ment which had been inflicted on him for composing an
epigram, he was sent to the institution at Halle; but at
neither of these places did he make any very sensible pro¬
gress. Fie discovered a taste only for the lessons in pro¬
sody and versification which were given to the scholars of
the institution, in which his friend Gokingk was a class-
fellow with him, who afterwards distinguished himself by
is epistles and songs, and who has lamented the prema-
tuie death of Burger in an elegy to his memory. In 1764
Burger, who was intended for the clerical oflice, began to
attend the course of lectures given by the professors of
the university. Klotz, a learned classical scholar, admit¬
ted him of the number of young people whose talents he
took a pleasure in cultivating; but this society appears not
to have produced the same favourable effect on the moral
character of BUrger as on his genius. His conduct pre-
judiced lus grandfather Bauer against him; and it was
with difficulty that he obtained from him some further
assistance, with permission, in the year 1768, to repair to
STJrh 'l0 pr°SeqCT^e ^ study of law instead of
that of theology. This change did not make him more
regular in his studies; his manners became corrupted-
and his grandfather withdrew his protection. Burner
contracted a number of debts; and his situation would
have become altogether desperate had it not been for the
assistance of some friends. An association, memorable
m the annals of German literature, had just been formed
at Gottingen : it reckoned among its members Boie, Bies¬
ter, Sprengel, Hblty, Muller, Voss, the two Counts Stol-
• P-Cramer, and Leisewitz. Burger was admitted
into it. All of these persons were versed in the Greek
and Kornan literature, and, at the same time, all of them
idolized Shakspeare. The Germans are the only fo¬
reigners who seem to relish or understand the merits of
this great genius in the same degree as his own country¬
men profess to do; and they do not seem to like his genius
the less on account of. the irregularities objected to it by
other nations. Burger, in a great measure, owed his style
to the enthusiasm which he showed, in common with his
literary friends, for our celebrated tragic writer. The
^cliques of Ancient English Poetry, published about this
time by Dr Percy, gave an additional impulse to the di¬
rection which his mind had taken, and suggested to him
some of the productions which his countrymen admire the
most. Of all his friends, Boje was the one who exercised
the greatest influence over him in the choice and manage¬
ment of his compositions. He taught him to make easy
verses by taking pains; and it is to his severe observations
that the poetical stanza of Burger owes a great part of
that elegance and roundness which characterize it. To
the same friend he was indebted also for some improve¬
ment in his circumstances, which, till the year 1772, had
been very uncomfortable. On the recommendation of
Boje he was appointed to the collectorship of Alvenglei-
chen, in the principality of Calenberg. The winter fol¬
lowing, some fragments of a ghost story, which he heard
a peasant girl singing by moonlight, caught his imagina¬
tion, and his Leonora appeared, which soon became popu¬
lar in all parts of Germany. Soon after the publication of
this ballad, a circumstance occurred to give him still
greater confidence in his talents. Going a journey to his
native place, he one evening heard the schoolmaster of
the village, in the room next to that in which he lay, read¬
ing to the assembled audience collected at the inn the
ballad of Leonora, which had just come out, and which
was received with the liveliest marks of admiration. This
proof of success flattered him more than all the compli¬
ments of his friends. About this time he married a Ha¬
noverian lady, named Leonhart; but this union proved
only a source of bitterness to him, an unhappy attachment
to her younger sister having sprung up in his heart. The
loss of a sum of money, of which his grandfather had made
him a present, was the first commencement of the embar¬
rassment of his circumstances. The taking of a large farm,
which he did not know how to manage, increased it; and
the dismissal from his place, which he was obliged to sub¬
mit to in 1784, in consequence of suspicions (probably ill-
founded) raised against the fidelity of his accounts, gave
the finishing stroke to his misfortunes. Fie had, a little
before, lost his wife; and it is but too certain that her
death was hastened by the culpable passion which Burger
cherished in his heart. Left with two children, and 're¬
duced to the inconsiderable emoluments of The Almanack
of the Muses, published at Gottingen, which he had edit¬
ed since 1779, he removed to this city, with a view to give
private lessons there, and in the hope of obtaining from the
709
Burger.
710 BUR
Burger. Hanoverian government a professor’s chair in the belles-
lettres. Five years afterwards, the title was conferred
on him, but without a salary; yet this was the only pub¬
lic recompense obtained during his whole life by a man
who was one of the favourite authors of his nation, and
who, while yet young, had enjoyed the highest reputation.
Scarcely were the ashes of his wife cold wrhen he espous¬
ed her sister Molly, whose name his poems have made
but too famous, and who had embittered the existence of
his first wife; but he did not long enjoy the happiness
after which he had sighed. She died in childbed in the
beginning of 1786. From that moment his own life only
lingered on ; and the fire of his genius seemed extinguish¬
ed with the passion which had so long nourished it. He
had scarcely strength enough, in the intervals of his dejec¬
tion, to finish his Song of Songs, a sort of dithyrambic or
nuptial hymn, intended to celebrate his second marriage,
and which is a strange mixture of frantic passion, religious
devotion, and the most bombastic expression. It was the
last production of Burger. Having studied the philoso¬
phy of Kant, he had an idea of deriving some advantage
from it at Gottingen, where it had not yet been taught.
He undertook to explain it in a course of lectures, which
were attended by a great number of young people. The
satisfaction which the university expressed to him for two
cantatas which he composed in 1787, at the period of the
fifty years’ jubilee of this illustrious institution, and his
nomination to the situation of-professor extraordinary, re¬
animated his spirits. Fortune appearing to smile on Him
once more, he formed the design of marrying again, in
order to provide a mother for his children. During one
of the moments when he was most occupied with this idea,
he received a letter from Stuttgard, in which a young
woman, whose style indicated a cultivated mind, and her
sentiments an elevated and feeling heart, after describing
to him, with enthusiasm, the impression which his poetry
had made upon her, offered him her hand and heart.
Burger spoke of the thing at first only in jest, but the in¬
formation which he received respecting the character, the
fortune, and personal accomplishments of his correspon¬
dent having excited his curiosity, he took a journey to
Stuttgard, and brought back with him a wife who embit¬
tered and dishonoured the rest of his days. In less than
three years he saw himself under the necessity of obtain¬
ing a divorce from her; and the ruin of his health aggra¬
vated the absolute disorder of his finances. Confined to
a small chamber, the favourite poet of Germany wasted
the remainder of his strength in translations ordered by
foreign booksellers; but sickness and grief soon deprived
him even of this resource, and he must have died in the
most frightful state of want, if the government of Hano¬
ver had not extended some kindness to him. He died
on the 8th of June 1794, of a disorder of the bowels, which
he had never believed to be dangerous.
Burger is only remarkable as a lyric poet. He has
tried all the dilferent species of this class of the produc¬
tions of genius; but he succeeded eminently only in the
song and the ballad. M e shall, perhaps, characterize his
genius sufficiently by saying that his imagination is more
iresh than rich,—that he has more sensibility than eleva¬
tion, more naivete and good nature than delicacy or taste.
His style sparkles by its clearness, its energy, and from
an elegance which is rather the result of labour than of
natural grace; he possesses, in short, all the qualities which
please the multitude. Allowing the title of poet only to
those whose writings were calculated to become popular,
he early habituated himself to reject whatever appeared
to him not sufficiently intelligible and interesting to all
classes of readers. Always clear and forcible, he is never
either low or trivial; and if at certain times there appears
BUR
a want of selection and care in the details, yet the senti- Burg-
ments are uniformly noble, and the moral intention of the -yI;
majority of his pieces altogether irreproachable. Some
breathe the loftiest piety and the purest love of virtue.
Mfieland said of him (see the German Mercury, 1778),
that in composing his poem entitled Mccnnerkeuschheit (on
Chastity), Burger had deserved better of the present and
future generations, than if he had written the finest trea¬
tise of morality. This little piece has been inserted in
most of the collections of hymns for the use of the Lu¬
theran church.
There are three editions of Burger’s works. The first
two appeared in his lifetime, in 1778 and 1789, in 3 vols.
8vo; and the third, after his death, was published by his
friend Ch. Reinhard, in 4 vols. 1796. All three were
printed at Gottingen. The last contains some posthu¬
mous pieces, and miscellanies in prose. MTe must confine
ourselves to a short notice of those for which their merit
or the singularity of the subject has procured the greatest
degree of celebrity. 1. A translation, or rather an imita¬
tion, of the Vigil of Venus (Pervigilium Veneris?) It is a
fine piece of poetic diction and rythmical harmony. 2. Leo¬
nora, a romance ; which belongs to the class which Burger
himself called the epic lyric. This story is borrowed from
a popular tradition, of w hich the traces are to be found in
the different countries of the north. Leonora was trans¬
lated into Danish in 1788, six times into English, by Stan¬
ley, Pye, Spencer, Taylor, &c., and from English into
French by De la Madelaine in 1811. The translation by
Mr Spencer is accompanied with engravings after designs
by Lady Diana Beauclerc. Two German composers have
set it to music. Burger often appeared very ill contented
wuth the vast success of this production of his youth. He
preferred a great number of his other poems, and was him¬
self the first to blame the puerile trick of the play upon
sounds which he has here indulged in. 3. The Ministers
Daughter of Taubenhain is the story of the seduction
and tragical end of a young girl. There are in this, as in
the other productions of the same author, some objection¬
able details, but the wdiole leaves a deep impression. 4.
The Inhuman Huntsman. 5. The Song of the Brave; in
which the heroism of a peasant, who saves a family from
the fury of the waves, is related with admirable feeling.
6. The Song of Songs, conceived at the foot of the altar.
This is a hymn or ode in praise of his Molly. 7. A Tra-
vestie of the Fable of Jupiter and Europa. This is a piece
of humour of the most clumsy kind, and in a taste the
most wretched, yet it had a great run when it first ap¬
peared. 8. A translation in iambic verse, of some boohs of
the Iliad. The choice of the measure is by no means
happy. He was accordingly requested ironically, to set
about translating Anacreon into hexameters, when he had
finished his version of Flomer into German iambics. 9.
An excellent Translation of Shahspeare's Macbeth. 10.
Pieces of Poetry and of Rhetorical Prose. He had begun
to write critical observations on his own works, with equal
severity and sagacity; but he has only left some frag¬
ments of this work. 11. He was editor of the Gottingen
Almanack of the Muses, from 1779 to 1794. Vetterlein,
Pblitz, and Engel, have published a selection of the poetry
of Burger, with notes ; and celebrated composers, such as
Schulz and Reichardt, have set a great number ol his
songs to music. Burger’s third wdfe, whom German bio¬
graphy has thought worthy to have her name associated
with his on account of her taste for literature, and parti¬
cularly poetry, is author of several pieces in verse ins^‘
ed in the collections. The one having for its title The
Raillery of a Mother, is sufficient to prove her poetica
talent.
BURGESS, an inhabitant of a borough or walled town,
:g;len
Ifeld.
bur
or one who possesses a tenement therein. Anciently, bur¬
gesses were he dm great contempt, being reputed servile,
base, and unfit for war ; so that the gentry were not al¬
lowed o intermarry m their families, or fight with them,
but in lieu thereof to appoint champions.
Burgess is now ordinarily used for the representative
of a borough in parliament. Burgesses are supposed to
represent the mercantile part, or trading interest, of the
nation; and they were formerly allowed, by a rate esta¬
blished in he reign of Edward III. two shillings a day as
wages. The right of election of burgesses depends on
several local charters and customs; and by 3 Geo. Ill c
15, no freeman, except such as claim by birth, servitude’
or marriage, is entitled to vote, unless he has been admit¬
ted to his freedom twelve months before. Burgess, in
Scotland, is a member of the corporation of a burgh ad¬
mitted either by the charter of erection, or by birth as
being the son of a burgess, or by serving an apprentice¬
ship to a burgess, or by marrying the daughter of a bur¬
gess, or by election by the magistrates of the burgh. The
heir of a burgess has a right to heirship movables
BURGGRAVE properly denotes the hereditary go¬
vernor of a castle or fortified town, chiefly in Germany.
The word is compounded of boury, town, and graf ox grave,
count. The burggraves were originally the same with what
is otherwise called castellans or comites castellani ; but their
dignity was considerably advanced under Rodolph of Haps-
burg. Before his time they were ranked only as counts,
and below the princes, but under him they began to be es¬
teemed as on a footing with princes. In some parts the
dignity has much degenerated.
BURGH, a market-town of the Lindsay division of the
hundred of Gandleshoe, in the county of Lincoln, distant
a hundred and thirty-six miles from London. The country
around it is a rich tract of mArshy land, in which the best
oxen are fattened. The market is held on Thursday.
Ihe inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 716, in 1811 to 709
and in 1821, to 903. ’
BURGHBO BE signifies contribution towards the build¬
ing or repairing of castles or walls, for the defence of a
orough or city. By a law of King Athelstan, the castles
and walls of towns were to be repaired, and burghbote
levied every year within a fortnight after rogation days.
o person whatever was exempt from this service, and
even the king himself could not exempt a man from burgh-
ote, yet in after-times exemptions appear to have been
trequently granted, insomuch that the word burghbote
came to denote, not the service, but the liberty or ex¬
emption from it.
BURGHBRECHE, or Burghbrech, a fine imposed
on the community of a town or burgh, for a breach of the
peace among them.
BURGHMOTE, the court of a borough. By the laws
ot King Edgar, the burghmote was to be held thrice in the
year; by those of Henry I. twelve times.
BURGLARY, or Nocturnal House-Breaking (7>w-
gi latfocinium), which by the ancient English law was call¬
ed hamesueken, a word also used in the law of Scotland,
ut in a somewhat different sense, has always been looked
upon as a very heinous offence. The definition of a burg¬
lar, as given by Sir Edward Coke, is, “ he that by night
breaketh and eptereth in a mansion-house with intent to
commit a felony.” Burglary is a felony at common law,
but within the benefit of clergy.
BURGLENGENFELD, a magistracy in the circle of
egen, in the kingdom of Bavaria, which comprehends 323
square miles, and contains 24,500 inhabitants. The city
rom which it takes the name stands in a most romantic
bur
il
• , '   wav AALiAAAV O LtlAAVtO Xll Cl illUOL X UlUcUl LiL/
situation, and in the neighbourhood of others of similar
eauty, on the river Nab. It contains about 1500 inha-
fire-arn's^amHn .f'fy occuPied in manufacture of Bur™.
nre-arms, and in the tannine of leatlmr ?
BUltGOMASTElt.Braog„ER“,Brao»MI,TER T
FlandereMHofiamIthe'd'r nlaglstrate of u,e great towns in Burh™-
uianaers, Holland, and Germany. The power and im-K P001-’
diction of the burgomaster are L the L'me in ali pCs'
every town having its particular customs and regulations’
The word is formed from the two Flemish words borger
burgess, oi citizen; and mester, master. Some express it
in Latin by consul, others by senator. Burgermaster in
Holland, answers to alderman and sheriff in England
mfr°otSTER- -See 0™™hology, Index
BURGOS, a province of Castile, in the north of Spain
ounded on the north by the ocean ; on the east by Biscay’
Alava and Soria; on the south by Segovia; and on the west
encia’ Valladolid, Toro, and Asturias. Its extent is
ranTes^ofmrr tS: V a lofty territ017’ intersected bv
fSnl bftWeen Which are extensive and
uitful valleys. Ihe soil is for the most part sandy, inter-
ixed with stones, but in some parts is of a good loamy
thpfwT- 1 he Jeftiest mountains are in the north, called
the Cantabrian, which are covered with woods ; whilst the
barren ReJ^0S& *nd ?th<rrs are bare, and almost utterly
barren. Ihe valleys m the province are watered bv vari-
ous small streams, and their tributary rivulets, the waters
of all which are collected in part by the Ebro, which
conveys them to the Mediterranean Sea, and in part by
the Douro, which runs to the Atlantic Ocean. The climate
is genera ly temperate, the summers being cool, and, ex¬
cept on the loftier parts, the winters not sufficiently cold.
ie atmosphere in the interior is commonly clear, but on
the coast moist and foggy. The agriculture, though ill con¬
ducted, produces a sufficiency for the population. The
breeding of cattle is the most profitable branch of rural in¬
dustry ; and the province supplies its neighbours with many
cows, sheep, goats, horses, mules, and asses. Some silk,
flax, and hemp are produced, but in very small quantities.
Inere are scarcely any manufactures except of the domes¬
tic kind, or upon a very small scale. The inhabitants at
t ie last correct census, that of 1803, amounted to 470,588 ;
and it is probable they have increased since that period.’
Ihe province contains five cities, 583 towns, and 1118 vil¬
lages. The only places of more than 5000 inhabitants are
Burgos, Logrono, and Santander.
Burgos, a city, the capital of the province of the same
name, in Spain. It is situated on a hill, around which the
river Arlanzon winds. It is fortified, but its chief defence
is the castle, which checked the progress of the British
army. It is the see of an archbishop, whose cathedral is
large and handsome, though antique. It has, besides,
fourteen other churches, and twenty-four religious houses.
It is the seat of the military academy and an ecclesias¬
tical seminary, and contains about 11,000 inhabitants.
Long. 3. 46. 14. W. Lat. 42. 20. 59. N.
BURGUNDIONES, a part or branch of the Yindili or
Mandili, placed by Cluverius about the Wartu, a river of
Poland ; though the conjectures as to the seat of this peo¬
ple are doubtful. I hey afterwards removed to Cisalpine
Germany, and at length to Celtic Gaul, and gave name to
the duchy and county of Burgundy.
BURGUNDY, called also Burgundy Proper, or Lower
Burgundy, formerly a province in the east of France, lying
on the west of Franche-Cdmte, and on the south of Cham¬
pagne. It now forms the departments of the Yonne, Cote
d Or, Saone et Loire, and Ain, under which several heads
Burgundy will be found described.
BURHAMPOOR, a town oPHindustan, in the province
of Bengal, situated on the east bank of Bhagirathi or Cos-
simbazar river, five miles from Moorshedabad. Here is
stationed a brigade of troops in commodious cantonments.
712
BUR
Burial which consist of a fine range of buildings in an open lawn.
l| Long. 89. 14. E. Lat. 24. 3. N.
Burias. BURIAL, the interment of a deceased person. In al-
most all countries the rites of sepulture have been looked
upon as a debt so sacred, that those who neglected to
discharge it were thought infamous. Hence the Ro¬
mans called them justa, and the Greeks wyx//xa, br/Mia, o<ua,
words implying the inviolable obligation which nature has
laid upon the living to perform the obsequies of the dead.
Nor need we wonder that the ancient Greeks and Ro¬
mans were extremely solicitous about the interment of
their deceased friends, seeing they were strongly persuad¬
ed that their souls could not be admitted into the Elysian
fields till their bodies had been committed to the earth;
and if it happened that they never obtained the rites of
burial, they were excluded from the happy mansions for
the term of a hundred years. For this reason it was con¬
sidered as a duty incumbent upon all travellers who hap¬
pened to meet with a dead body in their way, to cast dust
or mould upon it three times ; and of these, one portion at
least was cast upon the head. The ancients likewise consi¬
dered it as a great misfortune if they were not laid in the
sepulchres of their fathers; for which reason the ashes of
those who died in foreign countries were usually brought
home and interred with those of their ancestors. But not¬
withstanding the great care in the burials of the dead, there
were some persons whom they thought unworthy of the last
office, and to whom therefore they refused it; namely, pub¬
lic or private enemies; such as betrayed or conspired against
their country; tyrants, who were always looked upon as ene¬
mies to their country; villains guilty of sacrilege; such as
died in debt, whose bodies belonged to their creditors; and
offenders who had suffered capital punishment.
Of those who were allowed the rites of burial, some
were distinguished by particular circumstances of disgrace
attending their interment. Thus persons killed by light¬
ning were buried apart by themselves, being thought
odious to the gods; those who wasted their patrimony
forfeited the right of being buried in the sepulchres of
their fathers; and those who were guilty of self-murder
were privately deposited in the ground, without the ac¬
customed solemnities. Among the Jews the privilege of
burial was denied only to self-murderers, who were thrown
out to rot upon the ground. In the Christian church,
though good men always desired the privilege of inter¬
ment, j'et they were not, like the heathens, so concerned
for their bodies as to think it any detriment to them if
either the barbarity of an enemy or some other accident
deprived them of this privilege. The primitive Christian
church denied the more solemn rites of burial only to the
unbaptized, to self-murderers, and to excommunicated per¬
sons who continued obstinate and impenitent in contempt
of the censures of the church.
The place of burial among the Jews was never particu¬
larly determined. They had graves in the town and coun¬
ty* upon the highways, in gardens, and upon mountains.
Among the Greeks the temples were made repositories
for the dead in the primitive ages; yet the general cus¬
tom in later ages with them, as well as with the Romans
and other heathen nations, was to bury their dead with¬
out their cities, and chiefly by the highways. Among the
primitive Christians burying in cities was not allowed for
the first three centuries, nor in churches for many ages
after. Dead bodies were first deposited in the atrium
or church-yard, and in the porches and porticoes of the
church ; and hereditary burying-places were forbidden
till the twelfth century. *
' .BURIAS, one of the Philippine Isles, about forty-three
miles in length by nine in average breadth. It is sur¬
rounded with shoals and rocks, and was formerly possessed
BUR
by a colony of piratical cruizers from Magindanao. Long. Bur
123. E. Lat. 13. N. J
BURIATS, Buraty, or Bratsky, a tribe of Tartars, Bun
now brought under the jurisdiction of Russia, and widely ''“’"Y'
dispersed throughout Siberia, in the government of Ir¬
kutsk, wherein their numbers are computed from the capi¬
tation tax at about sixty thousand. Their features are of
a genuine Tartar cast, resembling those of the Kalmucks,
though they are not quite so flat, the nose being some¬
what higher, and the countenance more open. They
themselves trace their origin to the Kalmucks, and not to
the Moguls. They are entirely pastoral in their habits,
and depend for their subsistence chiefly on their flocks.
The principal occupations of the men are riding and hunt¬
ing ; and they are dexterous archers as well as skilful horse¬
men. They are esteemed honest and sincere, and both
sexes are extremely courteous. They are very ignorant,
and debased by the grossest paganism. The residence of
this tribe is chiefly around the banks of the lake Baikal,
and those of the rivers Angora and Lena.
BURIDAN, John, a native of Bethune, in Artois, was
one of the most celebrated philosophers of the fourteenth
century. He taught in the university of Paris with great
reputation, and wrote commentaries on logic, morality,
and Aristotle’s metaphysics. Aventinus relates that he
was a disciple of Ockam; and that, being expelled Paris
by the power of the realists, which was superior to that of
the nominalists, he went into Germany, where he found¬
ed the university of Vienna.
BURKE, Edmund, an illustrious writer, orator, and
statesman, was born in Dublin on the 1st of January 1730.
His father was an attorney, first in Limerick, and after¬
wards in Dublin. Young Burke received the rudiments of
his education at Castletown Roche. He was afterwards
put under the tuition of Abfaham Shackleton, a quaker of
some celebrity in Ballitore, in the county of Kildare. Com¬
mitted to the care of a master so well qualified for the bu¬
siness of instruction, he applied to his studies with com¬
mendable assiduity, and in this seminary laid the founda¬
tion of his knowledge of the ancient languages, and pro¬
bably also imbibed that love of liberty which so often
pointed his oratory, inflamed his passions, animated bis
sentiments, and in his best days secured him an almost un¬
equalled reputation.
Here several years of his life were spent; and the at¬
tachment of the master and the gratitude of the pupil
reflect equal honour on both. The former lived to see his
scholar attain a considerable degree of reputation; and
the latter, on his part, was accustomed to spend a portion
of his annual visit to Ireland at Ballitore. He also kept
up an epistolary correspondence with him, which lasted
till the death of his tutor.
From this provincial seminary Edmund was sent to the
university of Dublin. But here he does not appear to
have distinguished himself much either by application or
talents: his character as a student was merely negative.
He received a degree, however, before he departed, and
during this period he commenced author, by writing some
political essays.
Mr Burke now addicted himself to other pursuits, par¬
ticularly logic and metaphysics, and is said to have plan¬
ned a refutation of the systems of Berkeley and Hume.
But whilst thus employed in treasuring up the means of
attaining a species of celebrity which far different avoca¬
tions prevented his afterwards aspiring to, he was not in¬
attentive to the grand object of obtaining a suitable settle¬
ment in life. His family was not opulent, and as he al¬
ready panted after independence, he repaired to the me¬
tropolis, and enrolled his name as a student of the Inner
Temple.
W jLZPn\rL?7e siudTrl68’ 1,ls,writi"««’ -O hi* con-
’V-' versa non, tnat he studied the outlines of our municinal
junsprndence w.th attention; but it may be doutaed X
ther he ever entered deeply into the smdy of law The
versat,hty of h,s talents and his avocations were, ndeed
but little calculated for that dull and plodding perseve
ranee which can alone lead to an intimate knowledge ofX
laws; and even if he had been gifted with the nfcessarv
application, both time and opportunity were wanX S
it is well known that at this period of his life the rls aZ
gmta domi did not permit the student to dedicate Ms a”
tent,on solely to tins, or indeed to any other single nur
su,t. The exhausted state of his finances called frenuendy
for a speedy supply; and, instead of perusing the pages
of Bracton, Fleta, Littleton, and Coke he was obliged to
write essays, letters, and paragraphs, for the periodical
publications of the day. But if these pursuits diverted
his attention from graver studies, they acquired him a fa¬
cility of composition and a command of style and of lan¬
guage, which proved eminently serviceable to him in the
course of Ms future life. About this period he became a
candidate for a vacant chair in the university of Glasgow
but he was unsuccessful. ^ °
His health, however, became at length impaired and a
XnXraid Ttf mT'"S Cireu”s'a"“ induced Mm to
cal in the aid of Dr Nugent, a countryman of his own
nractXanT0hfisam'ab, e mm“er,s’ tliongh not of extensive
Sir T g,en1tleman’ who was himself an author
readily discovered the source of Mr Burke’s malady and’
by removing Jnm from books and business to his own house
"Zfri a CUreai? event which is said ^ have been
* asstened, if not entirely completed, by a physician of
another kind, the accomplished daughter ofPDr Nuo-ent
madee«dd 1Cat-e attentlons to the invadd appear to have
made a deep impression on his heart. In fact this ladv
afterwards became Mrs Burke; and the circumstance was
particularJy fortunate for him, as her disposition was mild
and gentle, and she continued throughout a long series of
years, and many vicissitudes of fortune, to soothe^nd tran¬
quillize passions always violent, and often tumultuous.
Mr Hm'f-n°me °stens]b,y sPent in the study of law,
Mr Burke seems to have determined once more to endea-
I ^ todfinguiSh himself as an author; and accordingly
he took advantage of the death of a celebrated noblenfaJ
I write^sn8T°uk aft6r the manner 0f that distinguished
be enabled i ’] ^ ex^er?ting his principles, he might
be enabled to bring them into contempt; but this effort
a Iona ^successfu1’ and the treatise in question was for
been he™? n^lt0 n°r Would k have ev^
fame fi ^ n0t been resuscitated by his future
amulet i c6 SaCCe?S 0f another Performance made
2blil aZ n i^/^PPointment. His Essay on the
and attracted a great degree of notice,
and acquired him considerable celebrity as a man of let-
sa d'fn I" addltl°n the Profits of the Publication, he is
sa d to have received a present of a hundred pounds from
emhar.o61’5^ hlS cl^cumstances must have been greatly
d °Ut th!S tlme’ as he was nbiiged to sell his
Erf’—3 measure which nothing but the extremity of
disti ess could have forced a man of letters to resort to.
riiPd 18 T - haV1^ an lmmediate relation to taste, ex-
hend in,Sn: Joshua Reynolds, even then at the
Bn l- ° j P^0.iessionj to become acquainted with Mr
nm/V ian- a b'lendship ensued which continued uninter-
cahv i bPe °P tbe painter, and was unequivo-
Tn/ testlned by a handsome bequest in his will. Dr
nn^nt°n a S° S,0U^ht and obtained his friendship; and he
nn«pd epame the constant frequenter of two clubs, com-
f)np c ,some tbe most celebrated men of that day.
vol VeSe met at tbe Turk’s Head Tavern in Gerrard
burke.
Of Salisbury, Dr Bernard dean of Derry ft- bh°S
rUMe’ ^ W1i,liam Mr Hickey? a^d^Lrs ’Dr
Goidsmith, who w Mr Burke,6 contemporary a? Dubhn
College, was member of both, and wrote the‘enitanh« If
those who composed the latter aP S °f
of emoluSentto Mmf?r Thfs ^
nursnif^t! ■Burke was at iength called off from his literary
puisiuts by avocations of a far different kind. A gentlemaJ
who afterwards obtained the name of Sincdesneed Ha-
tenant’ bj aPP0inted secretary to the lord-lieu¬
tenant of Ireland, invited his friend Mr Burke to accom¬
pany him thither, an offer which he readily accented-
and although he acted in no public station, and performed
public service, while he remained in that country he
was rewarded with a pension of three hundred poundl’per
annum which the conduct of Mr Hamilton soon afterwards
compelled him to throw up. a s
wi^blS retUrn t0 Tugland he amused himself, as usual,
t litermy composition; and a series of essays written
by him in a newspaper, which at the time enjoyed great
hambr in7’ attl'aCted the ,not!ce of the Marquis of}Rocking-
f W/1C.h Mr Fitzherbert, father of
Coul St Helen s, introduced him to that nobleman. From
this moment he became a public man, and dedicated his
studies, his eloquence, and his pen, almost exclusively to
politics. Meanwhile Lord Rockingham, having proved
more compliant than the Earl of Chatham, came into
power; and when seated on the treasury bench, he select¬
ed Mr Burke as his private secretary,—an office of no
power and very little emolument, but one which naturally
eads to both. As it was now necessary that he should
have a seat m parliament, although it can scarcely be
supposed that he was legally qualified in point of proper¬
ty, he applied to Lord Verney, patron of Wendover, and
was returned for that borough, which was then dependent
on his lordship, being principally occupied by his tenants.
Havmg thus obtained a seat in 1765, he prepared to
qualify himself for his -new situation. He had all the ne¬
cessary talents, and was only deficient in knowledge of
the forms of business, and in facility of expressing his
sentiments before a public audience. The first of these
he mastered by sedulous attention; and as to the second
if we are to credit those who were intimately acquainted
with him at this period of his life, he overcame all diffi¬
culties by a previous initiation elsewhere. In short he
had acquired celebrity at the Robinhood before he’ at¬
tempted to speak in the British senate, and vanquished an
eloquent baker ere he began to cope with the greatest ora¬
tors this nation has ever produced.
Holding a confidential place under the Rockingham ad¬
ministration, he of course supported all its measures. A
former ministry, anxious to increase its influence by means
of increased imposts, had conceived the idea of taxing
America through the medium of a parliament in which
she was not represented, and attempted to carry this into
effect by means of the famous stamp act; but the Ameri¬
cans, alarmed at what they conceived to be a flagrant vio¬
lation of every principle of the English constitution, made
4 x
714
BURK E.
file honom of^tbe^rownfthey^unfortuna^el^propos'ed and firs^was LoJd Clare, afterwards Lord Nugent, one of the
carr ed the declaratory act, by means of which, although former representatives, whose unpopularity was ueh that
carnea tne aec a y ’•? nrincinle on which he soon discovered the necessity ot resigning all his pre-
*h'“X en buif^warassertedTnew^anda folnidaUon laid tensions; and of the two others,1»r Cruger and Mr Brick-
fo aU *e miserie7wh "h afterwards ensued. But if the dale, who remained in the field, the former, hke Mr Burke
Rock ngham administration deserved no great credit on himself, was averse to a rupture with America,
this oclsio™, it is entitled to considerable praise on ac- Idle new candidate did not appear on the hustings un-
count of other parts of its conduct; for it repealed the til the afternoon of the sixth day s poll, on which occasion
cider act, procured a declaration of the House of Com- he
mons condemning the seizure of papers, and earned a re¬
solution against general warrants. On retiring from ofhee,
however, they did not carry much popularity along with
them • Lord Chatham and his friends, who in some mea-
lie cmLlieOOGU. cuv, *** Ml 1 J   7 ;  J
calculated for the occasion ; expressing a modest diffidence
of his own abilities, and a high opinion of the important
trust they were assembled to confer; boldly declaring him¬
self hostile to a contest with America; and asserting that
thpm • Lord Lli3.tn8.ni aiiti iiio m ovmhv, . irl i -im , V
sur™monopolized the public favour, were intrusted with England had been rendered flourishing by liberty and com-
the management of affairs for a short time ; and it is ex- merce, the first of which was dear to his heart, whilst the
tremely probable that they would have sunk into neglect latter had been a favourite object of his studies, both m
had n^ America been driven into open resistance. its principles and details. This harangue was well receiv-
Tt now fell to the lot of Lord North to enforce the ed by the electors;' the contest proved, propitious to his
scheme which the Grenville party had projected, which wishes; and when the sheriffs had notified, at the close
the llockimdiam administration had by an unaccountable of the poll, that he was elected, he delivered the most bril-
blunder at once recognised and annihilated, and which liant address on the occasion that had ever been heard
they afterwards manfully and at length successfully op¬
posed. This forms the most brilliant epoch of Mr Burke’s
life. He was hostile to the expulsion of Mr Wilkes, an
act which the House of Commons afterwards rescinded
from its records. On the application of the dissenters
for relief, he espoused their cause, and expressed his re¬
sentment in very animated terms against that misguided
within the walls of the city.
Mr Burke returned from his new constituents to parlia¬
ment with increased vigour, reputation, and zeal. The
Earl of Chatham, notwithstanding his reputation for wis¬
dom, having failed in an attempt to adjust the troubles
of the colonies by means of a conciliatory bill introduced
by him into the House of Peers for that purpose, the ob-
sentment in very ammaieu teims agamst mai,   — . , * ‘
policy which permitted all those not within the pale of the stinacy of the ministry now became apparent to every one.
establishment to enjoy liberty less by right than by conni- But this circumstance, which would have appalled an m-
vance. But perhaps the noblest part of his conduct con- ferior man, did not, however, discourage the member tor
sisted in his steady and uniform opposition to the Ameri- Bristol from making a similar attempt in another place;
can war, and his marked hostility to the abettors of the and accordingly, on the 22d March 1775, he brought for-
struggle. His speech against the Boston Port Bill was ward his celebrated thirteen propositions, which were m-
one of the most brilliant specimens of oratory that had ever tended to close the fatal breach, and heal all the di ei-
been displayed in the British senate; and on the 19th of cnees between the mother country and her colonies, tiis
April 1774., on a motion for the repeal of the tea duty, he plan, on this occasion, embraced not only immediate con-
discovered such talents, that an old and respectable mem- ciliation, by a repeal of the late coercive acts, but also t le
ber exclaimed, “ Good God, what a man is this! How creation of an independent judicature, and the regulation
could he acquire such transcendent powers ?” And when, of the courts of admiralty, ihe whole, however, was
in reply to another who had said that the Americans were quashed by a large majority on the side of the minis ei
our children, and it was horrible to revolt against their pa- who moved the previous question. _
rent, the orator uttered the following passage, the whole Mr Burke had hitherto chiefly distinguished himse m
house was electrified : “ They are our children, it is true; opposition to the measures of others ; but in I vBO he lnm-
but when children ask for bread, wTe are not to give them self stood forth as the original author of a scheme w ici
a stone. When those children of ours wish to assimilate soon engaged the attention of the public, and acf^ yaP
with their parent, and to respect Mie beauteous counte- peared big with the most important results. W ien ie
nance of British liberty, are we to turn to them the shame- found ministers obstinately persisting in a disastrous wa,
ful parts of our constitution? Are we to give them our and perceived that the people began to bend beneat^ ^
weakness for their strength ; our opprobrium for their
glory; and the slough of slavery, which we are not able
to work off, to serve them for their freedom ?”
The city of Bristol, the merchants of which had become
weight of the taxes for its support, it struck him as at
once advantageous and politically expedient to attempt to
diminish the public burdens and the number of adherents
of the court. Accordingly, on the 11th ot February, e
, , . • , -n . v   n.-o w,r.;ocf-v s civil
rich by the commerce with America, were likely to suffer brought in a bill for the regulation^ of his majesty s ci
by its interdiction. This consideration alone rendered establishments, and of certain public offices; for t le a
many of them hostile to the proceedings of the ministry; tation of pensions, and the suppression of sundry ase e ^
but nobler and more exalted motives actuated the bosoms expensive, and inconvenient places; and for aPP yin& ^
of some, particularly the quakers, dissenters, and other monies saved thereby to the public service. Im&sci^
sectaries, who were moved by zeal against oppression, and was manifestly founded on the late reforms vy ic i
a love of liberty imprinted on their minds by a constitu- taken place in France; for, by an edict of the king, ie»^
tion which until then had remained inviolate. Gratified tered in the parliament of Paris, it appeared t a
by the exertions of Mr Burke in behalf of civil and reli- suppressed no less than four hundred places in us
gious freedom, they put him in nomination for the city, hold by one regulation. The orator judiciously at ver^_^
and sent into Yorkshire to request his immediate personal this event, and endeavoured to make use of it as an.u^vap
attendance. After consulting with his patron concerning ment to a similar attempt here, calling in nationa ^
an offer so flattering and unexpected, accompanied at ship by way of an inducement to consent to tns sa ^
the same time with assurances most punctually fulfilled, on the part of the crown. To this bill the mmon y
Burk;:
urke.
not at first give much opposition; and indeed the mover
of it contrived to soften those features which appeared
harsh to hem. But notwithstanding this, it did not prove
successful during Lord North’s administration; and when
it was at length carried, it was much modified and altered
Parliament was dissolved in 1780, but Mr Burke was
not re-elected for Bristol. This is said to have made a
deep impression on the mind of the orator; but it must
have been obliterated by the important events which
speedily ensued; for the minister now tottered on the
treasury bench, being abandoned by many of his staunch-
est supporters, and but little confident in his own schemes,
all of which had proved eminently unsuccessful. Mean¬
while the opposition having increased to a considerable
unceasingly assailed him, until at length, on the
28th March 1782, Lord North assured the House of Com¬
mons that his administration was at an end.
The day had now arrived when the ministry and onno-
sition were to change places, and Mr Burke, whose ser¬
vices had been so conspicuous, was made a privy counsel¬
lor, and invested with the lucrative appointment of pav-
master-general of the forces. He was thus at length ena¬
bled to enforce his plan of political economy, tendered
before m vain; and the board of trade, the board of works,
the offices of third secretary of state, treasurer of the
rhamhpr. pnrtprpr rvF+1-.^ i i
B U II K E.
715
chamber, cofferer of the household, the lords of police in much °f 1 ./°yai ,aUth°rity’ Mr Burke stacked him with
.S.C°tI,“d:Jthe.,rnaS-er ?f ,the l>a™rs’ ‘he master of the on the manned if ^Smre
_ 1  cut: luiua ui ponce in
Scotland, the master of the harriers, the master of the
stag-hounds, the six clerks of the board of green cloth
and the paymaster of the pensions, were abolished. But
when the reins of government were confided to the hands
of the Marquis of Lansdown, then Earl Shelburne, this
event gave such offence to those who wished to place the
Duke of Portland afthe head of affairs, that Mr Fox, Lord
John Cavendish, and Mr Burke, immediately resigned
In the mean time the critical state of the English East
India Company had long agitated the public mind, and
become occasionally a subject of discussion in parliament.
Ihe seizure, imprisonment, and confinement of Lord Pigot
by a faction in the council of Madras—the conduct of Mr
Hastings m respect to several of the native powers—and
the grand question of sovereignty, relative to the territo¬
rial possessions of the Company in Asia—had all at differ¬
ent times excited the attention of the nation. Accord-
mgly, wnen Mr Fox and his friends came into power, he
brought in a bill to remedy the various abuses in the go¬
vernment of British India. Of this bill Mr Burke is well
known to have been in a great measure the author; and
when it was introduced into parliament, he defended its
principles and provisions with all the zeal of a parent.
Notwithstanding much opposition both within and with¬
out tins celebrated bill was carried triumphantly through
the House of Commons ; but in the House of Peers it ex-
penenced a far different fate, and with it fell the power
and consequence of its authors, framers, and supporters.
In toe course of the next year, 28th February 1785, he
made a splendid speech relative to the nabob of Arcot’s
debts; and depicted one of his creditors, who had taken
an active share in the late elections, “ as a criminal who
theTvTn6011’ ^ Which1he the alleged crimes of Burke
coioure8 ™aT-grr tl,e n,ost giowin«and ■
colours. I his trial, however, turned out in the event verv
f]rom what had been expected; whilst the length
pl“p7„1ad,mV°1Ve b°th Mr Bl,rke himself a"d
During the debate on the commercial treaty with France
hfbItedT17 \787’ Mu BiUrke’then member Mai ton, ex-
ffited an undiminished versatility of talents, and pointed
his ridicule with no common success at Mr Pitt, who ac¬
cording to him, contemplated the subject with a narrow-
ness peculiar to limited minds“ He seems to consider
and not nfA 98 311 affa11' °f tW° little counting-houses,
and not of two great nations. He seems to consider it as
a contention between the sign of the fleur-de-lis and the
custom ”le ° d ^ ll°>h f01 Which should obtain the best
Hie next public event of importance in which we find
Mr Burke engaged, occurred in consequence of his ma¬
jesty s indisposition On this occasion he took an active
part in the debates of the House of Commons, and is sup¬
posed to have penned a letter for one, and a speech for
another branch of the royal family. When Mr Pitt moved
is declaratory resolutions relative to the provisional ex¬
ercise of the royal authority, Mr Burke attacked him with
much asnerifv nf larwruo,™ ,i   __ .• , ,
 ,, * ^ . 7 .e—pui ueuiany severe
on the manner in which the royal assent was to be given
to all future acts of parliament. The men who held most
ot the high places under the government were treated as
jobbers, old hacks of the court, and the supporters and be-
tiayers of all parties; and he declared that it was a mock
crown, a tinsel robe, and a sceptre from the theatre, lacker¬
ed over and unreal, which were about to be conferred on
the prince of Males.
Hie opposition, diminished indeed by a few occasional
desertions, had hitherto acted as a great public body, sup¬
posed to be united in general principles for the common
welfare and prosperity of the state; but the French revo-
ution thinned their ranks, dispelled their consequence,
and, by sowing jealousy between the chiefs, spread con¬
sternation and dismay among their followers. It was on
the 2d of March 1790, when Mr Fox moved for leave to
bring in a lull to repeal the corporation and test acts, that
this disunion became evident; and soon afterwards Mr
Burke declared that his honourable friend and he were
separated in their politics for ever.
Ihe ministry now seemed anxious to provide for their
new associate ; and he, on his part, certainly appeared de¬
serving of some remuneration at their hands, for he had
abandoned all his old friends, and not a few of his old
principles. In addition to this, his Reflections on the Re¬
volution in France had afforded some degree of counte¬
nance, and even popularity, to the measures of administra¬
tion ; and, not content with his own exertions, he had
enlisted his son on the same side, and even sent him to
Coblentz. _ The royal munificence at length gratified his
warmest wishes; for by a warrant, dated 24th September
1795, he received a pension, made to commence from the
5th Jarmarv 1793. of T, 1900 mm 4-u^m „r» i •
long since ought to have fattened th T’nal W \° J7,95’ lle rece,ved a pension, made to commence from the
his^ffal MhedcTbe travel irwnffer^ regl°n kJteS Wlth 5th January 1793, of L. 1200 for his own life and that of his
of a country (TanioreI whieh 1 ’l Ppressor’ and scourge wife, on the civil list; whilst two other pensions of L.2500
feet of an unremh ed h 7 ^ 0r }'earS b?en an ob‘ a ?ear for three lives’ Payable 0llt of the four and a half per
between the bounfiet’ nf F^vP17 T une(lual strufg[e’ cent, fund, dated 24th October 1795, were made to com-
wickedness of mankin/to Z7nn^ B aml th! menCe fr°m the 24th Jul^ 1793* Honours as ^ell as wealth
to Mr Burke tn Ln rii desf ^ r But there fPPeared now seemed to await him, for he was about to be ennobled,
ingly he resolved tn « S.r5ater delin<laent; and accord- when the untimely death of an only child put an end to his
offender himself m tl ^ aci.lfice’ lf Posslbfo> the powerful dreams of ambition, and contributed not a little to hasten
was Mr Hast- " m shrine of national vengeance. This his own, which occurred at his house at Beaconsfield on
was Mr Hastings; and, soon after his arrival in England, the 9th of July 1797. eaconsneia on
Febniar v* 1 Twf iT^ °f I'llintentions: ?n the 17tb of Thus died, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, Edmund
y e opened the accusation by a most elo- Burke, one of the greatest orators, statesmen, and authors
716 BUR
Burkitt of his age; a man whose name will long continue to be
II celebrated; and one who, had he fallen during the men-
Burling- dian of jds fame and character, would have scarcely been
considered as second to any man, either of ancient or mo-
dern times.
BURKITT, William, a celebrated commentator on
the New Testament, was born at Hitcham in Northamp¬
tonshire 25th July 1650, and educated at Pembroke Hall,
Cambridge. He entered young upon the ministry, having
been ordained by Bishop Reynolds; and the first employ¬
ment which he had was at Milden in Suffolk, where he con-
tinued twenty-one years a constant preacher, fiist as cu¬
rate, and afterwards as rector of that church. In the year
1692 he had a call to the vicarage of Dedham in Essex,
where he continued to the time of his death, which hap¬
pened in the latter end of October 1703. He was a very
pious and charitable man; made great collections for the
French Protestants in 1687 and the years immediately fol¬
lowing ; and by his great care, pains, and charges, pro¬
cured a worthy minister to go and settle in Carolina.
Among other charities, by his last will and testament he
bequeathed the house in which he lived, with the lands
thereunto belonging, as a habitation for the lecturer who
should be chosen from time to time to read the lecture at
Dedham. Besides his commentary on the New Testament,
written in the same plain, practical, and affectionate man¬
ner in which he preached, he jvrote a volume entitled The
Poor Mans Help and the Rich Mans Guide.
BURLEIGH. See Cecil.
BURLESQUE, a species of composition, which, though
a great engine of ridicule, is not confined to the ridiculous
alone; for it is clearly distinguishable into burlesque that
excites laughter merely, and burlesque that excites derision
or ridicule. A grave subject, in which there is no impro¬
priety, may be brought down by a certain colouring so as
to be risible, as in Virgil Travestie ; the author laughing at
every turn in order to make his readers also laugh. The
Lutrin is a burlesque poem of the other sort, laying hold
of alow and trifling incident in order to expose the luxury,
indolence, and contentious spirit of a set of monks. Boileau,
the author, turns the subject into ridicule by dressing it in
the heroic style, and affecting to consider it as of the ut¬
most dignity and importance. Though broad ridicule is
the poet’s aim, he always carries a grave face, and never
once betrays a smile. The opposition between the subject
and the manner of handling it is what produces the ridi¬
cule ; and therefore, in a composition of this kind, no image
professedly ludicrous ought to be admitted, because such
images destroy the contrast.
Though the burlesque that aims at ridicule produces its
effects by elevating the style far above the subject, yet
the poet ought to confine himself to such images as are
lively and readily apprehended. A strained elevation,
soaring above the ordinary reach of fancy, makes not a
pleasant impression. The mind is soon disgusted by be¬
ing kept long on the stretch. Machinery may be employ¬
ed in a burlesque poem, such as the Lutrin, Dispensary,
or Hudibras, with more success and propriety than in
any other species of poetry; for burlesque poems, though
they assume the air of history, give entertainment chiefly
by their pleasant and ludicrous pictures. It is not the
aim of such compositions to raise sympathy, for which
reason a strict imitation of nature is not necessary; and
hence, the more extravagant the machinery in a ludicrous
poem, the more entertainment it affords.
BURLINGTON, or Bridlington, a sea-port town of
England, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, situated on a
bay called Burlington Bay, formed by Flamborough Head,
which is about five miles distant, nearly north-east. It is
situated about a mile from the shore ; but there is another
BUR
portion of it, named Burlington Quay, situated directly on BurliiEi
the coast, formed by a pier which extends a considerable trail
way into the bay. Considerable trade is carried on here, II
and the burden of the shipping belonging to the port j
amounts to about 6000 tons. A weekly market is held
here, and two annual fairs. Burlington and Burlington
Quay contain about 4000 inhabitants. Long. 0. 8. W.
Lat. 54. 8. 30. N.
Burlington, a post-town of Vermont, and capital of
Chittenden county. It is the most considerable commer¬
cial town of Vermont, and possesses a university, a court
house, a jail, a bank, an academy, and three places of
public worship. The trade is principally with New York.
The population in 1820 was 2111. Long. 73. 15. W. Lat.
44. 27. N.
BUR MAN, Peter, a philologer and critic of high re¬
putation, was born at Utrecht on the 26th of June 1668.
His father, Francis Burman, professor of divinity in that
university, was the son of a German clergyman, whom the
destructive war of the Palatinate had driven from Frank-
enthal: his mother was Mary the daughter of Abraham
Heydan, professor of divinity in the university of Leyden.
Thus he was doubly connected with men of letters, and
various members of the same family distinguished them¬
selves by their writings. While he was yet in the eleventh
year of his age, he had the misfortune to lose his pious
and learned father; but this loss, great as it certainly was,
appears to have been in a very considerable degree sup¬
plied by the assiduity, prudence, and piety of his mother.
He was educated in the public school of Utrecht, where
his progress must have been very rapid, for at the age ot
thirteen he became a student in the university. For se¬
veral years he attended the lectures of Graevius, a pro¬
fessor of great learning and eminence, who ably blended
Greek with Latin erudition, and to whose private friend¬
ship, joined to his public instructions, Burman seems to
have been in a great measure indebted for that strong
predilection wrhich he continued to evince for philological
studies. Flere, among other departments of literature, he
assiduously cultivated Latin composition, and he gradually
attained to no mean proficiency both as an orator and a
poet.
Burman’s original destination was for the legal profes¬
sion ; and after having devoted some years to literature,
he next applied himself to the study of the lawr. I he
university of Utrecht was then highly distinguished as a
school of jurisprudence, and among other great names, it
could boast of Noodt, one of the ablest civilians ot mo¬
dern times. Fie attended the lectures of this professor,
and likewise those of Van Muyden and Van de Foil, who
both taught the municipal as well as the civil law; nor
did he neglect the lectures of H. Cocceii on the feudal
law, and on the treatise of Grotius De Jure Belli ac Pads.
A further proof of his assiduity he exhibited in a disser¬
tation De Vicesima Hcereditalum, which he publicly de¬
fended with great applause.
It is a common practice for the more liberal and inqui¬
sitive students of Holland and Germany to pass from one
university to another, and the practice has an obvious ten
dency to improve the youthful mind, by removing local
prejudices, and by introducing a new current of refined
thought. Burman accordingly spent a year at Leyden,
where he studied philosophy under Voider, but in t e
mean time did not neglect his favourite pursuits of classical
erudition. He attended the lectures of the younger Gro-
novius on some of the Greek writers, together with those
of Ryckius on Tacitus. Of this Latin historian, the a c
professor was about that period engaged in preparing a
new edition, with a separate volume of animadversion •
Returning to the university of Utrecht, he continued
) man.
cultivate the friendship of Graevius, and to profit by his
instructions and advice. In the month of March 1688 he
took the degree of doctor of laws, having previously writ-
ten and defended a learned dissertation De Transactioni-
bus. The attainment of this honour,” as Dr Johnson
has remarked, “ was far from having upon Burman that
effect which has been too often observed to be produced
in others, who, having in their own opinion no higher object
of ambition, have elapsed into idleness and security, and
spent the rest of their lives in a lazy enjoyment of their
academical dignities. Burman aspired to further improve¬
ments, and, not satisfied with the opportunities of lite¬
rary conversation which Utrecht afforded, travelled into
Switzerland and Germany, where he gained an increase
both of fame and learning.”
But having made choice of a profession, it had now be¬
come necessary to enter upon a new course; and on his
return to his native city, he applied his talents and learn¬
ing to the practice of the law. We are informed that he
pleaded various causes with much force and eloquence;
nor will this account appear improbable to those who are
acquainted with the vigour and decision displayed in his
ordinary strain of composition. On the first of Decem¬
ber 1691 he was appointed receiver of the tithes which
were originally paid to the bishop of Utrecht: this was
an office of considerable credit, and was usually bestowed
upon persons of some distinction. While engaged in these
occupations, he married Eve Clotterboke, the "daughter of
a burgomaster of Briel, much commended for her beauty
and accomplishments. She became the mother of ten
children, eight of whom died at an early age, and only
tvvo sons survived their father. This learned advocate
might have risen to great eminence in his profession ; but
as the love of letters was his predominant passion, he
gladly availed himself of an opportunity of leaving the
bar and returning to the university. A recommendation
from his friend Graevius to the magistrates of Utrecht
procured him the professorship of eloquence and history,
to which was afterwards added the professorship of the
Greek language, and that of politics. His first appoint¬
ment was that of an extraordinary professor, or of a pro¬
fessor extra ordinem. He took possession of his chair on
the 10th of December 1696; and on that occasion pro¬
nounced an oration De Eloquentia et Poetice. His aca¬
demical labours, which were thus so various, must likewise
have been very formidable; but being a man of an excel¬
lent capacity, and of unwearied application, he ably per¬
formed whatever he had undertaken, and gradually ac¬
quired a high and merited reputation. His lectures at¬
tracted a numerous auditory, and his multifarious publi¬
cations rendered his name familiarly known wherever an¬
cient learning was successfully cultivated. The most se¬
rious labours of his life were devoted to the illustration of
the Roman classics, and in this department he had but
few rivals.
Soon after his appointment to the professorship, he
published a collection of letters from learned men, and
chiefly relating to topics of learning: “ Marquardi Gudii
et doctorum Virorum ad eum Epistolae; quibus accedunt
ex bioliotheca Gudiana clarissimorum et doctissimorum
Virorum, qui superiore et nostro saeculo floruerunt, et
Claudii Sarravii, Senatoris Parisiensis, Epistolae ex eadem
U K M A N.
fecli0?69C7 Z^Ah^ TIT6 Petr° Ultra-
jecti, IbJ/, 4to. About the same period he prepared an
edition of Phaedrus. Amst. 1698, 8vo. Thisedftion was
twice reprinted; and after an interval of nearly thirty
years, he published the same poet with a new comment
tary He next produced “ Q. Horatius Flaccus. Acce-
froo Rutg^rsu Lectl°nes Venusinae.” Traj. Batav
1699, 12mo. Burman has prefixed a dedication and pre¬
ace, but the only notes which occur are those of Janus
Rutgersius, who died in the year 1625, after having esta¬
blished no mean reputation as a scholar by the publica-
icm of his \ aria; Lectiones. These editions were follow-
ed by a earned dissertation, entitled “ Karu.Zarr.g,
P f P7nner|Fu g™at0r ln Cyrrhestarum Nummis.” Traj.
Bat. 1 lOO, 4to. Resuming the illustration of the Latin
Ultrai ;e7orlOWi9PreparTC} an j\dition.of Valerius Flaccus.
xt uJ’-1^°1, 112m10', ,^hls edltion includes the notes of
. Hemsius, who had himself published the text in 1680 •
but after a long interval, Burman edited the same poet with
moie ample illustrations, which were partly derived ,rJm
various other critics. Leidse, 1724, 4to. He was chosen
rector of the university in 1703, and again in 1711.
r Graevms, one of the chief ornaments of the university of
Ltrecht, died in the year 1703, and his grateful pupil ho-
ncured his memory by a funeral oration, which is ably and
affectionately written, and contains an interesting sketch of
his life and character. His great and valuable collection
of writers on Roman antiquities is well known among
scho ars. He engaged in a more extensive undertaking,
a collection of writers on the history and antiquities of
Italy; and after his decease, the charge of inspecting its
progress devolved upon Burman, who contributed nine
different prefaces. “ Thesaurus Antiquitatum et Histo-
riarum Italiae.” Lugd. Bat. 1704-25, 45 tom. fol. The
book is described in the title as “ tomis x. vel volumini-
bus xlv. distinctus;” each volume consisting of several
parts, which amount to the size of volumes. Burman
likewise wrote the preface to an edition, undertaken by
Graevius, of Gruter’s “ Inscriptiones Antiquae totius Orbis
Romani.” Amst. 1707, 2 tom. fol.
His next literary enterprise was an edition of a prose
writer, Petronius Arbiter. Traj. ad Rhen. 1709, 4to. The
learned editor was attacked in an anonymous publication,
consisting of a few pages, and bearing the title of “ Bur-
manniana, sive Calumniarum Petri Burmanni in Collegas
et Populares Specimen.” Amst. 1710, 12mo. These ca¬
lumnies are collected from his annotations on Petronius.
His most elaborate edition was very unfavourably noticed
by Le Clerc,1 who by the freedom of his strictures in va¬
rious publications, more particularly in his different Bibli-
otheques, had excited the resentment of many eminent
members of the republic of letters. Of grammarians and
verbal critics he spoke with habitual contempt, and thus
increased the offence that was merely personal. Some of
his philological mistakes had been exposed by Perizonius,
but he was attacked by Burman in a more ferocious man¬
ner. His literary delinquencies were fiercely discussed
in the preface to Petronius ; and his contemptuous review
of the edition was followed by a volume entitled “ Le
Gazettier Menteur, ou Mr. Le Clerc convaincu de Men-
songe et de Calomnie, par Pierre Burman.” Utrecht,
1710, 12mo. Whatever may have been the extent of the
tin ^kliothcqac Choisie, tom. xix. p. 351—Le Clerc commences his review in the following terms: “ Je ne mets pas ici cette edi¬
tion, pour en rendre compte au public. II n’y a rien qui mdrite son attention.” The rest of the article is written in the same strain
or disparagement, nor has the author confined himself to bis adversary’s literary character. The subsequent passage refers to his
p0™1® : "e parlerai pas de 1’imprudence qu’il y a a parler ainsi, pendant un proces, oil une fille I’accuse de 1’avoir debauchee.”
r. .505. J he learned professor has adverted to this charge, but, as it appears to us, not in such clear and direct terms of disavowal
as might naturally have been expected from a man conscious of his innocence. (Burman, Gazettier Menteur, p. 24.) Le Clerc ascribes
o mi a satire against himself, published the year 1703, in the form of a Latin dialogue between Spudaeus and Gorallus; and thq
nanner in which Burman speaks of it seems to justify his suspicions.
718
B U R M A N.
Burman. provocation, and it was by no means inconsiderable, the
'w—spirit of this work is not to be commended. Barman’s
edition was long afterwards attacked in a separate volume,
written by some anonymous author, whose animosity was
not equalled by bis learning.1 “ Chrestomathia Petronio-
Burmanniana; sive Cornu-copise Observationum eruditis-
simarum et ante plane inauditarum, quas vir illuminatissi-
mus, rerum omnium, et multarum praeterea aliarum, peri-
tissimus, Petrus Burmannus congessit in Petronium Arbi-
trum, scriptorum sanctissimum. Accessit Specimen La-
tinitatis novte, Romanis incognitos, e Notis Petri Burman-
ni ad Petronium.” Florentias, 1734, 8vo. Although the
work thus bears the imprint of Florence, the typography
is apparently Dutch. Another edition of Petronius ap¬
peared after the death of the indefatigable editor. Lugd.
Bat. 1743, 4to. Le Clerc had published his unfortunate
edition of Menander and Philemon in the year 1709 ; and
in the course of the ensuing spring Dr Bentley, under an
assumed name, transmitted his Emendationes to Burman,
who lost no time in communicating to the public such a
morsel of criticism. Traj. ad Rhen. 1710, 8vo. Under
his own name, he prefixed a preface of thirty-four pages,
in which he assailed Le Clerc with extreme virulence,
and enumerated many errors which the author had left
unnoticed. Not satisfied with relieving his spleen in this
manner, he added a poetical address to the Manes of the
injured poets, in which he endeavoured to condense the es¬
sence of his vituperation. Of the spirit of this effusion the
reader may be enabled to judge from a brief specimen :
Scilicet hsec nostris servata informia seclis
Prodigia, et nullis monstra pianda sacris.
Burman soon afterwards published a compendium en¬
titled “ Antiquitatum Romanarum brevis Descriptio.”
Ultraj. 1711, 8vo. Flis early study of jurisprudence was
not without its advantages in those departments of litera¬
ture to which he devoted himself with such persevering
energy. His knowledge of the civil law he found of fre¬
quent use in illustrating the Latin classics; and he pub¬
lished an elaborate and valuable work which bears a refe¬
rence to law as well as history, “ De Vectigalibus Populi
Romani Dissertatio.” Ultraj. 1714, 8vo. Of this disser¬
tation the original sketch had appeared in 1694; and he
lived to publish an edition greatly improved, and com¬
bined with his Jupiter Fulgerator. Leidse, 1734, 4to.
“ In 1714,” says Dr Johnson, “ he formed a resolution
of visiting Paris, not only for the sake of conferring in per¬
son, upon questions of literature, with the learned men of
that place, and of gratifying his curiosity with a more fami¬
liar knowledge of those writers whose works he admired,
but with a view more important, of visiting the libraries,
and making those enquiries which might be of advantage to
his darling study. The vacation of the university allowed
him to stay at Paris but six weeks, which he employed with
so much dexterity and industry, that he had searched the
principal libraries, collated a great number of manuscripts
and printed copies, and brought back a great treasure of
curious observations. In this visit to Paris he contracted
an acquaintance, among other learned men, with the cele¬
brated Father Montfaucon, with whom he conversed, at
their first interview, with no other character than that of a
traveller; but their discourse turning upon ancient learn¬
ing, the stranger soon gave such proofs of his attainments,
that Montfaucon declared him a very uncommon traveller,
and confessed his curiosity to know his name ; which he no
sooner heard, than he rose from his seat, and, embracing
him with the utmost ardour, expressed his satisfaction at
having seen the man whose productions of various kinds
he had so often praised; and, as a real proof of his re- Burr:
gard, offered not only to procure him an immediate ad- V~y§/
mission to all the libraries of Paris, but to those in remot¬
er provinces, which are not generally open to strangers,
and undertook to ease the expenses of his journey by pro¬
curing him entertainment in all the monasteries of his
order. This favour Burman was hindered from accept¬
ing by the necessity of returning to Utrecht, at the usual
time of beginning a new course of lectures, to which there
was always so great a concourse of students, as much in¬
creased the dignity and fame of the university in which he
taught.”
When his talents and learning had thus procured him
a high and well-earned reputation, the death of Perizo-
nius left a vacancy in the professorship of history, the
Greek language, and eloquence, in the university of Ley¬
den ; and Burman had the honour of being nominated the
successor of a man who had occupied a very conspicuous
place among the scholars of the age. He was distinguish¬
ed by the acuteness of his intellect, and the solidity of his
judgment: he was equally skilled in Greek and Roman
literature, and with his critical skill he united a masterly
knowledge of the most abstruse departments of ancient his¬
tory. Burman, who was no unworthy successor, took pos¬
session of his chair on the 2d of July 1715, and then pro¬
nounced an inaugural oration, “ De publici Humanioris
Disciplinae Professoris proprio Officio et Munere.” He was
afterwards appointed professor of the history of the Unit¬
ed Provinces, and likewise of poetry; and to all these
functions was finally added the office of keeper of the
university library. He was twice chosen rector of the
university, namely, in 1719 and in 1731.
In the midst of these academical toils, which would have
been more than sufficient for a person of ordinary appli¬
cation, he still found leisure for the preparation of elabo¬
rate editions of Latin classics, and, among the rest, for an
edition of Velleius Paterculus. Lugd. Bat. 1719, 8vo. It
was reprinted after the death of the editor. Lugd. Bat.
1744, 8vo. From this ancient historian he made a tran¬
sition to an ancient rhetorician, and completed an edition
of the works of Quintilian. Lugd. Bat. 1720, 3 tom. 4to.
The last volume is occupied with the declamations ascrib¬
ed to that writer, and with those of Calpurnius Flaccus.
A pompous edition of Quintilian was afterwards produced
by Capperonnier (Paris, 1725, fob); and as Burman thought
himself treated with less than due respect, he took an
ample revenge in a work entitled “ Petri Burmanni Epis-
tola ad Claudium Capperonnerium, Theologum Licentia-
tum, Diaconum Ambianensem, et Graecae Linguae Pro-
fessorem, de nova ejus M. Fabii Quinctiliani de Institu-
tione Oratoria Editione.” Leidae, 1726, 4to. Among
other branches of learning, the Parisian professor has be¬
trayed his ignorance of the Roman law, and on this ac¬
count is severely chastised by his unrelenting adversary.
But in the mean time Burman had superintended an edi¬
tion of Justin, which is without a commentary, but con¬
tains an excellent preface. Lugd. Bat. 1722, 12mo.
His editorial labours were next bestowed upon a mo¬
dern author, whose fame is nearly classical. An elaborate
edition of Buchanan had been published by Ruddiman in
the year 1715. The value of his annotations was very
generally acknowledged, but the narrow and pitiful pre¬
judices of a Jacobite frequently entangled his judgment;
and every subject which bore to politics any reference,
however remote, was viewed through a dim medium. The
political tendency of his preface and notes was so far from
being agreeable to the admirers of Buchanan, that a Whig
3 “ In qua voluit errorum graviorum arguere Burmannum, ipse, dum repehendere voluit, gravissime saepe lapsus, risum pnebuit-
(Fabricii Bibliotheca Latina, tom, ii. p. 100. edit. Ernest!.)
] nan. association was speedily formed at Edinburgh, for the ex-
Press purpose of vindicating their favourite author in a new
edition of his works. Their efforts however proved abor¬
tive, and the task of editorship devolved into more able
hands. Anested by the frequent and wide variation be-
tween the author and his jure divino editor, Burman had
, nearly been induced to relinquish his undertaking, and to
advise his printer Langerak to procure assistance from
Scotland, wheie the authenticity of the facts could best be
ascertained. Of the new edition projected at Edinburo-h
he was likewise apprized; though it does not appear, as
some writers pretend, that the associated critics made him
a voluntary offer of private assistance. The printer how¬
ever urging him to proceed without waiting for this vin¬
dicatory edition, he at length republished the works of
Buchanan, together with Ruddiman’s preface, notes, disser¬
tation, and other appendages.1 The annotations which
he himself subjoined are almost entirely philological. His
other engagements did not permit him to undertake the
task of correcting the press ; and accordingly his edition
is somewhat less accurate than that of his predecessor.
The general value of Ruddiman s labours he acknowledges
in terms of due respect; but he occasionally rejects his
particular opinions in a manner which that learned man was
disposed to regard as contemptuous; and some of his ex¬
pressions relative to British literature, and to the native
country of Buchanan, were such as could not easily be
forgotten. Two years afterwards, when Ruddiman edited
the Latin poems of Ur Pitcairne, he eagerly embraced an
opportunity of asserting the honour of his native country ;
and the same topics were yet fresh in his recollection
when he resumed his long labours at the venerable age of
eighty-one.
Of the epistolary correspondence of literary men, Bur-
man was a curious and diligent collector. At a much earlier
period of his life he had published the epistle of Gudius
and othei scholars; and he now prepared a more ample
and voluminous work, which appeared under the title of
“ Sylloge Epistolarum a Viris illustribus scriptarum.”
Leidae, 1727, o tom. 4to. This collection, which forms a
great repository of literary anecdote and critical disquisi¬
tion, is occasionally illustrated with the notes of the edi¬
tor. In the course of the same year, he completed the
printing of a work which holds a very distinguished place
among his learned labours, namely, his edition of the works
of Ovid. Amst. 1727, 4 tom. 4to. Like several of his
other editions of the classics, it contains not merely his
own notes, but likewise those of various commentators.
Ovid was evidently one of his favourite authors, and he
has bestowed much care and attention in the adjustment
of the text, as well as in its illustration. With regard to
tie text, his chief guide is Nicolaus Heinsius, a most able
cutic in Latin poetry. Burman had formerly published
a small edition without a commentary. His next edition,
cum n°tis variorum, was that of the “ Poetse Latini Mi-
nores. Leidae, 1731, 2 tom. 4to. This curious collection
was succeeded by an edition, equally elaborate, of the
works of Suetonius. Amst. 1736, 2 tom. 4to. After an¬
other short interval followed “ M. Annasi Lucani Pharsa-
ia, cum commentario Petri Burmanni.” Leidae, 1740, 4to.
n the preface to this publication, he speaks of Bentley with
some degree of asperity. They were both men of great
eminence in classical literature; and although they were
,°th of the same irascible temper, the friendly relations
etween them had been of long duration. Some suspicions
and jealousies had however intervened, in consequence of
burman.
719
eharlierlantLiaCh ^ °f LuCan ata ™ch Burman.
eailier period; and the breach had been rendered irre-
parable, by Burman s decisive measure of subjoining Dr
Hare s Epistola Cmtica to his fourth edition of Phsedrus 2
But the labours of this indefatigable scholar were now
drawing to a close. His health had originally been vigor^
ous, and those who have the slightest acquaintance with
his history must be aware that he was capable of endur-
j!1? great and continued toil. His temperate mode of
iving, and his attention to bodily exercise, long contribut¬
ed to preserve a healthful constitution ; but a scorbutic
disease incidental to that climate, having supervened, he
ound himself unable to take his usual walks, or other re¬
creation, and was at last afflicted with many painful symp¬
toms of a decayed frame and shattered nerves. While he
languished in a state of hopeless decay, he had the ho¬
nour of receiving a letter from Bignon, keeper of the royal
hbrary at Paris, accompanying a copy of the printed cata-
logue, transmitted to him by his majesty’s command. This
mark of royal favour might possibly cast a faint gleam of
earthly comfort on his bed of sickness; but he now re¬
quired consolation from a higher source, and with a due
mixture of fervour and humility he appears to have ap¬
proached the fountain of living waters. His religious
opinions had either been misunderstood or misrepresent¬
ed ; and he felt a commendable solicitude to remove this
erroneous impression, by the most unequivocal declaration
ot his hopes in the mercy of God through the mediation
ot Jesus Christ. In this devout frame of mind he closed
a long and active life, on the 31st day of March 1741, in
the seventy-third year of his age.
At the period of his death, he had made great progress in
a new edition of Virgil, and it was afterwards completed by
his learned nephew, wdio bore the same name with himself.
Amst. 1746, 4 tom. 4to. To the younger Burman w7e are
likewise indebted for the collective edition of his poems,
which appeared under the following title : “ Petri Bur-
manni Poematum libri quatuor, nunc primum in lucem
editi, curante Petro Burmanno Juniore.” Amst. 1746, 4to.
His orations were collected by another editor, Nicolaus
Bondt: “ Petri Burmanni Orationes, antea sparsim edit®,
^f^1^18 auctae. Accedit Carminum Appendix.” Hagae
Comitis, 1/59, 4to. Of the Latin language Burman pos¬
sessed a masterly knowledge, and in verse as well as prose
he writes with vivacity and energy; but he is less scru¬
pulous in his diction than some more recent members of
the same university, especially Ruhnkenius and Wytten-
bach. He is entitled to the praise of a skilful versifier;
and his elegiac poems are sufficient to evince that he had
not studied Ovid in vain. His orations, which are eigh¬
teen in number, had been delivered on various occasions
of academical solemnity, and several of them contain a
large infusion of verse. The collection is closed by a
funeral oration, written by his colleague, H. Oosterdyk
Schacht, from which we have borrowed most of our notices
respecting his personal history ; but our account of his
writings is necessarily derived from other sources. In this
enumeration of his posthumous works, it remains to be
mentioned that his annotations on Claudian were printed
in his nephew’s edition of that poet.
The character of Burman is ably and impartially deli¬
neated by Dr Johnson. “ He was a man of moderate sta¬
ture, of great strength and activity, which he preserved
by temperate diet, without medical exactness, and by al¬
lotting proportions of his time to relaxation and amuse¬
ment, not suffering his studies to exhaust his strength, but
* Georgii Buchanan! Opera omnia. JLugd. Bat. 1725, 2 tom. 4to.
1 hsedri, August! Libert!, Fabularum /Esopiarum libri quinque, cum novo commentario Petri Burmanni. Leidae, 1727, 4to.
720
Burcnan.
B U R M A N.
relieving them by frequent intermissions ; a practice con¬
sistent with the most exemplary diligence, and which he
that omits will find at last that time may be lost, like mo¬
ney, by unseasonable avarice. In his hours of relaxation
he was gay, and sometimes gave way so far to his temper,
naturally satirical, that he drew upon himself the ill-will
of those who had been unfortunately the subjects of his
mirth ; but enemies so provoked he thought it beneath
him to regard or to pacify; for he was fiery, but not ma¬
licious, disdained dissimulation, and in his gay or serious
hours preserved a settled detestation of falsehood.1 So
that he was an open and undisguised friend or enemy, en¬
tirely unacquainted with the artifices of flatterers, but so
judicious in the choice of his friends, and so constant in
his affections to them, that those with whom he had con¬
tracted familiarity in his youth had for the greatest part
his confidence in his old age. f
“ His abilities, which would probably have enabled him
to have excelled in any kind of learning, were chiefly em¬
ployed, as his station required, on polite literature, in which
he arrived at very uncommon knowledge, which however
appears rather from judicious compilations, than original
productions. His style is lively and masculine, but not
without harshness and constraint, nor perhaps always
polished to that purity which some writers have attained.
He was at least instrumental to the instruction of man¬
kind, by the publication of many valuable performances,
which lay neglected by the-greatest part of the learned
world; and, if reputation be estimated by usefulness, he
may claim a higher degree in the ranks of learning than
some others of happier elocution or more vigorous imagi¬
nation.”2
Such was the personal and literary character of Bur-
man, as it presented itself to the sagacious observation of
this distinguished writer. His name however is less fa¬
vourably known to the readers of English poetry, where it
is repeatedly used to denote whatever is dull and pedan¬
tic. Pope, who was not himself a very profound scholar,
endeavoured to restore a sort of equilibrium by disparag¬
ing the attainments of those who were most conspicuous
for their erudition. Bentley is supposed to have excited
his spleen by bestowing a too scanty measure of praise on
his translation of Homer ; nor did the poet neglect any op¬
portunity of directing the edge of his satire against “ that
awful Aristarch,” and those who successfully cultivated
similar studies. The following verses occur in the Dun-
ciad, b. iv. v. 235.
How parts relate to parts, or they to whole,
The body’s harmony, the beaming soul,
Are things which Kuster, Barman, Wasse, shall see
When man’s whole frame is obvious to a flea.
If to his other qualifications Pope had added one half of
the critical learning possessed by Bentley, Kuster, Bur-
man, or Wasse, he would have found himself in a better
condition for writing notes on Homer. Mallet, who was
anxious to recommend himself to the favour of so great a
poet, aimed his shafts in the same direction. His poem
Of Verbal Criticism contains the subsequent passage:
Such the choice anecdotes, profound and vain.
That store a Bentley’s and a Burman’s brain :
Hence Plato quoted, or the Stagyrite,
To prove that flame ascends, and snow is white;
Hence much hard study, without sense or breeding,
And all the grave impertinence of reading.
Dr Armstrong, a contemporary poet, has indulged in a
similar vein of sarcasm; nor do we feel much inclination Bur
to commend these lines in his Art of Preserving Healths
b. iv. v. 52.
j
The strong-built pedant, who both night and day
Feeds on the coarsest fare the schools bestow,
And crudely fattens at gross Burman’s stall,
O’erwhelm’d with phlegm lies in a dropsy drown’d.
The injustice and absurdity of such censures as these
it would here be idle to expose. If we admit the value
of the ancient classics, we must also admit the expediency
of their being rendered intelligible ; and how this could
have been effected without the intervention of critics and
philologers, it would not perhaps be so easy to discover.
Bentley, Barman, and many other verbal critics who might
be enumerated, were possessed of uncommon talents, as
well as erudition ; and the ingredients which enter into
the formation of an able commentator on the classics, are
more rare and more numerous than some individuals may¬
be apt to imagine.
Of the two surviving sons of Burman, the elder, named
Francis, made choice of a military life, and obtained pro¬
motion in the army. His brother Caspar, who betook
himself to the profession of the law, was elevated to the
bench, and was elected a deputy to the states general.
He was likewise a man of letters, and published several
works, which illustrate the civil and literary history of his
native country. “ Analecta Historica de Hadriano VI.
Pontifice Maximo.” Traj. ad Rhen. 1727,4to. “ Trajec-
tum eruditum, Virorum Doctrina inlustrium, qui in Urbe
Trajectina, et Regione Trajectensi nati sunt, sive ibi ha-
bitarunt, Vitas, Fata, et Scripta exhibens.” Traj. ad Rhen.
1738, 4to. He is also the author of a work in the Dutch
language, published in 1750-1 under the title of Utrechte
Jaarboeken, and extending to three volumes. He died on
the 22d of August 1755.
His grandfather Francis Burman, who has already been
mentioned as professor of divinity at Utrecht, published
various works on theology.3 He was born at Leyden in
1632, and died at Utrecht in 1679. His son Francis was
born at Utrecht in 1671, became professor of divinity in
that university in 1715, and died in 1718. He was the
author of different works, written in the Latin and Dutch
languages. His son John Burman, M. D. was born in
1707, was appointed professor of botany at Amsterdam,
and died in 1780. He evinced much zeal in his own branch
of science, and published several works on botany. Nico¬
las Laurens Burman, M. D. his son, and his successor in
the botanical chair, was born in 1734, and died in 1793,
after having produced some works in his own department.
Francis Burman, the brother of John, was the third indi¬
vidual of the same name and family who held the profes¬
sorship of divinity at Utrecht.4
But a more conspicuous member of the same remarkable
family, was his other brother Peter Burman. On the 13th
of October 1714 he was born at Amsterdam, where his
father was then a minister. When only four years of age
he lost his father, and the care of his education devolved
upon his uncle, who communicated to him his own ardent
love of classical learning. His academical studies he com¬
pleted at Utrecht, where in 1734 he took the degree of
doctor of laws, having previously written and defended a
dissertation He Jure Annulorum aureorum, which has
been thought worthy of being reprinted in the collection
of Oelrichs.5 In 1736 he was nominated professor of elo-
1 °'yn habits of life, Burman has favoured us with some account in his Gazettier Menieur, p. 164.
Johnson s Works, vol. iv. p. 489. r
I Tr^ectum eruditum, P- 50- “ Biographic Universelle, tom. vi. p. 333.
I hesaurus Dissertationum jundicarum in Academiis Belgicis habitarum, vol. ii. tom. i. p. 199.
bur
urman* quence and history in the university of Franeker, in the
™ora f.Wesselmg, wlto had been removed to Utrecht
The chatr of poetry was in 174] added to his otlter a„
potntmenta; but m the course of the following year he
accepted of an tnv.tatton to the Athens™ of Amsterdam
where he became professor of history, eloquence, the GreX
language and poetry, keeper of the public library, and vt
sttor of the Lattn schools. In his literary charmer he
bore a cons.derable resemblance to his more celebrated
unde, and was evidently a man of extensive learning.1 He
published several detached orations, and other trails and
an ample collection of his Latin poems. “ Petri Burman-
nt Secundi Poematum libri quatuor.” Lugd Hat 1774
4to. ‘ Carm,nun, Appendix.” Lugd. Bat. 1779 4to. He
edited several of the classics on a plan similar to that com!
mon y adopted by his uncle. We have already mention-
anV m ^ Virgl1’ comP,eted bJ lds learned labour,
and must now continue the enumeration of his classical
publications. “ Anthologia veterum Latinorum Epigram
AmsTl^vTpT’ "T ta P°etarUni ”
Amst. 1759-73, 2 tom. 4to. “ Anstophanis Comoedige un-
“CbuS? Ck er ne-’ Pugd' Bat' L760, 2 tom- 4t0-
Uaudi Claudiani Opera. Amst. 1760, 4to. “ Cice
ronis (vel mcerti auctoris) Rhetoricorum ad Herennium
hbn quatuor, et de Inventione libri duo.” Lugd BaT
Rhen 1780 Ele^lar]urn Hbri IV.” Traj. ad
Rhen. !/80, 4to. This last work, which he did not him-
selt bring to a conclusion, was conducted through the press
by Van Santen an elegant and correct scholar, who, unde
the name of Santemus, is well known to those who are
acquainted with the literary history of that age. At an
earlier period, Burman had published a modern poet in
the same elaborate and splendid manner. “ Petri Loti-
chn Secundi Opera omnia.” Amst. 1754, 2 tom. 4to. He
ike wise undertook the task of editing the works of some
tVr HeV,rici Valesii Emendationum libri V.
et de Cntica hbn duo, &c. Amst. 1740, 4to. “ Nicolai
Hemsii Advers^mrum libri IV.” &c. Harlingae, 1742,
be told R perSOnf1 hlstor3” a f>ew particulars remain to
be told. He was thrice married. About a year before
ceived . IL6 TS,gned hl'S ProPessorsliip, and having re¬
ceived a liberal pension from the curators of the Athe-
meum, he retired to Ins villa at Santhorst, in the hope of
annnfpv03Tg •ai? rep°Se ; but having been struck with
apoplexy he expired on the 24th of June 1778. He ap-
hTiHhk T6 beea P6!-800 of a disposition sufficiently
"' e: ,he was f™m “me to time involved in various
and , I'an< contentlonsi and his quarrels with a Dutch
to m!„„e|rman.(>r eSS°:’ S?xius ani1 Klotz- gave occasion
cu^S tnvectives in the Latin, Dutch, and German Ian-
g g • According to the testimony of his adversaries,
he was not remarkable for his sobriety. To this alleged
, ‘ mg If otx allu,les In the following ludicrous verses, writ-
in the character of the schoolmaster of Santhorst.
bur
Sic est, sic omnia sunt vana,
. kIC V1i-a aufugit humana,
Discessit noster dominus, disrumpitur ut rana.
Ille bibebat fortiter,
Et tonans terribiliter,
Exhauriebat bis et ter
Unam niagnam lagenam,
Quam dicebat Hippocrenam,
unc dedit noster dominus, nunc dedit morti poenam.’
O coelum ! noster domiuus,
Petrus Burmannus Secundus,
Est mortuus, ut unus mus.
Quid nos incipiamus ?
-vy p Eum quo nos nunc bibamus,
i i Petrum nostrum dominum, ni Petrum habeamus ?
Habebat multos cyathos,
Habebat scyphos vitreos,
Et calices argenteos.
ra^ith,0ugh,lt certa,nly is not safe to take any person’s cha-
actei from hls enemies, yet even by his enemies a very sober
BURNET0 t" be aCCUTd °f in.temPerance. (x.)
at Croft in YArL-IRMAS|! & dl8tlngu,shed writer, was born
at Lrott in Yorkshire about the year 1635, but is supposed
to have been descended of a Scotish family. Hisearly
education he received at the free-school of Northallerton
m the same county, under Thomas Smelt, who used to
theP26th of TS an ?na?P.le t0 the reSt of his ^holars. On
Clare Hall n^r6 I 16 T" admitted a pensioner of
a e Hall at Cambridge, under the tuition of Tillotson
who continued to remember him with kindness ; but in the
JfDr CudwoerthT0Ibd t0 Chris,t.S ColleSe’ on the election
Uf 1, Cudworth to the mastership, and there he obtained
nrS °WS fTi In the year 1657- In 1661 he became senior
proctoi of the university. He was successively domestic
Uitor to Charles duke of Bolton, and to James earl of
Ossory afterwards duke of Ormonde, grandson to the
first duke; and by the interest of tlm fatter nobleman
he was chosen master of the Charter-house in 1685.
Among the electors, some of the bishops opposed him on
fied°thaMJ11S Weann| a, lay'habit; but the duke wa® satis-
ed that he possessed the more essential qualifications of
a hfe and conversation suitable to his clerical character.
After this appointment, he took the degree of D.D. In
Is caPacity of master, he made a noble stand against the
admission of a papist named Andrew Popham, as a pen¬
sioner o the house: on the 26th of December 1686, the
king addressed to the governors a letter dispensing with
the statutes ; but the opposition of the master being vigor¬
ously supported by other governors, James deemed it pru¬
dent to desist from this illegal attempt. ^
Dr Burnet had already published his Telluris Theoria
scicm. Lond. 1681, 4to. This work attracted an unusual
share of the public attention, and he was afterwards en¬
couraged to exhibit it in an English dress. His Sacred
1 heavy of the Earth was printed in folio, the first part in
1684, and the conclusion in 1689. Addison commended
the author in a Latin ode. His fanciful theory was how¬
ever attacked by Dr Keill, Mr Whiston, and Mr Warren,
to all of whom he returned an answer. He had now ac¬
quired a high reputation as a man of talents ; and after the
revolution, he was introduced at court by Archbishop Til-
lat8an’ wb°m he succeeded as clerk of the closet to King
W illiamJ He seemed already to be on the direct road to
much higher preferment, when he suddenly marred his
own prospects by the publication of a learned and inge¬
nious work, entitled Archaologice Philosophicce : sive Doc-
tnna antiqua de Rerum Originibus. Lond. 1692, 4to.
I he mode in which he discussed the history of the fall of
man, excited a great clamour against him; and the king
was obliged to remove him from his office at court. Of
tins book an English translation was executed by Mr
Foxton. Lond. 1729, 8vo. Dr Burnet next published
^ Harlesius de Vitis Philologorum, vol. i. p. R4,
4 BhXmf' ?T?fnni Secundi’ edidit Christianas Adolphus Klotzius, p. Cl.
VOL h L f °f Tlllotson’ P- 278- Lond- 1752, 8vo.
4
Altenburgi, 1762, 8vo.
722
BUR
BUR
Burnet. “ Remarks upon an Essay concerning Human Understand-
ing, in a Letter address’d to the Author.” Lond.
4to. “ Second Remarks, &c. being a Vindication of the first
Remarks against the Answer of Mr Locke, at the end of
his Reply to the Lord Bishop of Worcester. Lond. 16 J /,
4to. “ Third Remarks,” &c. Lond. 1699, 4to. ihese
remarks were answered by Catherine 1 rotter, afterwai ds
Mrs Cockburn, in her “ Defence of Mr Lockes Essay,
written when she was twenty-three years of age, and
printed at London in 1702. He died at the Charter-
house on the 27th of September 1715, at a very advanced
ao-e. Two of his works were published several years after
his death. De Fide et Officiis Christianorum Liber post¬
humus. Lond. 1722, 4to. De Statu Mortuorum et Re-
surgentium Tractatus. Lond. 1723, 4to. Of the first of
these works, there are several other editions, one of which
was published by Dr Teller of Berlin. Halm Magdeburg.
1786, 8vo. The second has likewise been more than once
reprinted; and two English translations were published
by Matthias Earbery and John Dennis. The author was
evidently a man of genius and learning; but his fancy
being sometimes more vigorous than his judgment, he is
not on all occasions a very safe guide. In this work he
maintains the doctrine of the middle state, the Millennium,
and the limited duration of future punishment. Muraton,
an Italian writer of great eminence, published copious ani¬
madversions upon it, under .the subsequent title . De
Paradiso Regnique Caelestis Gloria, non expectata Corpo-
rum Resurrectione, Justis a Deo conlata; adversus Thomae
Burned Britanni Librum de Statu Mortuorum.” Veronae,
1738, 4to. The name of Burnet appears in the following
publication, but his only contribution consists of a few
pages translated from his treatise on the faith and duties
of Christians: “ The Judgment of Dr Thomas Burnet,
late Master of the Charter-House, concerning the Doctrine
of the Trinity : and the Judgment of Dr Samuel Clarke,
late Rector of St James’s, concerning 1. the Satisfaction,
2. the Merits, 3. the Mediation and Intercession of Christ,
4. the ordinary Influence and Assistance of the Holy
Spirit, 5. the two Sacraments. With a preface concern¬
ing Mr Lock, Sir Isaac Newton, and Mr Wollaston.”
Lond. 1732, 8vo. O)
Burnet, Gilbert, bishop of Salisbury, was born at Edin¬
burgh in 1643, but was descended of an ancient family
in the county of Aberdeen. His father being bred to
the law, was, at the restoration of King Charles II., ap¬
pointed one of the lords of session, by the title of Lord
Crimond, as a reward for his constant attachment to the
royal party during the civil wars. Gilbert, the youngest
son of his father, was instructed by him in the Latin
tongue; and at ten years of age he was sent to Marischal
College, Aberdeen, where he was admitted A. M. before
he was fourteen years of age. His own inclination led him
to the study of the civil and feudal law; and he used
to say that it was from this study he had received more
just notions concerning the foundations of civil society and
government, than those which some divines maintain. He
afterwards changed his views, and, to the great satisfaction
of his father, began to apply to divinity. He received
ordination before the age of eighteen ; and Sir Alexander
Burnet, his cousin-german, offei'ed him a benefice, but he
refused to accept of it.
In 1663, about two years after the death of his father,
he came into England; and after six months stay at Ox¬
ford and Cambridge, returned to Scotland; which he soon
left again to make a tour of some months, in 1664, in Hol¬
land and France. At Amsterdam, by the help of a Jewish
rabbi, he perfected himself in the Hebrew language ; and Bun;,
likewise became acquainted with the leading men of the
different persuasions tolerated in that country, Calvinists,
Arminians, Lutherans, Anabaptists, Brownists, Papists,
and Unitarians; among each of which sects he used fre¬
quently to declare he met with men of such unfeigned
piety and virtue, that he became fixed in a strong prin¬
ciple of universal charity, and an invincible abhorrence of
all severities on account of religious dissensions.
Upon his return from his travels, he was admitted mi¬
nister of Saltoun ; in which station he served five years in
the most exemplary manner. He drew up a memorial, in
which he took notice of the principal errors in the conduct
of the Scotish bishops, which he observed not to be con¬
formable to the primitive institution ; and sent a copy of
it to several of them. This exposed him to their resent¬
ments ; but to show he was not actuated by a spirit of
ambition, he led a retired course of life for two years,
which so endangered his health that he was obliged to
abate his excessive application to study. In the year 1668
he was appointed professor of divinity in the university of
Glasgow ; and, according to the usual practice, he read his
lectures in the Latin language. It was apparently at this'
period that he laid the chief foundation of that theological
learning for which he became so distinguished. In 1669 he
published his “ Modest and free Conference between a
Conformist and Nonconformist.” He became acquainted
with the Duchess of Hamilton, who communicated to him
all the papers belonging to her father and her uncle; upon
which he drew up the “ Memoirs of the Dukes of Hamil¬
ton,” afterwards printed at London, in folio, in the year
1677. The Duke of Lauderdale, hearing he was engaged
in this work, invited him to London, and introduced him
to King Charles II. He returned to Scotland, and married
Lady Margaret Kennedy, daughter of the Earl of Cassil-
lis, a lady of great knowledge, and highly esteemed by the
Presbyterians, to whose sentiments she was strongly in¬
clined.1 As there was some disparity in their ages, that
it might be sufficiently evident that this match was wholly
owing to inclination, and not to avarice or ambition, the
day before their marriage he delivered to the lady a deed,
by which he renounced all pretensions to her fortune,
which was very considerable, and must otherwise^ have
fallen into his hands, she herself having no intention to
secure it. His “ Vindication of the Authority, Constitu¬
tion, and Laws of the Church and State of Scotland, was
printed at Glasgow, in octavo^ in the year 16/3. This
was considered as so material a service to the government,
that he was again offered a bishopric, with a promise of the
next vacant archbishopric ; but he did not accept of it, be¬
cause he could not approve of the measures of the couit,
the great vifew of which he perceived to be the advance¬
ment of popery. The publication itself was one of those
which the author could not afterwards recollect with much
satisfaction.
His intimacy with the Dukes of Hamilton and Lauder¬
dale procured him frequent messages from the king anc.
the Duke of York, who. had conversations with him m
private. But Lauderdale, who was the most unpimcip e
man of the age, conceiving a resentment against him on
account of the freedom with which he spoke to llinl’,r?
presented at last to the king that Dr Burnet was engage i
an opposition to his measures; and on his return to Lon
he perceived that these suggestions had entirely ePrI
him of the king’s favour, though the Duke of Tork treat¬
ed him with greater civility than ever, and dissuaded
from going to Scotland. He accordingly resigne is p ^
1 Some degree of attention has lately been directed to this lady in consequence of the publication of a collection of Letter f
Lady Margaret Burnet to John Duke of Lauderdale. Edinb. 1828, 4to.
bur
irnet.
fessorship at Glasgow, and settled in London. About this
chTp^of sfpaUl’sTPlTe beVng- VaCai't’ tlle
cnaptei ot ht I aul s (in whose gift it was), hearing of his
circumstances, and the hardships which he had undergone
made him an offer of the benefice; but, as he had been
informed of their first intention of conferring it on Dr
Fowler, he generously declined it. In 1675, at the recom
mendation of Lord Hollis, whom he had known in France
as ambassador at that court, he was by Sir Harbottle Grim-
stone, master of the rolls, appointed preacher at the Rolls
chapel, notwithstanding the opposition of the court • and
he was soon afterwards chosen lecturer at St Clement’s, and
became one °f the most popular preachers in town. The
rst volume of his History of the Reformation of the Church
of Engiand^ published in folio in 1681, the second in
683, and the third m 1715. For this great work he re¬
ceived the thanks of both houses of parliament. Of the
lesV^0 V° UmeS he Published an abridgment in the year
Dr Burnet about this time happened to be sent for to
~ V T ’fp ’ 7h0 had been en»aSed in an amour
with the Earl of Rochester. The manner in which he
treated her during her illness gave that profligate noble¬
man a great curiosity for being acquainted with him ; and
duringawhoie winter, he spent one evening of the week
with Dr Burnet, who discussed with him all those topics
upon which sceptics and men of loose morals attack the
Christian religion. The happy effects of these confer¬
ences occasioned the publication of his account of the life
and death of that nobleman. In 1682, when the adminis¬
tration was changed in favour of the Duke of York, beimr
much resorted to by persons of all ranks and parties, in
order to avoid returning visits, he built a laboratory, and
tor above a year pursued a course of chemical experi¬
ments. l\ot lon'g after he refused a living of three hun¬
dred pounds a year offered him by the Earl of Essex, on
the terms of his not residing there, but in London. When
ie enquiry concerning the popish plot was on foot, he
was frequently sent for and consulted by King Charles
with relation to the state of the nation. His majesty of¬
fered him the bishopric of Chichester, then vacant, if he
would engage in his interests; but he refused to accept it
on these terms. He preached at the Rolls till 1684, when
he was dismissed by order of the court
About this period lie published various works, among
winch we must not overlook the following seven. “ Some
bur
723
r> . „ , ”... 'uiiuvvmg seven. “ some
Passages of the Life and Death of John Earl of Roches-
M * n L°"d; 16,?°’ 8vo- “ The Life and Death of Sir
Matthew Hale, Kt. sometime Lord Chief Justice of his
Majeshes Court of Kings Bench.” Lond. 1682, 8vo.
Ihe History of the Rights of Princes in disposing of
Eedesiastical Benefices and Church Lands.” H.ond. 1682,
jo. _ ‘ 1 he Life of William Bedell, D. D. Bishop of Kil-
more jn Ireland. Lond. 1685, 8vo. “ Reflexions on Mr
Vanilas s History of the Revolutions that have happened
uiope m matters of Religion, and more particularly
on his ninth book, that relates to England.” Amst. 1686,
rtfTi0" a A Dofonce of the Reflections on the ninth book
of the first yolum of Mr Varillas’s History of Heresies;
oemg a Reply to his Answer.” Amst. 1687, 12mo. “ A
continuation of Reflections on Mr Varillas’s History of
eresies, particularly on that which relates to English Af-
ans m his third and fourth tomes.” Amst. 1687, 12mo.
ne bore a very conspicuous part in the controversy which
iat time was so ably maintained against the papists; and
snnT Tb fangU® °f hlS WOrks would occupy no small Burnet.
thJTS tJuv ftUo^og translations deserve to be men- '
oned in this very brief and inadequate notice. “ Uto-
&?!feiVn L:atin]b? Sir Thomas More, Chancellor of
“ A8 RIK1 V tian*lated mto English.” Lond. 1685, 8vo.
wrhfin -100 °i[ tbe Peath °f tlle Primitive Persecutors,
ILl pH R J ^ Latm by L’ C‘ R Lactantius: Eng-
I hed by Gilbert Burnet, D.D. to which he hath made a
.ai ge preface concerning persecution.” Amst. 1687,12mo.
. n1 mg James s accession to the throne, having ob-
tamed leave to quit the kingdom, he first went to Paris,
and hved ,n great retirement, till, contracting an acquaint-
fLCVVlthiBrigad,er StouPPe’ a Protestant gentleman in
II brench service, he made a tour with him into Italy.
We met with an agreeable reception at Rome. Pope In¬
nocent XI. hearing of his arrival, sent the captain of the
owiss guards to acquaint him he would give him a pri¬
vate audience in bed, to avoid the ceremony of kissing
his holiness s slipper; but Dr Burnet excused himself a!
7 aS he ,C?uld- Here’ Wlth more zeal than prudence,
he engaged in some religious disputes ; and, on receiving
an intimation from Prince Borghese, he found it necessary
withdiaw from this stronghold of priestcraft, and pur¬
sued his travels through Switzerland and Germany. He
afterwards came to Utrecht, with an intention to settle in
some of the seven provinces. There he received an invi¬
tation from the prince and princess of Orange (to whom
their party in England had recommended him) to come
to tne Hague, and of this invitation he accepted. He was
soon acquainted with the secret of their councils, and
advised the preparation of a fleet in Holland sufficient
to support their designs and encourage their friends.
Ibis, and the account of his travels,2 in which he endea¬
voured to blend popery and tyranny together, and repre¬
sent them as inseparable, with some papers reflecting
on the proceedings of England, that came out in single
sheets, and were dispersed in several parts of England, of
most of which Dr Burnet owned himself the author, alarm¬
ed Amg James, and were the occasion of his writing twice
against him to the princess of Orange, and insisting, by
his ambassador, on his being forbidden the court; which,
after much importunity, was done, though he continued
to be trusted and employed as before, the Dutch minis¬
ter daily consulting him. To put an end to these fre¬
quent conferences with the ministers, a prosecution for
high treason was commenced against him both in Eng¬
land and Scotland; but receiving the intelligence before
it reached the states, he avoided the storm, by petition¬
ing for, and obtaining without any difficulty, a bill of na¬
turalization, in order to his intended marriage with Mary
Scott, a Dutch lady of considerable fortune, who, with
the advantage of birth, united those of a fine person and
understanding.
After his marriage with this lady, being legally under
the protection of Holland, when Dr Burnet found Kino-
James plainly subverting the constitution, he omitted no
•method to support and promote the design which the
prince of Orange had formed of delivering Great Britain ;
and, having accompanied him in quality of chaplain, he was
in the year 1689 advanced to the see of Salisbury. He de¬
clared for moderate measures with regard to the clergy
who scrupled to take the oaths, and many were displeased
with him for declaring for the toleration of nonconformists.
As my lord of Salisbury, says the Earl of Shaftesbury,
“ b^s done more than any man living for the good and
Piety.”W(Lb’w o/Enflishf^vol ^ ^ ^ ^ elegance’ the Philosopher for its arguments, and the saint for its
G oUerdaml^lGScf hTT1 °f what S0emed most remarkabIe in Switzerland, Italy, &c. written by G. Burnet, I). D.
724 BUR
Burnet, honour of the church of England and the reform’d reli- .
gion, so he now suffers more than any man from the
tongues and slander of those ungrateful church-men ; who
may well call themselves by that single term of distinc¬
tion, having no claim to that of Christianity or Protestant,
since they have thrown off all the temper of the former, and
all concern or interest with the latter.” I he same noble
writer has elsewhere mentioned him in the following terms
of commendation : “ The bishop of Salisbury s Exposition
of the Articles is, no doubt, highly worthy of your study.
None can better explain the sense of the church, than one
who is the greatest pillar of it since the first founders ; one
who best explain’d and asserted the reformation its self;
was chiefly instrumental in saving it from popery before
and at the Revolution; and is now the truest example of
laborious, primitive, pious, and learned episcopacy.”1
His pastoral letter concerning the oaths of allegiance
and supremacy to King William and Queen Mary, 1689,
happening to touch upon the right of conquest, gave such
offence to both houses of parliament, that it was ordered
to be burnt by the hands of the common executioner. He
soon afterwards published a very valuable work, entitled
A Discourse of the Pastoral Cure. Lond. 1692, 4to. In
1698 he lost his wife by the small-pox; and as he was al¬
most immediately after appointed preceptor to the Duke
of Gloucester, of whose education he took great care, this
employment, and the tender age of his children, induced
him the same year to supply her loss by a marriage with
Mrs Berkeley, a widow, who was eldest daughter of Sir
Richard Blake. In 1699 he published his Exposition of
the thirty-nine Articles; which occasioned a representation
against him in the lower house of convocation in the year
1701, but he was vindicated in the upper house. His
speech in the House of Lords in 1704 against the bill to
prevent occasional conformity, was severely attacked. He
formed a scheme for augmenting the small livings; which
he pressed forward with such success, that it ended in an
act of parliament passed in the second year of Queen Anne,
for the augmentation of the livings of the poor clergy. He
died in 1715, and was interred in the church of St James,
Clerkenwell, where a monument was erected to his me¬
mory.
Bishop Burnet’s History of his own Time, consisting of
two large volumes in folio, was not published till several
years after the author’s death; the first volume appeared
in 1724, and the second in 1734. An account of his life
was added by his youngest son Sir Thomas Burnet, one
of the judges of the court of common pleas. The history
itself was not printed without mutilations; but after an
interval of nearly a century, an edition, containing all the
passages which bad formerly been suppressed, was publish¬
ed under the superintendence of the learned Dr Routh.
Oxford, 1823, 6 vols. 8vo. This is a work of great and
intrinsic value: it exhibits many curious and interesting
delineations of character, and many striking views of the
causes and progress of events. The first volume, which
relates to the reigns of Charles II. and his brother James,
we consider as the more interesting of the two. His ma¬
terials are not always very carefully digested, and his style
is sometimes supposed to be too familiar; but these de¬
fects are abundantly compensated by the copiousness of
his information, the benevolence of his sentiments, and
the earnestness of his manner. The Conclusion displays
superior dignity of composition, and cannot be perused
without the most favourable impression of the author’s
intellectual attainments and moral worth. He uniformly
evinces his attachment to the cause of freedom, nor is this
BUR
the least conspicuous part of his character: the church of Bujtet
England, in its collective capacity, has always been hos- |
tile to civil as well as religious liberty ; and its annals ex- filing,
hibit very few names which tend to remove the general
stigma. Those of Burnet and Hoadley ought never to be
forgotten.
Burnet, James, Lord Monboddo, a senator of the col¬
lege of justice, was born about the year 1714. He was
the son of Mr Burnet of Monboddo in Kincardineshire.
After passing through the usual course of school educa¬
tion, he prosecuted his studies at the universities of Aber¬
deen, Edinburgh, and Leyden, with distinguished repu¬
tation. He was admitted an advocate in 1737 ; and on the
12th of February 1767, he was raised to the bench by the
title of Lord Monboddo.
A journey to London became a favourite amusement of
his periods of vacation from the business of the court;
and for a time he made this journey once a year. A car¬
riage, a vehicle that was not in common use among the
ancients, he considered as an engine of effeminacy and
sloth, which it was disgraceful for a man to make use of
in travelling. To be dragged at the tail of a horse, in¬
stead of mounting upon his back, seemed, in his eyes, to
be a truly ludicrous degradation of the genuine dignity
of human nature : in all his journeys, therefore, between
Edinburgh and London, he was wont to ride on horse¬
back, with a single servant attending him. He continued
this practice, without finding it too fatiguing for his
strength, till he was upwards of eighty years of age.
Lord Monboddo is well known to the world as a man
of letters. His first publication was The Origin and Pro¬
gress of Language, in two vols. 8vo, 1773, which were fol¬
lowed by four more volumes, the last being published not
long before his death. In this work, intended chiefly to
vindicate the honour of Grecian literature, he ascribes
the origin of alphabetical writing to the Egyptians; and
strenuously maintains that the ourang-outang is a class of
the human species, and that his want of speech is merely
accidental. He also endeavours to establish the reality
of the existence of mermaids, and other fictitious animals.
He was induced to undertake another work for the pur¬
pose of defending the cause of Grecian philosophy, and
published, in five vols. 4to, a work entitled Ancient Meta¬
physics, which, like the other, is remarkable for a surpris¬
ing mixture of erudition and genius, with the most absurd
whim and conceit.
As a judge his decisions were sound, upright, and learn¬
ed, marked with acute discrimination, and free from those
paradoxes and partialities which appear in his writings.
He attended his judicial duty with indefatigable diligence
till within a few days of his death, which happened at his
house in Edinburgh on the 26th of May 1799, at the ad¬
vanced age of eighty-five.
BURNHAM, a market-town of the hundred of Bro-
thercross, in the county of Norfolk, 128 miles from Lon¬
don, near the sea shore. The market is held on Monday.
It is celebrated as the birth-place of Admiral Lord Nelson.
The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 743, in 1811 to 845,
and in 1821 to 937.
BURNING, the action of fire on some pabulum or fuel.
Burning, in antiquity, a way of disposing of the dead,
much practised by the Greeks and Romans, and still re¬
tained by several nations in the East and West Indies.
The antiquity of this custom reaches as high as the Theban
war, where we are told of the great solemnity accompany¬
ing this ceremony at the pyre of Menaeacus and Arche-
morus, who were contemporary with Jair, the eighth judge
1 Shaftesbury’s Letters, p. 28, 37.
BUR
of Israel. Homer abounds with funeral obsequies of this
nature. In the interior regions of Asia, the practice was
of very ancient date, and its continuance long; for we
are told, that in the reign of Julian, the king of Chionia
burnt his son’s body, and deposited the ashes in a silver
urn. Coeval almost with the first instances of this kind in
the East, was the practice in the western parts of the world.
The Herulians, the Getes, and the Thracians, had all along
observed it; and its antiquity was as great among the Cel¬
ts, Sarmatians, and other neighbouring nations. This cus¬
tom seems to have arisen out of friendship to the deceased,
whose ashes were preserved, as we preserve a lock of hair,'
a ring, or a seal, which had been the property of a depart¬
ed friend.
Kings were burnt in cloth made of the asbestos stone,
that their ashes might be preserved pure from any mix¬
ture with the fuel and other matters thrown on the funeral
pile. The same method is still observed with the princes
of Tartary. Among the Greeks, the body was placed on
the top of a pile, on which were thrown divers animals, and
even slaves and captives, besides unguents and perfumes.
In the funeral of Patroclus we find a number of sheep and
oxen thrown in, then four horses, followed by two dogs,
and lastly by twelve Trojan prisoners. The like is men¬
tioned by Virgil in the funerals of his Trojans; where, be¬
sides oxen, swine, and all manner of cattle, we find eight
youths condemned to the flames. The first thing was the
fat of the beasts, wherewith the body was covered, that it
might consume the faster ; it being reckoned a great feli¬
city to be quickly reduced to ashes. For the like reason,
where numbers were to be burnt at the same time, care
was taken to mix with them some of humid constitu¬
tions, and therefore more easily to be inflamed. Thus we
are assured by Plutarch and Macrobius, that for every
ten men it was customary to put in one woman. Soldiers
bur
725
Wnhv^ r’eir armS burnt with them. The garments Burning
} e lying were also thrown on the pile, with other Glasses,
ornaments and presents; a piece of extravagance which
the Athenians carried to so great a height, that some of
their lawgivers were forced to restrain them, by severe
penalties, from defrauding the living by their liberality to
the dead. In some cases, burning was expressly forbid¬
den among the Romans, and even looked upon as the
ugliest impiety. Jlius, infants who died before the breed¬
ing of teeth were entombed unburnt in the ground, in a
particular place set apart for this purpose. The same
thing was practised in regard to persons struck dead with
lightning, who were not allowed to be burnt again. Some
say that burning was also denied to suicides. The man¬
ner of burning among the Romans was not unlike that of
the Greeks. The corpse, being brought out without the
city, was carried directly to the place appointed for burn¬
ing it; which, if it joined the sepulchre, was called bustum,
i sepai ate fiom it, ustrina, and there laid on the rogus or
pyra, a pile of wood prepared for burning it, and built in
the shape of an altar, but of different height, according to
the quality of the deceased. The wood used was common¬
ly that of such trees as contain most pitch or rosin ; and
whatever kind was used, they split it, for the more’ easy
catching fire ; while round the pile they set cypress trees,
probably to hinder the noisome smell of the corpse. The
body was not placed on the ban? pile, but on the couch or
bed whereon it lay; and when this was done, the next of
blood performed the ceremony of lighting the pile; which
they did with a torch, turning their faces all the while the
other way, as if it were performed with reluctance. Dur¬
ing the ceremony, decursions and games were celebrated ;
after which came the ossilegium, or gathering of the bones
and ashes ; also washing, anointing, and depositing them in
urns.
BURNING GLASSES, OR BURNING MIRRORS,
1
it
The name of certain glasses or mirrors which have the pro¬
perty of inflaming combustible substances by the action
of the sun’s rays, being so formed as to collect all the rays
which fall over their whole surface into a single point or
spot, more or less distant, according to the form of the
glass. In this point the natural heat of the sun is found
to be so augmented, owing to such a multitude of rays be¬
ing all concentrated in so narrow a space, that it produces
an intense temperature, and such as is quite sufficient,
even with very ordinary glasses, to inflame wood or other
us' combustible substances. There is always one particular
point at a certain distance from the glass where the heat
is the greatest. If we place the burning body nearer the
glass the heat diminishes, till it will no longer take fire ;
and if we place it farther from it, the same effect takes
place. Hence this point, where the heat is the most in-
tense, has received the name of the focus of the glass,
eflectf ProPerty burning glasses, however familiar it
lasses'rna^ n°'v aPPear> is certainly very remarkable, and must,
at the time of its invention, have excited no small degree
of astonishment and of interest, from the striking nature
of the effect, and from the uses to which it might be ap¬
plied. The operation is now perfectly understood from
the principles of optics, and is indeed extremely simple.
See Optics. The rays of light are collected either by
refraction in passing through a transparent glass, or by
reflection from the polished surface of a mirror. Burning
glasses are hence divided into two kinds,—refracting
glasses, which can only be made of glass or other trans¬
parent substance ; and reflecting glasses, which are either
made of glass silvered behind, or of polished metal, or any
other reflecting substance. Reflectors of polished metal
are generally termed specula. In the former kind the
glasses are of a convex form, and collect the rays of the
sun into a focus behind the glass, as at fig. 1, Plate CXLI.;
each ray, as it strikes more or less obliquely on the sur¬
face of the glass, being more or less bent out of its natural
course by the refractive medium, so that they are all made
to converge to one point or focus of refraction. Reflect¬
ing glasses, again, are all concave, and the rays of the sun
are collected into a focus in front of the mirror by reflec¬
tion ; each ray, as it strikes more or less obliquely on the
surface of the mirror, being reflected back, but at the same
time inclined to the centre so that they are all made to
converge to a point or focus of reflection in a similar man¬
ner, as at fig. 2.
In both these cases it is by the peculiar shape or figure
of the glass or mirror that the convergence of all rays to
one point is produced ; and to ascertain therefore the
figure which would do this most perfectly becomes an
important object in the construction of glasses, and is, be¬
sides, a curious mathematical problem. In the case of re¬
fracting glasses, where we have a double surface, one on
each side of the glass, it was first shown by the celebrated
Descartes, that a glass having its exterior surface con¬
vex, and a portion of an elliptic curve, while its interior
surface was concave, and formed a portion of a circle,
would cause parallel rays, or those of the sun, to converge
to a perfect focus, as at fig. 3, where the exterior sur¬
face of the lens BAG forms a portion of an ellipse, whose
726 B U Pt NIN G
Burning greater axis AX is to the distance between the foci Ff,
Glasses. as ^jle index of refraction is to unity, and a circle whose
centre is at F. Various other forms have been proposed,
but, owing to the great difficulty of forming glasses of these
compound curves, it was found more convenient in prac¬
tice to rest content with the exterior surface BAC, a por¬
tion of the simple curve of the circle or sphere, particularly
as in large glasses, or those of slight convexity, the sphere
approaches very nearly to that of the ellipse. Each side
of the glass, therefore, is carefully turned and ground into
the portion of a sphere, forming together what is termed
a lens ; and the greater the radius of convexity is, the
greater is the distance of the focus from the glass. It
happens by a curious coincidence, that in glass the focal
distance of parallel rays, usually termed the principal fo¬
cus of the lens, in a double convex lens, is just equal to
the radius of convexity. In every burning glass, therefore,
of this description, it is easy to find the focus by measuring
from the centre of the lens a distance equal to the radius
of curvature. In the case of burning mirrors, the true
figure for converging the rays to a perfect focus is that of
the parabola ; a form which is frequently constructed, the
mirrors being either turned or hammered out of metal,
and the figure therefore more readily attained than in
glass. The focal distance is ahvays equal to the radius of
the concavity at the centre of the mirror. Hence in large
mirrors of a shallow concavity, or with a large radius, the
spherical form will approach very nearly to that of the
parabola, and will therefore produce very nearly the full
Focal effect of it. The focus may also be found practically by
image. holding the glass up to the sun, and observing where the
concentration of the light is the greatest. In doing this
a remarkable circumstance is observed. However perfect
the figure of the glass, the rays in the focus are never
converged to a mathematical point; they are always dif¬
fused over a certain space, forming a spot of determinate
magnitude. The reason of this will appear very obvious,
when we consider that the sun presents a very sensible
magnitude, even at the enormous distance at which he is
viewed. The rays from different parts of the body, from
the opposite limbs, for instance, instead of being parallel,
subtend sensible angles. Though all the rays therefore
from any one point in the sun are sensibly parallel to each
other, and those which fall on different parts of the glass
from this single point are all converged to a mathematical
point in the focus, this is not the case with rays coming
from different points of the sun. These not being parallel,
cannot by any means be thrown together in the focus, but
each to a distinct point corresponding to that from which
it issues in the sun, whether by refraction or reflection, so
as to form on the whole an image or figure of the sun,
subtending the same angle at the glass as the sun does.
This is evident from an inspection of figures 4 and 5,
where the rays from each limb by refraction cross one
another in the centre of the glass, and again diverge,
forming the boundary of the focal image at the same angle
as the image itself, or by reflection meet and diverge in
returning at the same angle. Hence it follows that the
magnitude of the local image will depend entirely on the
focal distance, and in no respect on the magnitude of the
glass or mirror. The greater the focal distance the larger
will the image be. In every case it w ill be proportional
to the sine of 32', the angle at which the sun subtends at
the glass ; and hence the focal diameter will be very
nearly y^gth part of the focal distance. Hence the rea¬
son of a very curious fact, that in any large glass or mir¬
ror, though we were to cut off a zone from the exterior
circumference, it would not alter in the least the magni¬
tude of the focal image ; it would only diminish the in¬
tensity of the light. Whether the figure of the glass also
GLASSES.
be square, or circular, or elliptical, or any other shape, the Buiing
figure of the image will be invariably a circle. Such then Giles,
is the limit of concentration even for the most perfect VT"^W'
glasses ; and hence we see that it is not absolutely neces-Ijllr iof
sary to have the glasses of the perfect figure required by^™'tnu
theory, at least it is not of such essential consequence as
in the case of telescopes or microscopes, where the dis- I
tinctness of the image is of as much consequence as the
concentration of rays. Here, though the image be ever
so confused, seeing it is heat only which we want, it is of
no consequence, so that they fall within the limits of the
focus. If the spherical figure, then, has been adapted with
success to the nice purposes of vision, by using spherical
lenses and reflectors of gentle curvature, much more may
it suffice for burning glasses, wdiere any imperfections of this
kind are of less importance ; the only effect of these being
to produce in the focus a somewhat less powerful concen¬
tration of the rays. In practice, however, the difference
with small glasses, such as four, five, or six inches diame¬
ter, and focal distances of two or three feet, is really hardly
measurable. Even with very large glasses it is far from
being considerable. In the great burning glasses of
Tschirnhausen, for example, three or four feet in diameter,
the focal distance was twelve feet; and hence a perfect
image of the sun should have been inches = 1*44
inches ; and it was actually about an inch and a half. The
famous lens of Parker had a focal distance of six feet eight
inches; and hence the perfect image should have been
0-8 inches, and the actual burning focus was one inch dia¬
meter. In reflection, again, the mirror of Vilette had a fo¬
cal length of about thirty-eight inches, and therefore an
image by calculation of 0*38 inches; it was actually about
the size of half a louis d’or.
In regard to the actual heating power of burning glass- Heat i
es, if this depended only on the concentration of the rayspowe
it would be easily calculated. The degree of concentra¬
tion is in every case proportional as the square of the
diameter of the glass to the square of the diameter of the
focal image. In an ordinary reading glass, therefore, say
of two inches diameter and six inches focal distance, the
focal diameter being thus 006, the concentration would
be as four to ‘OOSG, or as one to 0‘0009, or nearly 1000
times. No wonder, then, that such a glass should so rea¬
dily produce inflammation. Even in some of the large
burning glasses the actual concentration did not so much
exceed this as might be imagined. In the compound
burning glasses of Tschirnhausen the diameter of the first
glass being three and four feet, and the focal diameter of
the second glass only eight lines or two thirds of an inch,
the concentration would be as 2304 and 1296 to 0’44, or
5184 times in the one case, and 2916 in the other. In Vi-
lette’s burning mirror the diameter was thirty inches, and
the focal diameter about half an inch. The concentra¬
tion would thus be 3600 times. But the most powerful
of all these glasses is the compound one of Parker. In
this the diameter of the first glass was thirty-two and a
half inches, and the focal diameter of the second three
eighths of an inch ; hence the concentration was equal to
7168 times.
In order, however, to calculate the actual increase of Effect ^
temperature, we must first know the effect of the sun’s e
natural heat. The most accurate experiments on this^
subject are those made by Professor Leslie with his photo¬
meter, an instrument of great delicacy, peculiarly adapted
for measuring the heat of the sun, as it is entirely free of
any extraneous impression from the surrounding atmo¬
sphere. “ In the latitude of Edinburgh,” he says, “ the
direct impression of the sun at noon, during the summer
solstice, amounts to 90° (r= \6'2 Fahrenheit) ; but it re¬
gularly declines as his rays become more oblique. At the
a %
■He
sjni:
Burning altitude of 17° it is already reduced to one half - and at
Glasses. 3° above the horizon the whole effect exceeds not 1° In
the same parallel of latitude, the greatest force of the solar
beams in the depth of wint.er measures only SS0”1 ( 41.
Fahrenheit). Taking the average effect, then, at 10° it
would appear that the above reading glass would be capa¬
ble of producing a heat of 10,000°, which is far above the
melting point of brass, copper, silver, and lead. The o-lass-
^ pcllI™1£}usen would produce a heat of 29,160° and
51,840 , the mirror of Vilette 36,000°, and Parker’s glass
the enormous heat of 71,680°, which is nearly double the
highest heat measurable by Wedgewood’s pyrometer
Effect of But the temperature due to the mere concentration of
ZS' 6 raT Wll‘ evide,nt!y b? considerably modified, accord-
” mK the accumulating heat is more or less rapidly dissi-
pated from the focal point into the surrounding medium •
and this will depend chiefly on the conducting power of
the substance leceiving heat, and of those with which it is
in contact. This effect is observed, indeed, in the case of
a body exposed to the natural heat of the sun. As the ac¬
cumulating heat raises the temperature of the body, this
causes a dispersion both by radiation and contact into the
surrounding atmosphere, so that there will be a stream of
heat continually escaping- from the body, as well as one
running in; and when the final temperature is attained,
these two effects will exactly balance each other, the
quantity dispersed being exactly equal to that which is
received during the same time. Now, the quantity dis¬
persed must evidently be proportional to the excess of
temperature of the body above the surrounding atmo¬
sphere, and also to the surface exposed. Hence a slow
conducting body exposed to the sun,—a ball of wood, for
instance, will acquire a higher temperature than a simi-
lar bafl of copper. In the latter the heat will be quickly
diffused over the whole mass, and dispersed into the at¬
mosphere from every part of its surface: in the former it
will pass very slowly through the mass, and accumulating
moie at one side, and having a smaller surface to disperse
itself by, will produce there a greater elevation of tempe-
ratuie; or if the copper be surrounded by any slow con¬
ducting substance,—if it be bedded in a mass of charcoal
or brick, the temperature acquired will be greater, as in
the case of fruit-trees on a wall, the brick confining the
heat, and causing a greater accumulation and a higher
tempeiature, just as the damming up of any stream of
watei raises the level of the fluid. The same thing must
take place with the rays of light concentrated by the burn-
mg glass. The temperature in the focus must continue
rising until the dispersion of the heat from the focal point
equals what is constantly received; and the more, there-
ore, this dispersion can be retarded by the interposition
of slow conducting substances, the higher will the tem¬
perature rise. It has always been found, accordingly,
t lat refractory metals, or stones, melt much more readily
when laid in a mass of charcoal. This circumstance ex-
p ains a fact first proved by Buffon, and invariably expe¬
rienced in burning glasses, that, even with the same de-
giee of concentration of rays, the effect will be much
gieater with a large focus than with a small one. The
atter operating in a very narrow space, and dispersing
the heat rapidly into the surrounding mass, there is little
eft for accumulation. In the former, the heat increasing
as the square of the diameter, while the dispersion into
the surrounding substance only increases merely as the
ammeter, much more remains to accumulate in the centre;
and the central portion of the focus, indeed, being surround-
burning glasses.
727
L Z01iie almos,t a,s Il0t as ltself> much less dispersion Burning
can take place, and the temperature, therefore, will rise Glasses.
much higher. If we take, for example, a glass two inches  '
ammeter, with a concentrating power of 300, and another
six inches diameter of the same powder, the one will in¬
flame paper in two or three seconds, while the other will
hardly accomplish it at all. These circumstances, there-
ore, greatly modify the effects of concentration, and serve
to account for the very feeble powers of small glasses, and
the intense heat of larger ones not greatly differing in
concentrative action. The most powerful glass, for in¬
stance, ever constructed, was that of Parker, and yet its
concentrative power was only seven times greater than
that of an ordinary reading glass; and this is the reason
also, as we shall see, that the reflecting mirrors of Buffon
for burning at a distance produced such powerful effects,
the concentration being small compared with that of sin¬
gle glasses, but the focal image much larger.
Such being the general principles of burning glasses History
and mirrors, we shall now describe some of the principal and del
instruments of this kind which have been constructed, Option of
and their effects. The invention of mirrors or looking-burn5llg
glasses, constructed probably of polished brass, remounts^asses"
to a very remote antiquity, as they are mentioned by
Moses in the sacred writings. At what period they were
employedjn a concave form to^concentrate the solar rays
by lefiection is not known, but it is very probable that
minors of this kind were used to rekindle the vestal fires.
Plutarch, in his life of Numa, 700 years before Christ,
describes the exa^sTa, or dishes which were employed for
this purpose, and which appear to have been concave seg¬
ments of a sphere; and he states that the combustible
matter was placed in the centre, meaning, no doubt, the
focus or centre of concentrated rays. In the time of So¬
crates, 430 years before Christ, the manufacture of glass
had made considerable progress; and it appears from a
passage in one of the plays of Aristophanes, that the use
of burning glasses was common. The author introduces
Socrates as giving lessons in philosophy to Strepsiades, a
citizen of Athens, and a man of low cunning. The sub¬
jects of these lessons are silly trifles, intended to make So¬
crates appear ridiculous. Strepsiades, after having asked
him how he should avoid paying his debts, proposes the
following expedient himself:—“ Strepsiades, You have seen
at the druggists that fine transparent stone with which
they kindle fires ? Socrates, You mean glass, do not you ?
Strepsiades, The very thing. Socrates, Well, what will
you do with that? Strepsiades, When a summons is sent
to me, I will take this stone, and, placing myself in the
sun, I will melt all the writing of the summons at a dis¬
tance.” The writing, as we know, was traced on wax
spread upon a more solid substance.
This description must refer to a burning glass by re¬
fraction. Several other ancient observations on the same
phenomenon exist. Pliny mentions globes of glass or
of crystal, which, being exposed to the sun, would burn
clothes, or the flesh of a patient when cauterization was
requisite. Hist. Nat. lib. xxxvi. and xxxvii. Lactantius,
who lived about the year 303, says, “ a globe of glass
filled with water, and exposed to the sun, will kindle a fire
even in the coldest weather.” (Zte Ira Dei?)
But the most memorable account of burning glasses, j, •
and of their effects in all antiquity, and what has excited giasses of
no small degree of speculation in succeeding times, is the Archime-
extraordinary achievement ascribed to Archimedes, ofdes.
setting fire to the Roman fleet engaged in the siege of
Experimental Enquiry into the Nature and Propagation of Heat, p. 440. Also, by the same author, An Account of Experiments and In~
s ’ ume/[ts depending on the relations of Air to Heat and Moisture.
728 BURNING
Burning Syracuse, “ launching against it,” as BufFon says, “ the
Glasses, fire of the solar beams.” This, if it can be proved, must,
without doubt, be viewed as the most surprising effort of
genius and practical skill which the history of human in¬
vention presents. By modern opticians, at the head of
whom stood Descartes, the fact was long treated as fa¬
bulous, chiefly on account of its supposed impracticability ;
and no doubt this would be the case with single concave
mirrors or reflectors, as they imagined Archimedes to have
used, and which could not obviously be constructed of suf¬
ficient magnitude and focal distance to have any sensible
effect. But if we suppose, as is far more probable, and as
it is actually described by some authors, that the effect
was produced by a number of plane mirrors arranged in a
curve, and all uniting their rays in a focus, the impossibility
of such a combination is by no means clear ; and in fact its
perfect practicability, first suggested by Anthemius, and
rendered extremely probable by Kircher,was demonstrated
by Buffon, and the apparatus actually constructed by him,
so as to kindle wood and other inflammable substances at
the distance of 200 yards. No doubt, therefore, can re¬
main as to the possibility of producing the effects describ¬
ed. The only question now is in regard to the probabili¬
ty of the fact itself, and the evidence advanced for its
support. In the first place, there is nothing improbable
in the situation of the place; for Kircher, in his great zeal
to throw light on this curious subject, actually made a
voyage to Syracuse, in order to examine the situation of
the hostile fleet, accompanied by his pupil Scholtus, and
they were both satisfied that the ships of Marcellus could
not have been more than thirty paces distant from the
place where Archimedes might have stood; and in regard
to an objection which has been stated, that the vessels
might have moved out of the way of the glasses, this does
not seem to have much weight, as a moment might have
been chosen when they were off their guard, and the glass
could have been" turned so as to follow them to a certain
extent; besides that, the vessels might have been at an¬
chor, or even aground at the time, and not capable of
, moving away with sufficient expedition. Let us just con¬
sider, therefore, the evidence for the fact itself. On the
one hand, we have Polybius, Livy, and Plutarch, all silent
on the subject, affording certainly a strong proof against
the fact, when we consider also that the two former de¬
scribe so particularly the mechanical contrivances of Ar¬
chimedes ; on the other hand, it has been positively af¬
firmed by Vero, Diodorus Siculus, and Pappus; and
though the works of the latter, which speak of the siege
of Syracuse, are now lost, they existed in the twelfth cen¬
tury, and the passages which speak particularly of the
burning glass of Archimedes are quoted by Zonaras and
Tzetzes, writers of that period, and who appear incapable
of inventing such a story of themselves. Zonaras states
that “ Archimedes burnt the fleet of the Romans in an
admirable manner, for he turned a certain mirror towards
the sun, which received its rays. The air having been
heated on account of the density and smoothness of the
mirror, he kindled an immense flame, which he precipi¬
tated on the vessels which were in the harbour, and re¬
duced them to ashes.” He then adds that Proclus, taught
by this example, burnt with mirrors of brass the fleet of
Vitellius, who besieged Constantinople under the empe¬
ror Anastasius in the year 514. Tzetzes, referring to the
same authorities, states, that “ when the fleet of Marcel¬
lus was within bow shot, the old man (Archimedes) brought
out a hexagonal mirror which he had made. He placed
at proper distances from the mirror other smaller mirrors,
which were of the same kind, and which were moved by
means of their hinges and certain square plates of metal.
He afterwards placed his mirrors in the midst of the solar
GLASSES.
rays precisely at noon-day. The rays of the sun being Biding
reflected by this mirror, he kindled a dreadful fire on the G (ses.
ships, which were reduced to ashes at a distance equal to ''■‘’p*''
that of a bow-shot. Dion and Diodorus, who wrote the
life of Archimedes, and several other authors, speak of
this fact, but chiefly Anthemius, who wrote on the prodi¬
gies of mechanics. It is in these works that we read the i
history of the conflagration occasioned by the mirror of
Archimedes.”
This passage contains evidently a description of a com- Teqjicm
bination of plane mirrors, so adapted and set to the posi-°f -he.
tion of the sun as to unite all the rays reflected from them mi
into one focus. Besides these, we have the direct testi¬
mony, as above noticed, of Anthemius of Tralles, an emi¬
nent architect, and one besides deeply learned in the ma¬
thematical sciences, particularly mechanics. He flourish¬
ed about the end of the fifth century, in the time of Jus¬
tinian, with whom he was a favourite, and who employed
him in the erection of various edifices, particularly the
church of St Sophia at Constantinople, which he carried
on for some time in conjunction with Isidore, and, after
his death, finished himself. He was also a disciple of
Proclus, from whom he may have received information
regarding burning mirrors. In a fragment entitled crsp
'TTaoabo^'ji'j Of Wonderful Machines* and trans¬
lated and illustrated by Dupuy, a member of the Acade¬
my of Belles Lettres in 1777, Anthemius treats particu¬
larly of the burning mirrors of Archimedes, on the effects
of which he never seems to entertain any doubt. After
acknowledging that it was universally admitted in his time
that Archimedes had destroyed the Roman fleet by means
of burning mirrors, Anthemius observes, “ Let us, there¬
fore, bring and collect at one point other different rays, by
means of plain and similar mirrors, in such a manner that
all these rays, united after reflection, may produce inflam¬
mation. This may be effected by means of several per¬
sons holding mirrors, which, according to the positions in¬
dicated, send the rays to one point.
“ But, in order to avoid the embarrassment resulting
from intrusting this operation to several persons (for we
shall find that the matter intended to be burnt does not
require less than twenty-four reflectors), the following
construction may be followed : Let there be a hexagonal
plain mirror, and other adjoining similar mirrors, attached
to the sides of the hexagonal mirror by the smallest dia¬
meter, so that they may be moved on these lines by means
of plates or bands applied, which unite them to each other,
or by means of what are called hinges. If, therefore, we
bring the surrounding mirrors into the same plane with
the mirror in the centre, it is clear that all the rays will
undergo a reflection similar and conformable to the com¬
mon position of all the parts of the instrument. But if, the
centre mirror remaining as it were immovable, we dexter¬
ously incline upon it all the other mirrors which surround,
it is evident that the rays reflected by them will tend to¬
wards the middle of the place where the first mirror is di¬
rected. Repeat the same operation, and around the mir¬
rors already described placing other similar mirrors, all of
which may be inclined towards the central mirror, col¬
lect towards the same point the rays which they send, so
that all these united rays may excite inflammation in the
given spot.
“ But this inflammation will take place better if you can
employ for this purpose four or five of these burning mir¬
rors, and even seven, and if they are all at the same dis¬
tance from the substance to be burnt, so as that the rays
which issue from them, mutually intersecting, may render
the inflammation more considerable. For, if the mirrors
are all in one place, the rays reflected will intersect at
very acute angles, so that all the place around the axis
,ea
:oS
ie
)f
1-
ie
of
Burning
Glasses.-
i- Tstkl
ii- ofli ^
-.nif
Leonhard
Digges.
i erof
this.
being heated, the inflammation will not take place at the
single point given.
“ Xt is therefore possible, by means of the burning mir_
rors just mentioned, to carry inflammation to a given dis¬
tance. Those who have made mention of the mirrors con¬
structed by the divine Archimedes, have not said that he
made use of a single burning mirror, but of several; and
I am of opinion that there is no other way of carrying in¬
flammation to any distance.” J 6
These testimonies are certainly very favourable, and the
subject has been still further explained and illustrated by
the labours of succeeding inquirers. About the end of the
sixteenth century we find mention of a burning glass on
the plan of that of Archimedes, in a work by our country¬
man Leonhard Digges, entitled Pantometria, published
m London in 1571, and republished by his son Thomas
Digges in 1591. In the preface to the second edition the
latter observes, “ Archimedes also (as some supposed),
with a glasse framed by revolution of a section parabolical!,’
fired the Roman nauie in the sea, comming to the seige of
Syracusa. Rut, to leaue these celestial causes, and things
done of antiquitie, long agoe, my father hath at sundrie
times, by the sunne beams, fired powder and discharged
ordnance half a mile and more distante; which things I
am the boulder to report, for that there are yet lining di-
uerse of these his doings (oculati testes, eye-witnesses),
and many other matters far more strange and rare, which
I omit as impertinent to this place.”
In the twenty-first chapter of the first book, the subject
of burning glasses is resumed. “ Some have fondly sur¬
mised that Archimedes burned the Roman nauie with a
portion of a section parabolical, artificiallye made to re¬
flect and unite the sunne beamesa great distance off; and
for the construction of this glass, toke great peins with
high curiositie, to unite large and many intricate demon¬
strations ; but it is a mere fantasie, and utterly impossible
with any one glass, whatseuer it be, to fire any thing only
one thousand paces off, no, though it were an 100 foote
over; marry true it is, the parabola, for his small dis¬
tance, most perfectly doth unite beames, and most uehe-
mently burneth, of all other reflecting glasses. But how
by application of mo glasses to extend this unitie or con-
eourse of beames in his full force, yea to augment and
multiply the same, that the farder it is carried the more
vio ently it shall pearse and burne. Hoc opus hie labor
etf, wherein God sparing life and the time which oppor¬
tunity serving, and minde to impart to my countrymen
some such secrets, as hath, I suppose, in this our age been
reueled to very few, no lesse seruing for the securitie and
defence of our naturall countrey, than surely to be mar-
uaued at of strangers.”
A few years after the publication of the Pantometria
of Leonhard Digges, our illustrious countryman Baron
.pier of Merchiston drew up a list of “ Secret inven¬
tions, profitable and necessary in these days for the de-
ence of this island, and withstanding of strangers, enemies
ot God s truth and religion.” The first and second of these
inventions are burning mirrors, which are verv briefly de¬
scribed in the following words:—
First, “ The invention, proof, and perfect demonstration,
geometrical and algebraical, of a burning mirror, which re¬
ceiving of dispersed beams of the sun, doth reflect the
same beams altogether united and concurring precisely in
one mathematical point, in the which point most neces-
sanly it engendereth fire ; what an evident demonstration
o their error who affirm this to be made a parabolic sec¬
tion. The use of this invention serveth for the burning of
t ie enemy’s ships, at whatsoever appointed distance.”
Secondly, “ The invention and sure demonstration of
another mirror, which receiving the dispersed beams of
burning glasses.
729
a"5 nkee„’s?ldelh a,S0 the former “F
■!' f"68/01 aPPe<>r that Napier ever condescended to
h any fui ther account of these burning mirrors • for
when he was solicited a short time before his death, by one
of his most particular friends, “ not to bury such excellent
inventions in the grave with him,” he replied, “ that for
the rum and overthrow of man there were too many de¬
vices already framed, which, if he could make to be fewer
he would with all his might endeavour to do; and that
therefore seeing the malice and rancour rooted in the
heart of mankind will not suffer them to diminish the
number of them, by any new conceit of his they should
never be increased.” J
™7eXt author who™ we find treating on the subject Labours of
of the burning glasses of Archimedes, is the learned and Kircher.
indefatigable Kircher, whose zeal we have already mention-
ed as having led him to Syracuse to examine the practi¬
cability of the project on the spot, and who besides in¬
vestigated the subject by a great variety of experiments.
He began with combining a number of parabolic spe¬
cula ; but this method was quickly abandoned, and he
resorted to the use of plane mirrors. Having procured a
number of plane and circular glasses, he placed them upon
a wall, at such degrees of inclination that they all reflect¬
ed the light of the sun to one point, and produced a con¬
siderable heat. His principal experiments, however, were
made with five plain specula fixed in a frame, so that they
collected the solar rays at the distance of more than one
hundred feet. At this distance he produced a degree of
heat which sufficiently convinced him, that by increasing
the number of his mirrors, he could have consumed in¬
flammable substances at a much greater distance. He in¬
forms us in his Magica Catoptrica, that the heat of the
first, reflection was different from that of direct light; that
the light, when doubled, gave a very preceptible increase
of heat; that it had the heat of a fire when tripled; that
when quadrupled, the heat could still be endured; but
that a five-fold reflection made the heat almost intolerable.
From these results he concludes that a combination of
plane mirrors was capable of producing more powerful ef¬
fects than mirrors of a parabolic, hyperbolic, or elliptic
form ; and he entreats future mathematicians to prosecute
the subject with a more numerous combination of plane
specula.” .
. But of all the authors who have laboured in this cu-of Buffbn
rious speculation, Buffon is the one who has thrown the
clearest light on the subject; and, by the ingenuity, ex¬
tent, and multiplicity of his experiments, has left little
further to be accomplished by succeeding philosophers.
Being soon convinced, like his predecessors, of the utter
inefficiency of single mirrors, he then tried by experiment
the powers of different plane surfaces in reflecting the
sun’s light, and found that glass, somewhat carefully po¬
lished and silvered behind, reflected more powerfully than
the best polished metals, better even than what is em¬
ployed for the specula of telescopes. He next found, by Loss of
letting the duect light of the sun into a darkened room, light by
and comparing it there with the reflected light from glass, reflection,
that it only lost one half by reflection, which he judged
of by causing one reflected light to cover another, when
the two seemed together equal to the direct light. Third¬
ly, having received, at distances of one hundred, two hun¬
dred, and three hundred feet, the same reflected light from
large glasses, he found it had lost almost nothing of its in¬
tensity by the thickness of the mass of air which it had
traversed. Having established these preliminary facts, he
then tried what the effect would be of receiving the image
of the sun from different glasses at still greater distances;
and a curious fact was observed, namely, that whatever
4 z
730
Burning
(Basses.
Hound
form of all
distant
images.
Effect of
large focal
image.
Compound
mirror.
GLASSES.
BURNING
shape the glass might be, whether square or triangular,
or any other, the same was the figure of the reflection at
short distances : but as the distance increased, the figure
became rounded at the angles; as the distance increased,
the rounding of the angles increased along with it, until at
last the square or triangular figure was changed into one
nearly circular, whatever was the original figure of the glass.
This effect Buffon justly ascribed to the circumstance of
the apparent magnitude of the sun, every portion of the
glass reflecting in reality an image of the sun, and the
whole reflection being composed of an infinite number of
such images, each of which subtended an angle of half a
degree. At small distances, therefore, the images are too
small in proportion to the magnitude of the figure to affect
the shape. As the distance increases, the magnitude of
each of the images increasing along with it, while the
figure and magnitude of the whole reflection remains in
other respects the same, the former becomes at last equal
to the latter, and the square or triangular figure is ab¬
sorbed in that of the circular image of the sun, and every
glass comes at last to give nearly the same figure. Hence
it followed that the light could be no otherwise enfeebled
by distance than as it was diffused by the increasing mag¬
nitude of the image. Putting all these circumstances to¬
gether, Buffon had hopes of being able to burn in this
manner at a great distance, by combining a sufficient num¬
ber of glasses. Still he had doubts ; for supposing we wish
to burn at two hundred and forty feet distant, the focus
or image of the sun at this distance could not be less than
two feet. What a diffusion of light, compared with the
degree of concentration in very ordinary glasses,—in the
mirror of the Academy of Sciences, for instance, of which
the diameter is three feet! This was a hundred times
larger than the diameter of its focus, which was only one
third of an inch; and hence he concluded, that to burn
as powerfully at two hundred and forty feet, the diame¬
ter of the mirror would have required to be two hun¬
dred and sixteen feet, which was impossible. Still, how¬
ever, he had a suspicion that the effect of a large focus
might be greater than the mere effect of concentration,
although this was contrary to the received opinion of Des¬
cartes and other opticians; and on appealing to actual
experiment, he found his suspicions satisfactorily confirm¬
ed. On trying, for example, a small burning glass three
inches diameter, and the focal distance six inches, and
diameter one eighteenth of an inch, with a glass thirty-
two inches diameter, and a focus of two thirds of an inch,
—in the focus of the latter copper melted in less than a
minute, while in that of the former the copper would
scarcely be gently heated, according to the principle we
have already explained. Encouraged by this experiment,
Buffon proceeded to put his plan in execution, and con¬
structed, with the aid of M. Passemant, a compound mir¬
ror, represented at fig. 6. This consisted at first of sixty-
eight silvered glasses, each eight inches long and six
broad, arranged in a square frame parallel to each other,
and separated by spaces, about one fourth or one third
of an inch. These allowed the glasses to move easily inde¬
pendent of one another, and also allowed the operator to
see through and to direct the reflections to one point. In
this manner the whole sixty-eight mirrors could be made
to unite their force at twenty, thirty, or even a hundred and
fifty feet; and by augmenting the size of the compound
mirror by adding to the number of small mirrors, the effect
might be increased to any extent. The only difficulty
consists in moving such a number of glasses, and directing
them all to the same object. Great attention must also
be paid to the choice of the glasses, which are often very
defective, though they may appear well enough at first
sight. The sixty-eight above described had to be picked
out of more than five hundred. They were tried by oh- Buiirg
serving the reflection on a wall a hundred and fifty feet Glfees.
distant, and those only which gave distinct and well-de- ^ -w
fined images were taken.
The first experiment was made with the mirror on theEfhtof
23d of March 1747, at mid-day. With forty glasses only.mir j.
it set fire to a plank of tarred beech. Not being yet i
mounted, however, on its stand, it acted under a great dis¬
advantage
The same day, a plank done over with tar and brim¬
stone was set fire to at a hundred and twenty-six feet
with ninety-eight glasses, the mirror being still more dis-
advantageously placed.
On the 3d of April, at four o’clock in the afternoon, the
mirror being mounted and placed on its stand, a slight in¬
flammation was produced on a plank covered with shreds of
wool at a hundred and thirty-eight feet distance, with a
hundred and twelve glasses, although the sun was weak,
and the light very pale. One requires to take care of him¬
self in approaching the place where the combustible mate¬
rials are placed, and avoid looking at the mirror; for if un¬
fortunately the eyes are found in the focus, they would
be struck blind by the brightness of the light.
On the 4th of April, at eleven in the morning, the sun
being very pale, and covered with vapours and light clouds,
the mirror was still capable of producing, with a hundred
and fifty-four glasses, at a hundred and fifty feet distance,
a heat so considerable, that in less than two minutes it
made a tarred plank smoke, which would certainly have
been inflamed if the sun had not disappeared all of a sud¬
den. The next day at three p. m., with the sun still more
feeble than the preceding, chips of fir coated with sulphur
and mixed with charcoal were kindled in less than a minute
and a half, with a hundred and fifty-four glasses, at the dis¬
tance of a hundred and fifty feet. When the sun was brisk
it only required a few seconds to produce inflammation.
On the 10th of April, after mid-day, with the sun pretty
clear, a plank of tarred fir was kindled at a hundred and
fifty feet with only a hundred and twenty-eight glasses;
the inflammation was very sudden, and extended over the
wrhole breadth of the focus of sixteen inches diameter.
The same day at half-past two the light was directed on
a plank of beech tarred in part and covered in some places
with shreds of wool. The inflammation was very quickly
produced ; it commenced with those parts of the wood
that were uncovered, and the fire was so violent that it was
necessary to immerse the plank in water to extinguish it:
there were a hundred and forty-eight glasses, and the dis¬
tance was a hundred and fifty feet.
On the 11th of April, the focus being only twenty feet
distant from the mirror, twelve glasses only were required
to inflame little combustible matters. With twenty-one
glasses a plank of beech which had been already partly
inflamed was set fire to ; with forty-five glasses a large
flagon of tin, weighing about six pounds, was melted ; and
with a hundred and seventeen glasses thin pieces of silver
were melted, and an iron plate made red hot; and “ I am
persuaded,” says he, “ that at fifty feet distant the metals
might have been melted as well as at twenty, by employ¬
ing all the glasses of the mirror ; and as the focus at this
distance is six or seven inches diameter, it affords a very
convenient method of making experiments on the metals,
which could not be done with ordinary mirrors, the foci of
which are either of feeble power, or a hundred times small¬
er than that of mine. I remarked that the metals, and
particularly silver, smoked much before melting ; the smoke
was so sensible as to cast a shade on the ground. I his I
particularly observed, for it was not possible to look at the
metal in the focus, the light being much brighter than that
of the sun.”
Burning
Glasses
i
SucI, are the results of Buffon's original experiments
and they are certamly very remarkablefand such as could
no have been well anticpated from any previous know
ledge ot the subject We have already seem that aecordl
ing to Professor Leslie's experiments, the greatest heat of
the sun m our latitude is 16« ; suppose that in France h
may amount to 15° m the month of April. The heat re
quired to inflame beech or fir coated with tar cannot be
estimated at less than 600° or 800°, which would require a
concentration of forty or fifty times; and seeing oneTaff is
lost by reflection, it would require eighty or one hundred
mirrors; and yet we see at the distance of twenty feet
beech was inflamed with only twenty-one mirrors, which w.
“7° SHv« I a?ed t0 Pr°d,UCe a hi«hcr tempera,
t nn itino S ’ again’ cannot be melted with less heat
than 4500 , or a concentration of 300 times and rnm,;,-
mg therefore SOO mirrors; and ye, the pfecet ontTerY
melted with 117 mirrors. The same effects were observ!
ed at greater distances making allowance for the distancL
fL6,G leet. tarred beech was inflamed with 40 glasses, at
126 feet with 98, and at 150 feet tarred fir was inflamed
very suddenly with 128 glasses. It is not easy to deTer-
mine the exact diminution of effect by distance, so much
will depend on the glasses themselves. Were the reflect¬
ed image to enlarge itself regularly in receding from the
ferl 8Vfue eqUaUy diffused ^er die image!
fG at,0n W0U d be Slmple ; but this is not the cafe,
eing there are rays proceeding from every point of the
g ass parallel to one another, and the effect of which there¬
fore does not decrease with distance. The rays are also
more accumulated in the centre than at the extremities
of the image. Still, however, a decided diminution must
arise from the distance of the object from the mirror; and
e above results, therefore, are still far beyond what could
have been looked for from so small a number of glasses
employed, fhe cause of these extraordinary effects of
the mirrors it is not easy to explain; and the discrepancy
does not seem to have occurred to Buffon, nor to any of
a suc^e.eding philosophers who have considered the sub-
ject. It is certamly, however, very palpable; and either
is tn^'f1113 ^-1 nati! °f 15° f°r the natural heat of the sun
from n h? W11C > ‘0WeVer’ we have no ^ason to think
curTc^f r6COnK ratl°nS’ as the acknowledged ac-
fion nr °1bserver’ and his perfect means of observa-
18 ™re Probable’ heat accumulates
amn„nt™atf-d bi0idy^ma hlgher ratio than that of the
amount continually flowing m and discharged. The level
PorflonTnfh’ 38 18 WeI1 known’ rises higher than in pro-
mvpn f • 16 ^uantlt^ running in, and discharged by a
given opening. It rises to a level increasing as the square
cur withT a,"d S0Z‘!,ing of this ki"d perhaps „c!
recuTrc . f ?“ °f b-eat' The subject> however, would
a careful examination, and various new experi-
dnnp n -e m a r°re accurate manner than has yet been
make ‘r ^ t0 be reSrettcd that Buffon did not
make use of a thermometer to measure the actual heat in
observari/ th?,mi7.or-. We have no doubt that a few
LPs.iJat!? Wlth this instrument, or still better with
results8 thermometnc Photometer, would lead to curious
tlJ'fW? •t!le Pb0,ve exPeriments, which were made on
no2rSt‘rials of the mirror, a great number of other ex-
rfme”ts were afterwards made, which all confirmed the
witli fk °0d was hiodled at 200 feet, and even at 210 feet,
w:f, f 16 summer s sun, every time the sky was clear; and
nPrW°UcSUnh mirrors it might be done at 400 feet, and
rala JS dirther* All the metals also, and metallic mine-
jais were melted at twenty-five, thirty, and forty feet.
imkp° ifb?Ut-ba^ an bour t° mount the mirror, and to
all the images coincide in one point; but when it is
burning glasses.
731
Sncttu, if fo'' w
publidylrthfjatd^utr eXI>e™entS — ™de
I he mirror represented in fig. 6 has 360 glasses THp
frame is supported on the axis AB, round^hich it can
ImndrHK7 ^f8 °fFG’ and the P^on anS
1 • r* rhe axis rests on the two uprights AT
piece OQChandepfilmly-fiXed P7 m,0rtises into the bottom
p ece UQ, and cioss piece ab, and steadied by diagonals-
tie uprights and frame are movable round an ^uprhdit nil’
ar or axis, the feet being provided with rohe^ fe caSse
the whole mirror to turn easily round. The upright pillar
or axis is fixed in the centre of a broad square base or
sole of wood, which is capable of turning on rollers or
castoi s, and the whole is moved in any direction. Each of
he glasses is fixed on a square plate of metal ABCD, fig
1~, movable on an axis CD, which turns on a small framf
seen fi om behind in fig. 10, and in front in fig. 11; the screw
T \Slng ag;!lnSt th.e back of the PIate, and the spring
Plate is hpfiafid ble-SfSing -n. the 0PPosite direction, thf
piate is held firm in its position, and by turning the screw
m or out the angle of the glass is ahered. The whoil
lame and plate are besides movable round another axis
> perpendicular to the former; this motion being regulat-
ec and directed by screws and springs in the same manner :
and thus the glass having a universal motion, can easily be
set so as to throw the reflection in any direction, and all
orfifeus868 bV 116 Same meanS direCted towards one point
m;?rUnCrh a/® tbe effec1ts and construction of the celebrated Effects of
mnror °f Buffon, which actually set fire to wood at so Archime-
considerable a distance ; and proves, therefore, clearly the des’r!5ir-
practicabihty, with such an apparatus, of setting fire to a ?r stin
vesse at the same distance. That it proves, however the doubtf'uL
actunl fact related of Archimedes, seems to admit of con¬
siderable doubts. A distinguished philosopher in the end
of the eighteenth century, with all the advantages of the
amazing progress of science and the arts up to that period,
las, after a laborious research and numerous experiments
with all the leisure of philosophical inquiry, at last suc¬
ceeded in constructing a combination of mirrors, which
inflames combustible materials at a distance, and in a con¬
venient situation. But when we consider the low state of
tie aits in the time of the Syracusan philosopher, the in-
ferior reflecting power of any mirror then in use, the diffi¬
culty and expense of procuring such a number as would
be necessary, and of combining them together so as to act
with facility and effect on an enemy’s fleet,—seeing that
even in Buffon’s apparatus it took half an hour to bring the
mirrors to a focus; and, therefore, in the case of a vessel
in motion, it would be next to impossible to follow it, and
keep all the glasses steadily directed to one point,—if we
consider all these circumstances, the difficulties of the un¬
dertaking must appear so enormously increased, that it
seems to be no disparagement to the genius even of Archi¬
medes to require stronger proof than has yet been ad¬
duced to convince us of the fact; and particularly, as
Polybius, Livy, and Plutarch, who have described the pro¬
digies of his mechanical skill, are silent in regard to this,
which would have been as wonderful as any, and was cal¬
culated to excite fully greater astonishment. That Archi¬
medes had conceived such an idea, and perhaps in part
reduced it to practice, appears certain from so many con¬
curring testimonies ; but that he actually reduced the Ho¬
man fleet to ashes, is probably only one of those exaggera¬
tions to which every action, in any degree marvellous,
naturally gives rise.
Since the time of Buffon scarcely any thing further has
732
BURNING GLASSES.
Burning
Glasses.
been done on the subject of these compound burning mir¬
rors ; and as the subject is one more of curiosity than of
real utility, for, as to its application as an engine of war,
it is now out of the question, enough has perhaps oeen
done. In Peyrard’s edition of the works of Archimedes,
however, there is a memoir on the subject by the trans¬
lator, who seems to have bestowed a good deal of atten¬
tion on the subject, and suggested various ingenious im¬
provements on the mode of combining the miirois, an
directing them with facility to any object even thougi
in motion ; but he does not seem actually to have con¬
structed any on this plan. To direct and change so many
mirrors quickly would require evidently several opera¬
tors at the same time, as each mirror must be set sepa¬
rately. But it is extremely difficult in the ordinary way
for different hands to act in concert, because if any one of
the glasses, for instance, were out of the focus, it would be
impossible to tell which it was, and each operatoi w ould
be moving his own, and thus deranging the whole. Pey-
rard, therefore, proposes to furnish each mirror with a
telescope, adjustable in such a manner that, being turned
to any object, the reflected rays from the mirror should fall
in the same direction. Ihe adjusting apparatus consists
of a telescope attached parallel to the sides of the mir¬
ror, and also capable of turning on its axis and carrying
the mirror round with it. The mirror is besides capable
of turning on an axis of its own, perpendicular to that of
the telescope, and by this double motion the adjustment
is effected. The mirror is first turned on the axis of the
telescope until its own particular axis becomes perpendi¬
cular to the plane of the incident and reflected rays ; and
this is done by observing when the shadow of the edge of
the frame of the mirror falls on a particular point, marked
on an index projecting from the telescope. The mirror is
then turned on its own axis until the angle of incidence
becomes equal to the angle formed by the mirror and
telescope ; and this is known by a shadow made through
an opening in the silver of the mirror falling on a parti¬
cular spot in the index. In this manner one operator can
adjust all the mirrors intrusted to him with accuracy and
facility, and without knowing at all what the others are
doing. The apparatus is represented at fig. 7, and the
following is Peyrard's description.
Where AB is a common telescope with only one tube,
containing the object-glass at B, and the eye-glass at A.
The tube is movable on its axis between the two collars
CC, C'C', which are fixed to a piece of metal, DD. This
piece of metal is supported on a stand like a common tele¬
scope, having a vertical and horizontal motion, by which
the axis of the telescope may be directed with facility to
any given point. The axis of the instrument is marked
out by the intersection of a pair of cross wires placed in
the anterior focus of the eye-glass; and when this point of
intersection is directed to any object, the whole instrument
is kept steady in its place by the screws F and G, the for¬
mer of which prevents any motion in a vertical direction,
and the latter in a horizontal direction. From the middle
of the tube AB rises a cylindrical piece of metal M M,
and upon the eye-glass extremity a branch of iron HHH,
wrought square, is fixed firmly in a direction parallel to
the axis of the cylindrical piece MM.
A plane silvered glass mirror IL, inserted into a proper
frame, is made to turn on two pivots, one of which, m m,
rests on the cylinder MM, while the other, o o, is inserted
in the horizontal part of the branch HH. The straight
line which passes through the centre of these pivots must
be exactly parallel to the silvered back of the mirror, and
at right angles to the axis of the telescope, and the black
mark N, produced by a scratch upon the silvered surface,
must be bisected by the axis of the mirror.
Above the object end B of the tube is fixed a plate of Bui ng
metal, seen in the figure ; and behind this plate is seen an- Gisjjes.
other square plate, z z, on which are shown the lines a: x, ^
y y, crossing each other at right angles. By means of a
piece of brass fixed to the last of these plates, and travers¬
ing a square hole made in the other plate, the square plate
may be moved up and down, and from right to left; and it
is kept in any position which is thus given to it, by a screw
on the back of the fixed plate. The movable square plate
must be adjusted in such a manner that the line xx may
intersect the axis of the telescope, and be parallel to the
axis o m of the mirror. The position of the line # ?/ must
also be such that its distance from the axis of the tele¬
scope is equal to the distance of the line IK from the same
axis. When the plate z z is thus adjusted, the straight
line yy will always be in the same plane with the line IK,
whatever may be the position of the mirror; and a line
drawn from a point at N, where the axis of the mirror cuts
IK, to the point where yy intersects xx, will be parallel
to the axis of the telescope.
The spring QQ' is fixed at Q to the arm HH, and by
a screw R working into its other extremity Q' the end
H of the horizontal arm may be made to press the pivot
o o upon the frame of the mirror. The horizontal branch
HH, which is represented separately in fig. 10, is surround¬
ed with several pieces. The piece d b and pivot o are
fixed in an invariable manner. The pivot o o is inserted
in a square hole through the piece VV, and through the
extremity of the arm FIH. The piece d b may be moved
either before or behind by turning the screw; and the
piece \ may be moved from right to left with the piece
db by means of the screw S.
The apparatus being thus constructed, the next thing
to be considered is the method of adjusting it. In order
to effect this, the axis of the mirror must be perpendicu¬
lar to the axis of the telescope ; the line drawn from a
point near N, where the axis of the mirror cuts the line
IK, to the point of intersection of x x and y y, must be
parallel to IK, and the straight line yy must always be
in the same plane with IK.
The mirror is first placed in such a manner that the
line IK is at right angles to the axis of the telescope.
By turning the screw I, the lower edge of the frame is
made a tangent to the circular surface MM', which is pa¬
rallel to the axis of the telescope. The screw I is then
turned in order to fix the piece d b in an invariable man¬
ner.
The axis of the telescope is next directed to a point on
a plane surface placed at a certain distance. This point
must be situated in a vertical plane, perpendicular to the
plane surface, and passing through the eye of the observ¬
er and the centre of the sun. A horizontal line being
drawn through this point, a second point is taken, as far
from the first as the centre of the mirror is distant from
the axis of the object-glass. By unscrewing S, turning
the telescope on its axis, and the mirror also about its
own axis, the piece VV is moved backwards or forwards
until the centre of the reflected image falls upon the second
point. The square plate z z is then adjusted m such a
manner that the shadow of the line IK falls on the line
yy, and that the shadow of NN is bisected by the line
x x. When this happens, the plate z z is firmly nxe .
Hence it follows that whenever this adjustment is made,
and when the intersection of the cross wires of the tele¬
scope is directed to any point, the rays reflected by the
mirror will be parallel to the axis of the telescope, an
will always continue so while the shadow of IK fal s on
y y, and while the shadow of NN is bisected by x x.
In making use of the mirror, the intersection o
cross wires must be first directed to any point of the o
burning glasses.
14 Burnin? jcct which is to be inflamed. The telescope must next
Gj* Glasses, be turned round in the collars CC, C'C', till the shadow
of the line IK falls upon yy ; and finally, the mirror must
be turned about its own axis till the shadow of NN is
bisected by the line x x. The centre of the reflected
image will consequently fall'upon a point of the object as
far distant from the point to which the intersection of the
wires was directed, as the centre of the mirror is from the
axis of the telescope. The image may obviously be pre¬
set ved in this position as long as we choose, by keepin0- the
shadow of IK and N in the same position.
The above apparatus is certainly well contrived for ef¬
fecting its object, but seems at the same time rather com¬
plex and expensive for any purpose to which such a mir¬
ror might be required. In regard to the power of such a
combination of mirrors, M. Peyrard has only made some
calculations founded on the observations of Buffon. In
the first place, in regard to the effect of the distance of
733
Calcula-
tion of
Peyrard.
°f n 1Fr,anc<r in ihe ”i°nth of April, four times this Burninir
would only be sixty-four degrees, while the heat of inflam- Glasses,
mation cannot be less than 800°, twelve times what Pey-
laid supposes. Again, thirty times the sun’s heat would
only amount to 480° ; and yet he says that silver was
melted with this heat, which requires a temperature of
4500°, nearly ten times as much. We have already stat¬
ed and explained how much the effects of Buffon’s mirrors
exceed what might reasonably be expected from their
concentrative power. But these calculations carry them
still farther. The difference seems to arise from the prin¬
ciple on which Peyrard has calculated the effect of dis¬
tance. He supposes it to diminish as the square of the
distance from a point situated so far behind the mirror,
that the latter subtends at that point the same angle
with the sun, as at fig. 9, where AB is the diameter of the
glass, AG and BG two lines, one from each extremity of
*1 r . 1 , , , -—the glass, and forming together an angle, AGB, of 32'
the mirrors from the object, he calculates that, with one These lines being prolonged, indicate thf boundary of the
about eighteen inches diameter, the rays are so diffused extreme rays reflected from the glass; and the sections ML
as to reduce the heating effect to one half at 66 feet; ON RS of the cone diminish as^the square of GD GP and
f118 ’ t0 °?e f?UrfchQ£ltQl.61 t0 one G* In thls vievv it would be the same as if all the light
fifth at 200 feet; and to one tenth at 348 feet. The next proceeded from the point G, so that all the rays would^i-
question is to determine at the shortest distance from the verge from it. This, however, is far from being the case,
glass, how many times the sun s heat must be multiplied as all the rays which fall on the glass from any given point
by the glasses to produce inflammation, or boiling or fusing of the sun are reflected in lines sensibly parallel, which do
or metals, or any other similar effects, in order to calculate not diverge from that or any other point, and cannot there-
how many glasses vvould be sufficient for the purpose, such fore suffer diminution from distance. This calculation,
reflection being, as Buffon found, one half of the sun’s heat, therefore, would require considerable modification ; and
V"d T?estl(?n 18 s°lved by I eyrard, from the observations the whole subject would require, as already stated, to be
of iiuiron aheady stated, allowing for the distances by re-examined experimentally.
tie above rule, and reducing them all to the shortest, or Such are the compound mirrors which have been madesino*ip rp
when the object is placed as close as possible to the on the principle of that of Archimedes. In regard to sino-leflectors. "
glasses. Hence he finds, that on the 23d March, calculat- concave mirrors, a great many of these have been construct¬
ing for the number of glasses and the distance, four times ed at different periods, remarkable for their powerful effects,
the heat of the sun would set fire to a plank of tarred We shall just describe some of the principal ones. M.Vilette’s
beech,^and 4j3g- times to a plank coated with tar and sul- Vilette, a French artist at Lyons, constructed no fewer burning
than five mirrors of this kind, of considerable magnitude. mirrors.
One of them was bought by M. d’Alibert for 1500 livres ;
another was purchased by Tavernier, and presented to
the king of Persia; a third was sent by the French king
to the Royal Academy; a fourth was bought by the king
of Denmark; and the fifth was brought to England for
public exhibition. The first of these mirrors was thirty
inches in diameter, and weighed above a hundredweight.
phur; 2dly, that on the 10th of April a plank of tarred
fir was set fire to by 4T^- times the sun’s heat; 3dly, on
the 11th of April a plank of beech which had been al¬
ready on fire was inflamed by 5^ times the sun’s heat.
The same day small combustible materials were inflamed
with three times the sun’s heat, and also a block of tin
weighing six pounds was melted by 11^ times the sun’s
heat; also thin pieces of silver were melted, and a plate
of iron made red hot, by 29^ times the sun’s heat; and Its focal length was about three feet, and the size of the
Peyrard on the whole draws the conclusion, in the view sun’s image was about half a louis d’or. It was mounted
of setting fire to a fleet of ships, that five times the heat on a circular frame of steel, and could easily be put into
of the sun would be sufficient to inflame tarred planks, and any required position. This mirror was made in 1670, and
eight times this heat would be sufficient to inflame all having been brought to St Germains by order of the king,
sorts of wood, and less in general would do it. Hence
he deduced, in regard to distance, ‘that sixteen of these
glasses would be sufficient to inflame wood at the distance
of 66 feet; twenty-four at 118 feet; thirty-two at 161 feet;
forty at 200; eighty at 348; and at 3750, or nearly three
quarters of a mile, it would require 590.
In regard to these calculations, and particularly that of
the effect of the sun’s heat, it appears so much beyond
what might naturally be looked for, that its accuracy may
well be questioned; and it is surprising this should have
escaped the notice of the author, and of succeeding wri¬
ters, who have copied without comment all these results.
If four times the sun’s heat be sufficient to inflame wood,
then eight glasses would do it at a small distance, which is
hardly credible. At any rate, if it be so, it implies an accu¬
mulation of heat which is quite unaccountable on any of the
usual principles on wdiich this fluid acts. In fact, we have
already seen, from the observations of the photometer, that
the greatest effect of the sun’s heat in our latitude does
not exceed sixteen degrees. Supposing this the amount
his majesty was so well pleased with it, that he rewarded
Vilette with a hundred pistoles for the sight of it, and after¬
wards purchased it and placed it in the Royal Observa¬
tory of Paris. The effects were the following ;
Seconds.
A small piece of pot iron was melted in  40
A silver piece of fifteen pence was pierced in  24
A thick nail (le clou de paysan) melted in  30
The end of a sword blade of Olinde burnt in’  43
A brass counter was pierced in    6
A piece of red copper was melted in  42
A piece of chamber quarrystone was vitrified in  45
Watch-spring steel melted in  9
A mineral stone, such as is used in harquebusses
arouet, was calcined and vitrified in    1
A piece of mortar was vitrified in    52
Green wood and other bodies took fire instantly.
The mirror of M. Vilette which was brought to Eng¬
land was put into the hands of Dr Harris and Dr Desagu-
liers, who made several trials with it. It was a composi-
734
BURNING GLASSES.
Burning tion of copper, tin, and tin glass; and its reflection had
Glasses, something of a yellow cast. There were only a few small
flaws in the concave surface, but there were some holes in
the convex side, which was polished. The diameter of the
mirror was 47 inches, its radius of curvature 76 inches, and
its focal length 38 inches. The following results were ob¬
tained in June 1718, between nine and twelve o’clock in
the morning, and the time was measured by a half-second
pendulum.
Seconds.
A red piece of Roman patera began to melt in  3
and was ready to drop in 100
A black piece of the same melted in  4
and was ready to drop in  64
Chalk taken out of an echinus spatagus filled with
chalk only fled away in  23
A fossil shell calcined in  7
and did no more in  64
The black part of a piece of Pompey’s pillar melted in 50
and the white part in  54
Copper ore, with no metal visible, vitrified in  8
Slag or cinder of the iron work said to have been
wrought by the Saxons was ready to run in  20i
The mirror now became hot, and burned with much less
force.
Seconds.
Iron ore fled at nrst, but melted in  24
Talc began to calcine at :  40
and held in the focus  64
Calculus humanus was calcined in  2
and only dropped off in  60
The tooth of an anonymous fish melted in  32£
The asbestos seemed condensed a little in  28
But it now became cloudy. M. Vilette says that
the mirror usually calcines asbestos.
A golden marchesite broke, and began to melt in  30
A silver sixpence melted in  7£
A King William’s copper halfpenny melted in  20
and ran with a hole in it in  31
A King George’s halfpenny melted in  16
and ran in  34
Tin melted in  3
Cast iron melted in  16
Slate melted in  3
and had a hole in  6
Thin tile melted in  4
and had a hole and was vitrified through in  80
Bone calcined in  4
and vitrified in  33
An emerald was melted into a substance like Tur¬
quoise stone, and a diamond that weighed 4 grains
lost ^ths of its weight.
This mirror was made by M. Vilette some years after
the first, and with the assistance of his two sons. It came
into the possession of M. Vilette the son, engineer and op¬
tician to his electoral highness of Cologne, bishop and
prince of Liege, where he commonly resides. At the de¬
sire of several learned men, M. Vilette brought it to Lon¬
don, where its effects were exhibited in Priory Garden,
Whitehall.
Large burning mirrors were made by Maginus, and by
Manfredi, canon of Milan, one twenty inches diameter, and
the other three and a half feet; but, from the accounts of
them in the Philosophical Transactions, they appear to have
had but a feeble power compared with those of Vilette.
Garouste’s In the year 1685 M. de la Garouste presented to the
mirror. Academy of Sciences a large metallic mirror, five feet two
inches in diameter, and five feet in focal length. It was
not equally polished, and a piece was inserted in the
middle of it where the metal had failed. This circum¬
Maginus
and Man.
fredi.
stance, however, did not seem to diminish its force. Se- Bu iDg
veral trials were made with this mirror in the academy, GiW
by order of M. de Louvois, but the precise effects which w ^
it produced have not been detailed. It is merely stated
that those who tried it were satisfied with the results,
and that its effects would have been much greater had it
been better polished, and mounted upon a proper stand. i
On the 27th of February 1667-8, Francis Smethwick, gme'
Esq. produced before the Royal Society two burning con-wic.:
cave glasses, ground of a newly invented figure, vi\\ic\\ was min
probably that of a parabola. One of them was six inches
diameter, with three inches of focal length; and the other
was of the same diameter, with its focus ten inches dis¬
tant. When these w^ere brought towards a large light¬
ed candle, they somewhat wrarmed the faces of those that
were four or five feet distant; and when held to the fire,
they burnt gloves and garments at the distance of about
three feet from the fire. At another experiment made in
the presence of Dr Seth Ward, the deeper of the two
burned a piece of wood into flame in the space of ten se¬
conds, and the shallower one in five seconds. This expe¬
riment was made in autumn, at nine o’clock in the morn¬
ing, when the weather was gloomy. By exposing the
deeper concave to a northern window' on which the sun
did not shine, it was found to warm the hand by “ col¬
lecting the warmed air in the day time, which it wmuld
not do after sunset.”
This last effect is extremely remarkable; it must have
arisen from the mirror collecting the radiations of heat
from the distant atmosphere warmed by the heat of the
day. The existence of these radiations was then per¬
fectly unknown, and not suspected, indeed, until they wrere
discovered only a few years ago by Professor Leslie, and
actually measured by the ethrioscope.
The burning mirror to wrhich we have already alluded,
made by the celebrated Tschirnhausen, was formed of thin
copperplate, about one sixteenth of an inch thick. Ac¬
cording to one account it was about three Leipsic ells,
equal to five feet diameter, and burnt at the distance of
three feet and a half. According to another its diameter
wras four feet and a half, and its focal distance twelve feet.
The following are its effects :—
1. A piece of wrood held in the focus flames in a mo¬
ment, so that a fresh wind can hardly put it out.
2. Water applied in an earthen vessel immediately
boils; and the vessel being kept there some time, the
water evaporates all away.
3. A piece of tin or lead three inches thick melts away
in drops as soon as it is put in the focus; and when held
there a little time is in a perfect fiuor, so that in two or
three minutes it is quite pierced through.
4. A plate of iron or steel becomes immediately red
hot, and soon after a hole is burnt through it.
5. Copper, silver, &c. melt in five or six minutes.
6. Stones, brick, &c. soon become red hot.
7. Slate becomes red hot, but in a few minutes turns
into a fine sort of black glass.
8. Tiles which had been exposed to the most intense
heat of fire melt down into a yellow glass.
9. Pot-shreds that had been much used in the fire melt
into a blackish yellow glass.
10. Pumice stone melts into a white transparent glass.
11. A piece of a very strong crucible melted into a
glass in eight minutes.
12. Bones w'ere converted into a kind of opaque glass,
and a clod of earth into a yellow or greenish glass.
13. The beams of the full moon when at her greatest
altitude wTere concentrated by this speculum; but no per¬
ceptible degree of heat was experienced.
A plan for constructing burning mirrors of wood gudeu
a
Burning
Glasses.
Xeuman
mirror.
‘'S^ i I
•tai
SHC: 1
S
r
'{oesen
ad Eh-
ard’s mir-
over was proposed by Zacharlas Quabenus, in his work In
I\eno Optico. They were joined in twenty, or even a hun¬
dred concave pieces, on a turned woode/dish or scuttle,
and the surface coated with pitch and gilded.
It is possible to construct mirrors of still more slender
matenals; and ZahniuS, in his work In Oculo Artifkl,
fundam. 3, states, that an engineer of Vienna of the name
of Neuman formed burning mirrors of pasteboard, covered
in the inside with straw glued to it; and that they were
capable of melting metals almost instantly. It is evi¬
dent from what we have stated, that mirrors of this kind,
from the great surface exposed, and the concentration in
a perfect form not being absolutely necessary, may pro¬
duce very powerful effects. J ^ 1
Parabolic mirrors of a large size and very considerable
power were constructed by M. Hoesen of'Dresden, and
afterwards by M. Ehrard. These mirrors were composed
of several pieces of solid wood, and on the convex part
were pieces of wood, both diverging from the vertex and
transversely, nicely fitted and strengthened. The con¬
cave part of this framing was covered with copperplate
one eighth of an inch in thickness, four and a half feet
long, and two and a half feet broad, so as to resemble one
piece fine y polished. The speculum was so supported as
to be easily managed, and the anterior part of it was sub¬
tended by an iron arch half an inch thick. The middle
of this arch, which coincided with the place of the burn¬
ing tocus, was perforated into a ring, which supported
from both sides an iron fork for receiving the body to be
examined. Four of M. Ehrard’s mirrors constructed in
this vay had the following dimensions:—
burning glasses.
'35
the convexitie equal to , Burning
„„lt , „ 9c+7 this specuhim Glasses!
No. 1
2
3
4
Perimeter.
Feet. Inches.
29 4
21
16
13
0
4
24
Diameter
or Ordinate
Feet. Inches.
9 7
6 8
5 1
4 2
Depth or
Absciss.
Focal
Length.
Feet. Inches.
1 4
0
0
101
101
0 7
Feet. Inches
4 0
3 1
1 10
1 9
f
gt’s
hint
njV:
re.
The celebrated Wolfius, who had witnessed the effects
0 these mirrors, states that in burning, calcining, melting,
and vitrifying, they far exceeded any thing of the kind
ever known. The hardest stones scarcely resisted a few
seconds. Metals were rapidly perforated, and vegetables
and bones were immediately burnt to a cinder and vitri-
Our celebrated countryman Dr James Gregory turned
ms attention to the construction of burning machines about
t ie year 16,0; and in a letter to Mr Collins, dated St
Andrews, 7th March 1673, he states his views on this sub-
jec , and requests Mr Collins to communicate them to Sir
Isaac Newton, who returns a favourable opinion of the in¬
dention in a letter to Mr Collins. The passages in these
letters are too interesting to be given in any other form
*n *n original words of these distinguished authors.
Air Newton’s discourse of reflection,” says Dr Gre-
gory, puts me in mind of a notion I had of burning
g ‘lssos several years ago, which appears to me more use-
u t lan subtile. If ther be a concave speculum of glasse,
e eaded convex surface having the same center with
ie concave, or to speak preciselie, albeit perchance to
.! e rporo purpose, let the radius of the convexitie be c,
e t uckness of the glasse in axis transitu f the radius of
sal have the>a of both the surfaces in the same point-
betwixt thll t Ult’rbUt all1the ra-vs which are reflected
proxime m Z° SUrfaCes’/a1’ m tbeir eSressG come, yuam
Projnme, to the common focus. The making of such an
speculum requireth not much more airt than an ordinar
tharihpfm’ Tg gieat SU,btiltie is n0t necessar here; so
believe they who mak the plane miroir glasses, wold
ak one of these, three foot in diameter, for four or five
pounds sterling, or little more: for I have seen plane
g asses, almost of that bignes, sold even here foi-P less
rpflppF ovv seing (as Mr Newton observeth) that al
i effecting metalls lose more than one third of the rayes •
tins concave glasse, even cateris paribus, wold have an
noh^bpd Vfb'tage -0f-a nTta11 °ne; for certainlie an exactlie
nf>ph f tbm J?lir(?ir glasse> of good transparent mater,
after a few reflections, doeth not lose one fourth of the
rayes; and, upon other accounts, this hath incomparable
advantages, seeing it is more portable, free from tar¬
nishing, and, above al, hardlie J^th of the value. The
great usefulness of burning concaves, this bein^ so ob¬
vious, and as yet (for quhat I kno) untouched by anie,
makes me jealous that there may be in the practice some
raliacie. Ye may communicate this to intelligent persons,
and especialhe to Mr Newton; assuring him that none
lath a greater veneration for him, admiring more his great
and subtile inventions, than his and yours.
. “ P* S- If ye please, let me hear, wfith the first conve¬
nience, what may be judged the result of this burning
concave; for I am as much concerned to be undeceived,
if ther be any insuperable difficultie, as to be informed of
an most surprising success. I have spoke of it to severals
here, but al were as ignorant of it as my self,” &c.
Sir Isaac Newton’s reply to Mr Collins is dated Cam-
bndge, April 9th, 1673, and contains the following pas¬
sage:— 1
“ The design of the burning speculum appears to me
very plausible, and worthy of being put in practice. What
artists may think of it I know not; but the greatest diffi¬
culty in the practice that-occurs to me, is to proportion
the two surfaces so that the force of both may be in the
same point according to the theory. But perhaps it is not
necessary to be so curious; for it seems to me that the
effect would scarce be sensibly less, if both sides should
be ground to the concave and gage of the same tool,”
&c. &c.
The attention of Sir Isaac Newton being thus acciden-Sir Isaac
tally directed to the subject of burning instruments, he Newton’s
procured seven concave glass mirrors, each of which wasniirrors-
eleven and a half inches in diameter, and six of these
were placed round the seventh, and contiguous, but so as
to have one common focus. The general focal length
was twenty-two inches and a half, and about an inch in
diameter. It melted gold in about half a minute, and vi¬
trified brick or tile in one second. The effect of these
speculae was obviously much less than seven times the ef¬
fect of any one of them. The rays of the sun could fall
perpendicularly only on the one in the middle; and, in
consequence of this obliquity of incidence, none of the
speculae intercepted a column of rays of the same diame¬
ter, and the image formed in the focus of each could not
be exactly circular.1
Burning mirrors composed of glass w-ere constructed by ^eiher’s
ve .J'° a.CC0Unt this burning glass of Sir Isaac Newton’s is given in the Philosophical Transactions; and we are informed, upon
oj g0°d authority, that no such instrument is in the possession of the Royal Society. Mr Derham, however, a fellow of the Royal
c -vj gives the same account which we have followed in the text. (See Derham’s Astrothcologia, lib. vii. cap. i. note.)
736
BURNING GLASSES.
Burning M. Zeiher of St Petersburg. His object was to convert
Glasses. p]ates of plain glass into concave mirrors, which he ef-
fected by placing the glass upon a convex tool, and ex¬
posing it to a strong heat, till it assumed the exact curva¬
ture of the tool. Zeiher made numerous trials with plates
of various sizes, and, after several failures, he succeeded
in finding the proper method of conducting the operation.
No particular difficulties occurred in giving the proper
shape to plates five or six inches in diameter; but, in
forming one of sixteen inches, the circumference was
moulded to the tool before the central parts, where a
number of vesicles of air had collected ; and, in some
other cases, the glasses cracked after they had received
the proper shape. The following method is that which
Zeiher always found to succeed:—
A small bit of the glass to be used must first be expos¬
ed to the fire till it becomes red hot, and if, after cooling,
it has preserved its polish and transparency, the glass is
fit for the required purpose ; for it sometimes happens that
the glass becomes quite black after the operation. The
plate of glass is next placed on a concave iron dish of the
required curvature, and put into a furnace. Coals are
placed below and above the dish, and on all sides of it.
The greatest care must then be taken that the glass shall
become equally hot both at the circumference and at the
centre; for if the red colour should get deeper in the
middle, the glass will be in great danger. As soon as the
whole is red hot, the instant of its bending to the shape
of the mould must be carefully watched ; and when this
happens, which may be observed from the reflected images
of the surrounding coals, all the fire must be removed from
above the glass, and also a great part of the fire at its sides.
The glass must then be covered with warm ashes, that
have been passed through a sieve, and it must be allowed
to cool gradually. It is of the utmost importance to mark
the precise moment when the glass applies itself to the
surface of the mould; for, if it remain too long, a part of
the scoriae which separates from the mould will adhere to
the glass. When the glass is covered with the hot ashes
the fire must still be allowed to remain below the mould,
lest the glass should crack by being cooled too suddenly.
When the glass is taken from the furnace, its convex sides
may then be silvered for a burning speculum; or, if a lens
is required, two of the pieces of glass may be joined, so
as to contain a fluid.
M. Zeiher also constructed burning glasses by making
a concave frame of wood, and covering the concave surface
with a paste made of flour, chalk, &c. till it had the re¬
quisite degree of curvature. A number of pieces of sil-
verized glass mirrors, about half an inch square, were then
fixed upon the concave side, so as to constitute a polygo¬
nal reflecting surface.
Buffon’s Buffon also, besides the experiments already related,
ma^e a g0°d many on the bending of flat plates into a
curve. He took circular plates of glass about eighteen
inches, two feet, and three feet, in diameter, and having
perforated them at the centre with an aperture two or
three lines in diameter, he placed them in a circle of iron
that was truly turned. A very fine screw, connected with
bended
plates.
a box stretching across the back of the glass, passed Bit ing
through the hole in the centre into a nut on the other side, Gfiesi.
so that by turning the screw the circular piece of flat glass
was gradually incurvated till it formed a concave mirror.
The glass of three feet diameter, when it was bent about
five eighths of a line, had its focus fifty feet distant, and
set fire to light substances; when it was bent two lines, it
burned at the distance of forty feet; when it was bent
two and three-fourth lines, its focal length was thirty feet;
but in attempting to reduce its focal length to twenty feet,
it was broken in pieces. The glass of two feet diameter
shared the same fate ; but the one of eighteen inches,
which had a focal length of twenty-five feet, was preserv¬
ed as a model of this species of mirror. The accident which
happened to the two largest of these mirrors appears to
have been owing to the perforation in the centre. In
order to remedy this evil, Buffon proposed to place a cir¬
cular piece of glass at the extremity of a cylindrical drum,
made of iron or copper, and. completely air tight. The
cavity being exhausted by means of an air-pump, the glass
at one extremity would be pressed in by the weight of the
atmosphere, and would have its focal length inversely pro¬
portional to the degree of refraction. This contrivance is
represented in fig. 1, Plate CXLII., and also a section of it.
A still more simple and ingenious method of exhausting
the air in the drum was contrived by Buffon. He pro¬
posed to grind the central part of the plain glass into the
form of a small convex glass, and in the focus of this con¬
vex portion to place a sulphur match, so that when the
mirror was directed to the sun, the rays concentrated by
the convex portion w ould inflame the match, wrhich, being
set on fire, would absorb the air, and thus produce a par¬
tial vacuum, and consequently an incurvation of the plain
glass.1 See fig. 2.
Mirrors of this kind, writh a movable focus, were re¬
garded by Buffon as of great use for measuring the effects
of the solar rays, when concentrated into foci of different
sizes. As the quantity of incident light and heat is near¬
ly the same to whatever curvature the glass is successive¬
ly bent, we might thus determine the size of focus by
wTiich a maximum effect was produced.
Buffon likewise made a number of concave mirrors by
bending plates of glass on moulds of a spherical form.
Some of these were as large as three, four, four feet six,
and four feet eight inches, in diameter; but the utmost
care is requisite in the formation of those of such a large
diameter. After these glasses were moulded to the pro¬
per shape in appropriate furnaces, their concave and con¬
vex sides were carefully ground so as to be perfectly con¬
centric, and the convex side was afterwards silvered by
M. de Bernieres. Out of twenty-four mirrors of this kind
which Buffon had moulded, he was able to preserve only
three, the rest having broken, either by exposure to the
air, or in the operation of grinding. One of these three,
which was forty-six inches in diameter, was presented to
the king of France, and was regarded as the most power¬
ful burning mirror in Europe. The other two were thir¬
ty-seven inches in diameter, and one of them was deposit¬
ed in the Cabinet of Natural History in the Jardin du
1 Instead of grinding the central part of the glass plate into a convex form, Zeiher proposes that a small burning glass should e
applied to inflame the sulphur; or, what is still better than either of these plans, a convex lens might be fastened, by the balsam o
Tolu, or any transparent cement, to the centre of the glass plate.
M. Zeiher employed a more effectual method of bending circular plates of glass than that which was used by Buffon. The circ^'
lar piece of glass was placed in an iron ring, across which was fixed a thin piece of iron, with a hole containing a female screw, -
placed as to be above the centre of the glass. A strong bar of brass was also placed across the centre of the speculum ; and a ®c.re
working in the centre of this, and in the female screw already mentioned, pressed the thin iron bar against the glass, and bent i in
the proper curvature. A plate of Venetian glass, two lines thick and twenty 1thinland inches in diameter, was bent in. is.1'va^any
it protruded two lines in the middle, so as to have a focal length of fifteen feet, which was a greater curvature in proportion tan
of Buffon’s. The glass was kept in this state for several days without suffering any injury. (See Nov. Comment. Petroj). IToo, / ’
p. 250, note.)
fi.-.'gij Burning Roi. Buffon concentrated thp mvo r>ri,
•«^ »fthe“Tr»fft«y-sixinct7^r LTfeu
thermometer was verv spncJMo _ ’ .& .nis
burning glasses.
737
' Aenooraeter was very sensible, no beat was^erceived
S* were M8 “i-y nlagnitude
Tschini-
ausen’s
ins.
ia i’s
0 o ‘v-tioca, tilt; iirs
were constructed by M. Tschirnhausen. These were co'm
pound glasses ; the light, after passing through one large
tT Th"? fther COncentrat^ by a second smaller
one. The large glasses were three and four feet in diame¬
ter, then focal length was about twelve feet, and the focal
image about one and a half inch diameter. The focal imai
of the smaller glass did not exceed eight lines. The larfe
lens, which weighed 160 pounds, was purchased by the
W1 °f 0rITin% a"'1 Presented by him to the French
duced byk:^ f°ll0'Vlng are the ^markable effects pro-
1. All sorts of wood, whether hard or green, and even
when wet, w^ere burnt in an instant.
2. Water in a small vessel boiled immediately.
. All the metals, when the pieces were of a proper
size, were easily melted. ^
T Tdes, slates, delft ware, pumice stone, talc, whatever
was their size, grew red and vitrified.
5. Sulphur, pitch, and resins, melted under water.
. \ hen the metals were placed in charcoal, they inelt-
edjnm-e readily, and were completely dissipated.
he as^s.ot wood’ vegetables, paper, and cloth,
were converted into a transparent glass.
8. All the metals were vitrified upon a plate of porce¬
lain. Gold received a fine purple colour. 1
9. Substances that would not melt in pieces were easily
melted in powder; and those that resisted the heat in this
form melted by adding a little salt.
rJ®\A substance easily fused assists in melting more
e actory substances when placed along with them in the
1S, Verj S1"£ular’ that two substances which
are verj difficult to melt separately, are very easily melt¬
ed when exposed together, such as Hint and English chalk.
into nnli °f mjltedcoPPer being thrown suddenly
nto cold water, produced such a violent concussion that
e strongest earthen vessels were broken to pieces, and
the copper was thrown off in such small particles that not
anyothe" mml ^ f0Un<1- ™S “ n0‘ happen with
12. All bodies except the metals lose their colour. The
precious stones are instantly deprived of it.
nJ3\Certain b?dies vitrifT easily5 and become as trans-
parent as crystal; but by cooling they grow as white as
milk, and lose all their transparency.
bodies that are opaque when melted become
Beautifully transparent when they are cooled.
o 1SJubstances that are transparent both when melted
ana cold become opaque some days after.
16. Substances which the heat renders at first transpa-
ent, but which afterwards become opaque by being melt-
.'VI . ?t ler substances that are always opaque, produce
eauthul glass, always transparent.
G 1 he rays of the moon concentrated by this lens,
though extremely brilliant, have no heat.
■ t e buff on, whose ingenuity and research extended
emselves into everv hrannh nf fkio
■jm 1 . ’ "1,uoc ingenuity ana researcii extended
®gbej Vo •T1Se .',es every branch of this subject, constructed
various burning lenses of different kinds. His first object
as to form burning glasses, by combining two circular
egments of a glass sphere so as to form a lenticular ca-
y o be filled with water. These glass segments were
rs moulded into their proper shape, and then regularly
ground on both sides, so that the concave and convex
ace^ 'vere exactly parallel. The one which he con-
tbirty-seven inches in diameter, with a focal
ngth of about five feet and a half; and the segments
ere of considerable thickness, to prevent them from
vol. v.
eluded water T g > f0rm by ",e "'eiSl,t of i- Burning
eluded water. 1 his lens is represented at fig. 3. As the Glasses5
refi active power of water is very small, Buffon proposed
to increase it by saturating it with salt; but notwithstand-
g every precaution, he found that the focus of lenses of
this kind was never well terminated, nor reduced to its
smallest size, and that the different refractions which the
i ays sustained produced a very great degree of aberration
nuSrtf PTSed t0 make each cotr„f a
but a, h°/ T11" S'lS1l’"‘"ts r,ut 'ogetber into a frame;
Ut as the water could not easily be prevented from in
sinuating itself between the joints of the segments and as
theie would be a great difficulty in arranging them in the
same spherical circumference, this kind of burning glass
does not seem to have ever been executed. S S
Having made some experiments on the loss of hVht in Entr -
derabie fo’thTtkd^ ^ ^ ^nsi-lenstlith
burning ohic detlacted gi eatly from the power of large concentric
thick if f, dSSes’ whlcb must of necessity be proportionally201165'
loss of hVht -Cen •' B]°UgUeLr had formerly estimated the
loss of light in passing through glass one twelfth of an inch,
niusTh SeVfnt ls the wliole. But the glass used by him
must have been extremely imperfect; for Buffon found, with
g ass from St Gobin, the loss of light in passing through one
amount ofR1 ^ °'ne Se-V6nth of the who]e> or only half the
anincht}2l°TTS Thr0Ugh glass third of
an inch thick the loss was about two thirds. Hence in very
aige lenses the central portions must become nearly quite
inefficient, from the quantity of light obstructed by them.
Un considering this subject, Buffon conceived a very inge¬
nious plan for obviating the effect, and which has since be¬
come of great importance, from the extensive application of
it in trance in the construction of the large lenses now
usedthere with such advantage in the light-houses, in place
i effectors. It consisted in forming the lens, not of one
mass, but of several detached pieces united together into
one. I he central portion was a lens of much smaller dia¬
meter than the one intended to be formed, not one third
perhaps, but having the same focal distance, and being
therefore much thinner than the central portion of a whole
.ens would be; round this a second portion is set, forming a
complete zone, and filling up another third of the diameter
of the glass; lastly, another similar zone round the second,
forming the exterior portion of the lens. Each of these
zones forms a portion of a lens of the same focal distance
as the central one, only much thinner; and then we obtain
a very large lens, and yet extremely thin in proportion, so
as to pass a much larger quantity of light than the others,
fig. 4 is a view of one of this sort of lenses, and fig. 5 sec¬
tions of several lenses, which will render it quite intelligible.
I his species of glass Buffon considers as the most perfect of
the kind ; and when it is made three feet diameter, and an
men cind a fourth thick at the centre, and six feet focus, he
thinks it will give a degree of heat four times greater than
that of the most powerful lenses yet known. “ I venture to
pi edict, he says, “ that this glass in pieces, which I have
thought of for twenty years, will be one of the most useful
insti uments of physics. Instead of having each zone in one
entile piece, it is obvious that, without altering the effect,
the zones, as proposed by L)r Brewster, may be composed
of two or more pieces, which facilitates the perfect exe¬
cution ; and this is the mode in which they are now con¬
structed in France, constituting one of the most important
improvements hitherto made in light-houses. Besides
their thinness, these glasses possess other advantages.
The pieces which compose the compound ones can be
easily obtained, and selected of the purest kind and freest
from flaws and veins; whereas in large lenses it was ex¬
tremely difficult t<* obtain one entire mass of glass free
from impurities and imperfections. The spherical aber^
5 a
738
BURNING GLASSES.
Kurning
Glasses.
Trudaine
lens.
ration, which is very considerable in large glasses, can
here be avoided by making the exterior segments ot such
' focal lengths as to throw the rays to the same point with
the central part. Fig. 6 shows a section of one of these
lenses, and a view of one of the pieces.
’s The next burning lens of any magnitude was construct¬
ed by M. Bernieres, for M. Trudaine de Montigny, an ho¬
norary member of the Royal Academy of Sciences. I his
gentleman, whose liberality and zeal deserve to be re¬
corded, engaged to be at the expense of a large burning
o-lass, formed under the direction of several commissioners
named by the academy. This lens consisted of two sphe¬
rical segments eight feet radius and eight lines thick, ihe
lenticular cavity was four feet in diameter, and six inches
and five lines thick at the centre, and was filled with spirits
of wine, of which it held no less than 140 pints. 1 he fo¬
cal length of a zone at the circumference, about six or
seven lines broad, was ten feet and six lines, the focal
length of a portion at the centre, about six inches in dia¬
meter, was ten feet seven inches and five lines, the diame¬
ter of the focus was fourteen lines and three fourths.
When the whole surface was covered, except a zone at
the circumference of six or seven lines, the following were
the foci of the different rays :
Feet. Inches. Lines.
Violet 9 6 4k from the centre of the lens.
ioi-
3
10
Blue 9
Yellow 10
Orange 10
Red 10
Hi
The following experiments were made in October 1774,
in the Jardin de 1’Infante, by MM. Trudaine, Macquer,
Cadet, Lavoisier, and Brisson, the commissioners appoint¬
ed by the academy.
1. The burning power of the anterior half of the lens
was much greater than that of the exterior half.
2. On the 5th of October, after mid-day, the sky not
being very clear, two farthings placed upon charcoal were
completely melted in half a minute.
3. In order to melt forged iron, it was found necessary
to concentrate the rays by a second lens eight inches and
a half diameter, twenty-two inches eight lines in focal
length, and placed at eight feet seven inches from the
centre of the great lens. At this place the cone of rays
was eight inches in diameter, and the burning focus, now
reduced to eight lines in diameter, was one foot fiom the
small lens.
4. In the focus of the small lens, upon a piece of hol¬
low charcoal small pieces of forged iron were placed,
which were instantly melted. After fusion, the metal
bubbled up, and fumed like nitre in fusion, and then sent
off a great number of sparks. This effect (which vvas ob¬
served during the experiments with Tschirnhausen’s lens)
always took place after the fusion of iron, forged iron, or
steel.
5. In order to try the effect upon greater masses, pieces
of forged iron, and the end of a nail, were exposed to the
focus, and were melted in fifteen seconds. A piece of nail
five lines long and one fourth of a line square, which was
added to the rest, was instantly fused ; and the same was
the case with a screw that had a round head, and was BidUg
eight lines in length. . y, ’.f68',
6. Some days afterwards^ a bar of steel* four inches "j
lono- and four lines square, was exposed, so as to receive
the focal image upon the middle of its length. This part
was completely melted in five minutes, after having begun
to run at the end of the second minute.
7. Platina, in grains, appeared to draw together, to di¬
minish in bulk, and to prepare for fusion. A little after,
it bubbled up and smoked. All the grains were united
into one mass, without however forming a spherical but¬
ton like other melted metals. After the platina had un¬
dergone this semifusion, it was not attracted by the mag¬
net as it was before the operation. _ .
8. A portion of platina, deprived of the iron which it
contained, and therefore not affected by the magnet, lost
a part of its bulk, smoked, and formed one mass, which
was extended under the hammer.1
9. Several experiments were made in order to find the
lens that was most proper for collecting the rays after re¬
fraction by the large lens. A spirit of wine lens two feet
in diameter and four feet focus, a solid lens eighteen inches
in diameter and three feet focus, and another thirteen
inches in diameter, were successively tried, but none of
them produced such a powerful effect as the lens eight
inches and a half in diameter, and twenty-two inches and
eight lines focus, though it was full of vesicles and striae.
Messrs Cadet and Brisson made a number of experi¬
ments on the refractive power of different fluids, by in¬
closing them in the lens of M. drudaine, and observing
the variations in its focal length, dhe object of their ex¬
periments was to find a fluid that possessed a greatei re¬
fractive power than spirits of wine, and was at the same
time sufficiently cheap and transparent to be used be¬
tween the glass segments. Liquid turpentine was the
most refractive fluid that they employed; but as they
found that its dispersive power was to that of crown-glass
as 34 to 28, this fluid was obviously, on this account, un¬
fit for the purpose.2 The fluid which they preferred was
a saturated solution of sal-ammoniac .or distilled water.
The most powerful burning-glass that ha.s yet been
constructed was made by Mr Parker of fleet Street.
After a great number of experiments, and an expense
of above L.700, this able artist succeeded in completing
a burning lens of flint-glass three feet in diameter.
This powerful instrument is represented in fig. 7. Ihe
large lens, which is placed in the ring at A, is doubly
convex, and when fixed in its frame, it exposes a sur ace
of two feet eight inches and a half. It is three and a
fourth inches thick at the centre, its focal distance is six
feet eight inches, the diameter of the burning focus one
inch, and the weight of the lens 212 pounds. Ihe rays
that were refracted by this lens were received (according
to the method of Tschirnhausen) upon a second lens a,
whose diameter is sixteen inches out of the frame, an
thirteen inches in the frame; its central thickness is an
inch and five eighths. The length of its focus is twen }
nine inches, the diameter of the focal image three eighths
of an inch, and the weight of the lens twenty-one pounds.
The combined focal length of these lenses is five feet three
inches, and the diameter of the focus half an inch. t
1 Messrs Macquer and Beaume are said to have melted small grains of platina by a concave glass twenty-two inches in diamet
Cadetfand Brisson, in the course of their experiments, were led to the discovery of achromatic fluid
which has hitherto been referred to a much later date. This discovery is most distmetfy contained in the f
“ Comme la terdbinthe cause line dispersion de rayons assez differente de celle que cause le verre, comme nous nous re'sine a
par I’experience, ne pourroit on pas faire des objectifs dans lesquels: pour les rendre achromatiques, on croi & . mais le
la place du flint-glass, matiere si difficile a se procurer d’une densite uniforme, et sans defauts, sijrtoyts en grandsm^ ^ 55l.)
burning
ienses are Placed at the extremities of a truncated conicil
, fTS cTistrs of ';ibs,of "■ood- Naa^e Sm£
C*' end B is fixed a rack D, which passes through the pillar
L, and is movable by means of a pinion within the pillar,
driven by the handle L. A bar of wood F, fixed at G be’
tween the two lower ribs of the cone, carries an apparatus
H, which turns on a universal joint at K, and also moves
to or fi om F in a chased mortise. This apparatus, which
carries the iron plate I for holding the substances to be
examined, may thus be placed exactly in the focus of the
lens B. The conical framing is supported by pivots upon
a strong iron bow AC, which rests upon a mahogany frame
LL, with three feet MMM furnished with castors." Fric¬
tion wheels are placed under the table N, to facilitate the
horizontal motion.
The following experiments with this lens were made
in the presence of Major Gardner, and of several
hers of the Royal Society.
Substances fused, with their Weight in Time in
weight and time of fusion. grains. seconds.
Common slate 10 2
Scoria of wrought iron 12  " 2
Gold, pure 20  3
Platina, do   . 3
Nickel  
Cast iron, a cube 10 !”!... 3
Silver, pure ....20.........”. 4
Crystal pebble  7 ” 0
Terra ponderosa, or barytes 10  7
GLASSES.
739
mem-
.. 7
..10
..12
..12
..17
..20
..20
.23
,.24
,.25
.25
.30
.30
.45
.55
.60
.60
.60
.75
.80
Pom?dUlT„f hlSTlh e,X|?.°S,ed !n C,’arCOa, 'ras near,y eva- Burning
Lnn b 1 k ead lfc beSan t0 melt in 2", and was Glasses8
lost on vh-dfT ‘ • 'V 1 I1™"’ °n eXP°Sure of 180">
lost only halt a grain; when placed on bone ash it fused
Regulus of antimony, thirty-three grains, on charcoal
were fused in 3", and eleven grains only remained after
fine kearsh from the cannon foundery evaporated very
fast during 120';, and 30" afterwards the remainder flowed
cold °bUWhlCh Wei’e attracted bJ the magnet when
Crystal pebble of North America, five grains, contract¬
ed in 15 , were perfectly glazed in 135", ebullesced in 150",
and became of a slate colour and semitransparent.
Agate, oriental flint, cornelian, and jasper, were ren¬
dered externally of a glossy form.
Gat net, placed upon black lead, fused in 120". It be¬
came of a darker hue, lost one fourth of a grain, and was
Lava  
Asbestos 10,
Steel, a cube 10,
Bar iron, do 10.
Garnet  
Copper, pure   33!
Onyx  
Zeolites 10.
Pumice stone 10.
An oriental emerald  2.
Jasper 10.
White agate 10.
Flint, oriental 10.
A topaz or chrysolite  3.
Common limestone 10.
Volcanic clay 10.
Cornish moor-stone..., 10.,
White rhomboidal spar 10.,
Rough cornelian 10..
Rotten stone 10 
A diamond of ten grains, when exposed to the lens for
thnty minutes, was reduced to six grains. It opened, fo¬
liated, and emitted whitish fumes, and when again closed
it bore a polish and kept its form.
Gold retained its metallic state though exposed for
many hours.
The specimens of platina were in different states of ap¬
proach to a metallic form.
Copper did not lose any of its weight after an exposure
of three minutes.
Iron steel shear melted first at the part in contact with
the charcoal, while the other part exposed to the focus
was unfused.
Iron scoria melted in much less time than the turnings
of iron.
Calx of iron from vitriolic acid, precipitated by mild
fixed alkali, weighed five grains before exposure, and five
and a quarter after it.
The remains of regulus of zinc, after it had melted and
"as nearly evaporated, were magnetic.
Regulus of cobalt was completely evaporated in 57".
attracted by the magnet. Ten cut garnets from a bracelet
ran into one another in a few seconds.
Mr Wedgewood’s pyrometrical clay ran into a white
enamel in a few seconds. Other seven kinds of clay sent
by that gentleman were vitrified.
. Limestone was sometimes vitrified and sometimes ago-Ju-
tinated. A globule from one of the specimens flew into a
thousand pieces when put into the mouth.
Stalactites zeolithus spatosus, nine grains, took a globu¬
lar form m 60". The globule began to become clear in
148". It became perfectly transparent in 155". When
cold, its transparency diminished, and it assumed a beau¬
tiful red colour.
Lavas and other volcanic products likewise yielded to
the power of this lens.
In the year 1802 Sir Joseph Banks, Dr Crawford, and
some othei members of the Royal Society, were present
at an experiment for concentrating the lunar rays; but
though the most sensible thermometers were applied, it
was rather thought that there was a diminution than an
increase of heat.
It was not to be expected that this powerful lens, which
cost so large a sum of money, could have been retained
in the hands of Mr Parker. That ingenious artist was na¬
turally desirous to indemnify himself for the expense of
its construction. A subscription was therefore opened for
purchasing the lens as a national instrument; but this sub¬
scription failing, Mr Parker was induced to sell it to Cap¬
tain Mackintosh, who accompanied Lord Macartney to
China. This valuable instrument was left at Pekin, where
it still remains.
This glass of Parker’s is perhaps the largest solid lens
that can be made in practice, without very great difficul¬
ties and expense in procuring so large a quantity of mate¬
rial of sufficient purity, and casting it in the lenticular form
free of faults; and supposing these overcome, we have
still the great thickness in the centre, and the enormous
absorption of light in consequence of it, while the exterior
portion of the glass by the spherical aberration disperses
the rays from the focal point. With the compound lenses
of Buffon, again, there is no limit to the magnitude further
than what arises from the reflection of light near the cir¬
cumference of the glass when the rays fall there very
obliquely. If the diameter of the lens were to be equal
to the chord of 48° of the sphere to which the lens has
been formed, the whole of the incident light near the cir¬
cumference would be reflected.
To augment still further the power of burning instru-Burning
ments, Dr Brewster proposes a compound instrument, sphere of
which he terms a burning sphere, consisting of lenses ^rrbrew*
and reflectors combined together,—a series of lenses be-s er*
740 BUR
Burnisher ing arranged in a circle having their foci all in the cen-
II tre, and having each a plane reflector so situated as to
Burns. j]lrow the sun’s rays in the direction of the axis of the
iens> The following is his description of it as represented
in fig. 8, which is merely a section of the sphere, and re¬
presents only five of the lenses and four of the mirrors.
The lenses A, B, C, D, E, which may be of any diameter
and focal length, are so placed in the spherical surface
AMN, that their principal foci exactly coincide in the
point F. If any of the lenses have a different focal length
from the rest, the coincidence of its focus with that of the
other may be easily effected by varying its distance from
F. The whole spherical surface, whose section is AMN,
except a small opening for admitting the object to be fused,
may be covered with lenses, having all their foci coinci¬
dent at F; though it will, perhaps, be more convenient to
have the posterior part MN without lenses, and occupied
by a mirror of nearly the same radius FA as the sphere.
The object of this mirror is to throwback upon the object
at F tlie light that passes by it, without producing any
effect. Each of the lenses, except the lens A, is furnish¬
ed with a plane glass mirror, which may be either fixed
to the general frame of the sphere, or placed upon a sepa¬
rate stand. When this combination is completed the sphere
is exposed to the sun, so that its rays may fall at right
angles upon the lens A, which will of course concentrate
them at F, and produce a pretty intense heat. The plane
mirror PQ, when properly adjusted, will reflect the sun’s
light perpendicularly upon the lens B, by which it will be
refracted accurately to the focus F, and produce a degree
of heat fully one half of what was produced by the direct
refracted rays of the sun through the lens A. A similar
effect will be produced by the mirror RS and lens D, the
mirror TU and lens C, the mirror VW and lens E, and by
all the other mirrors and lenses which are not seen in the
section. The effect may be still further increased by the
addition of a large lens at XX. As the angle which the
surface of each mirror forms with the axis of its corre¬
sponding lens is a constant quantity, the mirrors may be
all fixed to the general frame of the sphere, and therefore
the only adjustment which the instrument will require is
to keep the axis of the lens A parallel to the direction of
the solar rays.
In order to estimate the advantages of this construction,
let us compare its effects with those of a solid lens, which
exposes the same area of glass to the incident rays.
BUR
1. In the burning sphere, almost the only diminution of Bui
light is that which arises from reflection by the plane mir- ^-
rors, and which may be estimated pretty accurately at one
half of the incident light; but this loss can be amply com¬
pensated by adding a few more lenses.
2. In the solid lens a great diminution of light arises
from the thickness of the central portions, and from the i
obliquity of the parts at the circumference, which, we
conceive, will be fully equal to the light lost by reflection
in the burning sphere.
3. In the burning sphere the lenses may be obtained of
much purer glass than can be got for a solid lens; and
therefore, cceteris paribus, they will transmit more light.
4. Owing to the small size of each lens in the burning
sphere, the diminution of effect arising both from spheri¬
cal aberration and from the aberration of colour will be
very much less than in the solid lens.
5. In the burning sphere the effect is greatly increased,
in consequence of the shortness of the focal length of each
lens, and the greater concentration of the incident light.
6. In the burning sphere all kinds of lenses may be com¬
bined. They may be made of any kind of glass, of any
diameter, and of any focal length ; and the lenses belong¬
ing to different individuals may be combined for any oc¬
casional experiment in which a great intensity of heat is
requisite.
For further information on the subject of burning instru¬
ments, see Buffon, Supplement a Histoire Naturelle, tome
premiere, 4to; Sixieme Memoire, p. 399; Kircher, Ars
Magna Lucis et Umbrae, p. 772 ; Wolfii, Opera Mathema-
tica, tom. ii. p. 165 ; Traberus, In Nervo Optic, lib. ii.;
Phil. Trans. No. 6, p. 95 ; Ibid. No. 33, p. 631; Ibid. No.
40, p. 795 ; Ibid. 1719, vol. xxx.; No. 360, p. 976 , Ibid.
1687, vol. xvi.; Tschirnhausen, vol. xix. 1768 ; Vilette,
Journal des Savans, 1666 ; La Garouste, Mem. Acad. Par.
1679, tom. i.; Nollet, Mem. Acad. Par. 1757 ; Courtivron,
Mem. Acad. Par. 1747 ; Trudaine, Mem. Acad. Par. 1774;
Cadet and Brisson, Mem. Acad. Par. \ til; Act. Erudit.
1687; Richman, Nov. Com.Petrop. tom. iii.; Zeiher, Nov.
Com. Petrop. tom. vii. 1758,1759; Journal Encyclopedique,
1777; Dupuy, Mem. Acad. Inscript. 1777; (Euvres d'Archi-
mede, par T. Peyrard, tom. li.; Bossuet, Histoire des Mathe-
matiques; Duten, Du Miroir ArdentdArchime.de, Paris,
] 755; A description of the great Burning Glass made by M.
Vilette and his two Sons, with some Remarks on the surpris¬
ing and wonderful effects thereof, London, 1719, &c. (c.)
BURNISHER, a round polished piece of steel, serving
to smooth and give a lustre to metals. Of these there are
different kinds, of different figures, straight, crooked, and
the like. Half burnishers are used to solder silver, as well
as to give it a lustre. Burnishers for gold and silver are
commonly made of a dog’s or w olf’s tooth, set in the end
of an iron or wooden handle. Of late agates and pebbles
have been introduced, which many prefer to the dog’s
tooth. The burnishers used by engravers in copper, usu¬
ally serve with one end to burnish, and with the other to
scrape.
BURNISHING, the art of smoothing or polishing a
metalline body, by a brisk rubbing of it with a burnisher.
BURNLEY, a market-town of the parish of Whalley,
and hundred of Blackburn, in the county of Lancaster,
210 miles from London. The district abounds with coal,
the raising of which, as well as stones and slate, is the chief
labour in which the inhabitants find occupation. The
market is held on Saturday. The population amounted
in 1801 to 3305, in 1811 to 4368, and in 1821 to 6378.
BURNS, Robert, the national bard of Scotland, was
born on the 25th of January 1759, in a clay-built cottage
about two miles south of the town of Ayr. He was the
eldest son of William Burnes, or Burness, who at the pe¬
riod of Robert’s birth was gardener and overseer to a
gentleman of small estate; but resided on a few acies of
land which he had on lease from another person. The
father was a man of strict religious principles, and also
distinguished for that penetration and knowledge of man¬
kind which was afterwards so conspicuous in his son.
The mother of the poet was likewise a very sagacious wo¬
man, and possessed an inexhaustible store of ballads and
legendary tales, with which she nourished the infant ima¬
gination of him whose own productions were destined to
excel them all. _ ,
These worthy individuals laboured diligently for tne
support of an increasing family; nor, in the midst of
rassing struggles, did they neglect the mental impiove-
ment of their offspring; a characteristic of Scottish pa¬
rents, even under the most depressing circumstances. 11
his sixth year Robert was put under the tuition of one
Campbell, and subsequently under Mr John Murdoch, a
/
Burns.
BURNS.
very faithful and pains-taking teacher. With th;e 41
dual he remained for a few years, and was accurately ini hVtkL^ “If1™16 Week fm the imProre-
structed in the first nrincin es? nf r.n.-n^rrcu;r,v. -pl j ment oi ms writing. In the meanwhile 1,^ v /
structed in the first principles of’c^po^ior^Soe; “7 ^ ^ In the ntean^hne ie
and his brother Gilbert were the aptest punils Tn^ T^ed uPon the Rations of the farm ; and, at the aie
school, and were generally at the head of the class Mr Abo 7’ ^ “nsidere(1l as the Principal labourer upon ft.
Murdoch, in afterwards recording the impressions whirl, A, • 7 year afte.r thls he gained three weeks of respite
the two brothers made on him, says, « oTbert always ‘ p- vising ^ ^ ^ Murdoch at Ayr^^
peared to me to possess a more lively imagination /ml In i U .Englls.h grammar, and in studying the French
be more of the wit, than Robert. I aUemptcd to tench a.nSui«e’ which he made uncommon progress Ere
them a little church-music. Here they were left far be- his rendf"'1 'ri!' el.aI?s?d> lle llI“l considerably extended
hind by all the rest of the school. Robert's ear in parti- forded f”gV Vc'mty °f Mount 0]iPl»tnt to Ayr af-
cular was remarkably dull, and his voice untunable Tf f d d- PacillBes for gratifying what had now become
was long before T ronM o-Pt thorr.  ‘ ’. a passion. Among the books which he had perused were
some plays of Shakspeare, Pope, the works of Allan Ram!
S,,rdo,COlleCr ofs?ngs„wllich constituted his im/e-
mecum I pored over them, says he, “ driving my cart
oi n a xing to labour, song by song, verse by verse, care-
fully not'cmg the true tender or sublime from affectation
was long before I could get them to distinguish one tune
from another. Roberts countenance was generally orave
and expressive of a serious, contemplative, and thomdit-
ful mind. Gilbert’s face said, Mirth, with thee I mean to
live ; and certainly, if any person who knew the two boys imiy noticin
had been asked which of them was the most likolv tn *„// ,.• >> o .   -
court the muses, he would never have guessed that‘77 thp f118-114111' S.° ea^7 did ,le evince his attachment to
ben had a propensity of that kind.” S 5® ’f"0 n,“se’, which he was destined to surpass all
Besides the tuition of Mr Murdoch, Burns received in- At til ^ wT f s“cce«lei1 hi™-
structions from his father in writing and arithmetic. Un- mrish ,!f'*r,^k"p 16 /amily removed to Lochlea, in the
der their joint care he made rapkfprogress, and was re- mndpMif /a’I)°!tf0n- Some time before, however, he had
markable for the ease with which he committed devotion, ed to a rural beautvI>aC,!>0h!'ry' W“S “ T,S addreSS'
al poetry to memory. The following extract from his oocc: beauty about his own age; and though pos-
letter to Dr Moore in 1787 is' interesting, from the light and ide/Ti^r ^ ^ 3 WjloIe’ lt contains some lines
which itthniws progress as a AeZXnt a^. ^Tfrer-r^r ^ Lo^rTis'0 !
formation of his charactei-asBa po/t c—^ A/ those"vears^ sWkpn/^f ^ removal t0 L°chlea his literary zeal
says he, “ I was by no means i favourite with an/bodv l ’ 16 WaS- thus. Cut ofF from those acquaint-
I was a good deal noted for a retentive memory a stub* kinrfn^ ose can^e*’s.atl0n. simulated his powers, and whose
boni sturdy something in my disposition a”d ^ab°a‘ ?-s
born sturdy something in my disposition, and an enthu¬
siastic idiot piety. I say idiot piety, because I was then
but a child. Though it cost the schoolmaster some thrash¬
ings, I made an excellent scholar; and by the time I was
ten or eleven years of age, I was a critic in substantives,
verbs, and particles. In my infant and boyish days, too, I
owed much to an old woman who resided in the family,
remarkable for her ignorance, credulity, and superstition!
after this period he was busily employed upon the farm;
but at intervals he paid his addresses to the poetic muse,
and with no common success. The summer of his nine¬
teenth year was spent in the study of mensuration, sur-
veymg, &c. at a small sea-port town, a good distance from
Iiome. He returned to his father’s considerably improved.
M7 reading, says he, “ was enlarged with the very im¬
portant addition of Thomson’s and Shenstone’s works. I
most or my correspondents fiattered my vanity. I carried
this whim so far, that though I had not three farthings
worth of business in the world, yet almost every post
brought me as many letters as if I had been a broad plod¬
ding son of day-book and ledger.”
His mind, peculiarly susceptible of tender impressions,
- K.J s   — — «** m AACll ICllliULC'd)
1 sometimes keep a sharp look-out in suspicious places;
and though nobody can be more sceptical than I am in
such matters, yet it often takes an eft’ort of philosophy to
snake oft these idle terrors. The earliest composition
that I recollect taking pleasure in was The Vision of Mir-
za, and a hymn of Addison’s, beginning, How are thv ser
vrin+e r\ T > / T • P , ° - -
vants blest n Trerel t T T \ pecunariy susceptible ot tender impressions,
st/nl ?• i L d -1 Particalarly remember one half- was continually the slave of some rustic charmer In the
Stanza, winch was music to my boyish ear- “ heat and whirlwind of his love,” he irenerallv Lnd l.
For though on dreadful whirls we hung
High on the broken wave 
I met with these pieces in Mason's English Collection, one
of my school-books. The first two books I ever read in
pnvate, and which gave me more pleasure than any two
'ta r/ ever read since, were, The Life of Hannibal, and
he History of Sir William Wallace. Hannibal gave my
young ideas such a turn, that I used to strut in raptures
up and down after the recruiting drum and bagpipe, and aiviuc ue iutu met wun rergusons poems. itns cir-
fUM?86* tad enouSd t0 1)6 a soldier; while the story cumstance was of some importance to Burns, for it roused
o Wallace poured a tide of Scottish prejudice into my his poetic powers from the torpor into which they had
veins, which will boil along there till the flood-gates of fallen, and in a great measure finally determined the Scot-
* \T at ,n eterPal rest.” tish character of his poetry. He here also contracted some
Mr Murdoch’s removal from Mount Oliphant deprived friendships, which he himself says did him mischief; and,
urns of his instructions; but they were still continued by his brother Gilbert's account, from this date there was
y “le father of the bard. About the age of fourteen he a serious change in his conduct. The venerable and ex-
“ heat and whirlwind of his love,” he generally found re¬
lief in poetry, by which, as by a safety valve, his turbu¬
lent passions were allowed to have vent. Fie formed the
resolution of entering the matrimonial state; but his cir-
cumscnbed means of subsistence as a farmer preventing
his taking that step, he resolved on becoming a flax-
dresser, for which purpose he removed to the town of Ir¬
vine in 1781. The speculation turned out unsuccessful;
for the shop catching fire, was burnt, and the poet return¬
ed to his father without a sixpence. During his stay at
Irvine he had met with Ferguson’s poems. This cir-
742
Burns.
BURNS.
cellent parent of the poet died soon after his son s retain.
The support of the family now devolving upon Burns, in
conjunction with his brother he took a sub-lease of the
farm of Mossgiel, in the parish of Mauchline. The four
years winch he resided upon this farm were the most im¬
portant of his life. It was here he felt that nature had
designed him for a poet; and here, accordingly, his genius
began to develope its energies in those strains which will
make his name familiar to all future times, the admiiation
of every civilized country, and the glory and boast of his
The vigour of Burns’s understanding, and the keenness
of his wit, as displayed more particularly at masonic
meetings and debating clubs, of which he formed one at
Mauchline, began to spread his fame as a man of uncom¬
mon endowments. He now could number as his acquaint¬
ance several clergymen, and also some gentlemen of sub¬
stance ; amongst whom was Mr Gavin Hamilton, writer
in Mauchline, one of his earliest patrons. One circum¬
stance more than any other contributed to increase his
notoriety. “ Polemical divinity,” says he to Dr Moore^
in 1787, “ about this time was putting the country half
mad; and I, ambitious of shining in conversation-parties
on Sundays, at funerals, &c. used to puzzle Calvinism with
so much heat and indiscretion, that I raised a hue-and-
cry of heresy against me, which has not ceased to this
hour.” The farm which he possessed belonged to the
Earl of Loudon, but the brothers held it in sub-lease
from Mr Hamilton. This gentleman was at open feud
with one of the ministers of Mauchline, who was a rigid
Calvinist. Mr Hamilton maintained opposite tenets; and
it is not matter of surprise that the young farmer should
have espoused his cause, and brought all the resources of
his genius to bear upon it. 1 he result was The. Holy Fair,
The Ordination, Holy Willies Prayer, and other satires,
as much distinguished for their coarse severity ana bitter¬
ness, as for their genius.
The applause which greeted these pieces emboldened
the poet, and encouraged him to proceed. In his life by
his brother Gilbert, a very interesting account is given of
the occasions which gave rise to the poems, and the chro¬
nological order in which they were produced. The exqui¬
site pathos and humour, the strong manly sense, the mas¬
terly command of felicitous language, the graphic power
of delineating scenery, manners, and incidents, which ap¬
pear so conspicuously in his various poems, could not fail to
call forth the admiration of those who were favoured with a
perusal of them. But the clouds of misfortune were ga¬
thering darkly above the head of him who was thus giving
delight to a large and widening circle of friends. The
farm of Mossgiel proved a losing concern; and an amour
with Miss Jane Armour, afterwards Mrs Burns, had as¬
sumed so serious an aspect, that he at first resolved to
fly from the scene of his disgrace and misery. One trait
of his character, however, must be mentioned. Before
taking any steps for his departure, he met Miss Armour
by appointment, and gave into her hands a written ac¬
knowledgment of marriage, which, when produced by a
person in her situation, is, according to the Scots law, to
be accepted as legal evidence of an irregular marriage
having really taken place. This the lady burned at the
persuasion of her father, who was adverse to a marriage;
and Burns, thus wounded in the two most powerful feel¬
ings of his mind, his love and pride, was driven almost to
insanity. Jamaica was his destination ; but as he did not
possess the money necessary to defray the expense of his
passage out, he resolved to publish some of his best poems,
in order to raise the requisite sum. These views were
wrarmly promoted by some of his more opulent friends;
and a sufficiency of subscribers having been procured, one
of the finest volumes of poetry that ever appeared in the
world issued from the provincial press of Kilmarnock. v-
It is hardly possible to imagine with what eager admi¬
ration and delight they were everywhere received. They
possessed in an eminent degree all those qualities which
invariably contribute to render any literary work quickly
and permanently popular. They were written in a phra¬
seology of which all the powers were universally felt,
and which being at once antique, familiar, and now rarely
written, was therefore fitted to serve all the dignified and
picturesque uses of poetry, without making it unintelli¬
gible. The imagery and the sentiments were at once na¬
tural, impressive, and interesting. Those topics of satire
and scandal in which the rustic delights; that humorous
imitation of character, and that witty association of ideas
familiar and striking, yet not naturally allied to one ano¬
ther, which has force to shake his sides with laughter;
those fancies of superstition, at which one still wonders and
trembles; those affecting sentiments and images of true
religion, which are at once dear and awful to the heart;
were all represented by Burns with the magical power of
true poetry. Old and young, high and low, grave and gay,
learned and ignorant, all were alike surprised and trans¬
ported.
In the mean time, a few copies of these fascinating
poems found their way to Edinburgh, and having been
read to Dr Blacklock,'obtained his warmest approbation;
and he advised the author to repair to Edinburgh. Burns
lost no time in complying with this request; and accord¬
ingly, towards the end of the year 1786, he set out for the
capital, where he was received by Dr BJacklock with the
most flattering kindness, and introduced to every person
of taste among that excellent man’s friends. Multitudes
now vied with each other in patronising the rustic poet.
Those who possessed at once true taste and ardent phi¬
lanthropy were soon united in his praise ; those who were
disposed to favour any good thing belonging to Scotland,
purely because it was Scottish, gladly joined the cry; while
those who had hearts and understandings to be charmed
without knowing why, when they saw their native cus¬
toms, manners, and language, made the subjects and the
materials of poesy, could not suppress that impulse of feel¬
ing which struggled to declare itself in favour of Burns.
Thus did Burns, ere he had been many weeks in Edin¬
burgh, find himself the object of universal curiosity, fa¬
vour, admiration, and fondness. He was sought after,
courted with attentions the most respectful and assiduous,
feasted, flattered, caressed, and treated by all ranks as
the great boast of his country, whom it was scarcely pos¬
sible to honour and reward in a degree equal to his merits.
A new edition of his poems was called for; and the
public mind was directed to the subject by Henry Mac¬
kenzie, who dedicated a paper in the Lounger to a com¬
mendatory notice of the poet. This circumstance wifi
ever be remembered to the honour of that polished wri¬
ter, not only for the warmth of the eulogy he bestow¬
ed, but because it was the first printed acknowledgment
which had been made to the genius of Burns. The copy*
right was sold to Creech for L.100; but the friends of the
poet advised him to forward a subscription. I he patio-
nage of the Caledonian Hunt, a very influential body, was
obtained. The list of subscribers rapidly rose to 15UU;
many gentlemen paying a great deal more than the price
of the volume ; and it was supposed that the poet derive
from the subscription and the sale of his copy-right a
clear profit of at least L.700.
The conversation of Burns, according to the testimony
of all the eminent men who heard him, was even more won¬
derful than his poetry. He affected no soft air nor grace¬
ful motions of politeness, which might have ill accor e
; Burns, with the rustic plainness of his native manners Con
scions superiority of mind taught him to associate with
the great, the learned, and the gay, without being over¬
awed into any such bashfulness as might have rendered
him confused in thought or hesitating in elocution. He
possessed withal an extraordinary share of plain common
sense or mother-wit, which prevented him from obtruding
upon persons, of whatever rank, with whom he was ad¬
mitted to converse, any of those effusions of vanity, envy
or self-conceit, in which authors who have lived remote
from the general practice of life, and whose minds have
been almost exclusively confined to contemplate their own
studies and their own works, are but too prone to indulge
In conversation he displayed a sort of intuitive quickness
and rectitude of judgment upon every subject that arose.
Ihe sensibility of his heart, and the vivacity of his fancy
gave a rich colouring to whatever opinions he was dis¬
posed to advance; and his language was thus not less
happy in conversation than in his writings. Hence those
who had met and conversed with him once, were pleased
to meet and to converse with him again and again.
Foi some time he associated only with the virtuous, the
learned, and the wise, and the purity of his morals remained
uncontaminated. But unfortunately he fell, as others have
fallen in similar circumstances. He suffered himself to be
surrounded by persons who were proud to tell that they had
been in company with Burns, and had seen Burns as loose
and as foolish as themselves. He now also began to con¬
tract something of arrogance in conversation. Accustom¬
ed to be among his associates what is vulgarly but expres¬
sively called “ the cock of the company,” he could scarcely
refrain from indulging in a similar freedom and dictatorial
decision of talk, even in the presence of persons who
could less patiently endure presumption.
After remaining some months in the Scottish metropo¬
lis, basking in the noontide sun of a popularity which, as
Dugald Stewart well remarks, would have turned any
head but his own, he formed a resolution of returning to
the shades whence he had emerged, but not before he had
perambulated the southern border. On the 6th of May
I 1787 he set out on his journey, and, visiting all that ap¬
peared interesting on the north of the Tweed, proceeded
to Newcastle and other places on the English side. He
returned in about two months to his family at Mauchline;
but in a short period he again set out ori an excursion to
the north, where he was most flatteringly received by all
the great families. On his return to Mossgiel he complet¬
ed his marriage with Miss Armour. He then concluded a
bargain with Mr Miller of Dalswinton, for a lease of the
farm of Elliesland, on advantageous terms.
Burns entered on possession of this farm at Whitsunday
1788. He had formerly applied with success for an ex¬
cise commission, and during six weeks of the summer of
this, year he had to attend to the business of that pro¬
fession at Ayr. His life for some time was thus wander¬
ing and unsettled; and Dr Currie mentions this as one of
his chief misfortunes. Mrs Burns came home to him to¬
wards the end of the year, and the poet was accustomed
to say that the happiest period of his life was the first
winter he spent in Elliesland. The neighbouring farmers
and gentlemen, pleased to obtain for a neighbour the poet
by whose works they had been delighted, kindly sought
his company, and invited him to their houses. Burns, how¬
ever, found an inexpressible charm in sitting down beside
his wife, at his own fireside; in wandering over his own
grounds; in once more putting his hand to the spade and
the plough; in forming his inclosures, and managing his
cattle. For some months he felt almost all that felicity
which fancy had taught him to expect in his new situa¬
tion. He had been for a time idle; but his muscles were
burns.
not yet unbraced for rural toil. He now seemed to find
a joy in being the husband of the mistress of his affections
and m seeing himself the father of children such as pro¬
mised to attach him for ever to that modest, humble, and
domestic life, in which alone he could hope to be perma-
nently happy Even his engagements in the seiwice of
he excise did not, at first, threaten either to contaminate
the poet or to ruin the farmer.
From various causes, the farming speculation did not suc¬
ceed. Indeed, from the time he obtained a situation un¬
der government, he gradually began to sink the farmer in
the exciseman. Occasionally he assisted in the rustic
occupations of Elliesland, but for the most part he was
engaged in very different pursuits. In his professional
perambulations over the moors of Dumfriesshire he had
to encounter temptations which a mind and temperament
like his.found it difficult to resist. His immortal works had
made him universally known and enthusiastically admired •
and accordingly he was a welcome guest at every house,5
trom the most princely mansion to the lowest country inn
in the latter he was too frequently to be found as the pre¬
siding genius, and master of the orgies. However, he still
continued at intervals to cultivate the muse ; and, besides
a variety of other pieces, he produced at this period the
inimitable poem of lam o’Shanter. Johnson’s Miscellany
was also indebted to him for the finest of its lyrics. One
pleasing trait of his character must not be overlooked.
. e superintended the formation of a subscription library
in the parish, and. took the whole management of it upon
himself. Ihese institutions, though common now, were
not so at the period of which we write; and it should
never be forgotten that Burns was amongst the first, if
not the very first, of their founders in the rural districts of
southern Scotland.
Towards the close of 1791 he finally abandoned his farm ;
and.obtaining an appointment to the Dumfries division of
excise, he repaired to that town on a salary of L.70 per
annum. All his principal biographers concur in stating
that aftei settling in Dumfries his moral career was down¬
wards. Heron, who had some acquaintance with the mat¬
ter, says, “ His dissipation became still more deeply ha¬
bitual ; he was here more exposed than in the country to
be solicited to share the revels of the dissolute and the
idle; foolish, young men flocked eagerly about him, and
from time to time pressed him to drink with them, that
they might enjoy his wit. The Caledonian Club, too, and
the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Hunt, had occasional
meetings in Dumfries after Burns went to reside there;
and the poet was of course invited to share their convivi¬
ality, and hesitated not to accept the invitation. In the
intervals between his different fits of intemperance he suf¬
fered the keenest anguish of remorse, and horribly afflic¬
tive foresight. His Jane behaved with a degree of con¬
jugal and maternal tenderness and prudence, which made
him feel more bitterly the evil of his misconduct, although
they could not reclaim him.”
This is a dark picture, perhaps too dark. The Rev. Mi-
Gray, who, as the teacher of his son, was intimately ac¬
quainted with Burns, and had frequent opportunities of
judging of his general character and deportment, gives a
more amiable portrait of the bard. Being an eye-witness,
the testimony of this gentleman must be allowed to have
some weight. “ The truth is,” says he, “ Burns was sel¬
dom intoxicated. The drunkard soon becomes besotted,
and is shunned even by the convivial. Had he been so,
he could not have long continued the idol of every party.”
This is strong reasoning ; and he goes on to mention other
circumstances which seem to confirm the truth of his po¬
sition. In balancing these two statements, a juster esti¬
mate of the moral deportment of Burns may be formed.
743
Burns.
'    
744
BUR
BUR
Burns.
In the year 1792 party politics ran to a great height in
Scotland, and the liberal and independent spirit of Burns
did certainly betray him into some indiscretions. A gene¬
ral opinion prevails, that he so far lost the good graces of
his superiors by his conduct, as to consider all prospects
of future promotion as hopeless. But this appears not to
have been the case; and the fact that he acted as super¬
visor before his death is a strong proof to the contrary.
Of his political verses few have as yet been published.
But in these he warmly espoused the cause of the Whigs,
which kept up the spleen of the other party, already suffi¬
ciently provoked; and this may in some measure account
for the bitterness with which his own character was at¬
tacked.
Whatever opinion may be formed of the extent of his
dissipation in Dumfries, one fact is unquestionable, that
his powers remained unimpaired to the last; it was there
he produced his finest lyrics, and they are the finest, as
well as the purest, that ever delighted mankind. Besides
Johnson’s Museum, in which he took an interest to the
last, and contributed most extensively, he formed a con¬
nection with Mr George Thomson of Edinburgh. This
gentleman had conceived the laudable design of collecting
the national melodies of Scotland, with accompaniments
by the most eminent composers, and poetry by the most
eminent writers, in addition to those words which were
originally attached to them. From the multitude of songs
which Burns wrote from the year 1792 till the commence¬
ment of his illness, it is evident that few days could have
passed without his producing some stanzas for the work.
The following passage from his correspondence, which was
also most extensive, proves that his songs were not hur¬
riedly got up, but composed with the utmost care and at¬
tention. “ Until I am complete master of a tune in my
own singing, such as it is,” says he, “ I can never com¬
pose for it. My way is this. I consider the poetic senti¬
ment correspondent to my idea of the musical expression,—
then choose my theme,—compose one stanza. When that
is composed, which is generally the most difficult part of
the business, I walk out,—sit down now and then,—look
out for objects in nature round me that are in unison or
harmony with the cogitations of my fancy, and workings of
my bosom,—humming every now and then the air, with
the verses I have framed. When I feel my muse begin¬
ning to jade, I retire to the solitary fireside of my study,
and there commit my effusions to paper ; swinging at inter¬
vals on the hind legs of my elbow-chair, by way of calling
forth my own critical strictures, as my pen goes. Seriously,
this, at home, is almost invariably my way.” This is not
only interesting for the light which it throws upon his
method of composition, but it proves that conviviality had
not as yet greater charms for him than the muse.
From his youth Burns had exhibited ominous symptoms
of a radical disorder in his constitution. A palpitation of
the heart, and a derangement of the digestive organs,
were conspicuous. These were, doubtless, increased by
his indulgences, which became more frequent as he drew
towards the close of his career. In the autumn of 1795
he lost an only daughter, which was a severe blow to him.
Soon afterwards he was seized with a rheumatic fever;
and “ long the die spun doubtful,” says he, in a letter to
his faithful friend Mrs Dunlop, “ until, after many weeks
of a sick bed, it seems to have turned up life, and I am
beginning to crawl across my room.” The cloud behind
which his sun was destined to be eclipsed at noon had
begun to darken above him. Before he had completely
recovered, he had the imprudence to join a festive circle ;
and, on his return from it, he caught a cold, which brought
back his trouble upon him with redoubled severity. Sea¬
bathing was had recourse to, but with no ultimate success.
He lingered until the 21st of July 1796, when he expired.
The interest which the death of Burns excited was in¬
tense. All differences were forgotten; his genius only v
was thought of. On the 26th of the same month he was
conveyed to the grave, followed by about ten thousand
individuals of all ranks, many of whom had come from
distant parts of the country to witness the solemnity. He
was interred with military honours by the Dumfries vo¬
lunteers, to which body he had belonged.
Thus, at the age of thirty-seven, an age when the men¬
tal powers of man have scarcely reached their climax,
died Robert Burns, one of the greatest poets whom his
country has produced. It is unnecessary to enter into
any lengthened analysis of his poetry or character. His
works are universally known and admired, and criticism
has been drawn to the dregs upon the subject; and that,
too, by the greatest masters who have appeared since his
death,—no mean test of the great merits of his writings.
He excels equally in touching the heart by the exquisite¬
ness of his pathos, and exciting the risible faculties by the
breadth of his humour. His lyre had many strings, and
he had equal command over them all; striking each, and
frequently in chords, with the skill and power of a master.
That his satire sometimes degenerates into coarse invec¬
tive, cannot be denied ; but where personality is not per¬
mitted to interfere, his poems of this description may take
their place beside any thing of the kind which has ever been
produced, without being disgraced by the comparison. It
is unnecessary to re-echo the praises of his best pieces, as
there is no epithet of admiration which has not been bestow¬
ed upon them. Those who had best opportunities of judg¬
ing, are of opinion that his works, stamped as they are with
the impress of sovereign genius, fall short of the powers he
possessed. It is therefore to be lamented that he undertook
no great work of fiction or invention. Had circumstances
permitted, he would probably have done so ; but his excise
duties, and without doubt his own follies, prevented him.
His passions were strong, and his capacity of enjoyment
corresponded with them. These continually precipitated
him into the vortex of pleasure, where alone they could be
gratified; and the re-action consequent upon such indul¬
gences (for he possessed the finest discrimination between
right and wrong) threw him into low spirits, to which he
was also constitutionally liable. His mind, being thus never
for any length of time in an equable tone, could scarcely
pursue with steady regularity a work of any length. His
moral aberrations, as detailed by some of his biographers,
have been exaggerated, as already noticed. This has
been proved by the testimony of many witnesses, from
whose authority there can be no appeal; for they had the
best opportunities of judging. In fine, it may be doubted
whether he has not, by his writings, exercised a greater
power over the minds of men, and the general system of
life, than has been exercised by any other modern poet.
A complete edition of his works, in four vols. 8vo, with a
life, was published by Dr Currie of Liverpool. Editions
have been since multiplied beyond number; and several
excellent accounts of his life have been published, parti¬
cularly that by Mr Lockhart.
BURNTISLAND, or Bruntisland, a royal burgh and
parish of Scotland, in the county of Fife, situated upon
the Frith of Forth. It is slightly peninsular, but it does
not appear to have been ever surrounded by the sea. It
is well sheltered towards the north by steep hills ; and ac¬
cordingly the harbour, which lies on its western quarter,
is reckoned one of the safest in the frith. There is also
a small light-house erected on the right of the entrance.
The town is tolerably clean and well built, possessing one
main street of considerable length, with a back one of
lesser dimensions, and various diverging thoroughfares.
bur
iurra-
.loottee
There is a large distillery here, and ship-building is car-
, u rief t0 so™e extent. ■ In ancient times it was "fortified
Jrsa. an(1 the r?malns of a wall and fort are still extant. There
ls,a regular ferry between Burntisland and Leith, from
which it is distant six miles north-north-west. The ponu
lation amounted in 1821 to 2136, and in 1831 to 2366
BURRAMOOTEE, a large town of Hindustan fn the
province of Bejapoor, forty-four miles south-east from
Poonah, and one mile from Merud. It has a strong forti-
fication, divided by the Kurrah river.
BURROW, Sir James, master of the crown office, was
elected a fellow of the Royal Society and of the Society
of Arts m 1751. On the death of Mr West in 1772 he
was prevailed on to fill the president’s chair at the Royal
Society till the anniversary election, when he resigned it
to Sir John Pringle; and on the 10th of August 1773
when the society presented an address to his majesty he
received the honour of knighthood. He published two
vo.umes of reports in 1766; two others in 1771 and 1776 •
and a volume of decisions of the court of king’s bench
upon settlement cases from 1732 to 1772, to which
was subjoined an Essay of Punctuation, in three narts
4to, 1768, 1772, 1776. The Essay was also printed sepa-
rately in 4to, 1773. He published, without his name,
A few Anecdotes and Observations relating to Oliver
Cromwell and his family, serving to rectify several errors
concerning him, published by Nicol. Comm. Papadopoli, in
his Histona Gymnasii Patavini, 1763,4to. He died in 1782.
BURSA, a large walled city of Asiatic Turkey, in the
province of Natolia, about six miles in circuit, including
the suburbs. It is situated on eminences on each side of
a height, and is surmounted by a castle, which is about a
mile in circumference, and which antiquaries conjecture
to be the ancient Prusa. The city is said to contain 300
mosques and churches, the tombs of several sultans, to¬
gether with chapels of marble and jasper. The popula¬
tion consists of Turks, Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. The
two latter, however, do not amount to more than 600 and
800 families. . The Greeks dwell in a suburb west of the
castle, and divided from it by a deep channel, planted
with mulberry trees, and crossed by several bridges, one of
them ninety paces long and sixteen broad, and occupied on
each side by shops. The Greeks have three churches in
this suburb, and their metropolitan. The Armenians in¬
habit a suburb to the east of the former, where they have
a church and an archbishop. The town is resorted to
for its mineral springs, which are reckoned salutary in
various disorders. At the west end of the town a spring
of cold and another of hot water rise in the same apart-
joent; and in another bath called the New Spring, which
is the largest and most beautiful of the whole, two hot
sti earns issue from a copious fountain, and run through
the middle of the room. There are various manufactures
in the town, and an extensive trade. Satins in great va¬
riety, and chiefly striped, are made here, for the short
under garments of the Turkish habit; and there are besides
manufactures of silk stuffs and gauze, while quantities of
raw silk are exported by the caravans to Aleppo, Smyrna,
and Constantinople. Bursa is a very ancient city, and is
generally supposed to have been built by Prusius, king of
Bithynia, about five or six centuries before the Christian
ma. After experiencing many revolutions, it was cap¬
tured by an Arab prince in the year 957, but was soon
retaken and held by the Greeks. In 1356 it was con¬
quered by the Turks under Othman II., and remained
me capital of the Turkish empire until the conquest of
Constantinople in 1452 by Mahommed II., when the seat
of government was transferred to that city. The popu-
ation is computed at 60,000. It is 75 miles south-south¬
west of Constantinople. Long. 29. 12. E. Lat. 40. 11. N.
VOL. v.
bur
BURSAR, or Burser (Bursarius), is used, in the mid¬
dle-age writers, for a treasurer or cash-keeper. In this sense
wereTffic ^ °f C°Ue§eS' Conventual bursars
e officers in monasteries, who were bound to deliver an
account yearly on the day after Michaelmas. The word
is formed from the Latin iursa, whence the English word
h-nCe f!80.the officer> who in a college is
called bursar, in a ship is called purser.
Bursars, or Bursors (Bursarii), also denote those to
for0tte7ur”poL!re Paid °Ut °f “ bUrSe 01' fU"d aPPoi"te(1
BURSARIA, the bursary, or exchequer of collegiate
and conventual bodies; or the place of receiving, paying,
and accounting, by the bursarii or bursars. b 1
BURSE, in matters of commerce, denotes a public edi-
fice in certain cities, for the meeting of merchants to ne¬
gotiate bills, and confer on other matters relating to money
and trade. In this sense burse amounts to the same
with what we otherwise call an exchange. The first place
o this kind to which the name Burse was given was at
Bruges. From this city the name was afterwards trans¬
ferred to the like places in others, as in Antwerp, Am¬
sterdam, Bergen in Norway, and London. This last, an¬
ciently known by the name of the common burse of mer¬
chants, had the denomination of the royal exchange given
it by Queen Elizabeth. In the times of the Romans there
were public places for the meeting of merchants in most
of the trading cities in the empire: that built at Rome in
the 259th year after its foundation, under the consulate of
Appius Claudius and Publius Servilius, was denominated
the college of merchants; some remains of it are still to
be seen, and are known by the modern Romans under
the name loggia. I he Hans towns, after the example of
the Romans, gave the name of colleges to their burses.
BURSLEM, a market-town of the hundred of Pirehill,
in the county of Stafford, 151 miles from London, on an
elevated spot near the Trent and Mersey Canal, about one
mile from an underground tunnel 1880 yards in length.
It is one of the most important towns in the potteries, in
a thickly-peopled neighbourhood, where the chief em¬
ployment is making the various kinds of earthenware. It
has good markets on Mondays and Saturdays. The num¬
ber of inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 6578, in 1811 to
8625, in 1821 to 9699, and in 1831 to 11,250.
BURTON, Robert, known to the learned by the name
o? Democritus junior, was a younger brother of the William
Burton who wrote the Antiquities of Leicestershire, and
born of an ancient family at Lindley, in that county, upon
the 8th of February 1576. He was educated in gram¬
matical learning in the free school of Sutton Colefield, in
Warwickshire; in the year 1593 he was sent to Brazen-
nose College in Oxford; and in 1599 he was elected student
of Christ-church. In 1616 he had conferred upon him by
the dean and canons of Christ-church, the vicarage of St
Thomas, in the west suburb of Oxford, to the parishioners
of which it is said that he always gave the sacrament in
wafers ; and this, with the rectory of Segrave in Leicester¬
shire, given him some time afterwards by George Lord
Berkeley, he held to the day of his death, which happened
in January 1639. He was a man of general learning, a dis¬
tinguished philosopher, an exact mathematician, and, what
constitutes the peculiarity of his character, a very curious
calculator of nativities. He was extremely studious, and
of a melancholy turn; yet an agreeable companion, and
very humorous. The Anatomy of Melancholy, by Democri¬
tus junior, as he calls himselfj shows that these different
qualities were strangely mixed together in his composition.
This book was printed first in quarto, afterwards in folio,
in 1624, 1632, 1638, and 1652, to the great emolument of
the bookseller, who, as Mr Wood tells us, got an estate
5 B
746 BUR
Burton by it. Some circumstances attending his death occasioned
li strange suspicions. He died in his chamber at or very
, Eury- , near the time which, it seems, he had some years before
predicted from the calculation of his nativity; and this
exactness made it whispered about that, for the glory of
astrology, and rather than that his calculation should fail,
he became afelo de se. This, however, was generally dis¬
credited. He was buried with due solemnity in the ca¬
thedral of Christ-church, and had a fair monument erect¬
ed to his memory. He left behind him a very choice
collection of books, many of which he bequeathed to the
Bodleian Library, and a hundred pounds to Christ-church,
the interest of which was to be laid out yearly in books for
their library.
Burton, John, D. D. a learned divine, was born in
1696, at Wembworth, in Devonshire, of which parish his
father was rector. He was educated at Corpus Christi
College, Oxford. In 1725, being then pro-proctor and
master of the schools, he spoke a Latin oration before
the determining bachelor, which is entitled “ Heli, or an
Instance of a Magistrate’s erring through unseasonable
Lenity; written and published with a view to encourage the
salutary exercise of academical discipline;” and he after¬
wards treated the same subject still more fully in four
Latin sermons before the university, and published them
with appendixes. He also introduced into the schools,
Locke, and other eminent modern philosophers, as suit¬
able companions to Aristotle ; and printed a double series
of philosophical questions for the use of the younger stu¬
dents ; from which Mr Johnson of Magdalen College,
Cambridge, took the hint of his larger work of the same
kind, which has gone through several editions. When the
settling of Georgia was in agitation, Dr Bray, justly i‘e-
vered for his institution of parochial libraries, Dr Stephen
Hales, Dr Berriman, and other learned divines, entreated
Mr Burton’s pious assistance in that undertaking. This
he readily gave, by preaching before the society in 1732,
and publishing his sermon, with an appendix on the state
of that colony; and he afterwards published an account
of the designs of the associates of Dr Bray, with an
account of their proceedings. About the same time,
on the death of Dr Edward Littleton, he was presented
by Eton College to the vicarage of Maple-Derham, in
Oxfordshire. Here a melancholy scene, which too often
appears in the mansions of the clergy, presented itself to
his view; a widow, with three infant daughters, without
a home, without a fortune. From his compassion arose
love, the consequence of which was marriage; for Mrs
Littleton was handsome, elegant, accomplished, ingenious,
and had great sweetness of temper. In 1760 he exchang¬
ed his vicarage of Maple-Derham for the rectory of Wor-
plesdon in Surrey. In his advanced age, finding his eyes
begin to fail him, he collected and published, in one vo¬
lume, all his scattered pieces, under the title of Opuscula
Miscellanea ; and soon after died, on the 11th of February
1771.
Burton-upon-Trent, a market-town of the hundred
of Offlow, in the county of Stafford, 128 miles from Lon¬
don. The river Trent is navigable for large barges as
high as the bridge at this town. It is celebrated for ale
of peculiar excellence, and has some manufactures of hats,
cotton goods, and iron, with several tanneries. The mar¬
ket, which is large, is held on Thursday. The country
around it is very fertile in corn. The inhabitants amounted
in 1801 to 3679, in 1811 to 3979, in 1821 to 4114, and in
1831 to 4399.
BURY, a market-town of the hundred of Salford, in the
county of Lancaster, 194 miles from London, on the river
Irwell. It is celebrated for its extensive printing grounds,
which have been the foundation of the large fortune of
BUS
Sir Robert Peel. Some other branches of the cotton Burit
trade arc carried on here. The market is held on Thurs- Edniids
day, and well supplied. The inhabitants amounted in 1801
to 7072, in 1811 to 8762, in 1821 to 10,583, and in 1831 B^lc-
to 15,086.
Bury St Edmunds, a market and borough town of
the hundred of Thingoe, in the county of Suffolk, 71
miles from London. The river Bourn or Dark, which runs
through the town, is navigable to Lynn. The ancient ab¬
bey is a magnificent pile of ruins. It is a clean, well-built,
and well-paved town, with a handsome guild-hall, theatre,
and other public buildings. The assizes for the county are
held here. The markets are held on Wednesday and
Friday. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 7655, in
1811 to 7986, in 1821 to 9999, and in 1831 to 11,436.
BURYING. See Burial.
Burying Alive was the punishment of a vestal who had
violated her vow of virginity. The unhappy priestess was
let dawn into a deep pit, with bread, water, milk, oil, a
lamp burning, and a bed to lie on. But this was only for
show; for the moment she was let down, they began to
cast in the earth upon her till the pit was filled up. Some
middle-age writers seem to make burying alive the punish¬
ment of a female thief.
Burying Place. The ancients buried out of cities and
towns ; a usage which we find equally among Jews, Greeks,
and Romans. Amongst the last, burying within the walls
was expressly prohibited by a law of the twelve tables.
The usual places of interment were in the suburbs and
fields, but especially by the way sides. We have instances,
however, of persons buried in the city; but it was a fa¬
vour allowed only to a few of singular merit in the common¬
wealth. Plutarch says, those who had triumphed were in¬
dulged in it. Be this as it will, Val. Publicola, and C. Fa-
bricius, are said to have had tombs in the forum ; and
Cicero adds Tubertus to the number. Lycurgus allowed
his Lacedemonians to bury their dead within the city and
round their temples, that the youth, being inured to such
spectacles, might be the less terrified with the apprehen¬
sion of death. Two reasons are.alleged why the ancients
buried out of cities; the first, an opinion that the sight,
touch, or even neighbourhood of a corpse, defiled a man,
especially a priest; whence that rule in A. Gellius, that
the flamen dialis might not on any account enter a place
where there was a grave : the second, to prevent the air
from being corrupted by the stench of putrified bodies,
and the buildings from being endangered by the frequency
of funeral fires.
Burying in churches was not allowed for the first three
hundred years after Christ; and the same was severely
prohibited by the Christian emperors for many ages after¬
wards. The first step towards it appears to have been the
practice of erecting churches over the graves of some
martyrs in the country, and translating the relics of others
into churches in the city; the next was, allowing kings
and emperors to be buried in the atrium or church-porch.
In the sixth century, the people began to be admitted into
the church-yards; and some princes, founders, and bishops,
into the church. From that time the matter seems to have
been left to the discretion of the bishop.
BUSBEC, Auger Gislen, Lord of, a person illustri¬
ous on account of his embassies, was born at Commines
in the year 1522, and educated at the famous universities
of Louvain, Paris, Venice, Bologna, and Padua. He was
engaged in several important employments and negocia-
tions, and in particular was twice sent ambassador by the
king of the Romans to the emperor Soliman. He collected
inscriptions, bought manuscripts, searched after rare plants,
inquired into the nature of animals; and in his seconc
journey to Constantinople carried with him a painter, that
1
%
BUS
Busby he might be able to communicate to the curious the fio-ures
Busiing. ^ 1^as*’ot the Plants and animals that were not well known
■ ^ m the West. He wrote a Discourse of the State of the Otto¬
man Empire, and a Relation of his Two Journeys toTurkev
which are much esteemed. He died in 1592.
BUSBY, Dr Richard, son of a gentleman in West¬
minster, was born at Button in Lincolnshire in 1606 He
passed through the classes in Westminster school as kina’s
scholar, and completed his studies at Christ-church, Ox¬
ford. In 1640 he was appointed master of Westminster
school; and by his skill and diligence in the discharge of
this important and laborious office for the space of fifty
five years, bred up the greatest number of eminent men
m church and state, that ever at one time adorned any
age or nation. He was severe in his school; though he
applauded wit in his scholars, even when it reflected on
himself. He died in 1695, aged eighty-nine, and was bu¬
ried in Westminster Abbey, where there is a fine monu¬
ment erected for him, with a Latin inscription. He com¬
posed several books for the use of his school.
BUSCHING, Anthony Frederick. This very emi¬
nent geographer was born at Stadthagen, a village of
Westphalia, on the 27th September 1724. In his youth
he laboured under peculiar disadvantages, arising from the
disorderly life led by his father, and from the narrow
means of education which his native town afforded. For¬
tunately a clergyman of the name of Hauber, pleased with
the promising talents of the young man, undertook to give
him gratuitous instruction. He laid a solid foundation
of learning, and also of a piety which, though fervent, was
always accompanied with moderation and mildness. At
the age of eighteen, young Busching was driven from his
father s house, on account of the zeal with which he es¬
poused the cause of his patron, on occasion of a contro¬
versy in which he was involved. Hauber, however, pro¬
cured for him the means of continuing his studies at Halle.
There, by his application to learning, and his irreproach¬
able conduct, he acquired numerous friends. They pro¬
cured him the appointment of tutor in the family of the
Count de Lynars, who was then going as ambassador to
Petersburg. The observations made by Busching on this
journey decided the pursuits of his future life. In travel¬
ling through Poland and Russia, he compared the actual
features of those regions with the descriptions given of
them. He thus became sensible of the miserably defec¬
tive state of geographical science, and resolved to devote
his life to its improvement. He withdrew as soon as pos-
sible from the count’s family, and went to reside at Co¬
penhagen, devoting himself entirely to this new pursuit.
In 1752 he presented the first specimen of his powers in
a Description of the Counties of Sleswig and Holstein, a
work which produced a favourable idea of his accuracy
and ability. He soon after removed to Gottingen, and
married Christiana Dilthey, a young lady of great accom¬
plishments, authoress of a volume of poems, and to whom
he had been engaged from the time of his departure to
Russia. Here, on account of a work which appeared to
dissent from some of the Lutheran tenets, he was exclud¬
ed from the theological chair, for which he had become a
candidate. The chagrin occasioned by this disappoint¬
ment induced him to accept an invitation to the German
congregation at Petersburg. He was employed there, also,
in organizing a school, which, under his auspices, soon be¬
came one of the most flourishing in the north. This school
was superintended by Marshal Munich, who at first showed
great favour to Busching; but being accustomed to entire
obsequiousness from all connected with him, the marshal
did not accommodate himself to the hardy independence
of the German sage. A collision arose, in consequence of
which Busching announced to his congregation that he
bus
747
was under the necessity of returning to Germany The n i •
empress expressed much dissatisfaction at the conduct
wouH 7 ’ “"A made hiSh Busching The
would consent to remain ; but he deemed it unworthy of
aftel' ’“' “'S resisted the entreaties of his congnL-
tion, to yield to the favours of the court. He returne/to
Germany without any fixed object or establishment in life
and went at first to reside at Aitona. Next yearjhoweve?
he was called to superintend an extensive establishment for
education Which had been formed at Berlin, unde? the
were'fih °fl' 'e §7?t Fredenck- His appointments here
the 'nstietruario?ntf hlf ef7ti0,"S pr°Vcd of si6naI benefit to
ie institution of which he became the head. His writ-
ngs and example gave a new impulse to education through¬
out 1 russia. He spent a number of hours every day in the
institute, superintended the progress of every pupil, and
spected the minutest details connected with its prospe-
rity. He gave also courses of lectures on the history of
the arts and sciences. This labour did not interrupt the
composition of his numerous works. The queen loved his
society, and at first often invited him to dine with her;
but, finding that such engagements occupied too much of
16 entr,eated her majesty to allow him to devote
himself as much as possible to his numerous labours.
1 hough seized with dropsy, which occasioned a series of
the most cruel sufferings, he did not remit his academical
labours, till the disease coming to a crisis, terminated his
t'u on. the ftliMay 1793> m the 69th year of his age.
H,s wife had died in 1777, and he had contracted a second
marriage with Mademoiselle Reinbeck, the daughter of a
clergy naan at Berlin. By the first marriage he had two
children, who survived him; by the second he had six,
who, except one, all died in infancy.
hew authors, even in Germany, have produced a greater
number of works than Busching. The entire number, as
enumerated by Meusel, in his Lexicon of German Authors,
amounts to more than a hundred. They may all be classed
under the following heads: 1. Geography and History;
Education ; 3. Religion ; 4. Biography. The first class
comprehends those upon which his fame chiefly rests.
He possessed not, indeed, the geographical genius, if we
may so speak, of D’Anville, his skill in the construction
of maps, his^ quick eye, or his sagacity in eliciting the
truth from hints and imperfect notices. Fie may be re¬
garded, however, as the creator of modern Statistics, that
science which exhibits the present state of every kingdom,
its civil and political constitution, its wealth, the produc¬
tions of nature, the exchanges of commerce, and the esta¬
blishments for public instruction ; all these particulars are
detailed in his works in the fullest manner, and from the
most careful investigation of original materials. His works,
devoid of the ornaments of style, and composed of minute
details, are rather useful to consult than profitable to read ;
but this is a fault to which most writers of his country are
liable. His grand work is the Neue Erdbeschreibung, New
Geographical Description of the Globe. The first four parts,
which comprehend Europe, were published in four succes¬
sive volumes, from 1754 to 1761, and have been translat¬
ed into all the European languages. They appeared in
English with a preface by Murdoch, in six volumes 4to,
London, 1762. Fie published also, in 1768, the fifth part,
being the first volume upon Asia, containing Asiatic Tur¬
key and Arabia. It displays an immense extent of re¬
search, and is generally considered as his masterpiece ; but
it has not been translated either into French or English.
Besides this great geographical work, Busching was the
editor of a valuable collection, entitled Magazine for the
History and Geography of Modern Times, 22 vols. 4to,
1767-88; also of a Journal appropriated to the Notice of
Maps, Berlin, 1773-87.
748 BUS
Buseo The elementary works on education published by Bus-
11 ching are very numerous, and have long held a distin-
Bushire. gushed place, even in a country so eminent as Germany, in
jhig branch of literature. If in some departments better
works have now been produced, it is by labouring on the
foundation of Busching. His theological writings are not
very highly esteemed. In biography he wrote a number
of articles for the Historical Magazine ; also A Collection
of Biography, in six volumes, 1783-9, including a very
elaborate life of the great Frederick. • (e.)
BUSEO, a town in the eastern division of Wallachia, the
seat of a Greek bishop, and the capital of the district of
the same name, which comprehends one other town, and
218 villages. It has several churches, mostly of the
Greek communion, 1500 houses, and 4900 inhabitants, who
carry on considerable trade.
BUSH, Paul, the first bishop of Bristol, became a stu¬
dent in the university of Oxford about the year 1513, and
in 1518 took the degree of bachelor of arts. Fie after¬
wards became a brother of the order called bonhommes ; of
which, after studying some time among the iriars of St
Austin, now Wadham College, he was elected provincial.
In that station he lived many years, till at length King
Henry VIII. being informed of his great knowledge in di¬
vinity and physic, made him his chaplain, and in 1542 ap¬
pointed him to the new episcopal see of Bristol; but Bush
having, in the reign of Edward VI., taken a wife, he was on
the accession of Mary deprived of his dignity, and spent
the remainder of his life in a private station at Bristol,
where he died in the year 1558, aged sixty-eight, and was
buried on the north side of the choir of the cathedral.
Wood says, that while he was a student at Oxford, he was
numbered among the celebrated poets of that university ;
and Pitt gives him the character of a faithful Catholic, not¬
withstanding his want of chastity. Fie wrote, 1. An Ex¬
hortation to Margaret Burgess, wife to John Burgess,
clothier, of King’s Wood, in the county of Wilts. Lon¬
don, printed in the reign of Edward VI. 8vo. 2. Notes
on the Psalms. 3. Treatise in Praise of the Cross. 4.
Answer to certain Queries concerning the abuse of the
Mass, Records, No. 25. 5. Dialogues between Christ and
the Virgin Mary. 6. Treatise of Slaves, and Curing Reme¬
dies. 7. A little treatise called the Extirpation of Igno-
rancy. 8. Carmina diversa.
BUSHEAB, an island in the Persian Gulf, about six¬
teen miles in length and five or six in breadth, separated
from the mainland by a channel of considerable breadth,
from which runs a long ridge of rocks. It is inhabited, and
covered with date trees. The chief resides at the east
end, and subsists partly by piratical adventures. Long.
53. 4. E. Lat. 27. 2. N.
BUSHEL. See Weights and Measures.
BUSHIRE, Abuschehr, a town of Persia, in the pro¬
vince of Pars, situated in the Persian Gulf. The surround¬
ing country is a parched and barren desert, consisting of
brown sand or grey clay and rock, unenlivened by any
kind of vegetation. The town, which is of a triangular
form, occupies the southern extremity of a peninsula eleven
miles long and four broad, and is encircled on all sides ex¬
cept the south by water; but in high tides and storms it
has sometimes been completely insulated. This, however,
is not likely to happen again, as the water is fast receding
from the town. It is fortified on the land side by a mud
wall mounting twelve pieces of cannon. The streets are
very narrow, and, like all the towns and villages in this coun¬
try, it is but a mean place, being in fact little better than a
collection of clay houses, surrounded by walls and towers
of the same material. At a distance they can scarcely
be discerned from the surface of the ground ; they resem¬
ble any thing rather than the habitations of man; and they
BUS
are enveloped in dirt and every species of discomfort. The Bim
heat here is intolerable, ranging in summer from 87° to 90°, ItJ
and sometimes to 100°, 105°, and 106°; so that few even of
the natives can endure it. To add to this evil, there is t?
scarcely a drop of sweet water to be had within the walls.
There are wells in the sandy peninsula on which the town
is situated, which are dug to the depth of thirty fathoms,
and from which sweet water is brought from a great dis¬
tance. The Eastlndia Company have a factory at this place,
but the apartments are small, comfortless, and ill aired. A
better house was at one time built, but the jealousy of the
Persian government being awakened, an order was sent to
raze it to the ground. A considerable exportation takes
place of Persian commodities, such as carpets, wine -of
Shiraz, rose-water, drugs, &c.; and the imports are In¬
dian goods of different kinds, and English manufactures.
Not more than eight ships under English colours frequent
the port, and about six under those of Muscat, making an
average of about 4500 tons of shipping. The outer roads,
where ships exceeding 300 tons burden can alone anchor,
are upwards of six miles from the town. The anchorage
is tolerably good; but during the fury of the north-west
winds ships are frequently obliged to cut their cables and
bear up for Karak. The inner roads afford better shelter,
but are also at some distance from the shore. The popu¬
lation is said by Morier to amount to 10,000; others state
it at 5000. It is ten miles west-south-west of Shiraz.
Long. 50. 43. E. Lat. 28, 59. N.
BUSIRIS, in Ancient Geography, a city of Lower Egypt,
to the south of Leontopolis, on that branch of the Nile
called Busiriticus. It is said to have been built by Busiris,
wlio was noted for his cruelty, and was slain by Hercules.
BUSK, a city of the circle of Lemberg, in the Austrian
province of Gallicia. It is situated on the river Bug,
which runs from a beautiful lake here. The inhabitants
are about 3150, and have four churches, three Greek and
one Catholic, and manufactures of leather and of paper.
BUSKIN, a kind of shoe, somewhat in the form of a
boot, and adapted to either foot, and worn by either sex.
This part of dress, covering both the foot and mid-leg, was
tied underneath the knee; it was very rich and fine, and
principally used on the stage by actors in tragedy. It was
of a quadrangular form; and the sole was so thick, that
by means of it men of the ordinary stature might be rais¬
ed to the pitch and elevation of the heroes they perso¬
nated. The colour was generally purple on the stage ; and
herein it was distinguished from the sock worn in comedy,
which was only a low common shoe. The buskin seems to
have been worn not only by actors, but by girls, to increase
their height; travellers and hunters also made use of it
to defend themselves from the mire. In classic authors
we frequently find the buskin used to signify tragedy it¬
self; and it was also understood as signifying a lofty strain
or elevated style.
BUSS, in maritime affairs, a small sea vessel, used in
the herring fishery, commonly from forty-eight to sixty
tons burden, and sometimes more. A buss has two small
sheds or cabins, one at the prow and the other at the
stern ; and that at the prow serves for a kitchen.
BUSSOLENGO, a town of the Austrian kingdom of
Venetian Lombardy, in the delegation of Verona. It is
situated on the river Etsch, and contains about 3000 in¬
habitants, chiefly employed in the manufacture of linen
goods. ,
BUSSORA, Bassora, Balsora, or Basra, a celebrat¬
ed city of Asia, in the government of Bagdad, situated on
the western bank of the Shut-ul-Arab, about seventy miles
from the mouth of this noble stream, which is navigable to
the city for ships of 500 tons burden. Bussora is surround¬
ed by walls, which are kept in a tolerable state of repair.
BUS
Bussora. They have five gates, and are at the lowest computation
about seven miles in circuit. They are washed by the
liver, which frequently inundates the low-lying plain in
which the city is situated, so that it appears like an island
in the middle of a lake. It is, without exception, the most
filthy town that can be conceived ; the streets are exceed-
iagty ; and the stench arising from nuisances, every¬
where exposed to view, is intolerable. The houses are
meanly built, par tly of sun-dried, and partly of burnt bricks,
with flat roofs, surrounded by a parapet; and the bazars,
though stocked with the richest merchandise, are miserable
structures, not arched, as in Bagdad and the Persian
towns, but covered with mats laid on rafters of date trees,
which hardly afford protection from the scorching rays of
the sun. Ot the vast area within the walls, the greater
proportion is occupied with gardens and plantations of
palm ti ees, inteisected by a number of little canals, clean¬
ed twice a day, on the ebb and flow of the tide, which
rises here about nine feet. The largest of these canals,
which approaches the English factory and the palace of
the governor, situated about two miles from the river, is
continually crowded with small vessels. The town has
scarcely any public buildings that deserve notice. It has
khans and coffee-houses without number, a wretched hum-
mum, and upw ards of forty mosques, of which one only is
worthy of the name; and this, with the palace of the go-
vernor and the English factory, which are all contiguous
to one another, are the only decent buildings in the place.
The population is a heterogeneous mixture of all the na¬
tions in the East, and consists of Turks, Arabs, Indians,
Persians, Armenians, Jacobites, and Jews. The Arabs,
however, constitute the principal class; and the Turks,
though they are masters of the town, are not numerous.
Bussora is a great emporium of Indian commerce. Three
or four English ships of about 400 tons burden arrive in
the course of a year from Calcutta; but the chief part of
the traffic is carried on in Arabian bottoms; and the
merchants of Muscat possess some of the finest vessels
that navigate the Indian seas. From various parts of
Hindustan, Bussora receives silk, muslin, linen, white and
blue cloth for the clothing of the Arabians, gold and sil¬
ver stuffs, various metals, sandal wrood, and indigo; pearls
from Bahrein, and coffee from Mocha; shawls, fruit, and
the precious metals from Persia; spices from Java; and
European commodities, which are scarce and dear, from
different parts. The trade with the interior is conducted
by means of caravans to Aleppo and Bagdad, whence the
goods are conveyed to Constantinople. The returns are
made in Indian goods, bullion, pearls, dates, copper, raw
silk; horses, which being very strong and beautiful, are
exported by the English ; and gall-nuts. A Turkish fleet
was formerly stationed here, which suppressed all pirati¬
cal adventurers in the Persian Gulf. But it is now re¬
duced to ten or twelve decayed hulks, incapable of unmoor¬
ing out of the river; and the dignified office of capitan
pasha, then held immediately under the Porte, is now one
of the most insignificant appointments in the gift of the
pasha of Bagdad.
The situation of the town is unhealthy, owing to the in¬
undations of the river, from which noxious exhalations
arise, and strangers are commonly attacked by fever after
a short residence. The adjoining country is fertile, pro¬
ducing, besides rice, wheat, barley, and dates of different
species, a variety of fruits and vegetables, such as apri¬
cots, apples, figs, olives, pomegranates, and grapes; and
cabbages, broccoli, lettuce, onions, peas, beans, and truffles,
in vast quantities. There are whole fields of roses, which
the inhabitants cultivate for the purposes of distillation.
The licorice plant also grows amidst the date groves on the
borders of the river. The wild Arabs from the neigh-
BUS
74<>
bounng deserts frequently harass the peasants by their Bust
predatory incursions. To guard against these, and to II
protect the farms and country houses, Abdulla Aga has Bustum
built a wall for sixty miles along the adjoining desert, at ' 
all the gates of which guards are placed. But flying par¬
ties of Arabs still break through this barrier, and annoy
the peaceable inhabitants.
The city of Bussora was founded by Omar, a. d. 636;
and its situation was so favourable for commerce, that in a
few years it became a large and flourishing city. It was
conquered by the Turks in 1668, and since that period
has experienced many revolutions. It was taken in 1777,
after a srnge of eight months, by the Persians under Sa-
T- i Kjian- In about a year it fell again into the hands
tbo Turks, who were again deprived of it by the scheik
of the Montefidge Arabs. The town was in October fol¬
lowing recovered by Solyman Pasha, wdio encountered the
scheik on the banks of the Euphrates, and put him to
flight. The governor has ever since been sent from Bag¬
dad, and is generally an officer of high rank. The popu¬
lation is estimated at 60,000. It is 210 miles south from
Ispahan, and 1815 south-east from Constantinople. Long.
44. 46. E. Lat. 30. 32. N. (Kinneir’s Geographical Me¬
moir of the Persian Empire.')
BUST, or Busto, in Sculpture, denotes the figure or
portrait of a person in relievo, showing only the head,
shoulders, and stomach, the arms being lopped off, and
ordinarily placed on a pedestal or console.
In speaking of an antique, we say the head is marble,
and the bust porphyry or bronze, that is, the stomach and
shoulders. Felibien observes, that though in painting one
may say a figure appears in busto, yet it is not properly
called a bust, that word being confined to things in relievo.
The bust is the same with what the Latins called Her¬
nia,. from the Greek Hermes, Mercury, the image of that
god being frequently represented in this manner amongst
the Athenians.
Bust is also used, especially by the Italians, for the trunk
of a human body, from the neck to the hips.
BUSTAR, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Gundwana, the capital of an independent rajah, whose
subjects are among the most barbarous of any people in
Hindustan. Long. 82. 38. E. Lat. 19. 44. N.
BUSTARD. See Ornithology, Index.
Bustard Bay, a bay on the east coast of New Holland,
in which there is a channel leading to a large lagoon.
There is space here for a few ships to lie in safety, but
access to the lagoon is prevented by shallows. Around
the sides of the bay are salt marshes and bogs, and man¬
groves grow in various places. The bay derived its name
from one of Captain Cook’s officers having shot a bustard
here. Many other large birds frequent the shore, and
great quantities of the hammer and pearl oysters are found
under the mangroves. The country is but thinly inhabited,
and tbe natives bear a resemblance to those in the other
parts of New Holland. Long. 208. 18. W. Lat. 24. 4. S.
BUSTUARII, in Homan Antiquity, gladiators who
fought about the bustum or funeral pile of a person of dis¬
tinction, in order that the blood which was spilt might serve
as a sacrifice to the infernal gods, and render them more
propitious to the manes of the deceased. This custom was
introduced in the room of the more inhuman one of sacri¬
ficing captives at the bustum, or on the tombs of warriors.
BUSTUM, in Antiquity, denotes a pyramid or pile of
wood, whereon were anciently placed the bodies of the
deceased, in order to be burnt.
The Romans borrowed the custom of burning their dead
from the Greeks. The deceased, crowned with flowers,
and dressed in his richest habits, was laid on the bustum.
Some authors say it was only called bustum after the burn-
750 BUT
Bustum ing, quasi bene ustum vel combustum : before the burning it
|| was more properly called pyra, during it rogus, and after-
Buteshire. warcls bustum. When the body was only burnt there, and
^ ' buried elsewhere, the place was not properly called bus¬
tum, but ustrini, or ustrinum.
Bustum, in the Campus Martins, was a structure where¬
on the Emperor Augustus first, and after him the bodies
of his successors, were burnt. It was built of white stone,
surrounded with an iron pallisade, and planted within with
alder trees.
Bustum was also figuratively applied to denote any
tomb ; whence the phrases facere bustum, violare bustum,
and the like.
Bustum of an Altar, was the hearth or place where the
fire was kindled.
BUSVAGON, an island in the Eastern Seas, belonging
to the Philippines, fifty miles in length by thirteen in
average breadth, and situated in the 12th degree of north
latitude.
BUTCHER, a person who slaughters cattle for the use
of the table, or who cuts up and retails the same. Among
the ancient Romans there were three kinds of established
butchers, whose office it was to furnish the city with the
necessary cattle, and to take care of preparing and vending
their flesh. The suarii provided hogs; the pecuarii or
boarii other cattle, especially oxen; and under these was
a subordinate class, whose office it was to kill, called lanii
and carnifices.
Butcher-Bird. See Ornithology, Index.
BUTESHIRE, a county on the west coast of Scotland,
in the Frith of Clyde, is composed of seven islands, viz.
Bute, Arran, Great Cumbrae, Little Cumbrae, Inchmar-
nock, Lamlash, and Pladda.
Bute, from which the county derives its name, is situ¬
ated between longitude 4. 51. and 5. 2. W., and latitude
55. 41. and 55. 43. N., and is sixteen miles west from
Greenock, thirty-eight miles from Glasgow, and eighty-
three from Edinburgh; but the usual route to these places
is about four or five miles longer. It is about fifteen miles
long, in a straight line from north-north-west to south-
south-east, and the average breadth is three miles and a
half, although it is much indented with bays: in some places
it is not above half that breadth, but in other places it is at
least a mile broader. It is separated on the north from the
district of Cowal in Argyleshire by the Kyles of Bute, which
for a considerable distance along shore is not above half a
mile broad. The more southerly part of the island is se¬
parated from Ayrshire by the Frith of Clyde, which is from
five to seven miles broad; but the channel is much nar¬
rowed by the islands of Cumbraes, being situated betwixt
Bute and Ayrshire, and distant from Bute about three miles,
but much nearer Ayrshire. Arran lies off the south point
of Bute, distant about eight miles; and Skipness in Ar¬
gyleshire bounds it on the west at about the same distance
as Arran. There is considerable uncertainty as to the
origin of the name of Bute. Some contend that it is de¬
rived from Both, signifying in the Irish tongue a cell;
and they ground this on the fact, that is has been so writ¬
ten by ancient authors, and that St Brendan, an Irish ab¬
bot, caused a cell to be erected on it in the sixth century.
It has been written Both, Bote, Boot, and Botis; but Mr
Blain, some time commissary of the isles, and sheriff-sub¬
stitute of Buteshire, in his manuscript history of Bute, en¬
deavours to show, with considerable ingenuity, that it has
been derived from the old British word Ey Budh, or
Gaelic word Ey Bhiod, signifying the Island of Corn or
Island of Food, from its being more fertile than the adja¬
cent highland countries; and this opinion appears to be
still further supported by the fact, that at the time of va¬
luing the teinds, the grain in the island amounted to about
BUT
34,700 bolls. The Butemen were anciently considered as Buteshire
a distinct people, and refused to be reckoned a part of the r
highlands, or even of the lowlands. The island contains
about 30,000 English acres, of which about two thirds may
be considered as arable; the remainder consists of woods,
muirs, mosses, and lakes. There are six lakes in the
island. The largest, Loch Fad, extended originally to 138
acres, but is now considerably enlarged by the embank¬
ments of the cotton spinning company, whose works are
placed on the water flowing from this lake. Ascog Loch
extends to seventy-two acres. The water flowing from
this loch has also an excellent fall for a mill or other
public work; but nothing further has yet been erected on
it than a dye-work, and a carding and wauking mill. It is
hoped, however, that it will soon be made more available.
Quien Loch covers fifty-four acres ; Greenan Loch, twelve
acres; Loch Dhu, or Black Loch, nine acres ; and Lochan-
tarbh, five acres. The climate is very mild, genial, and
healthy, more so than in any other part of the west of
Scotland. It is frequently compared to Devonshire, and
in some respects is considered as superior. The lofty
mountains of Arran and Argyle skirt it on the west and
south, and break the clouds coming from the Western
Ocean, so that they pass over Bute with a discharge of
comparatively but little of their contents, and less rain
falls here than on the rest of the west coast of Scotland.
In summer the air is kept cool by the sea breeze, and in
winter the same cause prevents intense frost; while snow
seldom falls to the depth of twelve inches, and very rarely
remains above two or three days on the ground. The
winds most prevalent blow from the sputh and west.
Agriculture, under the fostering care of the Marquis of
Bute, has of late years made considerable progress in the
island, especially in the middle and southern divisions. The
soil in the southern half of the island is light and sandy;
in the more northern it is of a clayey nature. The land
is generally well subdivided with ditches and white-thorn
hedges. Crops of all kinds common in the lowlands are
produced in Bute.
Freestone and coal are both found in the island, but
neither to any great extent. Several attempts have been
made to get a good working vein of coals, but hitherto
without success. But slate and lime are found in it. The
slate has been principally wrought on the estate of Karnes,
formerly the seat of Sir William M‘Leod Bannatyne, one
of the lords of session, but now possessed by James Ha¬
milton, Esq. The lime has been chiefly wrought in the
south end of the island, in the parish of Kingarth; and
that manufactured there is considered as equal, if not su¬
perior, in point of adhesiveness, to the far-famed Arden
lime of Lanarkshire, when properly wrought; and it is
much cheaper, though not so white in the colour. Inex¬
haustible beds of shells are found on the west side of the
island, and considerable quantities of sea-weed are driven
in upon the shores. The rocks in the north end are chiefly
mica, clay, and chlorite slate, intersected with quartz and
trap. Whinstone is chiefly found near the town of Rothe¬
say, and sandstone stretches along from thence to the
south.
Excellent banks for fishing are found round the island;
and the herring fishery is prosecuted vigorously by the in¬
habitants, especially by residents in Rothesay.
The Marquis of Bute is the chief proprietor of the
island. His seat is Mountstuart, beautifully situated on
the east side of the island, about four miles from Rothe¬
say. The real rent of his property in the island is about
L.8000, including L.440 of feu-duty for ground feued
chiefly within the burgh of Rothesay. The other pro¬
prietors of any extent are James Hamilton, Esq. of Karnes,
rent L.1500; Kirkman Findlay, Esq. of Kilmahalmaig,
:teshire. L.500; Robert Thom, Esq. ot Ascog, L.300; M'Conechv
0t T*?!6,?A'™ i,of Garraohty, L.70.7
BUTESHIRE.
751
The burgh of Rothesay, tile capital of the island and
s ure, is beautifully situated at the head of a deep bay on
the north-east side of the island, where there is safe an"
chorage-ground for vessels of any size and any wind, and
room enough to contain a very large fleet. The territory
of the burgh is about nine miles in circumference, extend-
lng fu. J a ““if. beyon<l the town on the east, south, and
7^9 S‘t68' 1 16 burgJVhas an extensive harbour, built in
1822, at an expense of L 6000. The shipping belonging
to this port carries upwards of 4000 tons. There is a lame
spinning factory consisting of two mills, in Rothesay
driven by water from Loch Fad; and it may be worthy of
notice, that the second mill erected in Scotland for the
spinning of cotton was upon this water only about fifty-
five years ago, when the business was carried on with the
strictest secrecy. The house then used was a thatched
building which ,s still standing. A power-loom factory,
wrought by a steam-engine, has lately been erected. But
the herring fishery has proved the chief source of employ-
ment to the male population. In 1830 there were about
400 men and 3000 tons of shipping employed in this trade,
besides a great number of small wherries occupied in fishing
about the island and neighbourhood. Several steam-boats
ply daily to and from Glasgow and the intermediate ports.
Ihese convey the Riail; and in the summer season there
ai%?eneraby two’ an^ sometimes three mails in the day.
. ulhfe are {°ur places of worship in Rothesay; the pa¬
rish church, situated on a gentle eminence about a quar-
i cnn a ^r°m tbe *°Wn ’ a c^laPe' of ease, erected in
1800; a united secession church; and a reformed Pres¬
byterian church. I he county jail is situated in Rothesay,
where the head courts of the shire are held. The sheriff
court is held every Wednesday, and the burgh court every
Ihursday. Ihe ruins of an ancient castle, which was once
the residence of the kings of Scotland, are situated in the
middle of the town. It originally consisted of a circular
court, 138 feet in diameter, surrounded by a wall eight feet
thick and seventeen feet high, with battlements. &It had
four towers, and was surrounded by a wet ditch. It is
supposed to have been built about the year 1100, though
the particular date is not known. It is first mentioned in
history in 1228. Heulbec, king of the Isles, was killed in
besieging this castle in 1263. It was taken possession of
by the English during the reign of John Baliol, but sur¬
rendered to Robert the Bruce in 1311. King Robert the
Second built a palace adjoining the castle, and frequently
took up his residence in it betwixt 1376 and 1398, when
he created his eldest son Prince David Duke of Rothesay,
a title which the king’s eldest son still bears. This was
the first dukedom conferred in Scotland. On the 12th
January 1400 Robert granted the charter of erection of
the burgh of Rothesay. He died in the castle of Rothe¬
say on 4th April 1406, and was buried in the abbey of
Paisley.. This castle was burned by the Earl of Argyll’s
brother in 1685, and has since remained in ruins. The
population of the burgh of Rothesay in 1831 was 4817,
besides upwards of 300 seamen belonging to registered
vessels, not included in the census.
Ihe island is divided into two parishes, Rothesay and
Kingarth; the former containing a population of 6084, in¬
cluding the burgh; and the latter 746; thus making the
whole population of the island 6830, exclusive of seamen,
of whom there are betwixt 300 and 400 belonging to or
connected with registered vessels. This island is highly
esteemed, and is much resorted to as sea-bathing quarters
in the summer season ; and many invalids are induced, by
the mildness of the climate, to reside there during winter.
Ihere are several remains of druidical monuments on the
island, but the chief or most entire is at Lanfralchorid im? . i.-
^ P-l'Sfih °f At Du"ag°i'> i" tirfa'isCtW "
IS a vitnhed fort, and the remains of an old church and
twny?pv~g,0Und’ Whe1’u Unti' after the reformation, the
sexes weie not allowed to intermingle. Near this
church there is a circular inclosure called the Devil’s
cauldron, where penance was wont to be performed. As
tins rite of superstition is somewhat singular, we shall de¬
scribe it. Transgressors were imprisoned in this terrene
purgatory for a given time, which, it may be readily con¬
ceived, was meted out according to the magnitude of the
offences committed, being sometimes for several days and
nights together. Ihe priest threatened eternal punish-
ment to the whole party if but one of their number fell
asleep, lo provide against this, the penitents were fur¬
nished with a sharp instrument, with which they kept
prick1 ng each other when inclined to somnolency. 1
Ihere are three small villages in the island; Port Ban-
natyne, situated at the head of Karnes Bay, about two and
a mlf miles from Rothesay; Kerrycroy, near Mountstuart,
the seat of the Marquis of Bute; and Kilcatten Bay, situ¬
ated on the south side of the island. The natives former¬
ly spoke the English and Gaelic languages indifferently,
but Lnghsh is now chiefly spoken.
. Arran is situated about eight miles south of Bute. It
is very mountainous. Goatfield, a mountain situated about
the centre of the island, is 2945 feet high ; and some others
approach to that height. There is a remarkably fine view
from this mountain on all sides, whence is seen part of
the Atlantic Ocean, Ireland, the counties of Ayr, Ren¬
frew Argyle, and Bute, the Frith of Clyde, Loch Fine, and
hundreds of other scenes both grand and picturesque.
Iliere are many druidical remains and monumental stones
on the island. Fingal’s Cave is still pointed out; and
tradition says Ossian died on this island. It is about
twenty miles long and eleven broad, and contains about
106,000 English acres, 15,000 of which only are arable.
Abundance of game and some wild deer are found on the
mountains. These are either bare rocks, or only covered
with heath and fern. There is comparatively little wood
in island, except near Brodick Castle. The climate in
winter is very severe, and generally moist. The whole
island, except a few farms, belongs to the Duke of Hamil¬
ton, in ivInch family it has been for several centuries.
1 he roads are for the most part very good, having been
chiefly made by the parliamentary commissioners a few
years ago; and the expense of repairs is defrayed partly
by the exchequer, and partly by the proprietors, in terms
of the act o9 Geo. III. cap. 135. I he herring fishery is
prosecuted to a considerable extent, but this is almost
wholly done by means of wherries and other small vessels.
There are two excellent harbours in the island, Lamlash
and Loch Ranza, but without piers of any extent. There
is a small pier at Brodick, but the bay is not well sheltered
for anchorage. A very extensive pier was commenced at
Lamlash in the reign of Queen Anne, and a considerable
part erected, but it was afterwards neglected; and all the
stones above the water have from time to time been re¬
moved for building or other purposes, so that now the
foundation can scarcely be traced; and the only landing
place is a small jetty recently built. The island produces
barley, bear, oats, peas, beans, potatoes, and turnips. The
islanders have been long addicted to illicit distillation, a
practice which has not yet been given up, although it has
considerably diminished, owing, it is believed, to the strong
laws enacted against it, and the firmness with which they
are executed. The smugglers give a better price for the
barley and bear than could otherwise be obtained, and this
enables the tenants to pay a better rent. We see no rea¬
son why this demoralizing traffic should not be as effectu-
70-
BUTESHIRE.
Buteshire, ally put a stop to here as it has been in the Isle of Bute,
by the exertions of the principal proprietor. From the
prevalence of this practice, the inhabitants of Arran have
acquired a very reserved and suspicious manner, especially
in the presence of strangers. A visitor to Arran will be
sometimes amazed to find, that in putting a question about
any individual or place in the island, to any of the natives,
no satisfactory answer will be returned, until he, in his
turn, undergo a process of examination as to his purpose
in landing, and his objects in asking for these persons and
places; and, from the same cause, it is very difficult to dis¬
cover the perpetrator of any crime, unless it be of very
considerable magnitude. Agriculture was much neglect¬
ed till of late ; every farm being occupied by a society of
tenants, among whom the arable part of the farm was di¬
vided in small lots, and the pasturage grounds and moors
were a common under one herd; but they are now well
subdivided. There has been a great emigration from this
island to America of late years, although the inhabitants
are strongly attached to their native soil. The language
chiefly spoken by the natives is Gaelic, but they are
rapidly advancing in the knowledge of English. The
islanders are all Protestants, and strongly attached to the
church of Scotland. Christianity is said to have been
introduced here by St Molios, a disciple of St Columba.
The island is divided into two parishes, and has also two
chapels. The largest parish is, named Kilmory, and con¬
tains 3771 inhabitants; the other parish is named Kil¬
bride, and contains 2656 inhabitants, making the popula¬
tion of the island 6427, besides a few seamen belonging
to registered vessels. The population of this island has
rather decreased of late years, owing to emigration. Ar¬
ran is highly celebrated for its mineralogy. (See Jameson’s
Mineralogy of the Scottish Isles, Headrich’s Survey of
Arran, and Dr M£Culloch’s works.) Granite, rock crystal,
quartz, and small-grained granite, are abundant in the
northern division of the island. Mica slate and granite
unite at Catacoal. Gneiss, micaceous schistus, and pud-
dingstone, are abundant at Glenrosa. Quartz is found in
all kinds of crystallization, in beds of clay slate and in other
situations. Greenstone, sandstone resting on clay slate,
basalt, trap, and limestone, are abundant. Pitchstone is
found on the south, with pearlstone, ironstone, and por¬
phyry ; also flint, agate, siliceous spar, jasper, and various
beautiful crystals.
Great Cumbraes is situated in the Frith of Clyde, be¬
twixt Ayrshire and the island of Bute. It is the pro¬
perty of the Marquis of Bute and the Earl of Glasgow".
It is about two miles and a half long, and one and a half
broad, and measures about 2500 acres, one half of which
is arable. It has a gentle ascent of about 400 feet from
the sea to the centre of the island. The village of Mill-
port is situated on the south-west side of the island, op¬
posite which there is very safe anchorage-ground, and a
small harbour is formed with a stone pier. The island
abounds with lime and freestone. Considerable quantities
of the freestone are exported, but the lime is seldom
wrought. There are two basaltic rocks on the east side
of the island, called Reppel Walls. It forms one parish,
and has one church. The population in 1831 was 877,
besides thirty-five seamen belonging to registered vessels.
Little Cumbrae lies about half a mile south of Great
Cumbrae. It is the pi'operty of the Earl of Eglintoun. It
is about a mile in length, and half a mile in breadth. Rab¬
bits are very plentiful on this island. A light-house was
erected in 1750 on the highest point of the island, but it
was found that the fogs obscured the light; it was therefore
removed to a lower situation. Three or four families live
on it. The ruins of a castle are situated on the south
side. The ascent from the shore is over rocks, which rise
one above another like steps of stairs. There are several Buteshi*
caves in the island, two of them very large. The extent '-''Y'*
of one of these is not known, but the other is thirty-two
feet square, and six feet in height.
Inchmarnoch is a lowr-Iying, small, beautiful island, situ¬
ated about a mile west from Bute, It takes its name from
a chapel built on it, dedicated to St Marnoch, and which
had a burying-ground attached. The ruins were visible
till very lately, when they were removed by the rude
hands of a farmer. It is about a mile long and half a mile
broad, and is divided into three farms, and nearly one half
is arable. It is the property of the Marquis of Bute, and
abounds in sea shell or marl. The inhabitants acknow¬
ledge the spiritual jurisdiction of the parish of Rothesay,
although it wTas long considered as belonging to Saddel in
Argyleshire, from the monks of St Marnoch being attach¬
ed to the convent of Saddel; and still the minister of
Kerry derives a portion of his stipend from this island.
Pladda is a small island, which lies about a mile south¬
east from Arran, on which there is a light-house, which
directs the mariner to the Cumbrae light.
Lamlash is a small island situated in the mouth of Lam-
lash Bay, in Arran, and helps to form that safe and capa¬
cious harbour.
The valued rent of the county in Scots money is L.15,042.
13s. lOd. The lands belong to twelve proprietors. The
valuation Scots of the Marquis of Bute’s land is L.8066.
5s. 4^-d.; that of the Duke of Hamilton, including a few
farms belonging to Miss Ann Hamilton, is L.4955. 11s.
Nearly one fourth of the lands in the county is entailed.
The real rent of the lands in 1811 was L.18,560. 9s. 2d.,
of the houses L.2310. Is. 7d. Of the thirty-three shires of
Scotland, Bute was the twelfth in point of precedency in
the Scottish parliament rolls and all public processions,
though not entitled to that rank in point of valuation. It
sent two members to parliament before the union; since
that time, and till the passing of the reform bill, Bute and
Caithness returned a member alternately; now Bute re¬
turns a member for itself. The family of Bute were here¬
ditary sheriffs of the county for upwards of 360 years,
until the jurisdictions were taken away in 1748. They
were also lords of the regality of Bute. The present
marquis is lord-lieutenant and high sheriff of the shire,
and heritable coroner of the island of Bute, and keeper
of the castle of Rothesay. Criminals usually tried be¬
fore the justiciary court are sent to the circuit court at
Inverary. Buteshire sends ten assizers to that circuit
court. "The islands of Bute and Cumbrae were granted
by the sovereign of Scotland, at an early period, to the
lord high steward; and when they fell under the power
of Norway, the monarch of that country gave Bute and
certain other islands to Reginald, king of Man. After
the marriage of Alexander VI., lord high steward, with
Jean, daughter and heiress of Angus, one of the grand¬
sons of the king of Man, the islands of Bute, Arran, and
Cumbrae became a favoured part of the patrimony of
the lord high steward, between whom and the people a
strong attachment subsisted; and they were, by way ot dis¬
tinction, called the Lord High Steward’s Brandanes. It is
probable that this name was derived from St Brandane, who
flourished in the eleventh century. Sir John Stewart of
Bute, from whom the family of Bute descended, was son
to King Robert II., and received from his father the office
of heritable sheriff, as well as an estate of lands in Bute
and Arran. In the year 1544 the English burned the
greater part of Bute and Arran. The shire of Bute con¬
tains 154 English square miles, or 98,547 English acres;
and the population in 1831 amounted to 14,134, besides
seamen belonging to registered vessels, of whom theie
might be about 400.
but
sutler.
hr**'
. r 5iTL,ER’ Charles, a native of Wycomb, in the coun-
ty of Bucks, and a master of arts in Magdalen College Ox
ford, who published a book entitled ‘‘The Principles of
Music in singing and setting; with the twofold use^here-
of, ecclesiastical and civil.” 4to, London, 1636. The au-
thoi of this book was a person of singular learning nnfi
ingenuity, which he manifested in sundry other works
enumerated by Wood m the Atherue OxonLses. Among
these is an English Grammar, published in 1633, in which
he proposes a scheme of regular orthography, and makes
use of characters, some borrowed from the Saxon and
o^ers of his own invention, which it is impossible lo re¬
present by means of ordinary types ; and of this imagined
improvement he appears to have been so fond, that all his
‘[acts are printed m the same manner as his grammar-
the consequence of which has been an almost general dis¬
gust at every thing he has written. His treatise on the
Principles of Music is, however, a very learned, curious
and entertaining book ; and, by the help of the ^verS
ment from the printer to the reader, prefixed to it, ex¬
plaining the powers of the several characters made use of
by him, may be read to great advantage, and may also be
ductionred 38 a JudlC10us suPPlement to Morley’s intro-
Butler, Samuel, a celebrated poet, was the son of a
respectable Worcestershire farmer, and was born in 1612.
He passed some time at Cambridge, but was never matri-
culated in that university. Returning to his native coun-
t y, he lived some years as clerk to a justice of peace,
and found sufficient time to apply himself to history., poe-
iy, and painting. Being recommended to Elizabeth,
countess of Kent, he enjoyed in her house not only the
use of all kinds of books, but the conversation of the illus¬
trious Selden, who often employed Butler to write letters
and translate for him. He lived also some time with Sir
Samuel Luke, a gentleman of an ancient family in Bed¬
fordshire, and a famous commander under Oliver Crom-
weil; and he is supposed at this time to have written, or at
least to have planned, his celebrated Hudibras, and un-
der that character to have ridiculed the knight. The poem
itself furnishes this key in the first canto, where Hudi-
DIclS Sci/yS
’Tis sung, there is a valiant Mameluke
In foreign land yclep’d    
To whom we oft have been compar’d
1 or person, parts, address, and beard.
After the Restoration, Mr Butler was appointed secretary
to the Earl of Carbury, lord president of Wales, who ap¬
pointed him steward of Ludlow Castle when the court was
1/,re*„ ^\° one Proved a more generous friend to
him than the Earl of Dorset and Middlesex, to whom it
was owing that the court relished his Hudibras. He had
promises of a good place from the Earl of Clarendon, but
they were never accomplished; though the king was so
much pleased with the poem as often to quote it plea¬
santly in conversation. It is indeed said that Charles or-
ere um the sum of L.3000 ; but the sum being express-
e in figures, somebody through whose hands the order
passed reduced it, by cutting off a cypher, to L.300, and
lough it passed the offices without fees, it proved not
sutlicient to pay what he then owed; so that Butler was
not a shdhng the better for the king’s bounty. He died
in 1680; and, though he met with many disappointments,
. e never reduced to any thing like w-ant, nor did he die
m debt. Mr Granger observes, that Butler “ stands with-
out a rival in burlesque poetry. His Hudibras” he adds,
is in its kind almost as great an effort of genius as the
aradise Lost itself. It abounds with uncommon learn¬
ing, new rhymes, and original thoughts. Its images are
ru y and naturally ridiculous. There are many strokes
vol. v. J
.but
iind ouginality of his metaphysical ami etliicaf views was
the youngest son of Mr Thomas Butler, a respectable shon
yeaTS hSI-’„in ^ ™ ^
i i j H father’ who was a Presbyterian, observing
t iat he had a strong inclination to learning, sent him from
agrammar-schoo1 where he had been placed toan acTdemv
miS tereSae„d wht, ‘".““'V0 Wm for a dissent”^
minister and while there he wrote some remarks on Dr
' aike s first sermon at Boyle’s lecture. Afterwards re
th,e eStabIishGd ^hurch, l7e studied
at Duel College, where he contracted an intimate friend
2 "'‘d f,?dTOrd ,Ti'lbot’ s»" *6 Bishop of Dut
ham, and brother to the lord chancellor, who laid the
oundatmn of hls subsequent advancement. Soon after
1718 he wS1°n lnt-° thf university he fo°k orders, and in
v ff.?? w‘?s appointed preacher at the Rolls Chapel. He
id ? voiumeUof °n ^ ab°u; eiSht years> when hepublish-
a volume of sermons delivered in that chapel, which
naHhinl lim ^ S^f.t/'eputation as a profound ^nd origi¬
nal thinker. The Bishop of Durham bestowed upon him
he rectory of Haughton, and afterwards that of Stanhope
where he resided a considerable time, entirely devoted to
the duties of his pastoral functions. Through the recom-
mendation of his friend and fellow-student Seeker, after-
aip f y)rcIlblshoP of Canterbury, he was in 1733 nomi¬
nated chaplain to the Lord Chancellor Talbot; and a pre¬
bend m the church of Rochester followed this appoint¬
ment. Pie now took the degree of LL.D., and in 1736
vas appointed clerk of the closet to the queen, whom he
attended every day by her majesty’s special command,
fi om seven till nine in the evening. In the same year he
published his celebrated work 77ic Analogy of Reliqion
Natural ami Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of
Nature, which is allowed to be the most original and pro-
ound work in any language on the philosophy of reli¬
gion, and has accordingly placed the author in the first
rank of deep and comprehensive thinkers. In 1738 Dr
Butler was promoted to the bishopric of Bristol, on the
recommendation of Queen Caroline, who had a philoso¬
phical taste, and highly esteemed this distinguished philo¬
sopher. Two years afterwards he was made Dean of St
Raul s, when he resigned the living of Stanhope. In the
year 1746 he was appointed clerk of the closet to the king,
a. lle obtained his highest preferment, the bishop¬
ric of Durham. This rich benefice he, however, enjoyed
but a short time; for he died at Bath on the 16th of June
1752. His corpse was interred in the cathedral at Bristol,
where there is a monument, with an inscription, erected
to his memory. Dr Butler died a bachelor. His pro¬
found and comprehensive mind appears sufficiently in his
Sermons at the Rolls Chapel, and in his celebrated work
on the Analogy of Religion. An account of his character
as a philosopher has been drawn with great ability and
discrimination by Sir James Mackintosh, in his Disserta¬
tion on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy, prefixed to this
work. See vol. i. p. 343.
Butler, the name anciently given to an officer in the
court of France, being the same as the grand echanson
or great cupbearer of later times.
Butler, in the common acceptation of the word, is an
officer in the houses of princes and great men, whose prin¬
cipal business is to look after the wine, plate, and other
similar articles.
BUTT is used for a measure of wine, containing two
hogsheads, or 126 gallons, and is otherwise called pipe. A
butt of currants is from 1500 to 2200 pounds weight.
5c
753
Butler
Butt.
n
754
Butt*
II
Button.
BUT
Butts, or Butt-ends, in the sea language, are the fore
ends of all planks under water, as they rise, and are join¬
ed one end to another. Butt-ends in large ships are most
carefully bolted ; for if any one of them were to spring or
give way, the leak would be very dangerous and difficult
Butts, the place where archers meet, with their bows
and arrows, to shoot at a mark, which is called shooting at
the butts. ...
BUTTER, a fat, unctuous substance, prepared from milk
by beating or churning. It was late ere the Gieeks ap¬
pear to have had any notion of butter; their poets make
no mention of it, and yet speak frequently of milk and
cheese. The Romans used butter as a medicine, never as
food. According to Beckman, the invention of butter be¬
longs neither to the Greeks nor to the Romans. I he for¬
mer, he thinks, derived their knowledge of butter from
the Scythians, the Thracians, and Phrygians ; and the lat¬
ter from the people of Germany. The ancient Christians
of Egypt burnt butter in their lamps instead of oil; and
in the Roman churches it was anciently allowed, during
Christmas time, to burn butter instead of oil, on account
of the great consumption of the latter at that season.
BUTTERFLY. See Entomology, Index.
BUTTERIS, in the manege, an instrument of steel,
fitted to a wooden handle, wherewith to pare the foot or
cut off the hoof of a horse.
BUTTOCK of a Ship, is that part which forms her
breadth right astern, from the tack upwards; and a ship
is said to have a broad or a narrow buttock, according as
she is built broad or narrow at the transom.
BUTTSTED, a city, the chief of the bailiwick of the
same name, containing 11,200 inhabitants, in the duchy
of Saxe-Weimar. It stands on the river Lossa, and con¬
tains 1921 inhabitants, engaged in woollen manufactures.
BUTTON, an article in dress, the form and use of
which are too well known to need description.
Metal Buttons. The metal with which the moulds
are intended to be covered is first cast into small ingots,
and then flatted into thin plates or leaves, of the thickness
intended, at the flattening mills ; after which it is cut into
small round pieces proportional to the size of the mould
they are intended to cover, by means of proper punches,
on a block of wood covered with a thick plate of lead.
Each piece of metal thus cut out of the plate is reduced
into the form of a button by beating it successively in
several cavities, or concave moulds, of a spherical form,
with a convex puncheon of iron, always beginning with
the shallowest cavity of the mould, and proceeding to the
deeper, till the plate has acquired the intended form ' and
the better to manage so thin a plate, ten, twelve, and some¬
times even twenty-four, are formed to the cavities, or con¬
cave moulds, at once; often nealing the metal during the
operation, to make it more ductile. This plate is general¬
ly called by workmen the cop of the button.
The form being thus given to the plates or caps, the
intended impression is struck on the convex side, by
means of a similar iron puncheon, in a kind of mould en¬
graven en creux, either by the hammer or the press used
in coining. The cavity or mould in which the impression
is to be made is of a diameter and depth suitable to the sort
of button intended to be struck in it; each kind requiring
a particular mould. Between the puncheon and the plate
is placed a thin piece of lead, called by workmen a hob,
which greatly contributes to take off all the strokes of the
engraving; the lead, by reason of its softness, easily giving
way to the parts which have relief, and as easily insinu¬
ating itself into the traces or indentures.
The plate thus prepared makes the cap or shell of the
]ower part js forme(i 0f another plate, in the
button.
B U X
same manner, but much flatter, and without any impres¬
sion. To the last or under plate is soldered a small eye,
made of wire, by which the button is to be fastened.
The two plates being thus finished, they are soldered
together with soft solder, and then turned in a lathe.
Generally indeed they use a wooden mould instead of the
under plate; and in order to fasten it, they pass a thread
or gut across through the middle of the mould, and fill
the cavity between the mould and the cap with cement,
in order to render the button firm and solid; for the ce¬
ment entering all the cavities formed by the relief of the
other side, sustains it, prevents its flattening, and preserves
its bosse or design.
Button’s Bay, the name of the northern part of Hud¬
son’s Bay, in North America, by which Sir Thomas But¬
ton attempted to find out a north-west passage to the East
Indies. It lies between long. 80° and 100° west, and be¬
tween lat. 60° and 66° north.
BUTTOOL, a small district of Hindustan, in the north¬
ern extremity of the province of Oude, ceded to the Bri¬
tish by the treaty concluded in 1801 with the nabob of
Oude. On the north it is separated by hills and forests
from the territories of the Goorkhali rajah of Nepaul.
BUTTRESS, a kind of abutment built archwise, or a
mass of stone or brick, serving to prop or support the sides
of a building or wall on the outside, where it is either very
high, or has any considerable load to sustain on the other
side, as a bank of earth, or the like. Buttresses are used
against the angles of steeples and other buildings of stone,
on the outside and along the walls of such buildings as
have great and heavy roofs, which- would be subject to
thrust out the walls, unless very thick, if no buttresses were
placed against them. They are also placed for a support
and abutment against the feet of some arches that are turn¬
ed across great halls in old palaces, abbeys, and the like.
BUTZOW, a city in the grand duchy of Mecklenburg
Schwerin. It is situated near a lake on the river War-
now, and is the seat of a provincial judicature. The in¬
habitants amount to 2964, who are employed mostly in
linen manufactures.
BUXTEHUDE, a small city in the province of Bremen,
and kingdom of Hanover. It is situated on the river Este,
is walled, and contains about 1700 inhabitants, who find
employment in making soap, leather, snuff, hosiery, and
some baize.
BUXAR, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Ba-
har, district of Shahabad, situated on the south bank ot
the Ganges. The fort, which, though of small size, com¬
mands the Ganges, is now dismantled. At this place
every boat navigating the river, as well as every land tra¬
veller, is obliged to stop and produce a pass; and the po¬
lice is very strict. This place is distinguished by a cele¬
brated victory gained here in 1764 by the British foices
under Major, afterwards Sir Hector Munro, oyer the
united armies of Sujah ud Dowlah and Cossim Ali Khan.
Travelling distance from Benares seventy miles ; from
Calcutta by Moorshedabad 485, and by Birboom 408
miles. Long. 83. 58. E. Lat. 25. 35. N.
BUXTON, Jedediah, a prodigy of skill in numbers.
His father, William Buxton, was schoolmaster of the same
parish where he was born in 1704 ; yet Jedetliah s educa¬
tion was so much neglected, that he was never taught to
write; and with respect to any other knowledge but that
of numbers, he seemed always as ignorant as a boy of ten
years of age. How he came first to know the relative pro
portions of numbers, and their progressive denominations,
he did not remember; but to this he applied the w io e
force of his mind, and upon this his attention was con
stantly fixed; so that he frequently took no cognizance o
external objects, and when he did, it was only with reference
Button
Bav
II
Buxtojj
''•'"y-J
B U X
B Y N
xton. toiler numbers. If any space of time was mentioned, he BUXTOHF i
would soon afterwards say it was so many minutes; and if Basel whn in ’ 3 earnG? Professor of Hebrew at
any distance ofway, he would assign the number of bab • hVe^nteenth century, acquired the
breadths, without any question beinf asked, or any cak-ula- Cha dee'Ena °n 18 of the Hebrew and
tion expected, by the company. When he once understood 1629 a Jd six15?* ^ ° t le Plague at Basel in
a question, he began to work with amazing facility, after but excffill- PnnciPal works are, 1. A small
his own method, without the use of pen, pencil, or chalk is thi of i the]best edition of which
or even understanding the common l-ules of arithmetic as trea ure of r ’ revised0 by Leusden ; 2. A
taught in the schools. He would stride over a niece of dance Lrf H Hebrew Grammar; 3. A Hebrew Concor-
land or a field, and tell you the contents of it dance, and several Hebrew Lexicons ; 4. Institutio episto-
exactly as if you had measured it by tht dtal In this "“*7 ;5* ^ Abb^uris Hebrceorum, &T
manner he measured the whole lordship of Elmton consist professor the,S,0n of the and a learned
ing of some thousand acres, belonging to Sir John Rhodes himself 1A i languages at Basel, distinguished
and brought him the contents, not only in acres roods and Zn ’ blS.fathfr’b.y hls knowledge of the Hebrew
perches, but even in square inches. After this ’for his’own m ffifif 1 h.,s rabbinical learning. He died at Basel
amusement, he reduced them into square hair-breadths 1 His Zn lV'ZZ }^arS' PnnciPal works are,
!r„iVet'rzeni‘hg: Ji ti h ebrew Points and
th^rr^?T^“‘E^orofacquiri”g
lyretentive with respect to other objects, if he had attended lihcrtv > ^ Kefusul is giving money for the right or
to them with equal diligence • but liierncPinlnl l °f Purchaf ng a tbing at a fixed price in a certain
to figures prevented Smalle^ locVZ?™6’ 'S USed in ^ for sbar^ ^
knowledge. He was sometimes asked, on his return from % L W 18 SOmetimes also called by a oant name, %-
sermon; but it nevel^amllalldthat he hml hrn Pdt<>f ^ 'S'matt Pox, is an appellation given to a
one sentence, his mind, upon a closerVZ* ^ry me.tbod 1of'.Procuring tbat disease by an operation similar
found to have been busiedleven dZnrdivine Zicc mg If ;"0CUlatl0?- 11 Wa8 Performed either by rubbing some
his favourite operation, either dividing some time nr ^ ’ m II taken out ot a pustule of a variolous person on
^SH- 7;puncture in the skin wi,b a pin
lities, asked h ^lt and ^ ^ ke™e“
lveed t„eKe"?ialZj dedmi,hy: bUVhey being, jUV re' me™ "e ‘oqsea as a"olZee” wdh the k f
taX ?Ur- ™nt,. »is engagement in this course of lie Jave
Richard III. performed at Drurv lane theZ ^ S^e..King b,lm h7 e °PPortunity of acquiring learning or cultivating
expected either that the nnv l/ e B,eatre , and it was the polite arts ; but by his abilities and activity as a naval
show would have fixed him in HZ f ^ SP. end°u.r of ^b.e commander, he furnished abundant matter for the pens of
imagination in ! 7 - i u astonisbmfnt’ and kept his others. After being several times advanced, he was in
3T ; A contl1nual hur,'y; or that his passions 1702 raised to the command of the Nassau a third rate
action’ everlif be Zf6’ bave be<jn touched by the power of and was at the taking and burning of the French fleet at
But Jedediah’s mild 7° ^ e^tly understood the dialogue. Vigo ; and the next year he was made rear-admiral of the
it was empWed in evlrv ^pl°Z in theat?e Just as ^d. In 1704 he served in the grand fleet sent to the Me-
he fixedZ Z y 0theur P,ace; During the dance, diterranean under Sir Cloudsley Shovel as rear-admiral
fine piece of mei7fe°niUPT ^ 7"! H St-epS; after a °f the red; and il was he who commanded the squadron
sounds 117 1 music, he declared that the innumerable which attacked, cannonaded, and reduced Gibraltar. He
bevondCZ bj Hi instrum1en,tS had perpIexed bim was in the battle of‘ Malaga, which followed soon after!
onfv to co,naX’ and 11 att,ended evfn. t0 Mr Garrick, wards; and for his behaviour in that action Queen Anne
heZfwl 1 1 W1ldiS that he uttered, m which he said conferred on him the honour of knighthood. In 1705, in
of Ids hirtl J succeeded-. Jedediah returned to the place about two months time, he took twelve of the enemy’s lar-
did Z 1 ’ 7. ere’ "IS enJ0yments were few, his wishes gest privateers, with the Thetis, a French frigate of fbrty-
BuxtonZ ! CXCe?d t 'em- tt" four guns ; and also several merchant ships, most of them
the conntv’ of n H lninHe bundred f H'gk Peake> 10 richly laden. The number of men taken on board was
v*Ll ^ aa/’ , mi 68 from Bondon- 11 is in a two thousand and seventy, and of guns three hundred and
_• /’ s*;irroended by a barren, hilly district. Its medi- thirty-four. In 1718 he was made admiral and command-
Wa 7s-lave £Ieat celebrity, and, with the excellent er-in-chief of the fleet, and was sent with a squadron into
safehTc1'?11 a- tle botels and 1odgin8-bouses, and the the Mediterranean for the protection of Italy, according
11 J o the air, attract a great number of visitors in to the obligation England was under by treaty, against the
e summer months. One of the most beautiful objects of invasion of the Spaniards, who had the year before sur-
ijuxton is a range of buildings called the Crescent, con- prised Sardinia, and had this year landed an army in Si-
iructed by the late Duke of Devonshire, and containing cily. In this expedition he dispatched Captain Walton
i Him S 10pS’ and bbraries. Ihe inhabitants amounted in the Canterbury, with five more ships, in pursuit of six
1831 t Iln60’ *n 1811 t0 1821 t0 and k1 SPanisb men-of-war, with galleys, fire-ships, bomb-vessels,
t0 and store-ships, which had separated from the main fleet,
B Y R
and stood in for the Sicilian shore. The captain s la¬
conic epistle on this occasion, which is dated Canterbury,
off Syracuse, 16th August 1718, is worthy of notice, as
showing that his talent, like the admiral's, consisted in
fighting, not in writing. “ Sir,-—We have taken and de¬
stroyed all the Spanish ships and vessels which were up¬
on the coast, as per margin. I am, &c. G. W alton.
From the account referred to, it appeared that he had
taken four Spanish men-of-war, with a bomb-vessel and a
ship laden with arms; and burned four, with a fire-ship
and bomb-vessel. The king made the admixal. a hand¬
some present, and sent him full powers to negociate with
the princes and states of Italy, as there should be occa¬
sion. He procured the emperor’s troops free access into
the fortresses which still held out in Sicily, sailed aftei-
wards to Malta, and brought out the Sicilian galleys, and
a ship belonging to the Turkey company. Soon afterwards
he received a gracious letter from the Emperor Charles
YI. written with his own hand, accompanied with a pic¬
ture of his imperial majesty, set round with large diamonds,
as a mark of the grateful sense the emperor entertained of
his services. It was entirely owing to his advice and as¬
sistance that the Germans retook the city of Messina in
1719, and destroyed the ships which lay in the basin; an
achievement which completed the ruin of the naval power
of Spain. The Spaniards being much distressed, offered
to quit Sicily; but the admiral declared that the troops
should never be suffered to depart from the island till the
king of Spain had acceded to the quadruple alliance. And
to his conduct it was entirely owing that Sicily was sub¬
dued, and his Catholic majesty forced to accept the terms
prescribed him by the quadruple alliance. After perform¬
ing so many signal services, the king received him with
the most gracious expressions of favour and satisfaction,^
and made him rear-admiral of England and treasurer of
the navy, one of his most honourable privy-council, Baron
Byng of Southill in the county of Bedford, Viscount Tor-
rington in Devonshire, and one of the knights companions
of the bath upon the revival of that order. In 1727
George II., on his accession to the crown, placed him at
the head of naval affairs, as first lord of the admiralty ; in
which high station he died on the 15th January 1733, in
the seventieth year of his age, and was buried at Southill,
in Bedfordshire.
Byng, the Honourable George, the unhappy son of the
former, was bred to the sea, and rose to the rank of admi¬
ral of the blue. He gave many proofs of courage ; but was
at last shot, upon a questionable sentence, for neglect of
duty in 1757. See Britain.
BYROM, John, an ingenious poet of Manchester, born
in 1691. His first poetical essay appeared in the Specta¬
tor, No. 603, beginning, “ My time, O ye Muses, was hap¬
pily spentwhich, with two humorous letters on dreams,
are to be found in the eighth volume. He was admitted
a member of the Royal Society in 1724; and having origi¬
nally entertained thoughts of practising physic, to which
the title of doctor is incident, that was the appellation by
which he was always known; but reducing himself to
narrow circumstances by a precipitate marriage, he sup¬
ported himself by teaching a new method of writing short¬
hand, of his own invention, until an estate devolved to
him by the death of an elder brother. He was a man of
lively wit; of which, whenever a favourable opportunity
tempted him to indulge it, he gave many humorous speci¬
mens. He died in 1763; and a collection of his miscel¬
laneous poems was printed at Manchester, in 2 vols. Svo,
1773.
BYRON, Lcard George Gordon, the only son of Cap¬
tain Byron, and Catharine, sole child and heiress of George
Gordon, Esq. of Gight, in Scotland, was born on the 22d
B Y R
January 1788, in Holies Street, London. His father, a Byroj
man of dissolute and extravagant habits, died in 1791, at ''•'V'
Valenciennes, leaving his widow, who was then residing
at Aberdeen, to support herself and her son on a pittance
of L.135 per annum. In 1794 his cousin, the grandson of
the fifth Lord Byron, died in Corsica, and he became the
presumptive heir to the peerage. The fifth Lord Byron
died in 1798, and he succeeded to the title; and in the
autumn of that year removed with his mother from Aber¬
deen to Newstead Abbey, in Nottinghamshire, which since
the reign of Henry VIII. had been in the possession of
the ancient family of Byron. Lord Byron had received
the first rudiments of education at a grammar-school in
Aberdeen. He was next sent in 1799 to the school ot
Dr Glennie at Dulwich, and in 1801 to Harrow, which he
quitted in 1805. He is described by the head master of
the latter school, the Rev. Dr Drury, as sensitive in dispo¬
sition, intractable except by gentle means, shy, defectively
educated, and ill prepared for a public school; but exhi¬
biting the germs of considerable talent, though it does not
appear to have been then foreseen in what mode his ta¬
lents would display themselves. He excelled in declama¬
tion ; and oratory, rather than poetry, was thought to be
the prevailing bent of his genius. He seems to have been
an active and spirited boy, at first unpopular, but finally
a favourite; ardent in his school friendships, and jealous
of the attachment of those whom he preferred. Among
these the most learned were Lords Clare and Delawarr,
the Duke of Dorset, Mr Harness, and Mr Wingfield. He
was on friendly but less intimate terms with the most
distinguished of his school-fellows,- the present Sir Robert
Peel. ° In classical scholarship Lord Byron acknowledged
himself very inferior to Peel; but he was thought supe¬
rior to him and to most others in general information.
This was indeed extensive to a very unusual degree; and
he has left on record an almost incredible list ot works, in
many various departments of literature, which he had
read before the age of fifteen.
In October 1805 he was removed to Trinity College,
Cambridge. He slighted the university, neglected its
studies, and rebelled against its authority. Meanwhile
he had commenced his poetical career, but at first feebly
and with faint promise of future excellence. He first at¬
tempted poetry as early as 1800, under the inspiration of
a boyish attachment to his young cousin, a daughter of
Admiral Parker. In November 1806 he caused to be
printed by Ridge, a bookseller at Norwich, for private cir¬
culation, a small volume of poems, among which one,
written at the age of fifteen, is remarkable as containing
a presage of his future fame. Some of the poems in this
collection were of too licentious a character; and, on the
advice of Mr Becker, a gentleman to whom the first copy
had been presented, it was with praiseworthy promptitude
suppressed, and replaced by a purified edition. In 1807
appeared his first published work, The Hours of Idleness; &
collection of poems little worthy of his talent, and chiefly
remembered through the castigation which it received from
the Edinburgh Revieiv. To this critique, which galled but
did not depress him, we owe the first spirited outbreak o
his talent, the satire entitled English Bards and Scotdi
Revieicers, which was published in March 1809. Ihe
length of this poem was increased, and many changes
made in it, during its progress through the press. C^n
sures of individuals were turned into praises, and praises
into censures, with all the fickleness and precipitance o
his age and character. It contained many harsh judg¬
ments, of which he afterwards repented; and able and
vigorous as the satire was, and creditable to his talents,
the time soon arrived when he was laudably anxious o
suppress it. A few days previous to the publication o t is
BYRON.
ing and found myself famous.” A few days before the
publication of Child* Harold, he attracted attention? but
in a minor degree, by his first speech in the House of
Lords on the subject of the house-breaking bill. He op¬
posed it, and with ability; and his first oratorical effort was
much commended by Sheridan, Sir F. Burdett, and Lords
Grenville and Holland. He had prepared himself, by hav-
satire, on the 17th of March 1809, he took his seat m
the House of Lords. He seems on that occasion to have
keenly felt the loneliness of his position. He was almost
unknown to society at large; there was no peer to intro¬
duce him; and his mortification led him to receive with
ungracious coldness the welcome of the lord chancellor.
u^r^nc|ec^. situation inspired him with disgust, and
tion ; and even a few days afte^takmgh^seat he're tiled wdfr^e^d1 ^d Th°Ie °f this to writing* L was
to Newstead Abbey, and engaged with his friend Mr cess Hp f Waf extl;emely gratified by its suc-
(now Sir J. C.) Hobhouse to travel together on the Con- it receWl lo P^haps have been incited by the praises
tinent. About the end of June the friends sailed to ^ ^ Pi° dlst,nctlon; but the greater
gether from Falmouth to Lisbon; travelled through part feohnll ^!us Poem turned bis ambitious
of Portugal and the south of Spain to Gibraltar saS ?elln°Vnt0 a d^erent channel. He nevertheless spoke
thence to Malta and afterwards to Albania in which ^ °n a of ford
country they landed on the 29th of September. From thrlirefe ifT?’ ln favour of the claims of the Roman Ca-
this time till the middle of the spring 1811 Lord Bv- upsq r fSS ^ccessfully than before. Less clear-
ron was engaged in visiting many parts of Greece Tur" liverv un dlSp a7fd ,rl the matter of his speech, and his de¬
key, and Asia Minor; staying long at Athene Constant COfnSldered fs tbeatrical. In the autumn of this
nople, and Smyrna. He toudied again, on Ids return a IZ rl " • f an address f the request of the Drury-
Malta, quitted it on the 2d of June, and early in July thoatrp mm‘[tee’ be sp°ben at the re-opening of the
after two years absence, landed in England. His affairs nf tint n aiK 'tZ lonrf afterwards he became a member
during this period had fallen into disorder and it became >Te \ omrmttee. Fhe same autumn he engaged to sell
advisable to sell either Rochdale or News’tead The kt k , f °r 1jJ140’000’ L-d0,000 was^to remain
ter he was then most anxious to retain and professed ' , ^ °n the es5ate/or thl’ee years; but this pur-
that it was his “ only tie” to England, “ and if he parted CiZr comPlet|d* Li May 1813 appeared his
with that, he should remain abroad.” In a letter'to a fn a wddly poetical fragment, of which the story was
friend, written during his homeward voyage he thus hZZ Z “ '^'i hfd °CCun’ed at Atheas -bile
expresses his melancholy sense of his condition: “ Em- It was wrS6’ W UCi1 ll.e1was personally concerned,
barrassed in my private affairs indifferent to nuhlir ‘ ? e-n 1.aPld y* and Wltb sucb additions during the
solitary without the wish to b^ social-with aP bodv^ ZT* if T™ than trebIed ia Jength,
little enfeebled by a succession of fevers, but a spirit I fourteen hundre” On the Sdoft,"I,wrd8.of
leturn to England; and he was deprived by death of five
othei relatives and friends between that and the end of
August. ‘ In the short space of one month,” he says, “ I
have lost her who gave me being, and most of those who
be*ug tolerable.” Amongst the latter were
Wingfield, and Matthews, the brother of the author of the
Diary of an Invalid. At this period of distress he was ap¬
proaching unsuspectingly a remarkable epoch of his fame.
He had composed while abroad two poems very different in
In his journal of November 1813 is the following entry :
“.I have declined presenting the debtors’ petition, being
sick of parliamentary mummeries. I have spoken thrice,
but I doubt my ever becoming an orator; my first was
liked, my second and third, I don t know whether they suc¬
ceeded or not; I have never set to it con amore.” In No¬
vember he had finished the Bride of Abydos (written in a
week), and it was published the following month. The
Corsair, a poem of still higher merit and popularity, ap-
charaefpr 1,0,. a a T S , \ ^u,*uu, a poem or sun mgner merit anti popularity, ap
^ r,eared in less tllan tIlree mont,ls afterwards: it was writ-
tnfimwvF l- p d- JI 't f1’07? Horace’ a weak imi- ten in tbe astonishingly short space of ten days. During
tos of CMlde 5 fle 0t ?r the fii;st,tw° CT the year 1813 he appears to have first entertained a serious
]• I- • V Harold. The foimer he intended to pub- intention of marriage, and became a suitor to Miss Mill-
sli immechately ; but the latter he thought of so disparg- banke, only daughter and heiress of Sir Ralph Millbanke.
ngly (owmg probably to the injudicmus comments of the His first proposal was rejected; but the parties conti-
l3 , Wh0 bad hltbert0 seen it), that it might pro- nued on the footing of friendship, and maintained a cor-
Dably have never become known to the public but for the respondence, of which, and of that lady, he thus speaks,
wise auvice ol Mr Dallas. In compliance with the request and it may be presumed with the most perfect sincerity,
° tiat gentleman, he withheld the Hints from Horace, in his private journal: “Yesterdayavery pretty letter from
wnicn would have been injurious rather than beneficial Annabella, which I answered. What an odd situation and
to his tame, and allowed Childe Harold to be offered for friendship is ours! without one spark of love on either
publication. He received from his publisher, Mr Murray, side, and produced by circumstances which in general lead
L.600 for the copyright, which he gave to Mr Dallas.
The publication was long delayed; for though placed in
the publisher’s hands in August, it did not appear till the
beginning of March 1812. It, however, received during
to coldness on one side, and aversion on the other. She
is a very superior woman, and very little spoiled, which is
strange in an heiress—a girl of twenty—a peeress that is
to be in her own right—an only child, and a savante, who
this interval considerable improvements ; and the fears of has always had her own way. ’ She is a poetess, a mathe-
the author were allayed by the approbation of Mr Gifford, matician, a metaphysician, and yet withal very kind, ge-
the translator of Juvenal, and then editor of the Quarterly nerous, and gentle, with very little pretension : any other
Kevieiv. The success of the poem exceeded even the an- head would be turned with half her acquisitions and a
ticipation of this able critic ; and Lord Byron emerged at tenth of her advantages.” In September 1814 he made a
once from a state of loneliness and neglect, unusual for one second proposal by letter, which was accepted; and on the
A* if spbere op bPe> t0 be tbe magnet and idol of society. 2d of January 1815 he was married to Miss Millbanke,
As he tersely says in his memoranda, “ I awoke one morn- at Seaham, the country seat of her father. The only is-
B Y R O N.
758
Bvron. sue of this marriage, Augusta Ada, was born on the 10th
of December of that year. We cannot lift the veil of their
domestic life; we can only state the unfortunate results.
On the 15th of January 1816, Lady Byron left London
for Kirkby Mallory, the residence of her parents, whither
Lord Byron was to follow her. She had, with the con¬
currence of some of Lord Byron’s relatives, previously
consulted Dr Baillie respecting the supposed insanity
of her husband, and by the advice of that gentleman
had written to him in a kind and soothing tone. Lady
Byron’s impressions of the insanity of Lord Byron were
soon removed, but were followed by a resolution on her
part to obtain a separation. Conformably with this reso¬
lution, Sir Ralph Millbanke wrote to Lord Byron on the
2d of February, proposing such a measure. This proposal
Lord Byron at first rejected, but afterwards consented to
sign a deed to that effect. Dr Lushington, the legal ad¬
viser of Lady Byron, has stated in a published letter, that
he “ considered reconciliation impossible.” Of the cir¬
cumstances which led to such an event, and on which Dr
Lushington founded such an opinion, the public is at pre¬
sent uninformed. We are therefore, in absence of full
and satisfactory evidence, bound to suspend our judgment
on the merits of this melancholy case, and dismiss it with
the foregoing statement of the leading facts. In the
course of the spring he published the Siege of Corinth and
Parisina. He also wrote two copies of verses, which ap¬
peared in the public papers, Fare thee well, and A Sketch
from Private Life; of which his separation from his wife,
and the instrumentality which he imputes to an humble in¬
dividual in conducing to that separation, were the themes.
This private circumstance had become the subject of
general comment. The majority of those who filled the
circles in which Lord Byron had lately lived declared
against him, and society withdrew its countenance. Lord
Byron, deeply stung by its verdict, hastily resolved to leave
the country; and on the 25th of April 1816 he quitted
England for the last time. His course was through Flan¬
ders and along the Rhine to Switzerland, where, at a villa
called Deodati, in the neighbourhood of Geneva, he resid¬
ed during the summer. From thence he made two excur¬
sions, one in the central part of Switzerland, in company
with Mr Hobhouse, and another shorter excursion with a
celebrated poetical compeer Mr Shelley, with whom he
became acquainted soon after his arrival at Geneva. He
remained in Switzerland till October, during which time
he had composed some of his most powerful works; the
third canto of Childe Harold, the Prisoner of Chilian, Dark¬
ness, the Dream, part of Manfred, and a few minor poems.
In October he quitted Switzerland in company with Mr
Hobhouse, and proceeded by Milan and Verona to Ve¬
nice. Here he resided from the middle of November
1816 to the middle of April 1817. During this period
his principal literary occupation was the completion of
Manfred, of which he re-wrote the third act. He visit¬
ed Rome for about a month in the spring, and then re¬
turned to Venice, at which city, or at La Mira, in its im¬
mediate vicinity, he resided almost uninterruptedly from
this time till 1816. Fie wrote during this period the La¬
ment of Tasso, Beppo, the fourth canto of Childe Harold,
Marino Faliero, the Foscari, Mazeppa, and part of Don
Juan. The licentious character of his life while at Venice
corresponded but too well with the tone of that produc¬
tion. His able biographer and friend Mr Moore, after ad¬
verting to his liaison with a married Italian woman, says :
“ Highly censurable in point of morality and decorum as
was his course of life while under the roof of Madame
* * it was (with pain I am forced to confess) venial in
comparison with the strange headlong career of license to
which, when weaned from that connection, he so unre¬
strainedly, and, it maybe added, defyingly, abandoned him- Byrce
self.” This course of unbridled libertinism received its
first check from the growth of attachment which, as it was
still unhallowed, not even the good which it may seem to
have done in the substitution of a purer sentiment, will
enable us to regard with satisfaction. In April 1819 he
first became acquainted with the Countess Guiccioli, the
young and newly-married wife of an elderly Italian noble¬
man. A mutual attachment, which appears to have com¬
menced on the part of the lady, soon arose between Lord
Byron and the Countess Guiccioli. Their passion was aug¬
mented by occasional separation, the interest excited by
her severe illness during one of their forced absences, and
the imprudent complaisance of the husband in leaving them
much in the society of each other. They long lived to¬
gether in a half-permitted state of intimacy, the lady ap¬
pearing with the consent of her husband to share his pro¬
tection with that of Lord Byron. But this equivocal po¬
sition soon terminated in the separation of the Count and
Countess Guiccioli. The lady then went to reside with
her father; and under his sanction, during the next three
or four years, she and Lord Byron enjoyed the intimate
possession of each other’s society. In December 1819
Lord Byron quitted Venice for Ravenna, where he re¬
mained till the end of October 1821. During this period
he wrote part of Don Juan, the Prophecy of Dante, Sar-
danapalus, a translation of the first canto of Pulci's Mor-
gante Maggiore, and the mysteries, Heaven and Earth, and
Cain; thelatterof which may be justly considered as among
the most faulty in principle, and powerful in execution, of
the productions of his genius. He also wrote a letter on
Mr Bowles’s strictures on Pope, dated 7th February 1821,
in which he defends the poet against his commentator;
and an answer to an article in Blackwood’s Magazine, en¬
titled “ Remarks on Don Juan,” but this was never pub¬
lished.
During this period an insurrectionary spirit broke out in
Italy ; the Carbonari appeared ; and secret societies began
to be formed. The brother of the Countess Guiccioli,
Count Pietro Gamba, .espoused the cause of the insur¬
gents, and through his means Lord Byron became impli¬
cated in the proceedings of that party. In his private
journal of 16th February 1821, Lord Byron complains of
the conduct of that gentleman and others, in sending to
his house, without apprising him, arms with which he had
a short time previously furnished them at their request,
and thereby endangering his safety, and exposing him
to the vengeance of the government, which had lately
issued a severe ordinance against all persons having arms
concealed. In July 1821, the father and brother of Ma¬
dame Guiccioli were ordered to quit Ravenna, and re¬
paired with that lady, first to Florence, and afterwards
to Pisa, where they were joined in October by Lord By¬
ron. He remained at Pisa till September 1822, Madame
Guiccioli still living with him under the sanction of her
father, who, in consequence of one of the conditions of
her separation from her husband, was always to reside
with her under the same roof. While here he lost his il¬
legitimate daughter Allegra, and his friend Shelley, who
was drowned in July 1822 in the Bay of Spezia. The
body was burned, and Lord Byron assisted at this singular
rite. His principal associates during this time had been
theGambas, Shelley, Captain Medwyn, and Mr Irelawney.
He had also become associated with the brothers John and
Leigh Hunt, in a periodical paper called the Liberal; a
transaction certainly disinterested, inasmuch as it does not
appear that he expected either profit or fame to accrue to
himself from the undertaking; and he seems to have allowed
his name to be connected with it from a desire to serve the
Hunts, of whom Leigh Hunt, with his wife and family*
i-ron.
BYRON.
received an asylum in his house. An affrav with a f j u- • .
jeant-major at Pisa rendered his residence in that city th^for^
less agreeable; and his removal from it was at length de^ brigade, and the composition of the dif-
termined by an order from the Tuscan governmenf to the Feb^ Grfek chie^ Since his attack in
Gambas to quit the territory. Accordingly, in September ImrpZhV d entire1^ welL Early April
1822, he removed with them to Genoa. While^t Pisa v!rTn? d tlr0Ugh exPosure to raia- Hisfe-
he had written, besides his contributions to the Liberal hh pH' and conse(luence of his prejudice against
Werner,^ Defor.ned Transformed, and the remS effectuaf’ On
of Don Juan. tmectuai. un the 17th (the second day after he had been
In April 1823 he commenced a correspondence with the themselvp?^?6 lnflamf at1ion in the brain presented
Greek committee, through Messrs Blaquiere and Bow W 7 V c f? °Wing day he beoame insensible, and
ring, and began to interest himself warmly in the cause -b 7 t^ent7-foui:haurs afterwards, at a quarter past six
of the Greeks. In May he decided to go to Greece and h ‘m! 71™? °f ^ 9th °f APril 18^ Lord Byron
in July he sailed from Genoa in an English brig, taking nmmm v h^h aSt\i1 -1C bonours were decreed to7 his
with him Count Gamba, Mr Trelawney, Dr Burns an deenlv^h/ ^ Greece’ where his less was
' ■ dan and eight don.ee,ies; L ho.ses a„d^
and medicine.
Italian physician, and eight domestics; five horses, arms anrfnn iCfi r r V j «.u.ivC^t;u iu r.ngianu,
ammunition, and medicine. The money which he had in the wrth
   • .j * 1 1 i ^i in Lilt. IdlllllV VclUltj
raised for this expedition was 50,000'cVownsr lo|ood7u countvPf!f Nn^«'"if 7 Hu7kf11’ near Newstead, in the
specie, and the rest in bills of exchange. In August he Bvrnn h N t ?y hl? .Wl11’ dated 29th JuIJ 1815, Lord
arrived at Argostoli, the chief port of clphalonia,^ which fte 3^^. 1° ^ Leigh, during
island he established his residence till the end of Decern- arising Anm tl 71 fe7h 7 ler chddren’ tlle monies
ber. His first feelin.o-s nf PYao-o-prahod    a , ^ hom tbe sale ad such property, real and perso-
uses, in letters to Madame Guiccioli, such^ expressions as son I “e «>««!«»" »«■» Mr Hobhouse, and Mr Han-
“I was a fool to come here;” and, “ of the Greeks I s°"’L”d By™ns sohc.tor.
can’t say much good hitherto; and I do not like to speak sine- °f Lo[d Byron was pi’eposses-
ifi of them, though they do of one another.” During the held smal hk WES ^ ^ e,,ght fnd a half inches 5 his
latter part of this year we find him endeavouring to tom- curly - forehead hiZ TIT P T ^7 br°T and
pose the dissensions of the Greeks amono-themselves nnrl y\ 77 ■ g ’ features Aguiar and good, and
assisting them with a loan of LAO^O. AbouTthe end of PZ7 ! T* Hght gre^ bat ^p.blf of much
December 1823 he sailed from Argostoli in aGreek mlsdco said to an^PP^ Zf-"1,the .r!ght foot’ ft was
and after narrowly escaping capture by a Turkish frkr-itp’ 7i ’ ♦ ]accident at bls blrth ; wnich circumstance seems
landed on the 5th of Ja^ufZK at Misso ongh SHis t0 'Z-" S°Urce of deeP mortification,
reception here was enthusiastic. b tie warranted by lts real importance. It did not prevent
came out to welcome him; salutes were fired ; amf he was mZyZeSs^He 7as'a habltS’ anCJ eXCell'ng in various
met and conducted into the town by Prince Mavrocor y u IT ry good swimmer; success-
dato, and all the troops and dignimrieS of the place Bm ^ h%HellesP0^ in emulation of Leander ;
the disorganization which reigned in this town soon de- 0f Z St y88 .the. ra|us’ a stlll greater feat; and, greatest
pressed his spirits, which had been raised bv thL reception Z ll at,Venif ,in !818’ ft°m Lido to the opposite end of
and filled his mind with reasonable missrivmo-s of the sop’ ‘ 7fiand cana ’ baving been four hours and twenty minutes
busies of Jhf naUvTleaSlers0111 tbe. dlSSenfSlons and jea: a wolf, and sundry bull-dogs, were at various times among
Up SnKni Z native .1fad7.t”, aTd the mutinous spirit of his pets. The habits of his youth, after the period of bov-
brnarvTn, iZ1"8 ? W ' whlch latter’ °n tbe 14th of Fe‘ hood» were not literary and intellectual; nor were his
b7;r yn L d,ByT°n Cc?me t0 a ruPture» in consequence of amusements of a refined or poetical character. He was
shoulddb7arat iaf ab0Ut a 1 ?rrt 0f th7r nur"beT always shy, and fond ofsolitude; but when in society, lively
Officers Lord BvrnnZ 1° Za f and animated, gentle, playful, and attractive in manner; and
followLdavd iVffl u firm’and.th,eT subm>tted on the he possessed the power of quickly conciliating the friend-
ed EVT D‘fficult.es m the civil department harass- ship of those with whom he associated. He was very sus-
ea Him at the same time, aggravated by a difference of ceptible of attachment to women. The objects of his
sEp? bfetW7n himself ard C,ol°f1 Stanh°Pe’ .on the strongest passions appear to have been mJ Chaworth,
subject of a free press, which the latter was anxious to afterwards Mrs Musters, and the Countess Guiccioli. His
introduce, and for which, on the other hand, Lord Byron amours were numerous, and there was in his character a
considered that Greece vvas not yet ripe. On the 15th of too evident proneness to libertinism. His constitution
ceoruary, the day of the professed submission of the does not seem ever to have been strong, and his health
ouliotes, he was seized with a convulsive fit, and for was probably impaired by his modes of life. Hewasabste-
many days was seriously ill. V\ bile he was on a sick bed, mious in eating, sometimes touching neither meat nor
the mutinous Suhotes burst into his room, demanding fish. Sometimes also he abstained entirely from wine or
what they called their rights; and though his firmness spirits, which at other times he drank to excess, seldom
then controlled them, it soon afterwards became necessary preserving a wholesome moderation and regularity of
to get rid of these lawless soldiers, by the bribe of a system. His temper was irascible, yet placable. He
monthspay inadvance,—and with their dismissal vanished was quickly alive to tender and generous emotions, and
the hopes of the expedition against Lepanto. After this he performed many acts of disinterested liberality, even to-
760
Byron.
BYRON.
wards those whom he could not esteem, and in spite of par- He selected happily, and sketched freely, rapidly, and
simonious feelings, which latterly gained hold upon him. boldly. He seized the most salient images, and brought
He was a man of a morbid acuteness of feeling, arising them directly and forcibly to the eye at once. There was,
partly from original temperament, and partly from circum- however, in his descriptive talent, the same absence of
stances and habits. He had been ill educated; he had versatility and variety which characterized other depart-
been severely tried; his early attachments, and his first ments of his genius. His writings do not reflect nature
literary efforts, had equally been unfortunate ; he had in all its infinite change of climate, scenery, and season,
encountered the extremes of neglect and admiration ; pe- He portrayed with surpassing truth and force only such
cuniary distresses, domestic afflictions, and the unnerv- objects as were adapted to the sombre colouring of his
ing tendency of dissipated habits, had all conspired to pencil. The mountain, the cataract, the glacier, the ruin,—
aggravate the waywardness of his excitable disposition, objects inspiring awe and melancholy,—seemed more con-
It^is evident that, in spite of his assumed indifference, he genial to his poetical disposition than those which led to
was always keenly alive to the applause and censure of joy or gratitude.
the world; and its capricious treatment of him more than His genius was not dramatic; vigorously as he por-
ordinarily encouraged that vanity and egotism which were trayed emotions, he was not successful in drawing cha-
conspicuous traits of his character. racters ; he was not master of variety ; all his most pro-
The religious opinions of Lord Byron appear, by his minent personages are strictly resolvable into one. There
own account of them, to have been “ unfixed ;” but he ex- were diversities, but they were diversities of age, clime,
pressly disclaimed being one of those infidels who deny and circumstances, not of character. They were mere-
the Scriptures, and wish to remain “in unbelief.” In politics ly such as would have appeared in the same individual
he was liberal, but his opinions were much influenced by when placed in different situations. Even the lively
his feelings ; and, though professedly a lover of free insti- and the serious moods belonged alike to that one being;
tutions, he could not withhold his admiration even from but there was a bitter recklessness in the mirth of his
tyranny when his imagination was wrought upon by its lively personages, which seems only the temporary re¬
grandeur. He would not view Napoleon as the enslaver laxation of that proud misanthropic gloom that is exhi-
A
of France; he viewed him only as the most extraordinary
being of his age, and he sincerely deplored his fall.
Lord Byron’s prose compositions were so inconsiderable
that they may almost be overlooked in the view of his lite¬
rary character. His letters nevertheless must not pass
wholly unnoticed. Careless as they are, and hastily writ¬
ten, they are among the most lively, spirited, and pointed
specimens of epistolary writing in our language, and w'ould
alone suflice to indicate the possession of superior talent.
The critical theories of Lord Byron were remarkably at
variance with his practice. The most brilliant supporter
of a new school of poetry, he was the professed admirer
of a school that was superseded. The most powerful and
original poet of the nineteenth century, he was a timid
critic of the eighteenth. In theory he preferred polish
to originality or vigour. He evidently thought Pope the
first of our poets ; he defended the unities ; praised Shak-
speare grudgingly ; saw little merit in Spencer ; preferred
bited in his serious heroes ; and each might easily become
the other. It may also be objected to many of his per¬
sonages, that, if tried by the standard of nature, they
were essentially false. They were sublime monstrosities;—
strange combinations of virtue and vice, such as had never
really existed. In his representations of corsairs and re¬
negades, he exaggerates the good feelings wdiich may, by
a faint possibility, belong to such characters, and sup¬
presses the brutality and faithlessness which would more
probably be found in them, and from which it is not pos¬
sible that they should have been wholly exempt. His
plan was highly conducive to poetical effect; but its in¬
correctness must not be overlooked in an estimate of his
delineation of human character. In his tragedies there is
much vigour; but their finest passages are either solilo¬
quies or descriptions, and their highest beauties are sel¬
dom strictly of a dramatic nature. Many of his dialogues
are scarcely more than interrupted soliloquies; many of
his own Hints from Horace to his Childe Harolds Pilgrim- his arguments such as one mind would hold with itself.
age ; and assigned his eminent contemporaries Coleridge In fact, in his characters, there was seldom that degree of
and Wordsworth a place far inferior to that which public variety and contrast which is requisite for dramatic effect.
opinion has more justly accorded to them.
The poetry of Lord Byron produced an immediate ef¬
fect unparalleled in our literary annals. Of this influence
much may be attributed, not only to the real power of his
poetry, but also to the impressive identification of its prin¬
cipal characteristics with that which, whether truly or
falsely, the world chose to regard as the character of the
author. He seemed to have unbosomed himself to the
The opposition was rather that of situation than of senti¬
ment ; and wre feel that the interlocutors, if transposed,
might still have uttered the same things.
It is to be deplored that scarcely any moral good is
derivable from the splendid poetry of Lord Byron. The
tendency of his works is to shake our confidence in virtue,
and to diminish our abhorrence of vice ;—to palliate crime,
and to unsettle our notions of right and wrong. Even
public, and admitted them to view the full intensity of many of the virtuous sentiments which occur in his writ-
feelings which had never before been poured forth with ings are assigned to characters so worthless, or placed in
such eloquent directness. His poems were as tales of such close juxtaposition with vicious sentiments, as to
the confessional, portraitures of real passion, not tamely induce a belief that there exists no real definable bound-
feigned, but fresh and glowing from the breast of the ary; and it may perhaps be said with truth, that it would
writer. The emotions which he excelled in displaying
were those of the most stormy character,—hate, scorn,
rage, despair, indomitable pride, and he dark spirit of mis¬
anthropy. It was a narrow circle, but in that he stood
without a rival.
His descriptive powers were eminently great. His
have been better for the cause of morality, if even those
virtuous sentiments had been omitted. Our sympathy is
frequently solicited in the behalf of crime. Alp, Conrad,
Juan, Parisina, Hugo, Lara, and Manfred, may be cited
as examples. They are all interesting and vicious. In
the powerful drama of Cain*, the heroes are Lucifer and
not like
works abound in splendid examples; among which the the first murderer; and the former is depicted,
Venetian night-scene from Lioni's balcony, Terni, the the Satan of Milton, who believes and trembles, but as
Coliseum viewed by moonlight, and the shipwreck in
Don Juan, will probably rise foremost in the memories of
many readers. In description he was never too minute.
the compassionate friend of mankind. Resistance to the
will of the Creator is represented as dignified and com¬
mendable ; obedience and faith as mean, slavish, and con-
B Y Z
iron’s
sland
temptible. It is implied that it was unmerciful to have
created us such as we are, and that we owe the Supreme
Being neither gratitude nor duty. Such sentiments are
clearly deducible from this drama. Whether they were
those of Lord Byron is not certain; but he must be held
accountable for their promulgation. /Y. Y.)
Byron’s Island, in the Pacific Ocean, discovered by
Commodore Byron in the year 1765. It is about twelve
miles m length, and is low, fiat, and full of woods, in which
the cocoa tree is predominant. It is inhabited bv savages
Long. 173. 16. E. Lat. 1. 18. S. ^
BYSSUS, or Byssum, a fine thready matter produced
in India, Egypt, and the vicinity of Elis in Achaia, of which
the richest apparel was anciently made, especially that
worn by the priests, both Jewish and Egyptian. Some in¬
terpreters render the Greek ftixseog, which occurs both in
the Old and New Testament, by fine linen. But other ver¬
sions, as Calvin s, and the Spanish one printed at Venice in
1556, explain the word by silk ; and yet byssus must have
been different from our silk, as appears from a multitude
of ancient writers, and particularly from Julius Pollux. M.
Simon, who renders the word by fine linen, adds a note to
explain it, bearing “ that there was a fine kind of linen very
dear, which the great lords alone wore in this country as
well as in Egyptan account which agrees perfectly well
with that given by Hesychius, as well as with the observa¬
tion of Bochart, that the byssus was a finer kind of linen,
which was frequently dyed of a purple colour. Some au¬
thors will have the byssus to be the same with our cotton ;
others take it for the linum asbestinum ; and a third class
conceive it to have been the lock or bunch of silky hair
found adhering to the pinna marina, by which the latter
fastens itself to neighbouring bodies. Authors usually
distinguish two sorts of byssus; that of Elis, and that of
Judaea, which was the finest. Of this latter the priestly or¬
naments were made. Bonfrerius remarks, that there must
have been two sorts of byssus, one finer than ordinary, by
reason there are two Hebrew words used in Scripture to
denote byssus ; one of which is always used in speaking of
the habit of the priests, and the other in alluding to that
of the Levites.
BYZANTIUM, an ancient city of Thrace, situated on
the Bosphorus. It was founded, according to Eusebius,
about the thirtieth Olympiad, when Tullus Hostilius
reigned in Rome. But, according to Diodorus Siculus,
the foundations of this metropolis were laid in the time
of the Argonauts, by one Bysas, who then reigned in the
neighbouring country, and from whom the city was called
Byzantium. This Bysas, according to Eustathius, arrived
in Ihrace a little before the Argonauts came into those
seas, and settled there with a colony of Megarenses. But
Velleius Paterculus ascribes the founding of Byzantium
to the Milesians, while Ammianus Marcellinus attributes
it to the inhabitants of Attica. Some ancient medals of
Byzantium, however, bear the name and head of Bysas,
with the prow of a ship on the obverse. The year after
the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, Byzantium was
reduced into the form of a Roman province. In a. d. 193
the city took part with Niger against Severus, and was
strongly garrisoned by Niger, as being a place of the ut¬
most importance. But it was soon afterwards invested by
Severus; and as he was universally hated on account of
his cruelty, the inhabitants defended themselves with the
greatest resolution. Having been supplied with a great
number of warlike machines, most of them invented and
built by Periscus, a native of Nicaea, and the greatest en¬
gineer of his age, they for a long time baffled all the at¬
tempts of the assailants, killed great numbers of them,
crushed such as approached the walls with large stones;
and when stones began to fail, they discharged the statues
VOL. v.
b z o
761
of their gods and heroes as missiles against the enemy. But n
at last they were obliged to submit, through fam^ after B“™"
having been reduced to the necessity of devouring one
another. I he conqueror put all the magistrates and sol¬
diers to the sword; but he spared the engineer Periscus.
tfetore this siege Byzantium was the greatest, wealthiest,
and most populous city of Thrace. It was surrounded by
walls of an extraordinary height and breadth, defended
by a great number of towers, seven of which were built
with such art that the least noise heard in one of them was
immediately conveyed to all the rest. Severus, however,
no sooner became master of the place, than he command-
ed it to be laid in ashes. The inhabitants were stripped
ot all their effects, and publicly sold as slaves, whilst the
walls were levelled with the. ground. But from the chro¬
nicle of Alexandria we learn, that soon after this terrible
catastrophe Severus himself caused a great part of the
city to be rebuilt, calling it Antonia, after his son Cara-
calla, who assumed the surname of Antoninus. In a. d.
262, the tyrant Galienus wreaked his fury on the inha¬
bitants of Byzantium. He intended to besiege it, but on
his arrival despaired of being able to make himself master
of so strong a place. He was, however, admitted next day
into the city; and, without any regard to the terms agreed
on, he caused the soldiers and all the inhabitants to be put
to the sword. Trebellius Pollio says, that not a single per¬
son was left alive. What reason there was for such an
extraordinary massacre we are nowhere informed. In the
wars between the Emperors Licinius and Maximjn the city
of Byzantium was obliged to submit to the latter, but it
was soon afterwards recovered by Licinius. In the year
323, it was taken from Licinius by Constantine the Great,
who in 330 enlarged and beautified it, with a design to
make it the second, if not the first city in the Roman
emph-e. He began with extending the walls of the an¬
cient city from sea to sea; and whilst some of the work¬
men were busied in rearing these defences, others were
employed in raising within them a great number of state¬
ly buildings, amongst which was a palace nowise inferior
in extent and magnificence to that of Rome. He built a
capital and an amphitheatre, and constructed a circus
maximus, several forums, porticoes, and public baths. He
divided the whole city into fourteen regions or wards, and
granted the inhabitants many privileges and immunities.
By these means Byzantium became one of the most flou¬
rishing and populous cities of the empire. Vast numbers
of people flocked thither from Pontus, Thrace, and Asia,
as Constantine, by a law enacted a. d. 330, had decreed
that no person who had lands in those countries should
be at liberty to dispose of them, or even to leave them
to his proper heir at his death, unless such heir had a
house in the new city. But however desirous the empe¬
ror might be that his city should be filled with people,
he did not care that it should be inhabited by any but
Christians. He therefore caused the idols, to be pulled
down, and the temples to be consecrated to the true God.
Besides, he built an incredible number of churches, and
caused crosses to be erected in all the squares and public
places, ..When most of the buildings were finished, he caus¬
ed the city to be solemnly dedicated to the Virgin Mary,
according to Cedrenus, but according to Eusebius, to the
God of Martyrs. At the same time Byzantium was de¬
clared equal in rank to Rome; and similar rights, immu¬
nities, and privileges were granted to its inhabitants, with
those enjoyed by the metropolis. Constantine establish¬
ed a senate and other magistrates, with power and au¬
thority equal to those of old Rome; and he took up his
residence in the new city, changing its name to Constan¬
tinople.
BZOVIUS, Abraham, one of the most celebrated wri-
5 D
702 CAB
C ters in the seventeenth century, in as far as respects the
!! number of pieces composed by him. His chief work is
Cabal. tiie continuation of Baronius’s Annals. He was a native
of Poland, and a Dominican friar. Upon his arrival at
Rome he was received with open arms by the Pope, and
CAB
had an apartment assigned him in the Vatican. He me- Cabalk
rited that reception, for he has imitated Baronius to ad- || [
miration, in his design of making all things conspire to ^bamj
enhance the power and glory of the papal see. He died
in 1630, aged seventy.
C.
CTHE third letter, and second consonant, of the
9 alphabet, is pronounced like k before the vowels «,
o, and «<, and like s before e, i, and y. C is formed, ac¬
cording to Scaliger, from the jc of the Greeks, by retrench¬
ing the stem or upright line ; though others derive it from
the 2 of the Hebrews, which has in effect the same form;
only, that as the Hebrews read towards the left, and the
Latins and other western nations towards the right, each
turned the letter their own way. However, the C not
being the same as to sound with the Hebrew caph, :, and
it being certain that the Romans did not borrow their let¬
ters immediately from the Hebrews or other orientals, but
from the Greeks, the derivation from the Greek x is upon
the whole the more probable. Indeed Montfaucon, in his
PalcEographia, gives some forms of the Greek % which
approach very near to that of our C; and Suidas calls the
C the Roman kappa. Before the first Punic war C held
the place which is now occupied by G, as appears from
the Duilian Column, where we meet with acnam for ag-
nam, lecionem for legionem, and exfociont for effugiunt.
The second sound of C resembles that of the Greek 2 ;
and many instances occur of ancient inscriptions, in which
2 has the same form with’ our C. Grammarians are pretty
generally agreed that the Romans pronounced their Q
like our C, and their C like our K. Mabillon informs us
that Charles the Great was the first who wrote his name
with a C; whereas all his predecessors of the same name
wrote it with a K; and the same difference is observable
in their coins. As an abbreviature, C stands for Caius,
Carolus, Caesar, condemno, &c., and CC represent consu-
libus. As a numeral, C signifies 100, CC 200, and so on.
C, in Music, placed after the cleff, intimates that the mu¬
sic is in common time, which is either quick or slow as it
is joined with allegro or adagio; but if alone, it is usually
adagio. If the C be crossed or turned, the first, requires
the air to be played quick, and the last very quick.
CAABA, or Caaba h, properly signifies a square stone
building, but it is particularly applied by the Mahomme-
dans to the temple at Mecca, built, as they pretend, by
Abraham and his son Ishmael. This temple enjoys the
privilege of an asylum for all sorts of criminals ; but it is
most remarkable for the pilgrimages made to it by the
devout Moslemins, who pay it so great a veneration that
they account a single sight of its sacred walls, without any
particular act of devotion, as meritorious in the sight of
God, as the most careful discharge of one’s duty, for the
space of a whole year, in any other temple.
CAANA, or Kaana, a town in Upper Egypt, seated
on the eastern bank of the river Nile, whence corn and
pulse are carried for the supply of Mecca in Arabia. Here
are several monuments of antiquity yet remaining, adorn¬
ed with hieroglyphics. Long. 32. 23. E. Lat. 2L 30. N.
CAB, a Hebrew dry measure, being the sixth part of a
seah or satum, and the eighteenth part of an ephah. A
cab contained 2-| pints of our old corn measure.
CABAL, a name aptly given to the infamous ministry
of Charles II. composed of five persons, Clifford, Ashley,
Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale, the first letters
of whose names, in this order, furnished the appellation
by which they were distinguished.
CABALLARIA, in middle-age writers, lands held by
the tenure of furnishing a horseman with suitable equi¬
page during war, or when the lord had occasion for him.
CABALLEROS, or Cavalleros, are Spanish wools,
of which there is a pretty considerable trade at Bayonne
in France, and other places.
CABALLINE denotes something belonging to horses.
Thus caballine aloes is so called, from its being chiefly
used for purging horses ; and common brimstone is called
sulphur caballinum, for a similar reason.
CABANIS, Peter John George, a distinguished
writer and physician at Paris, was born at Conac in 1757.
His father, John Baptiste Cabanis, was a lawyer of emi¬
nence, and chief magistrate of a district in the Lower Li¬
mousin, highly respected for his extensive knowledge and
inflexible integrity, and entitled to the gratitude of his
country for the many improvements he has introduced in
agriculture and farming. He brought the culture of the
vine to great perfection in his province, and introduced a
mixed breed of sheep, by crossing the Spanish with those
of Limousin and Berri. France is more particularly in¬
debted to him, however, for the successful methods he
discovered of grafting fruit trees, and also for contributing
to render more general the use of the potato in the south¬
ern provinces. He was exceedingly anxious that his son,
the subject of the present article, and who had given early
indications of talent, should have the advantage of a learn¬
ed education ; and he accordingly placed him, when only
seven years old, under the tuition of a neighbouring priest.
It was x-emarked that, even at this early age, he had ac¬
quired habits of steadiness and perseverance, from which,
under proper direction, the best results might be expect¬
ed. At the age of ten he entered the college of Brive,
where the severity of discipline to which he was subject¬
ed had an injurious effect upon his temper, and fostei*ed
that habitual impatience of restraint which formed part
of his character*, and which afterwards so frequently ope-
rated to interrupt his progress. When raised to the second
class, he was fortunate in meeting with a master whose
kind ti*eatment soon softened a disposition which harsh¬
ness only had rendered stubbox*n and intractable. He was
not only reconciled to study, but applied to it with the ut¬
most diligence, and became passionately fond of the great
models of poetry and eloquence which were put into his
hands. At a later period, being again exposed to the ri¬
gorous control of one of the heads of the college, his spirit
was once more roused ; he came to the determination o
provoking the anger of his master, and even suffered him¬
self to be accused of a fault of which he was innocent, in
the hope that he might get expelled. Persisting in this
extraordinary mode of conduct, he soon accomplished his
object, and was sent back to his father. But far from en-
CAB
^joying any relaxation under the paternal roof, he now
- y—' found hnnself under a subjection still more rigorous and
insupportable than that from which he had managed to
escape. Indignant at the yoke imposed upon him, he re-
?E„rd lnt0 hl.s ll.ah1lt5 of obstinacy, and would do nothing
‘ .S'“,d‘huipassed ,n ^Henness, his father bl
CAB
763
arSc.wr«heH(s^^iK^ ^
in I ai ls, and was introduced at once into a large circle of
caTlanCe^ ™ everywhere.greeted with ac-
without any restraint on his action’s, or even commission- stKon™HUf1 S’ be8a" ViS'biy t0 prey uPon his c0”
mg any one to superintend his conduct. The experiment nrofe sio'n o„ 1 ^1110w him t0 ch°ose a useful
was hazardous in the extreme, but it was attended wnli Pro.te®slon’ and.he at length decided for that of medicine
aCt3nlb™tvCeto d Y° i"8 Sba,’,is n° S00ner feIt h™self »„’» Sc“h.ri0US “bjucts of study, presen.:
at tub liberty to do as he pleased, than his love of litera-
ard.“ur,in ** PUfsuit.
TT i 1 r* 1 7 C5 "‘oat atuuui 111 uie pursuit.
He had formerly paid no attention to the lectures of his
professors ; but he now, of his own accord, resumed those
branches of his education in which he had remained de-
ShfcS a“te8^Ut!ud‘he“ Wi* perseverance
ed an ample field for thl^rS LiSS'
while it necessitated that degree of bodily exercise wTiich
had become so necessary for the preservation of his health
himinform 10S^-°^nsels !lad.had much influence with
him in loiming this determination, offered to be his guide
n the new and arduous career which he was commencino-
which marked his chamct^ tino^hor ^d" ^ W ^ “ S
himself entirely to the cultivation of his mind and asso § feps bo1tl? ln hls hospital and private
mated only with a few chosen companions of his own‘age, nstructions"1 TrTlYftqT hlS,^udie,s conformably to his
who had a congenial taste for literature, and an equal de 1 i1 ,he Pubhshed Observations sur les
sire of improvement. ’ GqUal de h°P^ilx, a work which procured him the appointment
Thus constantly occupied, two years passed awav with ° a(Jmi"lstrat01’ of hospitals at Paris,
a rapidity which astonished him, when he received a let fessiomd * 6 0 . beaItb’ la .tbe midst of his laborious pro-
ter from his father, offering him the place of secretarv tn ™ ? exeitions, requiring occasional relaxation in the
a Polish nobleman of high rank. He had now to choose n/p ^ ie bxed uPon Auteuil, in the immediate vicinity
between accepting a situation, whfch! ahhouTh it wou d hee^e’ ^ ^ ° rf ide.nce‘ Ifc was tberc that hi
totally interrupt his present pursuits, might “ive him the Th the WldmV °f Helvctius, and ever
power of resuming them at some futuS period or return ^ \ ^ ^ eX,Ce11]ent woman tbe affection of
mg to his family, where he felt that all his exertions must of the ? sbe’ on bfr part, fulfilled towards him the duties
be paralysed, and his hopes blighted by neo-lect He em Bp,. .lndest mother. He spent all his leisure hours in
braced, therefore, without hesitation^tlm offer made to ZZZTw’ aifUl p,r?fited by the opportunity her house
him, and, though only sixteen, commit ed himsfelf "too the dS d l™! cuItlvatlng tbe acquaintance of the most
hands of strangers, i^ a distant count^Vh^was ^ efl sTt^touS period- He continu-
sented to him as m a state of barbarism tb;0 Z • v, >, 1 ,^f0U tb lurgot; was on terms of intimacy
1773, the year during which lhat diet was sUt1nff which 7^°^’^ D’Alember^ aad acquired
was to deliberate upon givino- its sanction to the ffLt • 6 b,ends,1IP of Holbach, Franklin, and Jefferson. Dur-
tition of Poland. The coimpt i,*"furand lf„. lng ‘he laSt V1'Slt 7i,ich VoI‘aire made to Paris, Cabanis
measures which were practised on that occasion r ^ ^ presented to him by lurgot, and read to him part
an insight into the affairs of the world peculiarly revolting thr/al trff s.atfllon o( tba {liad> which that acute critic,
to a youthful and generous mind, and inspired him with f to ° ■ ’ and fatigued with his journey, listened
contempt for mankind and a deo-ree of misantbronic i Wldl great mterest, and bestowed much commendation
which are generally the fruits of n lot . p 'S oom, on the talents of the author. Cabanis had now, however,
man depraffty He returned L Paris Z" " ft1"1' '0ng CefCd,t0 °CCUPy '’imse,f with tllat ^k; and, full,:
wards, when Turgot the friend of 1 • W years after- engaged with the studies and duties of his profession, had
of finanee On h??„’ fne,ndof ''f/ather, was minister renounced the cultivation of letters. He even bade a
received with kindnfjTnd won d snonT^T"’ ’] f°rmal ad‘eu t0 PoctlT in his Serment d’unMAkdn, which
e“s VadUn^a « to his .aseteseandPwa“h- P^ppocrates, buOsmte remrt “e^hM^e^
Of’the ministen m gU6 pr°duced the sudden downfal ^ho1- in light of a zealous friend to liberty. Political
Thus the nw'i.r c i • i , , , , , „ interests were now, indeed, beginning to engross the o-e-
travels were ^knowTele'of the C S 7 7 ^ at.tention ^ aad ^ ™a^s were deserted amidst the
a nremofoM-l 1 kn?7edSe °f German language, and contentions of parties, the din of arms, and the various
the Necessity 0^^^ tf^t^h ^ ^ a™ieties aad pa--- which were called into play during
again appltd to Ids s H v ^ l0St' ^ 'I118 eVentful period- Cabanis espoused witb enthusiasm
father feehnViT inenmhe 1 7 7™* ardourV Hls th? cause of the evolution, to which he was attached from
secured to him1 V0cumben 1 aPoa bim ^ second Ins efforts, principle, and of which the opening prospects were so com
SZZ i the means of subsistence for two or three genial to his active and ardent mind. But, however he
had contracted^ frh Tw ‘batflCabanis desir,ed- He may have shared in the intoxication which seized its early
possessed lome a r^ndshlp ^1.th the Poet Roucher, who partizans, it is certain that he had no participation in the
Lie tor T CelebntT- This connection rekindled his criminal excesses which followed, and which have left so
nnleV P06.1^; aad the French Academy having pro- indelible a stain upon the history of those times.
//W hS 3 P!1Ze the translation of a passage in the During the two last years of Mirabeau’s life he was in-
“ 7 nef 001 0nV ventured to appear as competitor, but timately connected with that extraordinary man, who had
wh.Vh h an8latl0g tbe e0tire poem- The two specimens the singular art of pressing into his service the pens of all
vvmcn ne sent to the Academy did not obtain any public his literary friends, whom he engaged to furnish him with
rZZ’ b0t\theT wer,e Judged of favourably by several their ideas, in writing, on the political topics of the day,
S?0S taste’ and some other fragments that were that he might afterwards combine them as he chose, and
P ished among the notes to the poem Des Mois, met adopt them as his own. Cabanis united himself with this
764 CAB
Cabanis. disinterested association of labourers, and contributed the
V V ' Travail sur VEducation Publique ; a tract which was found
among the papers of Mirabeau at his death, and was edited
by the real author soon afterwards in 1791. During the ill¬
ness which terminated his life, Mirabeau confided himself
entirely to the professional skill of Cabanis; and, though
repeatedly and strongly urged, as his danger increased, to
have further medical assistance, constantly refused to have
recourse to any other advice. Of the progress of the ma¬
lady, and the circumstances attending the death of Mira¬
beau, Cabanis has drawn up a very detailed narrative,
which, whatever proof it may afford ot the warmth of his
friendship for his patient, is not calculated to impress us
with any high idea of his skill in the treatment of an acute
inflammatory disease.
Condorcet was another distinguished character with
whom Cabanis was on terms of intimacy. The calamitous
events of the revolution, and the relentless persecution
which the former was suffering from the party which had
gained the ascendency, tended only to unite them still
more closely in the ties of friendship ; and Cabanis exert¬
ed every means in his power to avert his impending fate.
But all his efforts were unavailing; and he had only the
melancholy consolation of preserving the last writings of
his unfortunate friend, and of collecting his dying wishes
relative to his wife and children. Soon after this event he
married Charlotte Grouchy, sister to Madame Condorcet
and to General Grouchy, a union which was a great source
of happiness to him during the remainder of his life.
After the subversion of the government ot the terrorists,
Cabanis, on the establishment of central schools, was named
professor of Hygiene, in the medical schools ot the metro¬
polis. He was chosen member of the National Institute
the next year, and on the following was appointed clinical
professor. He was afterwards member of the Council of
Five Hundred, and then of the Conservative Senate. The
dissolution of the Directory was the result of a motion
which he made to that effect. But his political career
wa^not of long continuance. He was profoundly affect¬
ed at the turn which the affairs of his country were taking,
so unfavourable to the cause of liberty, and so dispiriting
to the friends of humanity ; and the latter years of his life
were, in consequence, deeply tinctured with melancholy.
A foe to tyranny in every shape, he was decidedly hostile
to the policy of Bonaparte, and had constantly rejected all
his solicitations to accept of a place under his government.
For some years before his death, his health became
gradually more impaired, in consequence of the exertions
and anxieties he had undergone; and, in the spring of
1807, he had a slight apoplectic attack, from which he
soon recovered. He, however, took the warning that was
thus .given him, and retired from the laborious duties of
his profession, spending the greatest part of his time at the
chateau of his father-in-law at Meulan, about thirty miles
from Paris. Here he again solaced himself with reading
his favourite poets, and even had it in contemplation to
resume his translation of the Iliad, which had been the
first effort of his youthful muse. The rest of his time was
devoted to kindness and beneficence, especially towards
the poor, who flocked from all parts to consult him on
their complaints. Increasing infirmity now made him sen¬
sible that his life was drawing near to a close ; and he was
fond of conversing on the subject of his approaching end,
an event which he always contemplated with perfect sere¬
nity of mind. A more complete attack of his disorder at
length carried him off on the 5th of May 1808, when he
had attained his fifty-second year. Fie left a widow and
a daughter to lament the loss of one who united to the
ornaments of a highly cultivated mind the greatest sensi¬
bility and benevolence of heart.
CAB
Besides the tracts already mentioned, he was author of Cabb;
several other works. The only one among them which is j
purely of a literary nature is the Melanges de Literature
Allemande, ou Choix de Traductions de l'Allemande, &c.
Paris, 8vo, 1797. It is dedicated to Madame Helvetius,
and consists of translations of different works of Meisner,
of a drama of Goethe’s entitled Stella, of Gray’s Elegy on
a Country Church Yard, and of the Idyl of Bion on the
death of Adonis. His work Du Degre de Certitude de la
Medecine appeared in the same year ; and a second edition
was published in 1803, containing a republication of his
Observations sur les Hopitaux, and his Journal de la Ma-
ladie et de la Mart de Mirabeau Vaine ; together with a
short tract on the punishment of the guillotine, in which
he combats the opinion of Soemmerring, CElsuer, and Sue,
that sensibility remains for some time after decapitation.
This tract had already appeared in the Magazin Encyclo-
pedique, and in the first volume of the Memoires de la So-
ciete Medicale d'Emulation. This new edition also con¬
tains his Rapport fait au Conseil des Cinq-cents sur V Or¬
ganisation des Ecoles de Medecine and a long dissertation
entitled Quelques Principes et quelques Vues sur les Se-
cours Publiques. In 1799 he published Quelques Consi¬
derations sur / Organisation sociale en general, et particu-
lierement sur la nouvelle Constitution, 12mo. His prin¬
cipal work, however, is that entitled Des Rapports du
Physique et du Morale de VHomme, 1803, in two volumes
8vo; consisting of twelve essays, the first six of which
had been presented to the National Institute, and were
inserted in the first two volumes of their Memoirs, in the
class of moral and political sciences. This work was re¬
printed in the following year, with the addition of a copious
analytical table ot its contents by M. Destutt-’lracy, and
alphabetical indexes by M. Sue. His Coup d (Eil sur les
Revolutions et les Reformes de la Medecine came out in 1803.
Of this work we possess an excellent English translation,
with notes by Dr Henderson. His only practical work on
medicine is the Observations sur les Affections Catarrhales
en general, et particulierement sur celles connues sous le nom
de Rhumes de CerVeau, et Rhumesde Poitrine, 8vo, 1807. He
wrote many interesting articles in the Magazin Encyclo-
pedique. Several of his speeches to the legislative assem¬
bly are given at full length in the Moniteur. (v.)
CABBAGE. See Horticulture.
CABBALA, according to the Hebrew style, has a very
distinct signification from that in which we understand it
in our language. The Hebrew cabbala signifies tradition;
and the rabbin, who are called cabbalists, study principally
the combination of particular words, letters, and numbers,
by which means they pretend to discover what is to come,
and to see clearly into the sense of many difficult passages
of Scripture. There are no sure principles of this knovv-
ledge, which in fact depends upon some particular tradi
tions of the ancients; for wTiich reason it is termed cab¬
bala. The cabbalists have abundance of names which they
call sacred, and not only make use of in invoking spirits,
but imagine that they derive great light from them. -They
tell us that the secrets of the cabbala were discovered to
Moses on Mount Sinai; and that these have been deliver¬
ed down to them from father to son without interruption,
and without any use of letters; for to write them down
is what they are by no means permitted to do. This is
likewise termed the oral law, because it passed from fathei
to son, in order to distinguish it from the written law.
There is another cabbala, called artificial, which consists
in searching for abstruse and mysterious significations o
a word in Scripture, from which are borrowed certain ex¬
planations, by combining the letters which compose i •
This cabbala is divided into three kinds, the gematnc, the
notaricon, and the themora or themura. The first, or ge-
sm
* "abin.
CAB
tbbalists matric, consists in taking the letters of a Hebrew word
for ciphers or arithmetical numbers, and explaining every
word by the arithmetical value of the letters of which it
is composed ; the second, called notaricon, consists in tak¬
ing every particular letter of a word for an entire diction ;
and the third, called themura, or change, consists in mak¬
ing different transpositions or changes of letters, placing
one for the other, or one before the other. Amono- the
Christians, likewise, a certain sort of magic is, by mistake,
called cabbala, and consists in using improperly certain
passages of Scripture for magical operations, or in forming
magical. characters or figures with stars and talismans.
Some visionaries among the Jews believe that Jesus
Christ wrought his miracles by virtue of the ridiculous
mysteries of the cabbala.
CABBALISTS, the Jewish doctors who profess the
study of the cabbala. In the opinion of these men, there
is not a vyord, letter, nor accent in the law, without some
mystery in it. The Jews are divided into two general
sects; the Karaites, who refuse to receive either tradi¬
tion or the Talmud, or any thing but the pure texts of
Scripture; and the Rabbinists, or Talmudists, who besides
this receive the traditions of the ancients, and follow the
Talmud. The latter are again divided into two other
sects ; pure rabbinists, who explain the Scripture in its na¬
tural sense, by grammar, history, and tradition ; and cab-
balists, who, to discover hidden and mystical senses, which
they suppose God to have couched therein, make use of
the cabbala and the mystical methods above mentioned.
CABEC A, or Cabess, a name given to the finest silks in
the East Indies, while those from fifteen to twenty per cent,
inferior to them are called barina. The Indian workmen
endeavour to pass them off one with the other ; for which
reason the more experienced European merchants take
care to open the bales, and to examine all the skaines one
after another. The Dutch distinguish two sorts of cabe-
?as, namely, the moor cabe^a and the common cabe^a.
C ABELLO, or Caveelo Porto, a sea-port of Venezu¬
ela, in South America, with an excellent harbour and bay.
It is situated a league to the west of the harbour of Bon-
burata, and has become the centre of the commerce and
navigation of the province of Venezuela. The bay is ex¬
ceedingly commodious, safe, and well defended from the
prevailing winds. The trade of Cabello is considerable,
and principally carried on with the ports of the same con¬
tinent and with the neighbouring colonies ; but only a few
vessels are employed in that trade with the mother coun¬
try. Population 8000. Long. 10. 20. E. Lat. 34. N.
CABENDA, a great emporium on the western coast of
Africa, situated a little to the north of the river Zaire, in
the district of Cacongo. From the remarkable beauty and
fertility of its situation, it has been called the Paradise of
the coast. The bay is very commodious for trade, wood¬
ing, and watering. Long. 12. 30. E. Lat. 5. 40. S.
CABEZA DE BUEY, a town in the Spanish province
of Estremadura, with 3500 souls. There is carried on
here a cloth manufactory, which employs 1666 workmen.
CABEZZO. See Angola.
CABIDOS, or Cavidos, a long measure used at Goa,
and other places of the East Indies belonging to the Por¬
tuguese, to measure stuffs, linens, and the like, and equal
to four-sevenths of the Paris ell.
CABIN, a room or apartment in a ship, where any of the
officers usually reside. There are many of these in a large
ship, the principal of which is designed for the captain or
commander. The apartments where the inferior officers or
common sailors sleep and mess are usually called berths.
CAB
t AMNET, the most retired place in the finest part of
stud^ °r ‘’"s
hpiniT-^ aIc° denotesua Piece of joiner’s workmanship,
being a kind of press or chest, with several doors and draw¬
ers. 1 here are common cabinets of oak or of chestnut var¬
nished, cabinets of China and Japan, cabinets of inlaid
work, and cabinets of ebony, or other precious woods.
Cabinet is also used in speaking of the more select and
secret councils of princes. Thus, we say the secrets, the
intrigues of the cabinet. To avoid the inconveniences of
a numerous council, the policy of Italy and the practice
or Tiance first introduced cabinet councils.
Cabinet-Making. See Joinery.
. a term in the theology of the ancient Pagans,
sjgm ying gieat and powerful gods, and being a name given
to the gods of Samothracia. They were also worshipped in
other parts of Greece, as Lemnos and Thebes, where the
Cabina were celebrated in honour of them. These gods
are said to have been in number four, namely, Axieros,
Axiocersa, Axiocersus, and Casmilus.
• festivals in honour of the Cabiri, celebrated
in Iliebes and Lemnos, but especially in Samothracia, an
island consecrated to the Cabiri. All persons initiated in
the mysteries of these gods were thought to be thereby
secure against storms at sea, and all other dangers. The
ceremony of initiation was performed by placing the can¬
didate, crowned with olive branches, and girded about
the loins with a purple riband, on a kind of throne, about
which danced the priests and persons previously initiated.
CABLE, a thick, large, strong rope, commonly of hemp,
which serves to keep a ship at anchor.
Cable is also applied to ropes which are used to raise
heavy loads by the help of cranes, pulleys, and other en¬
gines. The name cable is usually given to such as are
at least three inches in circumference; those which are
less are only called ropes, of different names, according to
their use. See Rope-making.
Sheet Anchor Cable is the greatest cable belonging to
a ship.
Stream Cable, a hawser or rope, used to moor the ship
in a river or haven sheltered from the wind and sea.
Cable's Length, a measure of 120 fathoms, or of the
usual length of the cable.
CABOT, Sebastian, the celebrated navigator, and first
discoverer of the American continent, was the son of John
Cabot, a Venetian merchant, resident in England. Al¬
though the subject of much dispute for a long time, it is
now placed beyond a doubt that England may confidently
claim the honour of his birth. In an ancient collection of
voyages and travels by Richard Eden, a learned writer and
contemporary of Sebastian, the author, in a marginal note,
says, “ Sebastian Cabote tould me, that he was borne in
Brystowe (Bristol), and that at iiii yeare ould he was car¬
ried with his father to Venice, and so returned agayne into
England with his father after certayne years, whereby
he was thought to have been born in Venice.” {Decades
of the New World, fol. 255.) It also appears that he re¬
turned, while still young {pene infans'), to England, and
remained there till he grew up to manhood.
From an unaccountable laxity in the scrutiny of writers,
considerable misrepresentations relating to this extraor¬
dinary man have hitherto prevailed, and obtained general
credence. These hypothetical statements, so long main¬
tained, must now give place to facts, which the research
of a modern writer has recently brought to light, and
placed upon a basis of irrefragable veracity.1
1 See a Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, with a Review of the History of Maritime Discovery, illustrated by documents from the Rolls, now first
published. 8vo. London, 1831.
766 CAB
Cabot. The brilliant discoveries of Columbus, towards the close
of the fourteenth century, awakened a spirit of enterprise
throughout the enlightened nations of Europe; and Eng¬
land was not inattentive to movements, from which great
and important advantages might result to her dominions.
Her monarch, Henry VII., however avariciously inclined,
evinced great readiness to facilitate and promote adven¬
ture in the novel career opened up to human ambition.
The all-important and engrossing object was to discover a
route to India; and an expedition in a north-westerly di¬
rection, ostensibly to reach what was called Cathay, or the
Land of Spice, was speedily, after the discoveries of Co¬
lumbus, projected by Sebastian Cabot, and fitted out un¬
der the auspices of the English government. The first
patent, which bears date the 5th of March 1496 (Rymer,
Fcedera, vol. xii. p. 595), was given to John Cabot, and his
three sons, Lewis, Sebastian, and Saucius, and authorizes
them “ to seek out, discover, and find whatsoever isles,
countries, regions, or provinces of the heathen and infi¬
dels, whatsoever they be, and in what part of the world
soever they be, which before this time have been unknown
to all Christians.” The patentees were further empowered
to set up the royal banner, and occupy and possess all
the “ newly found” lands in the name of the king, who re¬
served a fifth of the profits. It was also stipulated that
the vessels should return to Bristol, and that the privilege
of exclusive resort and traffic belonged to the patentees.
Although the patent was conferred on John Cabot and
his three sons, there can be no doubt, even if the father
did accompany the expedition, that its success was entire¬
ly owing to the genius of Sebastian. The inaccuracies
which have arisen from the loose investigation and im¬
mature consideration of several ancient and modern writers,
are now satisfactorily traced to certain perverted state¬
ments of Hakluyts ; and their exposition, which we owe to
the industry and acumen of the author of the Memoir al¬
luded to, is worthy of attentive examination. Suffice it
here to remark, that from a singular misinterpretation of
some documents, and the omission of others, John Cabot,
who was not the discoverer, but only a part owner of
an expedition to discover new lands, erroneously got the
credit, not only of his son Sebastian’s discovery of the
American continent, but also of possessing powers of mind
and scientific knowledge which were scarcely inferior to
those possessed by Columbus himself.
To Sebastian Cabot, therefore, belongs the undoubted
glory of the first discovery of the term firma of the West¬
ern World. The expedition, consisting of the ship com¬
manded by Sebastian, and three or four smaller vessels,
sailed from Bristol in the beginning of May 1497 ; and an
ancient Bristol manuscript records the fact, that, “ in the
year 1497, the 24th June, on St John’s day, was New¬
foundland found, by Bristol men, in a ship called the Ma¬
thew.” On the authority of Peter Martyr, we learn, that
after quitting the north, where he reached latitude sixty-
seven and a half, Cabot proceeded along the coast of the
continent, to a latitude corresponding probably with that
of the Straits of Gibraltar. Indeed he is said to have gone
so far southward, “ ut Cubam Insulam a laeva longitudine
graduum pene parem habuerit.” A failure of provisions
at this point compelled him to desist from further pursuit,
and the expedition returned to England.
The second patent, which for the first time has been
published in the Memoir referred to, is dated 3d Feb¬
ruary 1498, and gives authority to “ John Kabotto or
his deputies,” to take at pleasure six English ships, and
“ them convey and lede to the londe and isles of late
found.” Shortly after the date of this patent John Cabot
died ; and it is said that his sons Lewis and Saucius went
to settle in Italy. Sebastian, however, did not abandon
CAB
an enterprise in which he had embarked; and a second Cati
voyage was zealously undertaken under his superintend-
ence. A ship equipped at the king’s expense, along with
four small vessels, sailed from Bristol in the spring of the
year 1498. It is curious, that although, both from the
language of the patent, and the circumstance of three
hundred men embarking, colonization seems to have been
contemplated, the leading object of the voyage was to ef¬
fect the discovery of a north-west passage. The result is
unfortunately wrapt in much obscurity. Gomara alone
furnishes us with what may be a correct account. Ac¬
cording to this author, Cabot “ directed his course by the
tracte of islande, uppon the Cape of Labrador, at Iviii. de¬
grees ; affirmynge that, in the monethe of July, there was
such could, and heapes of ise, that he durst passe no fur¬
ther ; also, that the dayes were very longe, and in maner
without nyght, and the nyghtes very clear. Certayne it is,
that at the lx. degrees, the longest day is of xviii. houres.
But consyderynge the coulde, and the straungeness of the
unknowen lande, he turned his course from thense to the
west, folowynge the coast of the lande of Baccalaos unto
the xxxviii. degrees, from whense he returned to Eng-
lande.” (Eden’s Decades, fol. 318.)
The results of this second voyage were not sufficient¬
ly important to induce Henry to equip another expedi¬
tion. We have good authority for believing, however, that
Cabot, in 1499, “ with no extraordinary preparations sett
forth from Bristoll, and made greate discoveries.” (Seyer’s
Memoirs of Bristol.) This is confirmed by the naviga¬
tor Hojeda having, in his first voyage, found “ certain
Englishmen” in the neighbourhood of Caquibacoa. It is
higlily probable, from the unlikelihood of any other English
seamen pursuing such a route, that these were Cabot
and his Companions. But the narrative of Cabot’s life for
the fifteen years subsequent to the departure of his second
expedition is meagre and unsatisfactory. One circum¬
stance deserves notice, that during that period Amerigo
Vespucci, in company with Hojeda, crossed the Atlantic
for the first time, whilst Sebastian was prosecuting his third
voyage; yet, as the author of his memoirs says, “ while
the name of the one overspreads the new world, no bay,
cape, or headland, recals the memory of the other.”
After the death of Henry VII., upon the invitation of
Ferdinand, Sebastian Cabot went to Spain ; and Vespucci,
who held the office of pilot-major, having died, he was ap¬
pointed his successor. He was soon employed in a gene¬
ral revision of maps and charts ; and his public and private
character endeared him to most of the learned and good
men in Spain. He had, however, like Columbus, many ene¬
mies ; and the death of Ferdinand put an end to an expe¬
dition then in contemplation. The ignoble commence¬
ment of the reign of Charles V. frustrated all further hopes
of its prosecution ; and Cabot in disgust returned to Eng¬
land, where, under Henry VIII. he got honourable em¬
ployment, and performed another westwardly voyage in
1517, which, however, from various causes, proved un¬
successful.
In 1518 we find our navigator in Spain, and again re¬
instated in the appointment of pilot-major. The dispute
between Spain and Portugal in regard to their respective
rights to the Moluccas having been decided at the con¬
gress of Badajos in 1524 in favour of Spain, a company
was formed at Seville to open a commercial intercourse
with these islands; and Cabot, with the title of Captain-
general, set sail, after many delays, with a fleet in April
1526. The squadron was ill assorted, and a mutiny broke
out, the consequences of which diverted his course from the
Moluccas to the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, up which
he penetrated about three hundred and fifty leagues. He
erected a fort at St Salvador; and afterwards sailing up
CAB
,'abra
the Parana he built other two forts. He subsequently
abul. entered *he 1 araguay, where he was drawn into a sangui-
^ nary contest with the natives. From the report then made
^ by him to Charles V. it is probable, had he been supplied
with means and ammunition, he would have made the eon-
quest of Pei u, which Pizarro afterwards accomplished with
his own private resources. After tarrying in the hopes of
receiving supplies, Cabot was forced to return to Snain
where he resumed his functions of pilot-major. 1 ’
He finally settled in England, where he appears to have
exercised a genera supervision over the maritime concerns
of the country, and enjoyed a pension of two hundred and
fatty merks. It was then that he disclosed to Edward VI
his discovery of the phenomenon of the variation of the
needlea discovery for which alone his name deserves
to be immortalized. It was also at his instigation that the
important expedition was undertaken which resulted in
the opening of the trade with Russia; and in the charter
of the company of merchant adventurers he was nomi¬
nated governor for life, as “ the chiefest setter forth” of
the enterprise. Cabot lived to a very advanced age, and
died probably in London ; but neither the date of his death
nor the place of his interment is properly authenticated.
Sebastian Cabot may be justly regarded as one of the
most illustrious navigators the world has ever seen. His
life exhibits one continued devotion to the mighty impul¬
ses of his genius. England owes him a debt of imperish¬
able gratitude. “ He ended,” says the author of the Me¬
moir which has rescued so much of his life from obscurity,
he ended, as he had begun, his career in the service of Ins
native country, infusing into her marine a spirit of lofty
enterprise, a high moral tone, a system of mild but in¬
flexible discipline, of which the results were not long after
so conspicuously displayed. Finally, he is seen to open
new sources of commerce, of which the influence may be
distinctly traced on her present greatness and prospe-
CABRA, a town of Central Africa, situated on the Ni¬
ger, and serving as a port to Timbuctoo, from which it is
about twelve miles distant. It is represented as consist¬
ing of one long row of about 1200 houses along the river •
the ground is wet and marshy. The people are entirely
employed in trade. ^
CABRERA, an island belonging to Spain, in the Me¬
diterranean Sea, to the south of Majorca. There is a cas-
t e, and a presidio to which delinquents are transported,
and kept to hard labour, from the neighbouring ports of
t e peninsula. It is provided with excellent springs of
water, and the harbour is of great capacity, and has good
anchorage, with from fifteen to twenty fathoms of water,
so that the largest ships of war can enter. The centre of
the island is in long. 3. 31. 26. E. and lat. 39. 7. 30. N.
CABUL, or Caubul, a province of Afghanistan, which
sometimes gives its name to the whole kingdom, with
winch its limits are frequently confounded. It is estimated
to extend 250 miles in length by 150 in average breadth,
t is situated between the 33d and 35th degrees of north
lat. and is bounded on the north by Kuttore or Caffristan,
on the east by Peshawer or the Indus, on the south by
Wnzni and Candahar, and on the west by Hazareh. The
country is divided into two parts by a ridge of very high
mountains, which run from east to west, and are covered
with snow the greater part of the year, whilst the valleys
are scorched v/ith excessive heat; the country contains,
besides, hills of moderate height, and extensive plains and
oiests. But from the Indus to the city of Cabul there is
a great scarcity of wood, and a want of fuel in the winter
season for the poorer classes. Near Baramow is a sandy
uninhabited valley, twenty miles in length ; the tract lying
to the north of the dividing ridge of mountains is named
c A c
'67
Lumghanat, that to the south Buno-LhcW mn i
eys,. each intersected in its whote Wth b Jonf ^ V£* ' Ca,bul
considerable streams runninff throue-h^it Tl more ||
no^a'X!^
easHi ab°"]l t"’?nt3'-fi''"™ae°snin breadth. “waTthl
east the valley is occupied by hills of inferior elevation
that connect the mountainous ridges. West of these hill ’
sUhrVernitJe'-,a,abr8dt’ T' ^
still rises. 1 he river Cabul runs through the centre of
is province, which is principally occupied by pastoral
tribes, who constantly live in tents, migrating periodically
with the seasons; during the summe/monthsTccupyini
the mountains, and in winter returning to the valleys.
These vagrant tribes attend little to agriculture and i/k
“ul't vea™rV fV0™ well
Jellalabad* X Jhe flef are Cabul, Peshawerf Ghizni,
Jellalabad, <$.£. A considerable trade is carried on by the
inhabitants of the towns. To Cabul resort merchants
fiom the most distant countries. A number of horses are
brough here from Tartary, which are exported to ffindu!
stan , also furs and hides, which are exchanged for the in¬
digo and other productions of Hindustan. To Candahar
are exported iron, leather, and lamp-oil, whence the returns
are made in the manufactures of Persia and Europe.
nfAflhL,-Very anc[en\ clly> and at present the capital
Afghanistan, surrounded by a brick wall about a mile
and a half in circumference, with towers at the angles,
and scarcely any ditch. It stands on the eastern side of
two united hills of a semicircular form, in the midst of
an extensive and fertile plain, well watered, and inter¬
spersed with walled villages. A stream runs through the
town, and has a small bridge over it. Through the plain
i uns the Cabul river, over which, at the distance of four
or five mi es to the southward of the city, is a bridge of
rick, ihe houses are built of rough stones and clay, and
make but a mean appearance. Four spacious bazars were
erected here in the centre of the city, by Ali Murdan
vhan, a celebrated Persian nobleman, who for many years
governed these western provinces. These are now occu¬
pied by the meanest order of mechanics, and the foun¬
tains with which they were supplied are choked up with
filth. The citadel, called Bala-Hissar, or Upper Fort, is
situated on a rising ground in the eastern quarter of the
city, and it contains the palace and other public buildings.
Ihe climate, from the vicinity of the great central range
of the Hindoo Coosh Mountains, covered with perpetual
snow, inclines to cold, and is liable also to sudden varia¬
tions. Cabul is a great resort of trade, and the great ba¬
zar is frequently crowded with Usbeck Tartars, and with
Hindoos from Peshawer. This city is mentioned by the
Arabian historians in the seventh century as the resi¬
dence of a Hindoo prince. It was for some time tlie ca¬
pital of the Emperor Baber, and in the year 1739 was
taken by Nadir Shah, who, after abandoning it to plunder,
annexed it, along with the province, to his Persian domi¬
nions. On his death Ahmed Shah Abdally took posses¬
sion of it, and in the year 1774 it was constituted the ca¬
pital of Afghanistan by his son Timour Shah. The travel¬
ling distance from Delhi is 839 miles, from Agra 976, from
Lucknow 1118, and from Calcutta 1815 miles.
CABYNA, a small island in the Eastern Seas, about
twenty-one miles in length by fifteen in breadth, lying
due south of the eastern extremity of Celebes. Lono-.
121. 53. E. Lat. 5. 18. S.
CACAVONE, a town of Italy, in the Neapolitan pro¬
vince Molese, with 2247 inhabitants.
C ACC AMO, a city in the intendancy of Palermo, in
the island of Sicily. It is situated on the shore, and con¬
tains 6420 inhabitants.
768
C A C
CAD
C ACERES, a town of Spain, in the province of Estre-
madura. It is situated on the left bank of the Tagus, be¬
tween Alcantara and Truxillo, and principally known from
giving its name to a particular kind of Merino wool, of a
second or third rate fineness. It contains 8000 inha¬
bitants, and has twenty-six tanneries, which employ sixty-
two workmen, and complete 16,680 pieces ; it has also
three potteries, seven rope-walks, and four dyeing houses.
CACHALONG, a name given by mineralogists to a
peculiar variety of calcedony. It is commonly of a milk-
white colour, and translucent, occurring imbedded in the
trap rocks of Iceland and Faro, along with calcedony. It
is met with also on the borders of the river Cach in Buk-
haria; whence its designation.
CACHAO, Kacho, Kecho, or Backhinc, the capital
of the kingdom of Tonquin, in Asia, situated on the west
side of the river Songkoi, about eighty miles from the sea.
It is of great extent, and has neither walls nor fortifications,
being merely surrounded by a bamboo hedge. The prin¬
cipal streets are wide and airy, and for the most part are
paved with bricks and small stones; intermediate spaces
being, however, left for the passage of elephants and other
beasts of burden. The other streets are narrow and ill
paved. Many of the houses are built with brick, though
the larger proportion are constructed of mud and timber,
and thatched with leaves, straw, or reeds, which exposes
them to the danger of firesand they are not above one
story in height. The magazines and warehouses belong¬
ing to foreigners are the only edifices built of brick ; and
these, though plain, yet, by reason of their height and more
elegant structure, make a considerable show among the
rows of wooden huts. The public edifices are very spaci¬
ous, but particularly the royal palace, which is several
miles in circuit, and is surrounded by high walls. It con¬
tains many buildings within its precincts, which are de¬
voted to different purposes, and embellished with a va¬
riety of carvings and gildings after the Indian manner,
all finely varnished. In the outer court are sumptuous
stables for the king’s horses and elephants. It was ex¬
tremely difficult to procure access to the inner courts dur¬
ing the residence of the sovereigns of Tonquin, who have
for some years past transferred their abode to a city in
Cochin China. Besides this palace there are to be seen the
ruins of one still more magnificent, which is said to have
been six miles in circumference. Cachao is a great com¬
mercial resort,and its trade is facilitated by the river, which
is always crowded with vessels. Theimportsare longcloths,
chintz, arms, pepper, and other articles, in exchange for
which gold is given; and manufactured goods, namely,
beautiful silks, and lackered ware, which is generally
reckoned superior to any in the East. The English fac¬
tory, which stood on the banks of the river, north of the
city, and that of the Dutch, south of it, have long been
withdrawn. On the opposite side of the Songkoi is the
Campez, a town of the Chinese. Cachao, built chiefly of
wooden and brick houses, is peculiarly liable to fires ; and
to prevent these, or to extinguish them after they have
broken out, the city is governed by a very rigid police,
and is divided into wards, each subjected to a certain juris¬
diction. Fires for domestic use are only permitted some
hours during the day. About the middle of the eighteenth
century the city was nearly burnt to the ground by a
conflagration, which was the work of incendiaries, who
discharged fire-arrows during the night against the straw-
covered roofs, and the whole was in a moment in a blaze.
The accounts of the population vary extremely. By some
of the missionaries it is reckoned equal to that of Paris.
Later authors compute it at 40,000. Long. 105. 15. E.
Lat. 22. 36. N.
CACHAR, a district in Asia, tributary to the Burman
empire, and lying about the twenty-fifth degree of north
latitude, between that country and Bengal. It is a moun¬
tainous and sterile country, bounded on the north by As- v
sam, on the south by the Cassay country, on the east by
Cassay, and on the west by the districts of Tipperah and
Silhet in the province of Bengal. It is of a large though
uncertain extent. The country is naturally fertile, but
greatly overgrown with jungle, and thinly inhabited. The
natives are Hindoos of the Khutzi tribe, and are said to
be very pusillanimous. It was invaded by a Burman army
in 1774, but the troops were attacked by the hill fever,
and died in such numbers that they were obliged to re¬
treat, and were finally cut off in detail by the natives. A
second expedition in 1776 was more successful; and the
rajah of Cachar was obliged to do homage to the Burman
sovereign. The British formerly maintained an intercourse
with this country, but since it has fallen under the Bur¬
man yoke this intercourse has been stopt.
CACHUNDE, the name of a medicine, highly celebrat¬
ed among the Chinese and Indians, and composed of seve¬
ral aromatic ingredients, perfumes, medicinal earth, and
precious stones. They make the whole into a stiff paste,
and, according to their fancy, form out of it several figures,
which are dried for use ; these are principally used in the
East Indies, but are sometimes brought over to Portugal.
In China the principal persons usually carry a small piece
in their mouths, which is a continued cordial, and gives
their breath a very sweet smell.
CACOPHONIA, in Grammar and Rhetoric, the meet¬
ing of two letters or syllables which yield an uncouth
and disagreeable sound. The word is compounded of xaxcj,
bad, and voice.
CACUS, in fabulous history, an Italian shepherd upon
Mount Aventine. As Hercules was driving home the herd
of King Geryon, whom he had slain, Cacus robbed him
of some of his oxen, which he drew backward into his den
lest they should be discovered. Hercules at last finding
them out by their lowing, or the robbery being otherwise
discovered to him, killed Cacus with his club. He was
Vulcan’s son, of prodigious bulk, and half man half satyr.
CADALEN, a market-town of the department of the
Tarn, in France, on the river Candou, with 1404 inhabit¬
ants.
CADARI, or Kadari, a sect of Mahommedans, who
assert free will, attribute the actions of men to men alone,
not to any secret power determining the will, and deny all
absolute decrees, and predestination. The author of this
sect was Mabeb ben Kaled al Gihoni, who suffered mar¬
tyrdom for his doctrine. The word comes from the Via¬
ble, cadara, power. Ben Aun calls the Cadarians the Magi
or Manichees of the Moslemins.
CADENCE, or Repose, in Music (from the Latin
cadere, to fall or descend), the termination of an harmo-
nical phrase on a repose, or on a perfect chord.
Cadence, in Reading, is a falling of the voice below
the key-note at the close of every period. In reading,
whether prose or verse, a certain tone is assumed, which is
called the hey-note ; and in this tone the bulk of the words
are sounded; but this note is generally lowered towards
the close of every sentence.
CADENET, a city of the department of the Vaucluse,
in France, on the right bank of the Durance, with distil¬
leries for brandy, and 2447 inhabitants.
CADEROUSE, a city of the department of Vaucluse,
in France, where are several silk mills. It contains
houses and 3876 inhabitants.
CADET, the younger son of a family, is a term natu¬
ralized in our language from the French. In Spain it is
usual for one of the cadets in great families to take tne
mother’s name.
Cacbfde
Cal
'P
CAD
:,del Cadet is also a military term denoting a youno- oentle-
I man who chooses to carry arms in n
,,’adiz. „„ „ nn-v„fp TT- V aims ln a marching regiment
as a private man. His views are, to acquire some know-
ledge in the art of war. ami tn „ J • • . °!v
CAD
769
‘ aic, to acquire some know-
etge m the art of war, and to obtain a commission in the
aimy. Cadet differs from volunteer, as the former takes
pay, whereas the latter serves without pay.
C DI, or Cadhi, a judge of civil affairs in the Turkish
empire It is genera ly taken for the judge of a town
JoUf SlF0V'nCeS be“’g distin*“ished 4 fte appellation
CADILESCHER, a capita, offices of jnstice among the
Turks, answering to a chief justice among us. There are
but three cadileschers in all the grand seignior’s territories;
the first is that of Europe, the second that of Natolia and'
the third resides at Grand Cairo. This last used to be
the most considerable. The cadileschers have seats in
the divan next to the grand vizir.
CADxLAC, a city of the department of the Gironde, in
fiance, where there are some considerable iron-works, and
CUrA tytt* uther &00.ds made. The inhabitants are 1326.
EAD1Z, the most important maritime city of Spain. It
is situated in the province of Seville, one of the four divi¬
sions of Andalusia. Its situation is peculiarly favourable
for foreign commerce, especially with the western world,
as bemg more southerly and westerly than any other con¬
siderable port. Its harbour, or rather bay, is a most secure
port; and the entrance, though obstructed by some groups
of rocks, which, being visible, maybe avoided, is both easy
and safe. I he anchorage-ground is good for holding, and
it is well protected by strong fortifications. Vessels can-
no indeed approach the wharfs, but must be loaded and
un oaded by the assistance of barges; and but for this
drawback, it would perhaps be the best port in Europe. It
is situated at the extremity of a long ridge of sand, which
connects it with the Isla de Leon, and separates the bay
from the ocean. If those who defend Cadiz are master's
of the sea, it is perhaps the most impregnable fortress in
the world; but by means of a superior naval force and a
arge army, it is thought by the best judges to be liable
to capture. The spot on which the city is built beinff
very contracted, and incapable of extension, the street!
are m consequence narrow, and the houses lofty, so that
those of the public buildings which are not near the walls
have their magnificence hid from the eye of common ob¬
servers.
From its situation, Cadiz is destitute of good water-
and though most of the houses have reservoirs for the'
piesenation of rain, a scarcity is felt, and expensively re¬
moved by means of numerous boats, which are constantly
occupied in the conveyance of water across the bay from
the city oi Santa Maria. They yearly expend 180,000
guelders in this necessary article. Its principal buildings
are t ie general hospital, which is excellently regulated,
and where the aged, the infirm, the sick, and orphans,
are relieved. 1 he cathedral, though rich in ornaments, is
in enor to most of the episcopal churches in Spain ; but a
new one, which has been more than ninety years in build-
mg, will, if ever it be finished upon the present plan, be
extremeiy magnificent. The other churches are nume¬
rous, elegant, and in general richly endowed, and many of
tnem decorated with pictures, the productions of Murillo,
e asquez, Zubaron, and the other great masters of the
Spanish school.
When Spain possessed a navy, the principal arsenal
was at Caraccas, which is reached by the largest ships
Hough an inlet from the bay of Cadiz. The magazines
and stores are beautiful, and well adapted for the design ;
an the arsenal is w*ell guarded by a deep ravine on one
s* e, which separates it from the continent, and by impas¬
sable marshes on the other.
VOL. v.
As Cadiz is situated on the extremif-v o or, j u i •
Si;c;htnfrt,aferryruntl ii' ctf-
;w..,i„ij. nccjti:*t™tzzz^
the whole extensive commerce of tlm i a..
tl,e western hemisphere. S tfeL ^utedTihe
®aPP Y of these colonies from Russia, Germany England *
Holland, and France, as well as the m’anufacS of Ipab’
aie first collected here, and from hence distributed over
the whole surface of Spanish America. The whole of the
gold and silver from Mexico and Peru, and the other va-
uable productmnsof those countries, centre here, and are
then diffused over the surface of Europe, in return for the
various commodities that have been furnished. The im-
45 865 sTb 1nCa -f 1805 ted in merchandised •
45,865,396, and in silver to 77,328,403 guelders. Besides
this commerce with America, Cadiz is the focus !n2
w uch are collected the wines and oils which Andalusia
jacent'country6 °ther ValUaMe commoditi“ ^ ad-
_lhe custom-house is a well-regulated establishment, and
enjoys in its various store-housls great convenience for
he reception of such goods as are brought to it to be
?,-expor^d. The trade of Cadiz, like that of most of the
o her more eminent maritime cities in the Spanish domi¬
nions, is under the regulation of a body called the Con-
sulado, consisting of the principal merchants, who have
very considerable power and wealth as a corporation, and
aie besides a tribunal for determining such legal questions
as are purely commercial.
I he police of the city is regulated by the cabildo or
municipal corporation, to whom, under the orders of the
governor, is intrusted the preservation of the public walks
and buildings, the cleansing and lighting of the streets,
ti'e care of the prisons and hospitals, and other similar
objects.
Several establishments in this city bespeak an attention
not merely to commerce, but to science. There is a col¬
lege, in which both the classics and mathematics are taught
as well as the theology of the Peninsula. There is an&as-
tionomical observatory, in which observations are conti¬
nually ntade, and where a nautical ephemeris is composed,
which does not suffer by comparison with those of Green¬
wich or of Paris. Some of the best maps extant have been
framed by those who were educated here; and the names
of Malaspina, Lopez, lofini, and Rios de Mendoza, will
be of equal authority with any that England or France
has produced.
I his city was known before the Roman conquest as a
place of trade, and not improbably was the port of Tarsh-
ish, to which the ships of Solomon resorted. Under the
name of Gades it was long occupied by the Romans, and
was a place of great importance to Caesar in his wars with
the Pompeys. A bridge called Puente de Suarzo, leading
from the continent to the city, was, according to tradi¬
tion, constructed by that commander; but though it is
now known to be of more recent erection, it is highly pro¬
bable, from the importance of the passage, that a bridge on
the spot was erected by the Roman conqueror.
1 he inhabitants of Cadiz, in ordinary times, amount
to about 75,000. During the late war, when it was the
ultimate refuge of the government, they are said to have
been trebled ; but of this, and the other occurrences of
the war, the article Spain will narrate the particulars.
Very accurate observations have fixed the observatory to
be in north latitude 36. 32., and west longitude 2. 33. 54.
from Madrid, or 5. 45. 54. from Greenwich. (g.)
CADIZADELITES, a sect of Mahommedans very like
the ancient Stoics. They shun feasts and diversions, and
affect an extraordinary gravity in all their actions; they
5e
770 GAD CAE
Cadmean are continually talking of God, and some of them make a
Letters ju^le 0f Christianity and Mahommedanism. They drink
„ wine, even in the fast of the Ramazan ; they love and pro-
tect the Christians; they believe that Mahommed is the
Holy Ghost; they practise circumcision, and justify it by
the example of Jesus Christ.
CADMEAN Letters, the sixteen ancient Greek or
Ionic characters, such as they were first brought by Cad¬
mus from Phoenicia, whence Herodotus calls them also
Phoenician Letters. According to some writers, Cadmus
was not the inventor, nor even the importer, but only the
modeller and reformer, of the Greek letters; and it was
from this circumstance they acquired the appellation Cad¬
mean or Phrenician Letters; whereas, before that time,
they had been called Pelasgian Letters.
CADMIUM. This metal has not yet been met with
in its native state, but is contained in certain ores of zinc,
and especially in the black fibrous blende of Bohemia,
which contains about five per cent, of it. It was disco¬
vered by M. Stromeyer in 1817, who used the following
process for separating it from its ore. He dissolved it
in dilute sulphuric or muriatic acid, and, after adding a
portion of free acid, transmitted a current of sulphuretted
hydrogen gas through the liquid, by which means the cad¬
mium was precipitated as sulphuret, while the zinc re¬
mained in solution. The sulphuret of cadmium was then
decomposed by nitric acid, and the solution evaporated to
dryness; then the dry nitrate of cadmium was dissolved
in water, and an excess of carbonate of ammonia added.
The white carbonate of cadmium subsides, which, when
heated to redness, yielded a pure oxide, and by mixing
this oxide with charcoal, and exposing it to a further heat,
metallic cadmium was obtained in the form of sublima¬
tion. Dr Wollaston’s process is somewhat more simple ;
he placed the solution of the mixed metals in a platinum
capsule along with a piece of metallic zinc. If cadmium
be present it is reduced, and adheres to the capsule, after
. which it may be dissolved, either by nitric or dilute mu¬
riatic acid.
The cadmium thus obtained has in colour and lustre a
strong resemblance to tin, but is somewhat harder and
more tenacious. It is very ductile and malleable; melts
at about the same temperature as tin, but is nearly as vo¬
latile as mercury; condensing like it into globules which
have a metallic lustre. When heated in the open air it
absorbs oxygen, and is converted into an orange-coloured
oxide. It is readily dissolved by nitric acid, but is less
easily acted upon by sulphuric and muriatic acids. Its
specific gravity is 8-62.
CADMUS, in fabulous history, king of Thebes, the
son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, and the brother of Phoe¬
nix, Cilix, and Europa. According to tradition, he carried
into Greece the sixteen simple letters of the Greek alpha¬
bet ; and there built Thebes, in Bceotia. The poets say that
he left his native country in search of his sister Europa,
whom Jupiter had carried away in the form of a bull; and
that, inquiring of the Delphic oracle for a settlement, he
was answered, that he should follow the direction of a cow,
and build a city where she lay down. Having arrived among
the Phocians, he was met by a cow, which conducted him
through Bceotia to the place where Thebes was afterwards
built. But when he was about to sacrifice his guide to Pal¬
las, he sent two of his company to the fountain Dirce for
water, where they were devoured by a serpent or dragon ;
upon which Cadmus slew the monster, and afterwards, by
the advice of Pallas, sowed his teeth, when there sprung
up a number of armed soldiers, who prepared to revenge
the death of the serpent; but on his casting a stone among
these upstart warriors, they turned their weapons against
each other with such animosity, that only five survived
the combat, and this remnant assisted Cadmus in founding Cadir
his new city. Afterwards, to recompense his labours, the I
gods gave him Harmonia, or Harmione, the daughter of v^£eli
Mars and Venus ; and honoured his nuptials with presents,
and peculiar marks of favour. But at length resigning
Thebes to Pentheus, Cadmus and Harmione went to go¬
vern the Ecclellenses ; and when they grew old they were
transformed into serpents, or, as others say, sent to the
Elysian fields in a chariot drawn by serpents.
Cadmus of Miletus, a celebrated Greek historian, was,
according to Pliny, the first of the Greeks who wrote his¬
tory in prose. He flourished about 550 before Christ.
CAD RITES, a sort of Mahommedan friars, who once
a week spend a great part of the night in turning round,
holding each other’s hands, and repeating incessantly the
word hai, which signifies living, and is one of the attri¬
butes of God; during which one of them plays on a flute.
They never cut their hair, nor cover their heads, and al¬
ways go barefooted; they have also liberty to quit their
convent when they please, and to marry.
CADS AND, an island on the coast of Dutch Flanders,
situated at the mouth of the Scheldt, whereby the Dutch
command the navigation of that river.
CADUCEUS, in antiquity, Mercury’s rod or sceptre,
being a wand entwisted by two serpents, borne by that
deity as the ensign of his quality and office, and, according
to the fable, given him by Apollo for his seven-stringed
harp. Wonderful properties are ascribed to this rod by
the poets; as laying men asleep, raising the dead, and
such like marvels. It was also used by the ancients as a
symbol of peace and concord. The Romans sent to the
Carthaginians a javelin and a caduceus, offering them their
choice either of war or peace. Among that people, those
who denounced war were called feciales; and those who
went to demand peace, caduceutores, because they bore a
caduceus in their hand. The caduceus found on medals
is a common symbol, signifying good conduct, peace, and
prosperity. The rod expresses power, the two serpents
prudence, and the two wings diligence.
CADUS, in antiquity, a wine vessel of a certain capa¬
city, containing eighty amphorae or firkins ; each of which,
according to the best accounts, held nine gallons.
CADUSII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Media
Atropatene, situated to the west, in the mountains, and
reaching to the Caspian Sea; between whom and the
Medes perpetual war and enmity continued down to the
time of Cyrus.
CADUTINADA, a small district of Hindustan, in the
province of Malabar. It is well cultivated, and is natu¬
rally a rich country, containing a large proportion of rice
ground. But the grain which it produces is scarcely ade¬
quate to the support of its inhabitants; and a regular im¬
portation takes place from the southern parts of Malalaya,
and from Mangalore. The plantations are numerous.
The higher parts of the hills are overgrown with wood,
which the Nairs formerly encouraged, as it afforded them
protection against invaders. The female Nairs in this
country, when children, go through the ceremony of mar¬
riage, which is, however, merely nominal, as the man and
the wife never cohabit. W hen the girl attains to matu¬
rity, she is taken to live in the house of some other Nair.
In 1761 a treaty was concluded by the Bombay govern¬
ment with the chief of this country, for the purchase of
pepper. .
C7ELIUS, Aurelianus, an ancient physician, and tne
only one of the sect of the Methodists of whom we have
any remains. He was a native of Sicca, a town of Numidia;
but in what age he flourished cannot be determined. R
is probable, however, that he lived before Galen; since,
though he carefully mentions all the physicians before him,
CAE
,C7 he takes no notice of Galen. He had read over very dill
JLr. ®.nc,®nt physicians of all sects; and we are in'
enshire. dtbted '» h™ for the knowledge of many dogmas which
?e "ot *» be foo"d hot in his books Be LTs 7^l
Pimmubm. He wrote, as he himself tells us, several
other works; but they have all perished.
CAEN, an arrondissement of the department Calvados
m France. Its extent is 450 square miles. It is divided
into nine cantons, which are subdivided into 205= com¬
munes, containing 129,863 inhabitants.
Caen, a city, the capital of the department of Calvados,
and of the arrondissement of its own name, in France It
stands on a fine plain at the influx of the Odon into the
navigable river Orne. The fortifications are in a dilapi¬
dated state. The ground plan of the city has the form
of a horse shoe. It has some good places, and streets of
moderate width, and the houses are of stone. The dwell¬
ings aie 8000, and the inhabitants amount to 36,361. It
is a manufacturing town, which produces silk and thread
lace, a large quantity of hosiery, woollen, linen, and cot¬
ton goods, besides snuff, leather, porcelain, wax-candles
paper, parchment, and other articles. It has extensive
fisheries on the sea, and some foreign ships repair to its
harbour. I here is also some internal trade up the river
Orne. The city has some good institutions for education
and for promoting a knowledge of the fine arts. It is si¬
tuated in latitude 49. 11. 12. N. and longitude 0. 26 58 W
CiERE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Etruria, the
royal residence of Mezentius. Its ancient name was Ar-
gyUce. In Strabo’s time not the least vestige of it re¬
mained, except the baths called cceretana. From this
t0nnA censor’s tables were called ccerites tabula.
LARKLEON, a market-town of the hundred of Usk
in Monmouthshire, 157 miles from London. Near it are
aome ruins designated by the people Arthur's Round Table.
• , 0™ar^e*: c^ay Thursday. The inhabitants amounted
. Jn^i67’ in 1811 t0 821’ in 1821 t0 1062’ and in
-tool to 1071.
CAERMARTHEN, the capital town of the county of
that name, in South Wales. It is situated in a beautiful
valley on the river Towy, which is navigable to it. It is
an ancient place, was once fortified, and is the best built
town in the principality. In the reign of James I. it was
incorporated as a town and county of itself. Near to it
are some iron and tin works; but the commerce is incon¬
siderable for the population, who, in some measure, derive
their occupation from its being a kind of capital for Wales,
as ielates to the Stannery courts and the great sessions.
I here are markets on Wednesday and Saturday. It con-
ers the title of Marquis on the Duke of Leeds. The in¬
habitants amounted in 1811 to 7275, in 1821 to 8906, and
in 1831 to 9995.
CAERMARTHENSHIRE, a county in South Wales,
containing 926 square miles, or about 590,640 acres. The
northern and eastern parts are mountainous. Near the
sea the land is flat, but the general surface of the county
is hilly. It is intersected in almost every direction by
valleys, from the sides of which the hills rise abruptly.
These valleys are, for the most part, very narrow. The
most celebrated for fertility and picturesque beauty, as
well as the most extensive, is the vale of Towy, which
stretches thirty miles up the county, with a breadth of
only two miles. From the celebrated Grongar Hill, and
the ruins of the Castle of Dynevor, the picturesque beau¬
ties of this vale are seen to the greatest advantage.
I he principal rivers in Caermarthenshire are the Towy,
fhe feivy or Tair, the Cothy, the Dulas, and the Gwilly.
The Towy rises in Cardiganshire. Renters Caermarthen¬
shire at its north-eastern corner, crossing towards the
south-west, and, passing Caermarthen, it empties itself
CAE
orn? phe ila,Ye bay, b]Ctween t}te counties of Glamorgan
{1emb,oke\cajled Caermarthen Bay. Many rivulets
join the J owy in its course, among which is the Cothy
I his stream rises on the north side of the county and'
running mostly in a southern direction, unites with the
Towy about six miles above Caermarthen. The Tdvy
rises m Cardiganshire, between which county and Cael
marthenshire it afterwards forms the boundary: soon after
receiving the Reach, it enters the county of Pembroke.
Ihe principal pnrts in this county are Llanelly, Kid-
e ly, Caermarthen, and Llaugharne. Llanelly has a
good port lor vessels of ten feet draught, formed by an
com tv andeciea called.?unT Kiver, which divides ^his
of K dw n GIaT ngan6hlre* Llane% ^ the port of entry
of Kidwelly and Caermarthen: its exports are coal and
tinned iron plates. Kidwelly is situated on two small
streams called Givandraeth, which form a little haven,
but mostly choked with sand. From this town a canal
ms been cut, at the expense of a private gentleman, be¬
tween three and four miles long, to his coal-mines and
lime-quarries; and by means of this canal Kidwelly has
been enabled to export a considerable quantity of coals.
Vessels of 250 tons burden ascend to the bridge of the
town of Caermarthen on the Towy, but the entrance of
t ie l iver is rather difficult, in consequence of a bar across
it. I lie principal exports of Caermarthen are tin plates
and cast iron. Llaugharne, on a creek, is chiefly remark¬
able for a considerable flat tract in the vicinity, embank¬
ed from the sea, and of singular fertility.
Ihe climate of this county is soft and mild, but moist;
the soil of the lower districts is fertile, being for the most
part either a rich clay or a sharp or deep loam. Little
wheat is grown; and, except on the lighter soils, barley
is not a common crop ; but oats are extensively cultivat¬
ed, and, in respect both of produce and quality, are a very
profitable crop. Great quantities are exported, chiefly to
Bristol. Ihe pasture lands, especially where the soil is
suitable, support a heavy stock; they are applied either
to the dairy or to the breeding of black-cattle and horses.
The latter are reared in great numbers on the hills, and
constitute the principal article of trade at the fairs of this
and the adjacent counties. Much butter is exported. It
is computed that 114,000 acres are in tillage, and about
double that number in pasture; the rest is unfit for culti¬
vation, though by no means unprofitable. According to
the original agricultural report of this county, there'are
only about 170,000 acres of wastes and commons. This
county was formerly extremely well wooded; but of late
years great waste has been made of the timber. Its rivers
and sea-coast abound in fish, especially salmon of excellent
quality, and a species of trout, called suen, in high request
with epicures.
Caermarthenshire is rich in mineral productions. Coals
and lead are the most abundant and profitable. The
greatest lead-mines are not far from Llandowry. Lime¬
stone also abounds, and there are considerable quantities
of iron ore. The sands in the vicinity of Llaugharne, ac¬
cording to Mr Donovan, abound in shells of great rarity
and beauty. On the road from Caermarthen to Llandillo
Vawr a medicinal spring has lately been discovered, con¬
taining carbonic acid gas, carbonate of iron and lime, mu¬
riate of soda and lime, and sulphate of lime. At Kastell-
Karreg there is a fountain which ebbs and flows twice in
twenty-four hours. There are several remains of anti¬
quity, chiefly Roman, to be seen in Caermarthenshire.
The inhabitants who are not engaged in agriculture
are principally employed in working the mines, in manu¬
facturing the produce of these mines, and in making wool¬
len stockings. The most extensive manufactures of tinned
iron plates are carried on at Kidwelly, where are also other
77 i
Caermar-
thenshire.
772
CAE
CAE
Caernarvon manufactures of iron, for which there are large and excel-
|| lent furnaces, forges, flatting-mills, &c. Tinned plates
Caernar- and cast iron are also manufactured at Caermarthen, and
von shire. tjie works in both branches are extensive. In the neigh-
kouri100d of Llandowry the woollen-stocking manufactory
principally prevails.
The money raised for the maintenance of the poor in
1803 was L.17,046, at the rate of 12s. 9d. in the pound.
In the year ending the 25th of March 1815, there was
paid, in parochial rates, the sum of L.30,354. 6s. 9id* Caeiv.
from eighty-three parishes alone, the remaining forty-three vonsiik
not having made any return. By the population returns
in the year 1800 there were 13,449 inhabited houses,
67,317 inhabitants, 31,439 males, and 35,878 females; of
this number 32,862 were returned as employed in agricul¬
ture, and 4343 as employed in trade. The following are
the results of the population returns in 1811, 1821, and
1831.
YEAR.
1811
1821
1831
HOUSES.
14,856
16,402
By how
many Fa¬
milies oc¬
cupied.
16,083
18,392
333
333
OCCUPATIONS.
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Agricul¬
ture.
9,878
9,628
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Trade, Ma¬
nufactures,
or Handi¬
craft.
All other
Families
not com¬
prised in
the two
preceding
classes.
5256
4823
949
3941
PERSONS.
Males.
36,080
43,577
Females.
41,137
46,662
Total of
Persons.
77,217
•90,239
100,800
CAERNARVON, the capital of the county of that name
in South Wales. It is a very ancient town ; and the castle,
in which the first prince of Wales was born, is in better
preservation than any other of the ancient edifices of that
kind and age in the kingdom. The town, which is on the
entrance of the Menai Strait, is finely situated, command¬
ing a view of Anglesey and the mountain Snowdon. The
principal trade to its port is for slate, which is found in
abundance near it. A market is held on Saturday, and is
well attended. The population amounted in 1811 to 4595,
in 1821 to 5788, and in 1831 to 7642.
CAERNARVONSHIRE, a county in North Wales, is
divided by the Conway from Denbighshire, from part of
Merionethshire by a rivulet, from Anglesey by the Straits
of Menai; and the residue is bounded by the sea. In
figure it is very irregular, a great peninsulated point run¬
ning out from it to the south-west. From the extremity
of this point the length is forty-five miles; the breadth
varies extremely; its circumference is about 150 miles.
According to a late survey, it contains 300,000 acres
of land, of which, by one account, about 200,000, and,
by another account, only 160,000, are in a state of culti¬
vation.
This county is the most mountainous in Wales. Its
central part is entirely occupied by Snowdon, and its
subordinate mountains extend from near Conway in the
north-east to the shore that bounds the Perthorian road,
including the Rhifel ridges. The Snowdon Mountains
are connected with another chain of hills, which approach
the sea at Aberdaron. Among these are very deep
passes, forming narrow valleys, through which numerous
streams, issuing from various lakes, rush in some places
with great violence. The highest region of the moun¬
tainous district is covered with snow during the greater
part of the year; the middle region affords fuel and pas¬
turage, though the woods which once clothed it are near¬
ly exhausted. The bases of the mountains, and the val¬
leys, are in general temperate and fertile. The vale of
Conway is the most extensive in the county; it is a long
and narrow tract, equally romantic and beautiful, through
which the river of the same name runs. At first it is very
narrow, but it gradually widens to the breadth of a mile.
Its extent is about twenty miles, terminating at the town
of Conway. It affords rich pasturage, especially near
Llanwost, where it is formed into the finest meadows,
corn-fields, and groves, and exhibits a striking and pleas¬
ing contrast to the bleak regions of Snowdon frowning
above it.
The general escarpment of the mountains, which rise
from the sea towards the centre of this county, fronts the
sea; but the particular escarpment of the detached
groups depends upon the course of the streams. The
mountain of Snowdon is composed of various cliffs of dif¬
ferent heights; the altitude of the highest point of the
mountain is about 3600 feet from the high-water mark on
Caernarvon quay. Snow lies all the year in the hollows
near the top of Snowdon, the temperature here being very
low, even in the middle of summer. On the morning of
the 5th of July 1795, just after sunrise, Mr Aikin observ¬
ed the thermometer at 34, whereas in the vale of Beddge-
lest, at seven in the morning, it was at 62; at one in the
afternoon it had reached only forty-eight on the top of
Snowdon.
The principal rivers in Caernarvonshire are the Conway
and the Seiont. The first rises from a lake on the confines
of Denbigh, Merioneth, and Caernarvon. Its course is
nearly in a northerly direction, along the east side of the
county, for about twenty-four miles, when it empties itself
into the sea at the town of the same name; it is half a
mile wide at the Tash at high water, and not above fifty
yards at low, the remaining space being sand-banks, which
at high water are covered to the depth of twelve feet.
These sands still abound in the pearl muscle, as they did
in the time of the Romans; but they have been long ne¬
glected. The Conway is navigable for about twelve miles.
The Seiont rises from a lake near Snowdon; its course is
westward, and it runs into the Menai Strait at Caernarvon.
The bar admits vessels of about 300 tons into the haven.
The sea-coast of this county presents many objects
worthy of notice. Traeth Bach and Traeth Mawr are
two inlets of the sea having one entrance, and each re¬
ceiving a little river. The greater part of them are dry at
low-water, and become quicksands. They lie between Caer¬
narvonshire and Merionethshire, but as they seem more
properly to belong to the latter county, the attempts of
Mr Maddocks to emhank the sands of Traeth Mawr will
more properly be noticed under Merionethshire. Passing
from this county into Caernarvonshire, the first sea-port
is Pwllheli, on an inlet which receives three or four rivu¬
lets. It has a considerable coasting trade in small ves¬
sels. St Tudwell’s bay is sheltered by two small islands.
To it succeeds the bay named Hell’s Mouth, from the
CAE
Jaemar- height and form of the shores, which cause the wind to
■I'onshire. blow continually into it, while there is also a constant in-
draught of the current. The promontory of Lyn extends
to the west of the mass of mountains that occupy the
space between the west entrance of the Menai and Traeth
Mawr. At the extremity of this promontory lies the Isle
of Bardsey, two miles long and one mile broad. The tides
run with great rapidity between this island and the pro¬
montory. Ihe gulf between the penin&ulated hundred of
Lyn and Anglesey is called the bay of Caernarvon. It is
lined by the high ridge of Snowdon. The only port on
this coast is Porthyn Lyn, formed by a long point of land
jutting into the sea, and sheltering a cone on the west.
Port Penryhn, on a small rivulet, has been recently en¬
larged into a haven for vessels of 300 or 400 tons ; and by
it are exported immense quantities of slate, from Lord Pen-
ryhn’s estate in this county, to the amount of 500 tons a-
week when the demand is great. About seven miles to
the west-south-west of Conway, on the road from that
town to Bangor, is the stupendous precipice of Pennuen
Mawr, the last of the long Caernarvon chain. It is 1400
feet perpendicular from its base, and, according to Mr Cas¬
well, who was employed by Mr Flamstead the astronomer
to measure it, 1545 feet above the beach at low water. In
1772 application was made to parliament to improve and
secure the road across this precipice, which was accord-
ingly done; and there is now a good road on a ledge of
the rock, defended by a wall five feet high. The county
of Caernarvon is terminated by the lofty round promon¬
tory called Llandudno, or the Great Orme’s Head, on the
east of the Conway river. It is a fine sheep-walk, ending
in a steep precipice over the sea, which is hollowed into
various inaccessible caverns.
In consequence of the elevated surface of the greater
part of the county, and its cold, piercing, and damp at¬
mosphere, there is little corn grown in it. Near the sea,
however, and in some of the vales, barley of fine quality is
raised; and, in some of the higher districts, oats are cul¬
tivated. Ihe vales yield a little meadow grass for hay,
which is got in without the aid of wheel-carriages, the un¬
even surface of the ground not admitting their use. Sheep
and black cattle, however, constitute the principal agri¬
cultural stock of the Caernarvonshire farmers. The for¬
mer are pastured on the mountains, which in general are
commons; and the latter on the lower grounds. A con¬
siderable quantity of cheese, made from the mixed milk
of ewes and cows, is made. From the peninsulated hun¬
dred of Lyn, which is in general flat, oats, barley, cheese,
and black cattle are exported; of the last about 3000 an¬
nually. The numerous herds of goats which used to fre¬
quent the rocky districts of this county are now nearly ex¬
tinct. There are some profitable orchards in the vales, but
in general the climate is very unfavourable to fruit trees.
Caernarvonshire is an interesting county to the minera¬
logist ; but we can only notice very briefly the principal
features of its mineralogy. The highest and interior re-
C A E
773
gions of the Snowdon Mountains are composed of granite, Caernar-
clo^in^’ WviIn’ M d,0,thf Pnmitive aggregate rocks, in- vonshire.
closmg considerable blocks of quartz. The western side W-
of Snowdon itself consists of ironstone, on which are placed
basaltic columns of different lengths, and about four feet
in diameter. On each side of the primitive rocks there
are mountainous banks of slate, the coarsest on the east¬
ern, and the finest invariably on the western side of the
central ridge. At Nantfrancon are the slate quarries of
Lord Penryhn, who has constructed admirable railways
rom them to I ort Penryhn. The banks of slate, becoming
finer as they descend, occupy the country between Snow¬
don and the Menai, usually terminating within a few hun¬
dred yards of its banks. The channel of the Shast, as well
as its banks, consists of limestone; breccia, or the frag¬
ments of the Snowdon Mountains in a calcareous cement-
and hard marl, inclosing shells. The general dip of the
strata in the promontory of Lyn is to the south-west; on
the north coast are found chlorite slate and coarse serpen-
tme. On the former rest beds of primitive argillaceous
schistus. I he argillaceous schistus in some places is large¬
ly mixed with carbon, forming a kind of hard drawing slate;
and in others it is penetrated by carbon and pyrites, forming
alum slate. No mines have been opened in this district?
A haid stone, used instead of brass for supporting the pi¬
vots of light machinery, and another stone something resem¬
bling the French burr, have been found in this county. There
are some lead mines near Gwydir; but the most important
and valuable metal found in this county is copper. The
richest mines of it are in the vicinity of Llanberis; it is
also found in various parts of the Snowdon Mountains ;
and the green carbonate of copper lies between the lime¬
stone strata, in the promontory of Orme’s Head. There
are also mines of calamine on the Caernarvon side of the
river Conway.
Many rare vegetables, met with only on the most elevat¬
ed spots, grow in this county. Some of the steepest crags
of the Great Orme’s Head are inhabited by the peregrine
falcon. Considerable quantities of fish, particularly her¬
rings, are caught on the shores of this county; and lob¬
sters and oysters are met with in great abundance. In
some of the lakes are found the char, and the gwyniad,
another alpine fish. Foxes are the chief wild animals.
The money raised for the poor in 1803 was L.9137,
being at the rate of 4s. Ofd. in the pound. In the year
ending the 25th of March 1815, there was paid in paro¬
chial rates the sum of'L.15,776. 17s. 6d. In 1800 there
were 8304 inhabited houses, and 41,521 inhabitants;
19,586 males, and 21,935 females, of whom 12,808 were
employed in agriculture, and 4234 in manufactures, trade,
and handicrafts. The inhabitants live in a state of the ut¬
most simplicity, manufacturing their clothes from the wool
of their own flocks, and dyeing them with lichens; while a
little oatmeal added to the produce of their dairies con¬
stitutes their food. In 1811, 1821, and 1831, the results
of the population returns were as follows:
YEARS,
1811
1821
1831
HOUSES.
By how
many Fa¬
milies oc-
' cupied.
9,369
10,932
10,187
11,478
154
295
OCCUPATIONS.
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Agricul¬
ture.
6667
6890
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Trade,. Ma¬
nufactures,
or Handi¬
craft.
2687
2649
All other
Families
not com¬
prised in
the two
preceding
classes.
833
1939
PERSONS.
Males.
23,379
28,412
Females.
25,951
29,546
Total of
Persons.
49,336
57,958
66,300
/ 74 CAE
Caerwys CAERWYS, a market-town in the hundred of Rhydd-
II lan, in Flintshire, North Wales, five miles from St Asaph
Csesalpi- an(j 212 from London. The market is held on Tuesday,
nus‘ and is much frequented. The inhabitants amounted in
1801 to 773, in 1811 to 822, and in 1821 to 952.
CAiSALPINUS, Andrew, one of those great and dar¬
ing geniuses who, contending with the mists of a dark age,
elicit the most brilliant truths on the one hand, whilst
they sometimes wander into great absurdities on the other,
was born at Arezzo in Tuscany in 1519. Of his family
nothing is recorded, nor does he appear to have left any
progeny, or to have been ever married. Devoted to the
studies of physic and natural philosophy, he attained at
length the honour of being physician to Pope Clement
VIII., during the chief part of whose pontificate, from
1592 till his own death in 1603, at the age of eighty-four,
Caesalpinus lived at Rome, in the highest credit and cele¬
brity; for which, as we trace the circumstances of his his¬
tory, and inquire into his opinions, it seems at first sight
difficult to account. Eminent talents have seldom proved
a shield against persecution. On the contrary, by adding
fear to its malice, they have generally tended to exaspe¬
rate its fury. How then could Caesalpinus, a professed
Aristotelian, and an open unbeliever of revealed religion,
whose opinions nearly approached those of Spinosa, exist
in the holy court of Rome, which was then beginning to
persecute the immortal Galileo? This mystery will but
too readily unravel itself.
Caesalpinus seems to have been furnished with two dis¬
tinct philosophical intellects, which, like a good and evil
genius, directed him by turns. Under the influence of
the one he discovered the circulation of the blood, the
sexes of plants, and the only true principles of botanical
classification ; under the guidance of the other he became
entangled in the metaphysics of the schools, the dreams
of Aristotle, and a philosophic contempt for every thing,
good or bad, connected with the nonsense he was obliged
publicly to respect. It is scarcely necessary to remind the
reader, that, however brilliant the reign of literature and
taste in the golden age of Leo X. and the times which im¬
mediately succeeded, true science and experimental phi¬
losophy were as yet in the cradle. In this respect the
time of Caesalpinus was “ dark as Erebus,” and the light
he struck out was altogether his own.
We have no account of this great man till we find him
seated in the botanical chair of the University of Pisa,
where also he studied, if he did not teach, anatomy and
medicine. His first publication was entitled Speculum
Artis Medicce Hypocraticum, in which it were too much to
expect he should have released himself from the shackles of
his venerable guide; but he has left evident proofs, in a pass¬
age often quoted, of his having a clear idea of the circu¬
lation of the blood, at least through the lungs. In botany
his inquiries were conducted on a more original plan, and
their result was one of the most philosophical works in
that science, which issued from the press at Florence in
1583, in one volume quarto. The title-page runs thus:
T)e Plantis libri XVI. Andrece Ccesalpini Aretini, Medici
clarissimi doctissimique, atque Philosophi celeberrimi ac
subtilissimi; yet he appears to have been himself the edi¬
tor of the work, to which is prefixed, in his own name, an
elegant and learned epistle dedicatory to Francis de’ Me¬
dici, grand duke of Tuscany. This book, now rarely to
be met with, is not only the unacknowledged source frorfi
which various subsequent writers, and especially Morison,
derived their ideas of botanical arrangement; but it was a
mine ol science to which Linnaeus himself gratefully avow¬
ed his obligations. His own copy evinces the great assi¬
duity with which he studied the book. Fie has laboured
throughout to remedy the defect of which Plaller com-
C A E
plains, of the want of synonyms ; and has subjoined his own Caesakl
generic names to nearly every species. He has particular- nus'!
ly indicated those remarkable passages, in pages 13 and 15, V'“"Y'
where the germination of plants and their sexual distinc¬
tions are explained. In the former we trace the first ru¬
diments of a natural classification of plants by the differ¬
ences in their cotyledons; or, in other words, we find the
origin of the natural systems of Linnaeus and Jussieu : in
the latter passage we detect the fundamental principle of
the Linnaean artificial system. Nor were these merely
incidental suggestions of the illustrious author. He has
pursued his inquiries to a conclusion on which the ex¬
istence of botany as a science depends, and which the
no less eminent Conrad Gesner detected about the same
time, though his ideas respecting it were not then made
public. The principle to which we allude is the classi¬
fication of plants by their parts of fructification alone.
This was afterwards extended, by the greatest writers
on the subject, as Ray and Tournefort, and more com¬
pletely by Linnaeus, to the discrimination of their genera
by the same parts, more particularly considered and
contrasted. To this more extensive conclusion, indeed,
the principle of Caesalpinus directly and inevitably leads.
He pursued it himself to such a length, as to develop
some of the most important characters for generic dis¬
tinctions, such as the flower being superior or inferior
with respect to the fruit; the heart of the seed situated
at its summit or base; the seeds, or the cells of the seed-
vessels, solitary or otherwise; the partitions of certain
pericarps parallel or contrary to their valves. Linnaeus
remarks that this author, though the first systematical
botanist, found out as many natural classes, or orders, as
any of his followers. He did not indeed define well the
philosophical limits of genera in the vegetable kingdom,
and therefore his work cannot be regularly quoted through¬
out for generic synonyms. The want of plates of his own,
and of references to other authors, render, as we have al¬
ready hinted, some of his names and descriptions unintel¬
ligible. Yet Linnaeus has in manuscript filled up many
blanks which he had been obliged to leave in his own
Classes Plantarum, where the system of Caesalpinus first
assumed a synoptical form. This author might probably
have adopted a more clear and methodical mode of ar¬
ranging and explaining the botanical part of his subject,
had he not had in view the vague and desultory manner
of Pliny, whom he closely imitates in the materials of his
numerous chapters, as well as in his style of description.
A small and unimportant Appendix to this work, of nine¬
teen pages, appeared at Rome in 1603, which is of very
rare occurrence, but may be found reprinted in Boccone’s
Museo di Piante Rare, p. 125.
Caesalpinus printed at Rome, in 1596, a quarto volume
of above two hundred pages, entitled De Metallicis, dedi¬
cated to Pope Clement VIII. which, like his botanical
publications, is now extremely rare. In the philosophy of
this work Aristotle is his guide; in its method and com¬
position, Pliny. A prefatory address to the pope declares
it to have been undertaken in opposition to a certain trea¬
tise on the same subject, which, though written with dili¬
gence and elegance, contained many things inconsistent
with the principles of philosophy, and subversive of the
peripatetic doctrines; and with the author of which, as
being excommunicated by the holy church of Rome, no
measures were to be kept.
In our author’s Qucestionum Peripateticarum libri quin-
que, published at Rome in 1603, it appears that he scrupled
not to stand forth as an open defender of the Aristotelian
philosophy, without any concealment of his own peculiar
opinions and hypotheses derived from thence. By these
he incurred the charge of atheism, preferred by a physician
/ / o
vers ant. He left behind him a collection of above 760
dried specimens, one of the earliest upon record, which is
said to have come into the hands of Micheli, and there-
fore is doubtless still preserved in the museum of Dr Tar-
giom I ozzetti at Florence. A catalogue of this venerable
herbarium is reported to have been prepared for the press,
but we do not find that it ever appeared.
Caesalpmus having been settled at Pisa when the great
CAB C A F
EffriftCtM-riSi'SESS s;s» iW—.... 1 h_    
Aristotelian died in tile course of the year, receiving no exercise,T! •'S SUiC ' “ <i,arac,er uncommon. Where he
doubt, in the very focus of sanctity itself; the fu, eral’l,"- for rmh 1^.7 judSn,e”'. =>"<• honestly sought
nours due to an orthodox physician of his holiness. knowWge ’nd “'^d the bounds of human
Of the med,cal publications of Cmsalpinus, entitled the aratitude and ■ 1 ^‘S7Ven? whlch wiU for olaim
Praxts Umrersce Mdtcw^and De Medk-mmntmum I'aad. f f'SllT , ad',’,,laUon of mankind. (x.x.)
taiibus, we have had no opportunity of form in., an miihm t®.’ J.UI-IUS’ t,,e illustrious Roman general and
for ourselves. By what is' to be gathere “7om hi7X? Se7,W na"’ “f'f farail-'' of tlle ^ who p"e-
wr,tings, Ins ideas of the medical qualities of plants and descendants 1 deSc.ended Wnus by Aineas. The
fossils seem adopted from ancient writers rather than l f , r r -'^'mnis, sons of .Eneas and CrtusiI, and
from any considerable portion of actual experiment. Like SrHosinin.’k n Alba tllat city was ruined by
other physicians of his time, he was too mucheoe'cup!ed where C^ried them t0 Rome,
in ascertaining the articles of the materia medica, to find they prodTced ^ d° not find that
leisure for doubt, or for practical inquiry, respecting- the thTnimo nf T ^°reflthan lwo branches. The first bore
truth of their reputed virtues. He did, howeverrZnd! ancienrof dm ^ °ther ^ °f CaJSar- Tho niost
gate some original ideas relative to the investigation of pWmenK il f"8 ^ th°Se who held Public em'
the properties of plants by their taste and smeif With Afte" ha time^0^^ f ^ °f ^ ™
botany he was not on y theoreticaUv hut ^ m tnat time some of the family always enjoyed public
yersant. He left behind him a Sen 1^7' Tn 'J,?* “"-"-onwealth, till L tide of f^ius Snhus
the 12H nf H ^ °f ^ art,de- He was born a‘ Rome
653 mu f i if- Tnnth Quintihs’ in the Jear of the city
653, and lost his father in 669. By his valour and elo-
the fiphl16 ®0.0n ac<luired the highest reputation both in
the field and m the senate. Beloved and respected by his
ellow-ciUzens, he enjoyed successively every magisterial
.d, ™dltary honour the republic could bestow consistently
Galileo first presumed to doubt the ^ i n fal hblli tv * of' tiff fliiPf'l'it,0''0 'Cf C0nstltutl0n-, But at length having sub-
Aristotelian philosophy, and most likelv whpn fifot • • i Pompey, the great rival of his growing power, his
character became, £ Xe lhe his actions!
him to have been LeT„r re SyroirTXhSoTs6 SJS man m" “ f112*6 th“" 8«o„d in Rome, he
gracefully manifested itself there^He^ust'have concur- not oontemw h ".!^ Ch°Se?- ^r1 dictator; “d-
red in the measures which his own associates Ipnrmerl with 1ml i i this unconstitutional power, his faction
SflaesjiaawSS
was considered as a mere abstract speculation, or whe- bringing him to a legaUrtl forTsuZtlon r7,‘7 “
S im, f •Same and 0ther scI'ools- But when » spirit He fell in the fifty-sixth year of hi aoe and ti e fm ,v
weretobedsubmfttedatoSeth'V'.entP1'fC'Pl<!Sandl0pini0n-8 t,,irti the <-'ll,istiah era- His Commentaries con-
ment, the same «».<• vie-
witnessed in what was called religion, were justly appre-
ended for what was now with scarcely more propriety
d-~d philosophy. Hence the papal authority, emptu urs, irom me
the wisdom m W ! Sh-PVfreCr in the. °nf cas1e’ wanting tion of'the empire. It was also used as a title of dTstinc-
t ie wisdom to avoid a similar disgrace in the other, gladly tion for the intended or presumptive heir of the emnirp
canons0 the P(livm ^ Jr1®86 two celebrated oe- as King of the Romans was latterly used for that of the
. s’ the divorce of Henry VIII. and the base perse- German empire.
author! tv nftl!60’ arevalTSt 4,16 0nl^0"eS in Which the This title took its rise from the surname of C. Julius
that humanfrpL P°Pe iTi been .exerted about anX matter Caesar’ whlch> by a decree of the senate, all the succeeding
exppntTf f • .COuld determine, or that much signified, emperors were to bear. Under his successor, the appella-
dPtfrmln i lmmedlate dependents, how it might be tion of Augustus being appropriated to the emperors, in
. , ™ecl- _ It is a memorable fact, that his decision was compliment to the prince of that name, the title Casar was
hnJusj ln oae case than unjust in the other; yet given to the second person in the empire, though still it
Inti PrTd 6q!|. Iy ^um°us, the former to his power, the continued to be given to the first; and hence the difference
auer to Ins credit. So hazardous is the exercise of usurp- betwixt Cassar used simply, and Caisar with the addition
1 0I1 overs*:ramed authority, and so infallibly, thanks to of Imperator Augustus.
tie Author of all Good, do truth and justice rise, with The dignity of Caesar remained to the second of the
renovated vigour, from such contests. empire, till Alexius Comnenus having elected Nicephorus
Jiy this view of our subject the mystery above alluded Melissenus Caesar by contract, and it being necessary to
o becomes clearly unravelled. Caesalpinus, though a confer some higher dignity on his own brother Isaacius,
known heretic and infidel, professing to be an obedient he created him Sebastocrator, with the precedency over
son, and even a champion, of the church, tried to rise by Melissenus; ordering, that in all acclamations, Isaacius
tories. I he London edition in 1712, in folio, is preferred.
See Rome.
C;esar, in Roman Antiquity, a title borne by all the
emperors, from the time of Julius Caesar till the destruc-
776 CAE
Csesar Sebastocrator should be named the second, and Melissenus
|| Csesai* the third.
Cseteris. CiESAit, Sir Julius, a learned civilian, was descended
by the female line from the Duke de Cessarini in Italy,
and was born near Tottenham in Middlesex in the jeai
1557. He was educated at Oxford, and afterwards stu¬
died in the university of Paris, where, in the year 1581,
he was created doctor of the civil law, and two years aitei -
wards was admitted to the same degree at Oxford, and
also became doctor of the canon law. He was advanced to
many honourable employments, and for the last twenty
years of his life was master of the rolls. He was remark¬
able for his extensive bounty and charity to ail persons
of worth, so that he seemed to be the almoner-general
of the nation. He died in 1639, in the seventy-ninth
year of his age. It is very remarkable that the manu¬
scripts of this lawyer were offered, by the executois of
some of his descendants, to a cheesemonger as waste
paper ; but being timely inspected by Mr Samuel Pater¬
son, this gentleman discovered their value, and had the
satisfaction to find his judgment confirmed by the profes¬
sion, to whom they were sold in lots, for upwards of L.500,
in the year 1757.
CfESAREA, an ancient city of Palestine, of great cele¬
brity, but now in ruins, and entirely deserted. It is situ¬
ated on the sea-coast, and had an extraordinary harbour,
which, according to Josephus, was constructed by Herod-
Louis IX. of France is said to Lave rebuilt its walls dur¬
ing the holy wars. The adjacent ground is covered to a
great extent with numerous and magnificent remains of
antiquity. When this country was visited by Pococke,
Caesarea was inhabited by a few families ; but at the time
it was visited by Dr Clarke it was quite deserted. It is
36 miles from Acre, and 62 from Jerusalem.
C/ESAIIEAN Operation. See Midwifery.
CAESARIANS, Ccesarienses, in Roman Antiquity, were
officers or ministers of the Roman emperors. They kept
the account of the revenues of the emperors, and took
possession in their name of such things as devolved or
were confiscated to them.
CaESONES, a denomination given to those cut out of
their mothers’ wombs. Pliny ranks this as an auspicious
kind of birth ; the elder Scipio Africanus, and the first of
the family of the Caesars, were brought into the world in
this way.
CaESTUS, in Antiquity, a large gauntlet made of raw'
hide, which the wrestlers made use of when they fought
at the public games. This was a kind of leathern strap,
strengthened with lead or plates of iron, which encompass¬
ed the hand, the wrist, and a part of the arm, as well to
defend these parts as to enforce their blows.
CaEStus, or CcBstum, was also a kind of girdle, made of
wool, which the husband untied for his soouse the first day
of marriage.
CfESURA, in the ancient poetry, is when, in the scan¬
ning of a verse, a word is divided, so that one part seems
cut off, and goes to a different foot from the rest.
Caesura, in the modern poetry, denotes a rest or pause
towards the middle of an Alexandrine verse, by which the
voice and pronunciation are aided, and the verse as it
were divided into twro hemistichs.
CaETERIS Paribus, a Latin term in frequent use
among mathematical and physical writers. The words
literally signify the rest, or other things, being alike or
equal. Thus we say, the heavier the bullet, cceteris pari¬
bus, the greater the range ; that is, by how much the bul¬
let is heavier, if the length and diameter of the piece and
strength of the powder be the same, by so much will the
utmost range or distance of a piece of ordnance be the
greater. Thus also, in a physical way, we say, the velo-
C A G
city and quantity circulating in a given time through any Caffi
section of an artery, will, cceteris paribus, be according to ||
its diameter, and nearness to or distance from the heart. Cagha
CAFFA, in commerce, painted cotton cloths manufac- r
tured in the East Indies, and sold at Bengal.
Caffa, Kaffa, or Kjeffe, a town of European Rus¬
sia, in the Crimea, and at one time the largest and most
important place in that peninsula. It is pleasantly situat¬
ed at the end of a large bay on the northern shore of the
Black Sea, and is defended by two forts. The harbour,
although capacious, is shallow, and little sheltered from
the south-east winds. This town has repeatedly changed
masters, but it was finally incorporated with the Russian
empire in 1783. Its trade consists principally in stuffs of
Turkish manufacture, and in wine, rice, and coftee. Long.
35. 12. 45. E. Lat. 45. 6. 30. N.
CAFFILA, a company of merchants or travellers, who
join together in order to go with more security through
various countries on the continent of the East Indies, and
also Africa.
The caffila differs from a caravan, at least in Persia;
for the caffila properly belongs to some sovereign, or to
some powerful company in Europe; whereas a caravan is
a company of particular merchants, each trading upon his
own account. There are also such caffilas which cross
some parts of the deserts of Africa, particularly that call¬
ed the Sahara.
CAGANUS, or Cacanus, an appellation anciently
given by the Huns to their kings. The word appears also
to have been formerly applied to the princes of Muscovy,
now called czar. From the same also, probably, the Tar¬
tar title cham or khan had its origin.
CAGAYAN Soouoo, an island in the Eastern Seas,
about twenty miles in circumference, of a rich soil, and of
luxuriant aspect. It has a good harbour on the north side,
with a bar which admits vessels of fifteen feet water. The
island is governed by a rajah dependent on Sooloo. Long.
118. 36. E. Lat. 7. N.
CAGE, an inclosure made of wire, wicker, or the like,
interwoven lattice-wise, for the confinement of birds or
wild beasts. The word is French, cage, formed from the
Italian gaggia, of the Latin cavea, which has the same sig¬
nification : a caveis theatralibus in quibus includebantur
ferce.
Beasts were usually brought to Rome shut up in oaken
or beechen cages artfully formed, and covered or shaded
with boughs, that the creatures, deceived with the ap¬
pearance of a wood, might fancy themselves in their forest.
The fiercer sorts were pent in iron cages, lest wooden pri¬
sons might be broken through. In some prisons there are
iron cages for the closer confinement of criminals.
Cages (cavece) denote also places in the ancient am¬
phitheatres, wherein wild beasts were kept, ready to be let
out for sport. The cavece were a sort of iron cages, diffe¬
rent from dens, which were under ground and dark; and
being airy and light, the beasts rushed out ol them with
more alacrity and fierceness than if they had been pent
up under ground.
CAGGLkNO, a city of Italy, in the province Principa-
to-Citeriore of the kingdom of Naples, with 2777 inhabi¬
tant _ n
CAGLIARI, the capital of the island of Sardinia, as well
as of the province of the same name. It stands on the
gulf of that name, and contains thirty churches, about
5000 houses, and 25,880 inhabitants. It is the residence
of the viceroy, of an archbishop, and the place of assem¬
bling of the boards of administration and of the courts or
justice. It has little commerce, which is chiefly confined
to the sale of wine, corn, cheese, and especially of sait
refined near it. Long. 9. 0. 25. E. Lat.39. 15. 20. as.
| icaiile.
^ —
C A I
Cagliari, (7^o 7)*, one of the provinces into which
the island of Sardinia is divided.
^ Cagliari, Paolo, called Paulo Veronese, an excellent
pamter, was born at Verona in the year 1532. Gabriel
Cagliari, his father, was a sculptor, and Antonio Badile,
h,s uncle, was his master in painting. He was not only
esteemed the best of all the Lombard painters, but by
reason of his extensive talents in the art was peculiarly
styled // Pittor fehce, the happy painter; and there is
scaicely a church m Venice where some of his perfor¬
mances are not to be seen. He died of a fever at Venice
in 1588, and had a tomb and a statue of brass erected to
his memory in the church of St Sebastian.
CAGNANO, a town of Italy, in the Neapolitan pro¬
vince Capitanata, with 3477 inhabitants.
CAHORS, an arrondissement in the department of the
Lot, in France. It extends over 865 square miles, and
contains twelve cantons, divided into 136 communes with
106,417 inhabitants. The chief place, from which the ar-
londissement takes its name, is on the right bank of the
Lot, which forms almost a circle round it. It contains 1900
houses, and 11,728 inhabitants. There are in it manufac¬
tures of paper, cloths, lace, cassimeres, and leather; and
some trade in wine, brandy, nut-oil, and other produc¬
tions, which is increasing. Long. 1. 21. 15. E. Lat. 44
26. 49. N.
C AHUSAC, a town of France, in the department of the
Tarn, on the river Verre, with 1424 inhabitants.
CAIAPHAS, high priest of the Jews after Simon, con¬
demned Christ to death ; and was deprived of his place by
the emperor Vitellius, for which disgrace he made away
with himself. J
CAIFONG. See China.
^ CAILLAC, an arrondissement of the department of the
larn, in France, extending over 510 square miles. It is
divided into eight cantons and eighty-four communes, and
contains 63,7.56 inhabitants. The capital is a city of the
same name, on the river Tarn, which is navigable to a cer¬
tain extent. It has 1503 houses, and 6636 inhabitants.
The chief trade consists in wine, which is produced of the
best quality in the vicinity, and largely shipped from Bour-
deaux to the most remote markets. Long;. 1. 45. E. Lat.
43. 50. N.
CAILLE, Nicholas Louis de la, an eminent mathe¬
matician and astronomer, was born at a small town in the
diocese of Rheims in 1713. His father had served in the
army, which he quitted, and in his retirement studied ma¬
thematics, and amused himself with mechanic exercises,
in which he proved the fortunate author of several inven¬
tions of considerable use to the public. Nicholas almost
in his infancy took a fancy to mechanics, which proved of
signal service to him in his maturer years. He was sent
young to school at Mantes-sur-Seine, where he discover¬
ed early tokens of genius. In 1729 he repaired to Paris,
where he studied the classics, philosophy, and mathema¬
tics ; and he afterwards went to study divinity at the college
de Navarre, proposing to embrace an ecclesiastical life. At
the end of three years he was ordained as a deacon, and
officiated as such in the church of the college de Mazarin
several years; but he never entered into priest’s orders,
apprehending that his astronomical studies, to which he
had become most assiduously devoted, might interfere too
much with his religious duties. In 1739 he was conjoined
with M. de Thury, son to M. Cassini, in verifying the me¬
ridian of the royal observatory throughout the whole extent
of the kingdom of France. In the month of November
the same year, whilst he was engaged day and night in
the operatiops which this grand undertaking required, and
at a great distance from Paris, he was, without any solici¬
tation, elected to the vacant mathematical chair which the
vol. y.
C A i
III
celebrated M. \ angnon had so worthily filled. Here he Caille
began to teach about the end of 1740 ; and an observa-
tory was ordered to be erected for his use in the college,
and furnished with a suitable apparatus of the best inst?u-
ment,. ^ In May 1741 M de la Caille was admitted into
t e Royal Academy of Sciences as an adjoint member
for astronomy Besides many excellent papers dispersed
through their Memoirs, he published elements of geome¬
try mechanics, optics, and astronomy. Moreover, he care-
ully computed all the eclipses of the sun and moon that
had happened since the Christian era; which were print-
ed m a book published by two Benedictines, entitled LArt
de Verifier hs Bates, Paris, 1750, in 4to. Besides these,
He compiled a volume of astronomical ephemerides for the
years 174o to 1755; another for the years 1755 to 1765-
a- i ,r^/or ^le years 1765 to 1775; an excellent work en¬
titled Astronomice Fundamenta novissimis Solis et Stellarum
observationibus stabilita ; and the most correct solar tables
which had ever appeared. Having performed a seven years’
series of astronomical observations in his own observatory,
he foi med a project of going to observe the southern stars
at the Cape of Good Hope. This was highly approved of
by the academy, as well as by the prime minister Comte
de Argenson, and very readify agreed to by the states of
Holland. Upon this he drew up a plan of the method he
intended to pursue in his southern observations; settino-
forth, that, besides settling the places of the fixed stars, he
proposed to determine the parallaxes of the Moon, Mars,
and Venus. But as this required contemporaneous obser¬
vations to be made in the northern parts of the world, he
sent to those of his correspondents who were expert in
practical astronomy previous notice in print, what observa¬
tions he designed to make at particular times for the above
purpose. At length, on the 21st of November 1750, he
sailed for the Cape, and arrived there on the 19th of April
1751. He forthwith got his instruments on shore; and,
with the assistance of some Dutch artificers, set about
building an astronomical observatory, in which his appara¬
tus of instruments was properly disposed of as soon as the
building was in a fit condition to receive them.
The sky at the Cape is generally pure and serene, un¬
less when a south-east wind blows; but this is often the
case; and when the wind in question blows, it is attended
with some strange and striking effects. The stars look
bigger, and seem to quiver; the moon has an undulating
tremor; and the planets have beards like comets. Two
hundred and twenty-eight nights did our astronomer sur¬
vey the face of the southern heavens, during which space
of time he observed more than 10,000 stars; and as the
ancients had filled the heavens with monsters and old
wives’ tales, the Abbe de la Caille chose rather to adorn
them with the instruments and machines which modern
philosophy has made use of for the conquest of nature.
With no less success did he attend to the parallaxes of the
Moon, Mars, Venus, and the Sun. Having thus execut¬
ed the purpose of his voyage, and no present opportunity
offering for his return, he thought of employing the vacant
time in another arduous attempt, which was no less than
that of taking the measure of the earth, as he had already
done that of the heavens. This indeed had, through the
munificence of the French king, been done before by dif¬
ferent sets of learned men, both in Europe and America,
some determining the extent of a degree under the equator,
and others its extent under the arctic circle; but it had
not as yet been decided whether in the southern parallels
of latitude the same dimensions obtained as in the northern.
His labours, however, were rewarded with the satisfaction
he wished for, having determined a distance of 410,814
feet from a place called Klip Fontyn to the Cape, by means
of a base of 38,802 feet, ascertained by three actual measure-
5 E
778 CAT
Caimacan. merits; and in this way he discovered a new secret of na-
tore, namely, that the radii of the parallels in south latitude
are not the same as those of the corresponding parallels in
north latitude. About the twenty-third degree of south
latitude he found a degree on the meridian to contain
342,222 Paris feet. He returned to Paris on the 27th of
September 1754, having, in his almost four years’ absence,
expended no more than 9144 livres on himself and his
companion; and at his coming into port he refused a
bribe of 100,000 livres, offered by one who thirsted less
after glory than gain, to share his immunity from custom¬
house searches.
After receiving the congratulatory visits of his more in¬
timate friends and of the astronomers, he first of all em¬
ployed himself in drawing up a reply to some strictures
which Professor Euler had published relative to the meri¬
dian ; and then he settled the results of the comparison of
his own with the observations of other astronomers for the
parallaxes. That of the sun he fixed at 9^", that of the
moon at 56' 56", that of Mars in his opposition at 36", that
of Venus at 38". He also settled the laws by which as¬
tronomical refractions are varied in consequence of the
different density or rarity of the air, owing to heat or cold
and dryness or moisture. And, lastly, he showed an easy,
and by common navigators practicable, method of finding
the longitude at sea by means of the moon ; which he illus¬
trated by examples selected from his own observations
during his voyages. His fame being now established upon
a firm basis, the most celebrated academies of Europe
claimed him as their own ; and he was unanimously elect¬
ed a member of the Royal Society at London, of the Insti¬
tute of Bologna, of the Imperial Academy at Petersburg,
and of the Royal Academies of Berlin, Stockholm, and
Gottingen. In the year 1760, M. de la Caille was. attack¬
ed with a severe fit of the gout, which, however, did not
interrupt the course of his studies; for he then planned
out a new and immense work, which was no less than the
history of astronomy through all ages, with a comparison
of the ancient and modern observations, and the construc¬
tion and use of the instruments employed in making them.
In order to pursue the task he had imposed upon himself
in a suitable retirement, he obtained a grant of apartments
in the royal palace of Vincennes; and whilst his astrono¬
mical apparatus was erecting there, he began printing his
Catalogue of the Southern Stars, and the third volume of
his Ephemerides. But towards the end of the year 1763,
the state of his health became greatly reduced. His blood
grew inflamed ; he had pains of the head, obstructions of
the kidneys, and loss of appetite, with a plethoric oppres¬
sion on the whole system. His mind remained unaffect¬
ed, and he resolutely persisted in his studies as usual. In
the month of March medicines were administered to him,
which rather aggravated than alleviated his symptoms;
and he was now sensible, that the same distemper which
in Africa, ten years before, had yielded to a few simple
remedies, would in his native country bid defiance to the
best physicians. This induced him to settle his affairs:
his manuscripts he committed to the care and discretion
of his esteemed friend M. Maraldi. It was at last deter¬
mined that a vein should be opened; but this brought on
an obstinate lethargy, of which he died, at the age of forty-
nine.
CAIMACAN, or Kaimacam, in Turkish affairs, a dig¬
nity of the Ottoman empire, answering to lieutenant, or
rather deputy, amongst us. There are usually two caima-
cans, one residing at Constantinople as governor of the
capital, and the other attending the grand vizir in quality
of lieutenant, secretary of state, and first minister of his
council, and giving audience to ambassadors. Sometimes
there is a third caimacan, who attends the sultan, whom
C*in{
Wr
C A I
he acquaints with any public disturbances, and receives Gaim
his orders concerning them.
CAIMAN, or Cayman Islands, three small islands
situated fifty-five leagues north-north-west of Jamaica.
The southernmost of these islands is called Great Caiman,
and contains about 160 inhabitants, whose chief employ¬
ment consists in fishing for turtle, with which they sup¬
ply Porto Rigal and other places. A considerable number
of them are also employed as pilots.
CAIN, eldest son of Adam and Eve, killed his brother
Abel, for which he was condemned by God to banishment
and a vagabond state of life. Cain retired to the land of
Nod on the east of Eden, and built a city, to which he
gave the name of his son Enoch.
CAINITES, a sect of heretics in the second century,
so called on account of their great respect for Cain. They
pretended that the virtue which produced Abel was of an
order inferior to that which had produced Cain, and that
this vvas the reason why Cain had the victory over Abel
and killed him ; for they admitted a great number of genii,
which they called virtues, of different ranks and orders.
They made profession of honouring those who carry in
Scripture the most visible marks of reprobation, as the in¬
habitants of Sodom, Esau, Korah, Dathan, and Abiram.
They had, in particular, a very great veneration for the
traitor Judas, under the pretenca that the death of Jesus
Christ had saved mankind. They had also a forged gospel
of Judas, to which they paid great respect.
CAIRNS, or Carnes, the vulgar name of those heaps
of stones which are to be seen in many parts of Britain,
particularly in Scotland and in Wales. I hey are compos¬
ed of stones of all dimensions, thrown together in a conical
form, a flat stone crowning the apex. Various causes have
been assigned by the learned for these heaps of stones.
They have been supposed to be, in times of inauguration,
the places where the chieftain elect stood to show himself
to best advantage to the people; or the spots from which
judgment was pronounced; or erections by the way-side in
honour of Mercury; or fabrics formed in memory of some
solemn compact, particularly when accompanied by stand¬
ing pillars of stones : or sites destined for the celebration
of certain religious ceremonies. Such might have been
the reasons, in some instances, where the evidences of
stone chests and urns are wanting; but these are so gene¬
rally found that they seem to leave little doubt that the
most usual purpose of the piles in question was to serve as
sepulchral monuments. But even this destination might
render them suitable to other, particularly religious, pur¬
poses, to which by their nature they might be supposed to
give additional solemnity. According to Toland, indeed,
fires were kindled on the tops of flat stones, at certain
periods of the year, particularly on the eves of the 1st of
May and the 1st of November, for the purpose of sacri¬
ficing ; at which time all the people having extinguished
their domestic hearths, rekindled them from the sacred
fires of the cairns. In general, therefore, these accumu¬
lations appear to have been designed for the sepulchral
protection of heroes and great men. Ihe stone chests,
the repositories of the urns and ashes, are lodged in the
earth beneath; sometimes only one, sometimes more, are
found thus deposited; and Mr Pennant mentions an in¬
stance of seventeen having been discovered under the
same pile.
Cairns are of different sizes, some of them very large.
Mr Pennant describes one in the island of Arran, as 114
feet over, and of a vast height. They may justly be sup¬
posed to have been proportioned in size to the rank of the
person, or to his popularity. The people of a whole dis¬
trict assembled to show their respect to the deceased ,
and, by actively honouring his memory, soon accumulated
C A I
Cairo, heaps equal to those that astonish us at this time But
these honours were not merely those of the day as Ion-
as the memory of the deceased endured, not a passen-ef
journeyed by without adding a stone to the heap. They
supposed it would be an honour to the dead, and accent-
able to his manes. To this day there is a proverbial ex¬
pression among the Highlanders referable to the old prac¬
tice ; and a suppliant will tell his patron, “ I will add a
stone to your cairnmeaning, “ when you are no more,
I will do all possible honour to your memory.”
Cairns are to be found in all parts of the island, in Corn¬
wall, Wales, and everywhere in North Britain. They were
in use among the northern nations; and Dahlberg, in his
323d Plate’ has g^en the figure of one. In Wales they
are called carneddau ; but the proverb taken from them
there is not of the complimental kind: Karn ar dv ben
a cai™ an y°ar head,” is a token of imprecation. ’
CAIRO, or Grand Cairo, the capital of E-ynt, situ¬
ated in a plain at the foot of a mountain, in lone-. 32 0 F
hit. 30 0. N. It was founded by Jawhar, a Moggrebin
general, in the middle of the tenth century. He -ave his
new city the name of Al Kahira, or the Victorious. It be¬
came the residence of the caliphs of Egypt, and of conse¬
quence the capital of that country, which it has ever since
continued to be. It is divided into the new and old cities.
0,d Cairo, on the eastern bank of the Nile, is now almost
uninhabited. The new city, which is properly Cairo, is
seated in a sandy plain about two miles and a half from
the old city, and on the same side of the river. It is ex¬
tended along the mountain on which the castle is built
having been removed hither, it is supposed, in order to be
under its protection. Bulac may be called the port of
Cairo, for it stands on the bank of the Nile, and all the grain
and other commodities destined for Cairo are landed there,
oome travellers have assigned to Cairo a most enormous
magnitude, by taking in the old city and Bulac along with
the new ; the real circumference of the latter, however, is
not above ten miles, but it is extremely populous. The
first thing that strikes a traveller is the narrowness of the
streets, and the gloomy appearance of the houses, built
of mud walls, without any exterior windows. Besides, as
the streets are unpaved, and always full of people, walking
is very inconvenient, especially to strangers. The number
of the inhabitants has never been ascertained with any
precision. Volney thinks it may amount to 200.000 ; but
some later travellers estimate it as high as 300,000 or
400,000. The houses are from one to two or three stories
in height, and flat at the top, where the inhabitants take
the air, and often sleep all night. Those of the more
wealthy have a court in the inside; but the poorer classes
reside in very little space.
There is a canal, called hhalis, derived from the Nile,
which runs along the city from one end to the other, with
houses on either side, which makes a large street. It forms
in its progress several small lakes, which are called birks
in the language of the country. The principal of these,
which is in the great square near the castle, is five hun-
ored paces in diameter. The most elegant houses in the
city are built on its banks; but being filled from the inun¬
dation of the Nile, it contains water only for a few months
of the year, and during the others it appears covered with
a charming verdure. When there is water sufficient, it is
always full of gilded boats, barges, and barks, in which
people of rank amuse themselves by sailing, especially in
the evenings, at which time there are curious fire-works,
and a variety of music.
New Cairo is surrounded with stone walls, on which are
handsome battlements; and at the distance of every hun¬
dred paces there are very fine towers. The walls were
never very lofty, and are in many places gone to ruin.
C A I
The fortified palace built by Saladin seven hundred veer,
ago, on part of the famous mountain Mokattan is [l,,f,, i
place of defence in Cairo ; and vet the TnrK^N y
nf 1'fc JoiKvw • i , tIie Auiks took no notice
ki • ic lnsorriuch that it was becoming a bean of
rubbiBh, till the present pasha gave it a thorough repair
e principal apartment in it was a magnificent’ hall en
vironed with twelve columns of granite, brought from the
urns of Alexandria, of a prodigious height and thickness
which sustained an open dome, under which Saladin distri’
Afi St,-ie t0 h!s ®ubJects 5 but ^ the repairs made upon
-e edifice it was judged necessary to demolish this part of
it. I rom the palace the whole city of Cairo may be seen
and above thirty miles along the Nile, with the fruitful
plains that he near it, as well as the mosques, pyram^
villages, and gardens, with which these fields are covered’
i he present pasha, however, no longer resides there, but
las removed to a still more splendid palace, which he has
edrfiiInrtheuVICmit7’ 11 uuutuinsa pavilion two hundred
and fifty feet by two hundred, each wall of which is adorned
with colonnades of white marble. The pasha has founded
a military college and other institutions, with the view of
introducing European arts and improvements. The rates
of Cairo are three, which are very magnificent. There
aie about three hundred public mosques in the city, some
of which have six minarets. That of Sultan Hassan is the
finest structure in modern Egypt, and is extremely light
and elegant. There is in the neighbourhood an extensive
necropolis, containing many splendid tombs, particularly
one built by the pasha for his family, adorned with five
spacious domes. The khans or caravanserais are nume¬
rous and large, with a court in the middle, like the houses
of the people. Some of them are several stories hi-h
and are always full of people and merchandise. Cairo is
a great centre of the trade of interior Africa ; and cara¬
vans at short intervals depart from it for Fezzan, Darfur
and other quarters. The slave market of Cairo exhibits
natives brought from almost every region of that great
continent. 6
Old Cairo has scarcely any thing remarkable except
the granaries of Joseph; which are merely a high wall,
lately built, including a square spot of ground where the
owners of land deposit wheat, barley, and other grain, as
tubute to the pasha. There is likewise a tolerably hand-
some church, which is made use of by the Copts, who are
Christians, and the original inhabitants of Egypt. Over
against old Cairo there is an apartment built above the
river, into which the water is admitted, and a column,
which has lines at the distance of every inch, marks at
every two feet as far as thirty. When the water rises to
twenty-two feet, it is thought to be of a sufficient height;
when it rises much higher, it becomes very injurious.
There is much pomp and ceremony used in letting the
v\ ater into the khahs or canal which leads to Cairo.
Joseph’s well is in the fortified palace, and was made by
King Mohammed about 700 years ago. It is so called,
because the Egyptians attribute every thing extraordinary
to that remarkable person. It is cut in a rock, and is two
hundred and eighty feet in depth. The water is drawn
up to the top by means of oxen, placed on platforms at
proper distances, which turn about the machines that raise
it. The descent is so sloping, that, though there are no
steps, the oxen can descend and ascend with ease. The
inhabitants of Cairo are a mixture of Moors, Turks, Jews,
Greeks, and Copts.
Cairo, a town of Italy, in the province Mondovi, of the
kingdom of Sardinia. It is situated on the river Bormida,
and contains 4000 inhabitants.
Cairo, a town of Italy, in the province Mortara, of the
kingdom of Sardinia, at the junction of the Agogna with
the Po. It contains 1460 inhabitants.
780
C A I
Cairoan CAIRO AN, or Cairwan, a city of Africa, in the kmg-
II dom of Tunis, seated in a sandy barren soil, about five
Caithness. miies from the Gulf of Capres. It has neither spring, well,
nor river; for which reason they are obliged to preserve
rain water in tanks and cisterns. It was built by the
Aglabites, and was once the seat of a considerable king¬
dom, but it is now much decayed. There is still, however,
a very superb mosque, and the tombs of the kings of lunis
are yet to be seen. Long. 9. 12. E. Lat. 35. 40. E.
CAISSON, in the military art, a wooden chest, into
which several bombs are put, though it is sometimes fill¬
ed only with gunpowder. This is buried under some
work of which the enemy intend to possess themselves,
and when they are masters of it, is fired in order to blow
them up.
Caisson is also used for a wooden frame or chest used
in laying the foundations of the piers of a bridge.
CAISTOR, a market-town in the hundred of Yarbo¬
rough and county of Lincoln. It is joined by a canal to
the town of Glanford Brigg. It is a place of great anti¬
quity, said to have been built by the Saxon Hengist. Ihe
town is supplied with water by four springs, whose streams,
after passing through it, unite and form the river Ancolm.
It is 157 miles from London. The market is held on
Monday. The inhabitants amounted in 1811 to 1051, in
1821 to 1253, and in 1831 to 1525.
CAITHNESS is the most northern county of Scotland.
It is bounded on the north by the Pentland Frith, which
separates it from the Orkney Islands; on the east and
south-east by the Moray Frith ; on the south and south¬
west by Sutherlandshire; and on the west by the North¬
ern Ocean. A chain of hills, commencing on the east at
the Ord, runs along the division between Sutherland and
it. One of these,"Morven, rises to an elevation of 1929
feet. The Burn of the Ord forms the true boundary be¬
tween the two counties on the east side ; and a line drawn
across the hill of Drumholliston, on the east of the river
Halladale, constitutes that on the west coast. The form
of the county is an irregular triangle, measuring along the
eastern coast from Duncansbay-head to the Ord about
forty miles, and from Duncansbay-head along the north¬
ern shore to Bighouse on the west, about thirty-five miles.
No accurate map of the county has yet been constructed ;
but it is supposed to contain about 650 square miles. I here
are ten parishes of very unequal extent, the least being
four miles long and two broad ; the largest twenty-seven
miles by ten or twelve. The coast nearly along the whole
line is rocky and precipitous, with deep water to the edge
of the rock, and at Dunnet-head it rises to the height of
340 feet. It is remarkable for a number of bold headlands.
The principal of these are Sandside-head on the west; FIol-
burn-head, Dunnet-head, Duncansbay-head, Noss-head,
and Clythness. Dunnet-head is the most northerly land
on the mainland, lying in long. 3. 29. E. and lat. 58. 42. N,
Near Duncansbay-head lies John o’ Groat’s, commonly
considered the most northern point; but it is two miles
farther south than Dunnet-head.
There are several bays along the coast. Sandside Bay
lies on the east of the head of that name. It is open, and
not safe for shipping in particular winds. On the east of
Holburn-head, and sheltered by it, lies Thurso Bay, hav¬
ing Scrabster roadstead close to the head, affording the
most secure anchorage on a stiff blue clay bank sloping
outwards. Dunnet Bay is much exposed to the north,
and dangerous for shipping, being often mistaken for the
entrance to the frith; the low sands lying at its bottom
not being observable in a dark night till close at hand.
Last year a light-house was finished on Dunnet-head, by
which this danger is obviated. The light stands 346 feet
above the sea. Riess Bay, or Sinclair’s Bay, bounded on
C A I
the east by Noss-head, is also an exposed bay from the
north-east; but in certain winds it affords good anchor¬
age. Wick Bay, at the bottom of which stands the town
of that name, is small, and very unsafe with the wind high
from the east and south-east, a heavy sea then rolling in.
The tide in the Pentland Frith runs, at spring tides, at
the rate of nine miles an hour; and, when opposed by a
strong wind, raises a very heavy sea. Within two miles
of the shore, off Duncansbay, lies the island of Stroma,
about a mile long, round which the tides form several ed¬
dies. Off the point of Mey, a few miles farther west,
there is an eddy of considerable strength, called the
Merry Men of Mey, into which boats are sometimes in
danger of being drawn. The navigation of the frith re¬
quires the aid of a pilot, unless the crew of the ship are
well acquainted with it.
The county is generally level, or swelling into slight
elevations, with very few hills, which are chiefly on the
west side. It is well watered with rivers, brooks, and
lochs, and seldom suffers from drought. The climate is
variable. On an average of eight years, the number of
days of more or less rain in each month is as follows:
Jan. Feb. March. April. May. June- July- Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
14 12 15 15 15 16 19 19 16 19 16 17
making for the whole year 193 days.
The average of days with snow is as follows :-
Caithn
January. February. March. April. October. November. December.
74 7 74 4 2 5
Instances of snow in May have occasionally occurred, as
in May 1831, when there were four days of snow and
heavy wind, which destroyed the prospect of small fruit.
The average of days of frost stands thus:
January- February. March. April. October. November. December.
8 74 44 2 1 - 44 74
In the summer and harvest, frost frequently occurs at
night. Rain, snow, and frost, frequently occur on the
same day during the winter.
The range of the barometer is very extensive, some¬
times two inches and more; yet the climate is in general
healthy. The soil is various, from black and clay loam
to light sandy, in general yielding abundant crops of oats
and bear, of which large quantities are exported. Wheat
is also grown, but in small quantities, and also peas and
beans. The subsoil is almost throughout clay upon clay
slate rock. Whinstone and sandstone also occur. Dun-
net and Duncansbay-heads are composed of rough sand¬
stone of a red colour. A white sandstone is found in
abundance in the interior of Dunnet-head, and in other
places on the coast of the Pentland I rith. Granite is found
in mass in the Berridale Hills. A good deal of an infe¬
rior limestone also occurs, and shell marl in great abun¬
dance. Traces of various metallic minerals have been
found. A lead vein was discovered at Skinnet, near
Thurso, and copper at Old Wick, near Wick, but neithei
was of any value. Bog-iron also occurs.
Great numbers of black cattle are reared for home use
and sale. Many thousands were annually sent south, but
of late years the demand has been very dull. A curious kind
of traffic exists between the Caithness and Orkney people.
Annually a number of colts, one or two years old, are sent
into the islands, which return a proportional number o
horses from five to eight years old. Ihis practice has
existed from time immemorial.
There are few trees in the county; but experience has
shown that they would thrive if proper care were employ¬
ed to protect them when young. The trunks of large
trees are often found in the mosses which abound in t ns
county, and which yield the chief part of the fuel used y
the people. Coals, principally English, are also now much
in use. Partridges, hares, rabbits, grouse, plovers, &c.
C A I
litlmess- abound; and there are some black-cock around Berridale
and Langwell. Formerly great flocks of a bird larger than
the sparrow, called the snow-fowl, visited this county in
the winter season; but for some years past they have
scarcely been seen. I he rocks are frequented by eagles
hawks, and a variety of sea-fowl, which breed in ureal
numbers. b
The rivers and lochs afford trout, salmon, and eels; and
the sea yields abundance of cod, haddocks, and other kinds
of hsh. Ihe salmon fishery is not now so successful as
foimeily. 1 he herring fishery has of late years been very
prosperous. Wick is the principal station. On an average
^nn nnn11/631;8 endinS in 1830> have been caught
100,000 barrels annually. There were 134 curers em¬
ploying 736 boats, 3564 fishers, 384 coopers, 239 labourers
and 2455 women. In 1830 about 153,000 barrels were
taken. But the fishing of 1831 was not so productive.
Ihe quantity caught at other stations along the coast may
amount to 40,000 or 50,000 more. J
The population amounted at last census (1831) to
34,500, including Wick, Pulteneytown, and Thurso. In
1801 it was 22,609. Fhe people are hardy and indus¬
trious. Their condition as cultivators of the ground has
materially improved within the last forty years. Formerly
they were oppressed with the exaction of personal ser¬
vices by the landlords. These consisted of labour on the
lands in the natural possession of the proprietors, plough¬
ing, sowing, cutting, and gathering in the crops; furnish¬
ing straw, fuel, fowls, eggs, &c.; shipping grain, and other
services, which are now almost entirely abolished, and
money payments substituted. Still they labour under se¬
veral disadvantages, the principal of which are want of
leases and too high rents. In general the rents, especially
on the coast, are high; nor could the tenants pay them,
but for their traffic in cattle, and the herring fishery. The
improvement in agriculture has been very great within the
last forty years. At the beginning of that period artificial
oi sown grasses and turnips were commodities possessed by
few; now both are common, and their value is duly ap¬
preciated. A regular system of rotation of crops is pur¬
sued on all farms of any size; and the breed of working
horses is greatly improved. The real rent of the county,
which has increased to nearly one half within the last
thn ty years, exceeds L.61,000. On some estates the rents
are payable partly in money, partly in meal and bear.
\v ick is the head burgh of the shire. It was erected
into a royal burgh in 1589, in favour of the Earl of Caith¬
ness. But the superiority came into the possession of Sir
q° 8d:ic^a*r> and was lately purchased by the Marquis of
Stafford. Including Louisburgh, it contains 2269 inhabi¬
tants, and perhaps has made more rapid advances in im¬
provement and extent of trade within the last twenty
years than any other place of the same size in the empire,
in the foreign trade of last year (1831) fifty vessels and
4072 tons of shipping were employed, while in the coast¬
ing trade there have been generally about 500 vessels and
35,000 tons likewise annually engaged. The chief imports
are timber, hemp, iron, and tar, while the exports consist
chiefly offish. 1
The settlement of Pulteneytown, on the south side of
the river of Wick, has sprung up entirely from the herring
fishery. The first house was built only twenty-two years
since, and now the town contains 2845 inhabitants. The
ground was purchased from Lord Duffus, then Sir B. Dun¬
bar, by the British Fishery Society, who derive a large
income from the feu-duties, and the harbour dues of a
lI0 000 SeCUie P01*'’ late]y completed at an expense of
Ine town of Thurso is of great antiquity, and was erect¬
ed into a burgh of barony in 1633. It has 2364 inhabitants.
CAT
781
P;ciecaairasUitTI,ffhiS C0Un^C0”sist ofol<1 “stl“ and Caithness
nyS lhe ^rmer are nearly all on the coast
and on bold projecting points. The ruins of Castle Sin!
an, anmentJy called Girnego, the residence of the earls
ai e situated on a tongue of lofty rock on the west side of
Noss-head, and within Riess Bay, The castle of k;oCC
stands on the opposite side of the bay. The castle of Old
foe Old M k kn°™ foyers -
the Old Man of Wick, and is a noted land-mark. The
Bishop of Caithness, whose see included Sutherland, had
a castle at Scrabster, a short distance west of Thurso
I here are rums of castles also at Forse, Latheron, and
Le dale, and m.the interior at Braal, Dirlet, and Loch-
more, along the river Thurso. The only habitable castles
are those of Mey, Ackergill, and Dunbeath.
1 he I icts cairns are scattered over the face of the coun¬
try, generally on the slopes of rising grounds. They are
very numerous, and it has been remarked that there are
at least three always in sight of one another. They were
probably the houses of the richer inhabitants, tlm lower
of them still'Jo111 m0' e Perishable huts of turf’ as manJ
The names of places are generally of Danish origin; and
a number of them end in ster, which signifies a station or
estate. Ihe language spoken by the people is the same
as that of the south of Scotland, except in the parts bor-
denng on Sutherland, where Gaelic is still in use, foou<fo
giving place to English. &
I he ancient history of this county is, as might be ex¬
pected, very obscure. What is known of it is little more
than a record of petty quarrels, strifes, robberies, and
bloodshed, as m other parts of Scotland in the same
times.
The aborigines were the Piets, who were subdued and
then possessions seized by the Norwegians, a kindred race,
in the beginning of the tenth century. At the same time
tfley took possession of the Orkneys. Their chief’s, under
the title of lari or Earl, ruled Caithness and Orkney down
to the beginning of foe fourteenth century, when the direct
line ceased in the person of Magnus. For a century the
succession was unsettled and disputed. In 1456 the
first of the family of Sinclair became earl. In the end of
the seventeenth century the property of the earldom was
alienated, and acquired by Glenorchy, afterwards Lord
Breadalbane, who sold it to various persons; so that the
present family succeeded to nothing but the title.
The county formerly sent a representative to Parlia¬
ment alternately with Bute. But under the alteration
which has just been made on the representation of Scot¬
land, it will have unrepresentative for itself, to which indeed
it is well entitled from its population and rapid increase in
importance.
Great improvements have been made in foe county
since the money wisely appropriated by government from
the price of the forfeited estates has been expended in the
Highlands in making roads and bridges. By that appro¬
priation the recesses of the north have been opened up,
and communication with the other end of the island ren¬
dered easy; the mail-coach now travelling through tracts
where a Highland pony, twenty years ago, could only
make his way. Valuable tracts of land have in conse¬
quence been brought into a state of high cultivation, and
lime from Sunderland conveyed into the interior for that
purpose. An impulse has been given to the spirit of im¬
provement ; and so much has the benefit arising from roads
been valued by the inhabitants of this northern county,
that the proprietors and tenants have lately procured an
act of parliament for assessing themselves for the price of
making 180 miles of additional roads. By this public-
spirited measure great benefits must ere long arise ta
C A J
C A K
the district; and within a short period, it is not doubted districts at present comparatively uncultivated and un- Cajaa
that fine fields and modern farm-steadings will be seen in known.
v—y-
YEARS.
1811
1821
1831
HOUSES.
4301
5319
By how
many Fa¬
milies oc¬
cupied.
4714
5944
139
39
OCCUPATIONS.
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Agricul¬
ture.
3270
3052
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Trade, Ma¬
nufactures,
or Handi¬
craft.
838
2188
All other
Families
not com¬
prised in
the two
preceding
classes.
606
704
PERSONS.
Males.
10,608
14,196
Females.
12,811
16,042
Total of
Persons.
23,419
30,238
34,500
CAIUS, Kaye, or Keys, Dr John, the founder of Caius
College in Cambridge, was born at Norwich in 1510. He
was admitted very young a student in Gonville Hall in the
above-mentioned university; and at the age of twenty-one
translated from Greek into Latin some pieces of divinity,
and into English Erasmus’s paraphrase on Jude, and other
works. From these his juvenile labours, it seems probable
that he first intended to prosecute the study of divinit}'.
But be this as it may, he travelled into Italy, and at Padua
studied physic under the celebrated Montanus. In that
university he continued some time, where we are told be
read Greek lectures with great applause. In 1543 he tra¬
velled through part of Italy, Germany, and France; and
returning to England, commenced doctor of physic at Cam¬
bridge. He practised first at Shrewsbury, and afterwards
at Norwich ; but removing to London in 1547, he was ad¬
mitted fellow of the college of physicians, of which he was
several years president. In 1557, being then physician to
Queen Mary, and in great favour, he obtained a license to
advance Gonville-hall, where he had been educated, into
a college, which he endowed with several considerable
estates, adding an entire new square at the expense or
L.1834. Of this college he accepted the mastership,
which he held till within a short period of his death. He
was physician to Edward VL, Queen Mary, and Queen
Elizabeth. Towards the latter end of his life he retired
to his own college at Cambridge, where having resigned
the mastership to Dr Legge of Norwich, he spent the re¬
mainder of his life as a fellow commoner. He died in July
1573, aged sixty-three, and was buried in the chapel of
his own college. Dr Caius was a learned, active, and bene¬
volent man. In 1557 he erected a monument in St Paul’s,
to the memory of the famous Linacre. In 1563 he obtain¬
ed a grant for the college of physicians to take the bodies
of two malefactors annually for dissection; and he was
the inventor of the insignia which distinguish the presi¬
dent from the rest of the fellows. He wrote, 1. Annals
of the College from 1555 to 1572. 2. Translation of se¬
veral of Galen’s works, printed at different times abroad.
3. Hippocrates de Bledicamentis ; first discovered and pub¬
lished by our author; also DeRatione Victus, Lov. 1556, 8vo.
4. De Medendi Methodo, Basel, 1554; Lond. 1556, 8vo. 5.
Account of the Sweating Sickness in England, Lond. 1556,
1721. It is entitled De Ephemera Britannica. 6. His¬
tory of the University of Cambridge, Lond. 1568, 8vo;
1574, 4to, in Latin. 7. De Thermis Britannicis ; but it is
doubtful whether this work was ever printed. 8. Of some
Rare Plants and Animals, Lond. 1570. 9.Z)e Canibiis Bri¬
tannicis, 1570, 1729. 10. De Pronunciatione Grcecceet La¬
tina Lingua, Lond. 1574. 11. De Libris propriis, Lond.
1570. Besides many other works which never were printed.
CAJARE, a market-town of the department of the Lot,
in France, on the right bank of the Dordogne, with 1912
inhabitants.
CAJAZZO, a city of Italy, in the province Terra di La-
voro, of the kingdom of Naples, near the Volturno. It has
a cathedral, several other churches, and 2765 inhabitants.
CAJETAN, Cardinal, was born atCajeta, in the king¬
dom of Naples, in the year 1469. His proper name was
Thomas de Vio, but he adopted that of Cajetan from the
place of his nativity. He defended the authority of the
pope, which had suffered greatly at the council of Nice, in
a work entitled Of the Denver of the Pope ; and for this work
he obtained the bishopric of Cajeta. He was afterwards
raised to the archiepiscopal see of Palermo, and in 1517
was made a cardinal by Pope Leo X. The year after, he
was sent as legate into Germany, to quiet the commotions
raised against indulgences by Martin Luther; but Lu¬
ther, under protection of Frederic elector of Saxony, set
him at defiance ; for though he obeyed the cardinal’s sum¬
mons in repairing to Augsburg, yet he rendered all his
proceedings ineffectual. Cajetan was employed in several
other negociations and transactions, being as ready in bu¬
siness as in letters. He died in 1534. He wrote com¬
mentaries upon Aristotle’s philosophy, and upon Thomas
Aquinas’s theology; and made a free translation of the
Old and New Testaments.
CAJUPUT OIL, a volatile oil obtained by distillation
from a species of melaleuca, which has lately obtained the
name of melaleuca cajuputi; cajuputi being its Malay name.
This tree, or rather shrub, is a native of the island of Am-
boyna, and of the southern part of Borneo. Cajuput oil is
prepared from the leaves which are collected in a hot
dry day, macerated in water, and distilled after ferment¬
ing for a night. Five bags of the dried leaves, it is said,
are required to produce one ounce of the oil, which when
distilled is limpid ; but being generally transported to Eu¬
rope in copper vessels, attains a greenish colour. When
imported in glass bottles, it is perfectly pellucid. As the
real cajuput oil is high priced, it is much exposed to adul¬
teration.
Cajuput oil should be free from colour, or of a bluish
green : it is extremely pungent to the taste, and has the od¬
our of a mixture of turpentine and camphor. When drop¬
ped in water, it diffuses itself over its surface, and then en¬
tirely evaporates. It should burn without leaving any re¬
siduum. It is very soluble in alcohol, and sparingly so in
water. Like other volatile oils, the cajuput is a powerful
stimulant, and is used medicinally where such medicines
are required. Some practitioners have given it a high cha¬
racter as a remedy for the pestilence which is at present
ravaging Europe. It does not appear, however, to have
any claim as a specific in the treatment of cholera. The
dose taken internally is about five drops. It is used ex¬
ternally as a rubifacient, and is also resorted too ccasion-
ally with advantage in toothach.
CAKE, a finer sort of bread, so denominated from its
flat round figure.
CAL
'alabash The Hebrews had several sorts of cakes, which thevof
,'alabria. ^ese were made of’the meaK
of wheat o. barley and were kneaded sometimes with oil
and somettmes with honey; though sometimes they onlv
rubbed them over with oil when they were baked of S
them with oil m a frying-pan upon the fire. In the cere
mony of Aaron s consecration, they sacrificed a calf and two
rams, and offered unleavened bread, and cakes unleavened
tempered with oil, and wafers unleavened anointed with
r a I a ^ ^e,ng^ade of fine wheaten
ed of tht^K iiVln Comnr'ce> a light kind of vessel form-
ed of the shell 0f a gourd emptied and dried, serving to
put divers kinds of goods in, as pitch, rosin, and the Tike
The word in Span^h, calaba^a, signifies the same.
CALABRIA Citerjore, one of the southern provin-
ces into which the kingdom of Naples, in Italy, is divided.
It is bounded on the south by Calabria Ulteriore, on the
east by the Ionic Sea, on the north by Basilicata and on
the west by the Mediterranean. Its extent is 3652 smnrp
miles, or 2 337 880 English acres. The A^peninet are’com
turned into this province, but are inferior to the height
they attain in Abruzzo In the south the mountains of
Silla extend over more than 220 square miles. The nro-
vmce is watered by numberless small streams, whose course
is short, and commonly rapid. The climate is mild, and
except on the mountains, the snow never remains. The
productive power of the soil is very various, but it yields
sufficient corn for the inhabitants. The products are wheat,
ba ley, beans, maize, rice, flax, and hemp; besides cotton,
tobacco, saffion, liquorice, and wine of great strength. Oil
an silk are also produced. The fishery is an important
means of affording employment to numerous persons, who
catch large quantities of the tunny, and of sardinias.
I here are scarcely any roads through the province, and of
the few, some are nearly impassable ; consequently there
is httle internal traffic. What little external commerce
exists, centres in the capital Cosenza. The number of in-
• byia censas of 1793> appeared to be 345,532; but
in 1807, by the product of a tax on fire-places, the popula¬
tion was estimated at 374,000. It is divided into four dis¬
tricts, viz. Cosenza, Rossano, Amantea, and Castrovillari.
Calabria Ulteriore, a province of the Neapolitan
ngdom of Italy. It is usually divided into two parts,
numbered one and two, but these are here described toge-
tlier. I he province is a peninsula, bearing a resemblance
to the foot of the boot to which the map of Italy has been
ikened. It is surrounded by the sea, except on the north,
•qqgq11 18 boun.lJed by Calabria Citeriore. The extent
is 3388 square miles, or 2,178,320 English acres.
Although the continuation of the ridge of the Appenines is
obvious throughout the whole province, yet their elevation
generally decreases towards the south. The soil is gene-
ra ly fertile; and the heat of the climate makes it a kind
of forcing house as compared with the other parts of Italy.
8now and ice are scarcely known; and the aloe and date
trees come to perfection in the open air. In summer, how¬
ever, the whole province is burnt up, and the sirocco
extends the scorching breath of Africa over all the land.
he products are wheat, maize, barley, beans, rice, cot¬
ton buck-wheat, sugar-canes, tobacco, licorice, and melons,
with other fruits. Besides these, much silk of an excel¬
lent quality is raised; and pitch, tar, and turpentine, are
made from the trees. The sheep and other cattle are by
no means so abundant as in the other Calabria. There are
marks of gold, silver, lead, and copper, but no mines are
wmked of any of these metals. Manufactures are at a low
g b, and confined to silk and wool. There are a few coast-
mg vessels, and some fishing vessels belonging to the Ca-
abrese, but there is no foreign trade. The whole popula¬
tion of the province amounts to about 450,000 individuals.
CAL
grandeur are still visible around it Th .estl£es f ,ts
bitants • and^ ^ ^ blsb°P’ and contains 7200 inha-
the Hver TMs? 18 " beauflfuIbridge often arches over
CALAIS n rit f^haS the birth‘Place Of Quintilian.
depart^? au!^e.'Tisirr>ne’a"d
“"gplaronhfse whoare6t f0™1 E"gland’antl '^“d-
jecepdon vessel," IUs Sed stro^'bo.h ™
gooTLrr' *0 850°- T"e ‘>,aCe from Lntrf
tlieCSAeaAcoMAST^’ h”6 ‘Je dePartme”‘s of France, on
tile sea coast. It is bounded on the north by the British
Channel, on the north-east by the departmen/of the north
on the south by that of the Somme, and on the west by
the Channel. It extends over 2596 square miles and is
intTfortv H S‘X arr°nd,SSeTnts’ and these are subdivided
into forty-three cantons and 953 communes. The popula¬
tion amounts to 584,650. It is generally a level district
near the sea-coast, rather marshy, but remarkable-for ex-
the hnru 8 7 ^ ^ ^ The Sreater portion of
4W- L Tder ^7 plauSb’ and is wel] cultivated on the
emish system. The department is abundantly supplied
with water, which is applied both to purposes of naviga¬
tion and of irrigation. With a few exceptions, it is by far
the best cultivated of any part of France, and in the great¬
er part of the arrondissements of Arras, Bethune, and St
Omer, it is scarcely possible to find a spot of land not
higldy productive. Green crops are abundantly raised,
and the dung from the animals fed on them provides abun¬
dant manure for the corn land; while the mode of plough¬
ing the land and furrowing it operates to prevent injury
fiom too much rain. It is a manufacturing as well as an
agricultural district. Woollen, linen, and cotton goods,
losieiy, lace, leather, earthenware, beer, corn, spirits, pa¬
per, hats, and soap, are extensively produced, besides flax
hemp, and linseed oil. There are considerable fisheries
on the sea-coast and in the several rivers.
Calais, St, an arrondissement in the department of
the Sarthe, in France, extending over 465 square miles.
It is divided into six cantons, and these again into sixty
communes, containing 66,330 inhabitants. The chief place
is a city of the same name, on the river Anille, in an un¬
fruitful spot, containing 3646 inhabitants, occupied in ma¬
nufacturing serges, flannels, and some kinds of linen goods.
CALAMANCO, a sort of woollen stuff manufactured
in England and Brabant. It has a fine gloss, and is chec¬
kered in the warp, whence the checks appear only on the
right side. Some calamancoes are quite plain, others have
broad stripes adorned with flowers, others plain broad
stripes, others narrow stripes, and others are watered.
CALAMIANES, a group of small islands in the East¬
ern Seas, about twelve in number, and situated to the
north and north-east of the Philippines. They are sur¬
rounded by numerous shoals and rocks, which render the
navigation intricate and dangerous. The largest of these
islands are called Busvagon and Calamiane, and the latter
is about twenty-three miles in length by five in breadth;
anes.
CAL
the whole constituting a province under its name, which is
divided between the Sultan of Borneo and the Spaniards.
There are besides numerous tribes of natives who dwell
in the interior parts, without chiefs or established laws.
The island produces the edible birds-nests which the
Chinese consider as so great a delicacy, and it trades be¬
sides in rice, honey, and wax. Pearls are found on the
coast. Long. 120. 20. E. Lat. 12. N.
CALAMINE, the native carbonate and sdicate ot zinc,
which, though very generally found in the same deposits,
differ materially both in their mineralogical and chemical
characters. The most prevalent colour of Calamine is
white; occasionally, however, it is blue, green, yellow, or
brown. It varies also from transparent to opake ; has a
vitreous lustre ; and occurs both crystallized, stalactitic,
mamillated, and massive. It is frequently found in veins,
associated with blende, and ores of iron and lead. _ Con¬
siderable quantities occur at Bleiberg and Raibel in Ca-
rinthia, Tarnowitz in Silesia, Altenberg near Aix-la-Cha-
pelle, in the Mendip-hills of Somersetshire, at 'VVfmlock-
head in Dumfriesshire, and at Alston Moor in Cumber¬
land. It is a very useful ore of zinc, containing generally
from sixty to seventy per cent, of that metal, for further
particulars see Mineralogy.
CALAMOTA, an island on the coast of the Austrian
kingdom of Dalmatia, in the Adriatic Sea. It is a little
to the west of Ragusa, and contains only one town, or
rather large village. .
CALAMUS, in the ancient poets, denotes a simple kind
of pipe or fistula, the musical instrument of the shepherds
and herdsmen, and usually made either of an oaten stalk
or a reed.
Calamus Scriptorius, in antiquity, a reed or rush to
write with. The ancients made use of styles to wr ite on
tables covered with wax, and of reed or rush to write on
parchment or Egyptian paper.
CALAMY, Edmund, an eminent Presbyterian divine,
born at London in the year 1600, and educated at Pem¬
broke Hall, Cambridge, where his attachment to the Aimi-
nian party excluded him from a fellowship. Dr Felton,
bishop of Ely, however, made him his chaplain; and in
1639 he was chosen minister of St Mary Aldermary,
in the city of London. Upon the opening of the long
parliament he distinguished himself in defence of. the
Presbyterian cause, and had a principal hand in writing
the famous Smectymnus, which, he himself says, gave the
first deadly blow to Episcopacy, dhe authors of this tract
were five, the initials of whose names formed the name
under which it was published, viz. Stephen Marshal, Ed¬
mund Calamy, Thomas Young, Mathew Newcomen, and
William Sparstow. He was afterwards an active member
in the assembly of divines, and a strenuous opposer of
sectaries; and he used his utmost endeavours to prevent
the violences which were committed after the king was
brought from the Isle of Wight. In Cromwells time he
lived privately, but was assiduous in promoting the king s
return; for which he was afterwards offered a bishopric,
but refused it. He was ejected for nonconformity in
1662, and died of grief at the sight of the great fire of
London.
CALAMY, Edmund, grandson to the preceding (by
his eldest son, Mr Edmund Calamy, who was ejected from
the living of Moxton in Essex, on St Bartholomew’s day
1662), was born in London on the 5th April 1671. After
having learned the languages, and gone through a course
of natural philosophy and logic at a private academy in
England, he studied philosophy and civil law at the uni¬
versity of Utrecht, and attended the lectures of the learn¬
ed Grsevius. Whilst he resided there, an offer of a pro¬
fessor’s chair in the university of Edinburgh was made him
CAL
by Mr Carstairs, principal of that university, sent over on Cabin
purpose to find a person properly qualified for such an |j
office. This he declined, and returned to England in 1691,
bringing with him letters from Graevius to Dr Pococke,
canon of Christ-church, and regius professor of Hebrew,
and to Dr Bernard, Savilian professor of astronomy, who
obtained leave for him to prosecute his studies in the Bod¬
leian Library. Having resolved to make divinity his prin¬
cipal study, lie entered into an examination of the contro¬
versy between the conformists and nonconformists, which
determined him to join the latter, and, coming to London
in 1692, he was unanimously chosen assistant to Mr Mat¬
thew Sylvester at Blackfriars ; and in 1694 he was ordain¬
ed at Mr Annesley’s meeting-house in Little St Helena,
and soon afterwards was invited to become assistant to Mr
Daniel Williams in Hand-Alley. In 1702 he was chosen
one of the lecturers in Salters Hall; and in 1703 he suc¬
ceeded Mr Vincent Alsop as pastor of a great congregation
in Westminster. He drew up the table of contents to Mr
Baxter’s History of his Life and Times, which was sent to
the press in 1696; made some remarks on the work itself,
and added to it an index; and, reflecting on the useful¬
ness of the book, he saw the expediency of continuing
it, as Mr Baxter’s history came no lower than the year
1684. Accordingly he composed an abridgment of it, with
an account of many other ministers who were ejected
after the restoration of Charles II.; their apology, con¬
taining the grounds of their nonconformity and practice
as to stated and occasional communion with the church
of England; and a continuation of their history until the
year 1691. This work was published in 1702. He af¬
terwards published a moderate defence of nonconformity,
in three tracts, in answer to some tracts of Dr Hoadley.
In 1709 Mr Calamy made a tour to Scotland, and had
the degree of doctor of divinity conferred on him by the
universities of Edinburgh, Aberdeen, and Glasgow. In
1713 he published a second edition of his Abridgment
of Mr Baxter’s History of his Life and Times; in which,
among various additions, there is a continuation of the
history through King William’s reign and Queen Anne’s,
down to the passing of the occasional bill; and in the
close is subjoined the reformed liturgy, which was drawn
up and presented to the bishops in 1661, “ that the
world may judge,” as he says in his preface, “ how fairly
the ejected ministers have been often represented as irre¬
concilable enemies to all liturgies.’ In 1/18 he wrote
a vindication of his grandfather, and several other persons,
against certain reflections cast upon them by Mr Aixh-
deacon Echard in his History of England; and in 1728
appeared his continuation of the account of the ministers,
lecturers, masters, and fellows of colleges, and school¬
masters, who were ejected, after the Restoration in 1660,
by or before the act of uniformity. He died on the 3d ot
June 1732, greatly regretted, not only by the dissenters,
but also by the moderate members of the established
church, both clergy and laity, with many of whom he
lived in great intimacy. Besides the pieces already men¬
tioned, he published a great many sermons on several sub-
jects and occasions. He was twice married, and had thn-
teen children. . r ,
CALANORE, the chief town of a small district oi tne
same name in Hindustan, province ot Lahore. Acbarwas
here first proclaimed emperor on the death of his father in
1556. Long. 75. 0. E. Lat. 31. 51. N. The district is
situated in the Sikk territories, between the 31st and
degrees of north latitude.
GALAS, John, the name of a most unfortunate Bro-
testant merchant at Toulouse, inhumanly butchered un er
forms of law which were prostituted to shelter the san¬
guinary dictates of ignorant and fanatical zeal. He ia
M ULi- °fjsh7’ Eo“‘s- !’“<) turned Catholic ihrongh the"^™”!
rmn;f incoctb^76diT,h%ha^iived
tf7 th6ir S?n’ Peter their -concUon ’and
this ma d. Antony was educated for the bar : but beinp-
noi melaJcholy of mind, was continually dwellin')- on
passages from authors on the subject of suicide and^one
night m that month hanged himself on a bar kid across
the confu"fon0ofS.hn •f’°P' The crowd collected by
tne contusion of the family on so shocking- a discoverv
took it into their heads that he had been strangled by the
y to Preve»t his changing his religion, and thalfthis
was a common practice among Protestants. The officers of
justice adopted the popular tale, and were supplied by the
mob with what they accepted as conclusive evidence of
e fact. The fraternity ofWhite Penitents got the body
bulled it with great ceremony, and performed a solemn
andafte^thim f U T^’5 the Franciscans did the same ;
and aftei these formalities no one doubted the guilt of the
devoted heretical family. Being all condemned to the tor-
me in order to bring them to confession, they appealed to
edaTthT^h1 ;r Ut thlS body’ being as weak and as wick¬
ed as the subordinate magistrates, sentenced the father to
the torture, ordinary and extraordinary, to be broken alive
upon the wheel, and then to be burnt to ashes; a diabolical
decree, which, to the shame of humanity, was actually
earned into execution. Peter Galas, the other son, was
banished for life ; and the rest were acquitted. The dis-
[wVnT^-0^ hu°T-fi f°Und SOme friends’ and am°ng
these Vo taire, who laid her case before the council of state
at \ ersailles ; and the parliament of Toulouse was ordered
to transmit the proceedings. These the king and council
unanimously agreed to annul; the chief magistrate of
loulouse was degraded and fined; old Galas was declar¬
ed to have been innocent; and every imputation of guilt
was removed from the family, who also received from" the
King and clergy considerable gratuities.
A-Lm SP1iBE,1TA,a cit^ of the Pendancy of Calatani-
setta, in the island of Sicily, in the defile between two moun-
r a Sn. “e mer Nebroden. It contains 4780 inhabitants.
, .A1.ASH, or Valesh, a small light kind of chariot or
chair, with very low wheels, used chiefly for taking the air
in parks and gardens.
GATASIO, Marius, a Franciscan, and professor of the
Hebrew language at Rome, of whom there is very little to
be said, but that he published there, in the year 1621, a con-
cordance of the bible, which consisted of four great volumes
in to rn Ihis work has been highly approved and com¬
mended both by Protestants and Catholics, and is indeed
a m°®^adrnirable work; for, besides the Hebrew words of
the bible, which compose the body of the book, with the
Hatin version over against them, there are in the margin
the differences between the Septuagint version and the
u gute; so that at one view may be seen wherein the
tbree bibles agree, and wherein they differ. Moreover,
at the beginning of every article there is a kind of dictio-
nary which gives the signification of each Hebrew word ;
attords an opportunity of comparing it with other oriental
languages, viz. with the Syriac, Arabic, and Chaldee; and
is extremely useful for determining more exactly the true
meaning of the Hebrew words.
CALASIRIS, in antiquity, a linen tunic fringed at the
bottom, and worn by the Egyptians under a white wool-
ea Sarment; but this last they were obliged to pull off
w en they entered the temples, being only allowed to ap¬
pear there in linen garments.
CALATAHNI, a city of Sicily, in the intendancy of
rapam. It is between two hills, in a fine corn country,
vol. v. J
cal
'85
diS‘riCt iS “lebrated
Sri 0ne]0f1thie intendancies '"to
the north h d i “ 8 c,17 18 thv"!t:d- It is bounded on
the north by Palermo, on the east by Catania, on the south ’ 
oast by Seragosa, on the south by the sea and on ,1 »
west by Girgenti. It is divided into three dSricte vis
Sb“’ P,aZZa’ a"d Te,Tan0V°’ ‘■'1'd StS
and dLtLVnf ATA’ “ Chy’ the.caPit‘>1 »f the intendancy
• j of the same name, in the island of Sicily It
slot ^ extensive and fertiIe plain, on a hJalthy
Soon i br°ad iStl’eetS and good buildings, and contains
2800 houses, with 15,627 inhabitants, who are chiefly em
ployed in making linen cloth. y em"
ofA^^’-f smad Spain, in the province
or Aragon. It is situated on the river Xalon, a little be
low its junction with the Xiloca, in a fertile v^Hey! which
ruffi^of thabUndant y-0llVeS’ passes, and melon! The
noet Ma HManClef ?lty 0f Bi]biIis> native place of the
I t MarBal, are to be seen near Calatayud. This city
contains 1500 houses and 9000 inhabitants, three uZ
raised’he",-e tQ';eIVf|enS,oaP-bo,lin8hollsos- There is annually
raised here 20 WO hundredweight of hemp. y
made of I,;,,8’ !" a”tl?uit3'> a kind of hand-basket
. f b§bt wood or rushes, used by the women some¬
times to gather flowers, but chiefly, after the example of
their work in- Tbe figure of the calathus,
i f • i°n ancient monuments, is narrow at the
bottom, but widens upwards like that of a top. Pliny
compares it to that of a lily. The calathus or work-basket
beiMistaff.3 ^ n° ^ Celebrated among the poets than
sacrifices™118 ^ alS0 the name °f a wine‘cuP used in
GALA TOR, in antiquity, a crier, or officer appointed
to publish something aloud, or call the people together,
ibe word is formed from %a\iu, voco, “ I call.” The pon-
tmees had such ministers, whom they used to send before
them when they went to sacrifice on ferice or holidays, in
order to advertise the people to leave off work. The ma¬
gistrates also used calcitores, to call the people to the comi-
Ua, both cunata and centuriata. The officers in the army
also had calatores; as had likewise many private families,
to invite their guests to entertainments.
. CALATRAVA, a small town of Spain, in New Castile
situated on the river Guadiana, from which a well-known
39 4 N knigbtS take tbeir tit,e* Long- 20- W. Lat.
Knights of Calatrava, a military order in Spain, insti¬
tuted by Sancho III. king of Castile, upon the following
occasion. When that prince took the strong fort of Ca¬
latrava from the Moors of Andalusia, he gave it to the
Templars, who, wanting courage to defend it, returned it
to him again. Then Don Raymon, of the order of the Cis¬
tercians, accompanied with several persons of quality,
made an offer to defend the place, which the king there¬
upon delivered up to them, and instituted that order. It
increased so much under the reign of Alphonso, that the
knights desired they might have a grand master, which
was granted. Ferdinand and Isabella, with the consent
of Pope Innocent VIII., afterwards reunited the grand
mastership of Calatrava to the Spanish crown, so that the
kings of Spain became perpetual administrators of this
office.
The knights of Calatrava bear a cross gules, fleur-de-
lised with green. Their rule and habit were originally
those of the Cistercians.
C AL AURIA, in Ancient Geography, an island of Greece,
in the Saronic bay, over against the port of Troezen, at
5 G
786
CAL
Calayan the distance of forty stadia. Hither Demosthenes went
il twice into banishment, and here he died.
Calcedony. CALAYAN, a small island in the Pacific Ocean, and
the most northerly of those called the Babuyanes islands.
It is situated due north of the large island of Luzon, and
is about twenty-three miles in circumference. Long. 121.
30. E. Lat. 19. 28. N.
C ALATVOTURA, a city of Italy, in the intendancy of
Palermo, in the island of Sicily. It is situated in a valley
among the mountains, near the river Grande, and contains
about33200 inhabitants. The situation is somewhat un¬
healthy. . ,.
CALCAR, John de, a celebrated painter, was the dis¬
ciple of Titian, and perfected himself by studying Raphael.
Among various pieces, he drew a Nativity, representing
the angels around the infant Christy and so oideied the
disposition of his picture as to cause the light to proceed
from the child. He died at Naples in 1546, in the flower
of his age.
CALCAREOUS SPAR, or Crystallized Carbonate
or Lime, one of the most generally diversified substances
in the mineral kingdom, and certainly that which presents
the greatest variety of crystalline forms. The Abbe Haiiy
has drawn and described upwards of 500 of these; and
since his time not fewer than 800 other distinct modifica¬
tions have been determined, all of which, when fractured,
present as their primitive form an obtuse rhomb of 105°
5' and 74° 55'. The most prevalent colour of calcareous
spar is white, though it also presents numerous shades of
yellow, green, blue, and red, most of them pale. Its dark
brown and black colours are owing to the admixture of
bitumen. It is transparent or translucent, and has in the
clear specimens a very distinct double refraction. It has
a vitreous lustre, and perfect cleavage. The pure varie¬
ties consist, according to the analyses of Stromeyer, and
Philips, of
Lime 56-15 55-50
Carbonic acid 43-70 ...44-00 ;
but the coloured ones not unfrequently contain small por¬
tions of oxide of iron, silica, magnesia, alumina, carbon, and
bitumen. It effervesces violently with acids, and if pure
is entirely soluble in nitric acid. At an ordinary heat it
does not fuse, but gives off its carbonic acid, shines with
a peculiar brightness, and ultimately becomes quick-lime.
Among the most distinguished localities of calcareous spar
may be enumerated Andreasberg and other mining dis¬
tricts in the Llartz, where the varieties in six-sided prisms
have been found of great beauty ; Alston Moor in Cum¬
berland, which affords numerous flat rhombic crystals ; and
Derbyshire, whence the pyramidal forms, sometimes of
very large dimensions, are obtained. Under the head of
calcareous spar there are a number of sub-species, which
depend chiefly upon their mode of composition, and upon
admixtures and impurities, with which the individuals
have been affected at their formation. These will be
fully described among the minerals. •
CALCEARIUM, in antiquity, a donative or largess be¬
stowed on Roman soldiers for buying shoes. In monas¬
teries, calcearium denoted the daily service of cleaning the
shoes of the religious.
CALCEDONY. The distinction between this substance
and agate rests upon very arbitrary grounds. Agate fre¬
quently presents a variety of colours, and a multiplicity
of beautiful delineations. Calcedony is generally of one
uniform colour, of a light brown, and sometimes nearly
white. It occurs in irregular masses, forming grotesque
cavities in the trap rocks, particularly in Iceland and the
Faroe Isles, from the former of which there are specimens
in the Museum of Edinburgh of a very large size. These
stalactites appear always to have proceeded from the up-
C A L
per part of the cavity, which is sometimes filled up to the Calce%,
very summit with solid matter. From a close examination ''"■‘•‘yjl
of these specimens, we are led to believe that the material
must have been introduced into the cavity either in a
state of the most attenuated fluidity, or even in a gaseous
form. The structure can be traced down the sides of
the cavity, regularly surrounding every portion of the
stalactite, and passing across the horizontal plate which
uniformly forms the base of these cavities. A slight inter¬
mixture of opalewent matter, which renders the calcedony
more white and opaque, delineates this structure in the
most perfect manner, and is a common occurrence in
Faroe.
Calcedony is not confined to the trap rocks ; it occurs in
granite; and the most beautiful specimens known were
found in one of the mines of Cornwall, distinguished by
the name of Trevascus. It was, however, in one solitary
cell that these occurred. Although the mine has continued
to yield calcedony of the same character, nothing similar
to these magnificent specimens has been produced since.
They can scarcely be compared to any thing which they
resemble more than the anatomized wing of a large bat,
exhibiting the bones and arteries in the most perfect man¬
ner. One of these beautiful specimens, which was in the
possession of the late Mr Greville, is now in the British
Museum.
Calcedony is used for the construction of cups and plates,
and other articles of taste, of which the most splendid
specimens are imported into this country from India. Ihe
labour which has been bestowed in the manufacture of
these articles, and the perfection with which it has been
accomplished, is a matter of surprise to all who examine
them. There are some of them as thin and as delicate
as china. The finest stones are of course selected for this
purpose. They are generally clear and almost transparent,
still maintaining the warm brown colour which character¬
ises the stone. They often have the appearance of having
been hammered, so shaded and undulated is the aspect
of the mass; and to add to their beauty, the fine dendri¬
tic Mocha stones are often selected. We are in igno¬
rance even of the locality where these beautiful objects
are manfactured, whether in Japan or China; but to this
country they generally come from India, where, we believe,
they are found among the most precious jewels in the re¬
positories of the nabobs and princes of the East.
Calcedony in Europe is confined to labours on a much
smaller scale, such as knife-handles, and mortars for che¬
mical purposes; also for snuff-boxes, buttons, and other
minor objects. The principal manufactory is at Oberstein
in the Palatinate. _ . 'j
Calcedony is semitransparent; its texture is fine and
compact; the fracture is scaly, resembling that of wax;
it is less hard than rock crystal, but gives fire with steel. No
indications of regular form have ever been observed in this
substance; for we need not except the pale blue variety
from Tresztyan in Transylvania, which is decidedly a
pseudomorphic formation in the form of fluor spar. Calce¬
dony frequently assumes the forms of other minerals, as
well as of shells in many instances; but these may be con¬
sidered as accidents unconnected with the history of the
substance.
Connected with agate and calcedony, we may at once
enumerate the different varieties which are still main¬
tained by mineralogists. ,
1. Sardonyx (quartz, agate, sardoine of the hrencn;.
This variety is characterised by a rich orange colour.
2. Cornelian (cornaline of the French). The charac¬
teristic colour of this variety is a brilliant red.
3. Prase (the chrysoprase of the Germans). I his v
riety occurs at KosmUtz in Silesia. It sometimes pos
CAL
rent?8 a m0St br!Iliant sreen C0l0Ur’ and is nearIy ‘ranspa-
,*■ Pla™a> a semitransparent, and of a dark imiss-rcen
for engral”8 USed Tery mUCh by the a”cient* “S ^
5. Onyx (the band-agate of the Germans). This stone
cameosf UrBb'e COl°UrS’ iS USed ^ artist8 fo'' cSg
. Mineralogists have had the patience to split the aa-ate
^arte^nf other denominations,.biebL^S
GALGHAS, in fabulous history, a famous diviner, fol-
^ ?^re army t0iT[°y- He foretold that the siege
^d ii the non Ttthat the fleet’ Which was defin¬
ed in the poit of Aulis by contrary winds, would not sail
Afte^rrr S dfaTghtei had been sacrificed to Diana.
After the taking of froy he retired to Colophon, where
it ls said, he died of grief, because he could not divine
co^m-ed1 °ther °f 118 profession’ calIed Mopsus, had dis-
CALGINATO, a market-town of Italy, in the Austrian
delegation of Brescia with 3207 inhabitants.
LA1X-SINLR or Stalactitic Carbonate of Lime.
S™8 Tmillated’ 0r in lonS Pendulous masses or
tubes, commonly coating, or even entirely filling, the interior
of caves Though deposited from water loaded withTr-
cles of hme, and therefore in a constant state of forma¬
tion, these stalactites (which outside are commonly of a
yellowish-white colour, and present an infinity of different
shapes and sizes) invariably afford when broken the most
distinct cleavage. In this way the perfect rhomb, hav¬
ing the same angles as that of the calcareous spar, is
eaS,]y produced from any portion of them. The extensive
caverns of Adelsberg in Carniola derive their entire splen¬
dour fiom the thousands of these stalactiteswith which they
are naturally ornamented in the shape of festoons, curtains,
oil age, and whatever else a lively imagination may choose
to invent out of the variety of fanciful and extraordinary
oims they assume. These caverns constitute a labyrinth
of many miles within the porous limestone rocks of the vici-
nity, and as yet but a small portion of them has been ex-
p ored by man. 1 he cave of Macallister, commonly called
t e Spar Cave, on Loch Sunert in the Isle of Skyef is ano¬
ther of the same description, though much inferior in ex-
tent and beauty to that of Adelsberg. The oriental ala-
er, w ich is this same mineral in a massive state, was
lTmr»h nvirmr\ K-r, 4-1^^ • .n. 7
CAL
787
i .     »***x^ai in a iiici&sivt; sia
TA^dby the ancients for statuary purposes.
, G T T, or Calcareous Tufa, is the most impure,
the most irregular, and the most porous, of all the varieties
o imestone. It occurs in beds generally in the vicinity of
Jakes and rivers, also encrusting rocks, and enveloping ani¬
mal and vegetable remains in the proximity of calcareous
springs. Immense deposits of calc-tuff have taken place
erni, and on the banks of the river Anio near Tivoli;
where some very curious impressions, such as that of a
cart-wheel, trunks of trees, &c. are to be met with. The
celebrated Grecian temples of Paestum are formed of this
stone, and no doubt owe their existence, at the present pe-
no , to the circumstance of its becoming harder the longer
i is exposed to the air; for, as the quarries whence it has
een procured are in the immediate vicinity, and the stone
previous to being exposed is so much softer, modern Van-
aals have found it easier to go directly to the quarry for
w at they wanted, than attack the long weather-beaten
an now indurated Doric pillars of the temples. From its
property of hardening so much on exposure to the atmo-
sp ere and to wet, this rock makes a very useful building
s ne in the formation of bridges. Over the Danube at
m a very handsome bridge has lately been constructed
0 d, which, when brought from the neighbouring moun-
^mere“y'onf?hfaxTaUnd?the™“Si0nS With the aSs!“‘
raL /C1<!nt "f"16' , ComPutists "'ere by the lawyers called
“ ™ TS’ f‘en,. t'‘ey Were eitl“ir s]™s " newly fre?d
num^™ C0.ndi,i°n "ere named calculltores or
of dSet’mnb tT “r<i™r,ly one of these in each family
distinction. Ihe Roman judges ancientlv e-avp thmi
black0for^ CfCUl'’ ^hich Were white for absolution, and
w to dCe0no?r°ft,0n* alb"s’ ancient
writers, denotes a favourable vote, either in the case of a
persSn°a t0,be absolved and acquitted of a charge, or elected
signification”11 TK P°St ? a"d Ca!™lus nifJer had a contrary
from thp1 TR* T llS Ufge 18 said to have been borrowed
om the Thracians, who marked their happy or prosperous
Rys by white and their unhappy by black pebbles, which
were put each night into an urn. f u es> winch
also which w1dfiVersity of folour’there were some calculi
a so which had figures or characters engraven on them, as
hose which were in use in taking tlm suffrages both hi
the senate and in assemblies of the people. These calculi
were made of thin wood, polished and covered over wTth
c 1-,ir for?1 * \s stdl seen ln s°me medals of the Gas¬
an family; and the manner of casting them into the
urns is represented in the medals of the Licinian family.
Ihe letters marked upon these calculi were U. R. for idi
rogas, and A. for antiquo; the first of which expressed
an approbation of the law, the latter a rejection of it. Af¬
terwards the judges who sat in capital causes used calculi
markeil with the letter A. for absolve; C. for conekmno;
and-N. L. for non liquet, signifying that a more full informa¬
tion was required.
Calculus is also used by ancient writers for a kind of
weight equal to two grains of cicer. Some make it equi¬
valent to the siliqua, which is equal to three grains of
barley. I wo calculi composed the ceratium.
Calculus, in Mathematics, is a general name given
to various ways of investigating or establishing the truths
o that science by the aid of conventional symbols or cha¬
racters which represent the things treated of, also the ope¬
rations to be performed on them, and the relations in which
they stand to one another. Thus we have the common
Arithmetical Calculus, and the Algebraic Calculus. The
term is applied to a considerable number of distinct ma¬
thematical theories, the principal of which are these:
The Differential Calculus and the Integral Calcu¬
lus. The invention of these is claimed for Leibnitz. They
are identical with the Fluxionary Calculus, the invention
of Newton.
The Calculus of Partial Differences, which is a branch
of the Differential and Integral'Calculus.
The Calculus of Variations, another branch of the same
theory. Its principal object is to determine when mathe¬
matical quantities, subject to certain conditions, are the
greatest or least possible. This theory, first broached by
James and John Bernoulli, was perfected by Euler and La
Grange, who have discussed it in their writings. There is
a distinct treatise on this subject by the late Mr Wood-
house of Cambridge.
The Calculus of Exponentials, or Exponential Calculus.
This may include the doctrine of logarithms; but the name
is commonly applied to the method of finding the differen¬
tials or fluxions of exponential and logarithmic quantities.
John Bernoulli was the first who treated of this subject
as a distinct calculus. (Bernoulli Opera, tom. i. page 179.)
The Calculus of Functions, the same in effect with the
788
CAL
Calcutta. Differential or Fluxionary Calculus. La Grange gave this
name to his particular view of the subject. ( Theorie des
Fonctions Analytiques, also Lemons sur le Calcul des ronc-
tiom.) .
The Calculus of Finite Differences. This investigates
the properties of quantities by means of their differences ,
it is of great value in the summation of infinite series.
Brooke Taylor’s Methodus Incrementorum, Stirling’s Me¬
thods Differentialis, and Emerson’s Method of Increments,
also his Differential Method, all treat of this subject. There
are also various treatises in works on the Differential Cal¬
culus, as Lacroix, &c . .... ,
The Calculus of Derivations. This is applicable to the
doctrine of series, and is due to a continental mathema¬
tician, Arbogast, who has composed a treatise on the sub¬
ject. (Arbogast Du Calcul des Derivations^
The Calculus of Probabilities. This treats of every
thing connected with the Doctrine of Chances. 'I he most
valuable work on this subject is La Place s Theorie Ana-
lytique des Probabilites.
The Calculus of Sines. This branch of mathematical
science was embodied in a distinct form by Euler. See his
various writings, particularly his Analysis Infinitorum. CV e
have explained this calculus in our article Algebra.
There are some other mathematical theories which have
been distinguished each as a separate Calculus, as Lan-
den’s Residual Analysis, Glenie’s Antecedental Calculus
(Edin. Phil. Trans, vol. iv.), &c.
Calculus Minervce, among the ancient lawyers, denoted
the decision of a cause in regard to which the judges were
equally divided. The expression is taken from the history
of Orestes, represented by iEschylus and Euripides; at
whose trial before the Areopagites, for the murder of his
mother, the votes being equally divided for and against
him, Minerva interposed, and gave the casting vote or cal¬
culus in his behalf.
CALCUTTA, one of the largest and most splendid
cities of Asia, the modern capital of Hindustan, and the
seat of the supreme government of the British in India.
It is situated upon the river Hooghly, which forms the
western channel of the Ganges, and, though not the prin¬
cipal, is the only one of its numerous branches which is
navigable for large vessels. It stands on an almost per¬
fect level of alluvial and marshy ground, which a century
ago was covered with jungle and stagnant pools, and
which still almost everywhere betrays its unsoundness by
the cracks conspicuous in the best houses. I he town is
100 miles from the mouth of the river, the navigation of
which is difficult, and often dangerous, on account of its
numerous sand banks, many of which are continually shilt-
ing their situation. Vessels drawing more than seventeen
feet water cannot, except at spring-tides, ascend with
safety above Diamond Harbour, where the vessels of the
East India Company usually load and unload. This is
about sixty miles below Calcutta; and passengers are
conveyed to the city in smaller vessels or in boats. Ihe
country, from the mouth of the Hooghly to Diamond
Harbour, is dreary in the extreme ; the banks of the river
are high, and the adjacent land on each side, which is per¬
fectly flat, forms a complete wilderness of timber and brush¬
wood, the haunt of tigers, and of other beasts ol prey.
Advancing up the river, the scene gradually improves;
the country becomes more and more cultivated ; the ship¬
ping and the bustle on the river increase; and the beau¬
tiful country-seats on its banks announce the approach to
the capital. The city, with its numerous spires and other
public edifices, presents, at a distance, a striking appear¬
ance ; and, on landing, the magnificence of the buildings
commands the admiration of all strangers. The town and
suburbs extend along the left or eastern bank of the river
CAL
above six miles, but varying much in breadth at different Calcut
places. In the middle of it, and very near the landing '—v,,
place, is an immense square, each side of which extends
above a quarter of a mile; and the centre is occupied by
a large tank or open reservoir of water for the supply of
the town. This square, together with the adjacent build¬
ings and those towards the south, forms what is properly
termed the town of Calcutta, the residence of the Euro¬
pean inhabitants and of the natives of distinction. To the
south, along the bank of the river, lies the Black Town,
which is occupied entirely by the lower classes of inhabit¬
ants, and is rather considered as part of the suburbs ; and
about a quarter of a mile to the north stand bort-W illiam
and the barracks, which form on this side a great orna¬
ment to the city. The intermediate space, which is an
extensive open plain, is termed the esplanade. The cita¬
del of Fort-William, which was begun by Lord Clive in
1757, after the battle of Plassey, is the strongest and most
regular fortress in India; but the works are so extensive
that they would require at least 9000 or 10,000 men, with
600 pieces of cannon, to defend them. On the west of
the esplanade stands the government-house, built by the
Marquis Wellesley, which is the largest and most splen¬
did building in Calcutta. It is the residence of the go¬
vernor-general, where he holds levees, and transacts all
the government business; it also contains magnificent
apartments for public entertainments. Ihe other public
buildings are a town-house, with public rooms, which,
though handsome, are too confined for the climate and
for the number of the inhabitants ; a court of justice, the
hospital, and jail, which are situated on the esplanade;
two English churches, the one of which is a plain build¬
ing, but the other has an elegant appearance; a Scottish
church ; also churches for the Portuguese Catholics ; ano¬
ther for those of the Greek persuasion, an Arminian church,
many small Hindu pagodas, Mahommedan mosques, and a
Sikk temple. All these various religions here enjoy the
most perfect toleration.
The custom-house faces the river, and forms part of the
west side of the great square. It is built upon the site of
the old fort, which was taken in 1757 by Surajah Dowlah.
Near to it is the famous Black Hole, which is now con¬
verted into a warehouse; and before the gate stands the
monument which has been erected to commemorate the
unfortunate persons who perished there. It is surround¬
ed by an iron railing; but it has been struck with light¬
ning, and has since been allowed to go to decay. In front
of the custom-house is the quay, which has been of essen¬
tial service to the numerous shipping which there load and
unload. On the west side of the river, and in a beautiful
situation, stands the botanic garden, at a bend to which it
gives the name of Garden Reach. It contains a splendid
collection of plants from every quarter of the globe, and
is laid out with great taste, but more with a view to prac¬
tical utility than scientific arrangement. Above the gar¬
den there is an extensive plantation of teak. Horse-racing
having been discouraged by government, the course, which
was to the south of the town, is now converted into a ride;
but the practice still continues at Barrackpore, sixteen
miles up the river, where the fashionable society of Cal¬
cutta assemble to partake of the amusement. Ihe sout
side of the great square is occupied by the writers budd¬
ings, which make but an indifferent appearance. I hey
form the residence of this class of the Company s servan s
who are newly arrived from Europe, and who are studen s
at the college of Fort-William. The private houses m
Calcutta, in the central or genteel part of the town, are
built mostly after the European fashion, but module o
the nature of the climate and to the magnificence of east¬
ern manners. In a line with the government-house is a
Calcutta, range of elegant buildings, ornamented with lame veran-
dabs, and another, at right angles with it, called Chourin-
gee, formerly occupied by native huts. These houses are
built of brick, covered with a species of stucco called
chunam. They are all separated from each other, every
one having attached to it a considerable piece of inclosed
ground, in the middle of which it is situated. The ap¬
proach is by a flight of steps under a large portico. The
architecture is Grecian, and the profusion of columns
porticoes, and verandahs, gives them more the air of oa-
kces than of private houses. To this part of Calcutta the
Black Town, which extends along the river to the north
ot Ca cutta, forms a striking contrast. It is built after the
model of Indian towns, is very large, and swarming with
population. 1 he streets are exceedingly narrow, crook¬
ed, and dirty, and are all unpaved, with numerous ponds
reservoirs, and gardens, interspersed. A few of the streets
are paved with brick. The houses are built, some of brick
above two stories high ; but the great majority are built of
bamboos and mats, only one story high, and covered with
thatch ; all which different kinds of fabrics standing inter¬
mixed present a very uncouth appearance. The houses
being for the most part formed of such combustible ma¬
terials, fires are common, and have often proved very de¬
structive. \\ ithin these thirty or forty years, however,
this quarter of the town has been greatly improved both
in appearance and in the salubrity of the air; the streets
have been widened and properly drained, and the ponds
have been filled; a large surface of stagnant water has
been thereby removed, the exhalations from which were
piejudicial to health ; and the houses have been rendered
less combustible, by being tiled in place of thatched.
Though building materials are abundant in the neigh¬
bourhood of Calcutta, house-rent is not moderate. This
is owing partly to the high interest of money, and partly
constant repairs which are required, from the cast-
ing of the wood in this hot climate, and from the ravages
of insects, particularly the white ants. Though the wood¬
work of a house appear externally quite sound, it often
turns out upon examination to be completely excavated
or honeycombed by these insects, which assemble in in¬
credible numbers wherever they can find an entrance.
The houses here which are known under the name of
taverns are greatly inferior in respectability to those in
Europe. They are, with the exception of two or three
particular houses, resorted to only by the lowest company;
and strangers who are enticed into them are exposed to
every species of imposition, and frequently to total ruin.
A European, on his first landing, is surrounded by nume¬
rous dangers and inconveniences, which he finds it ex¬
tremely difficult to escape. These are so well described
in the HJust India Vade-Mecum, by Captain Thomas Wil¬
liamson, that we will extract the following passages for
the instruction of such of our countrymen as propose to
visit those distant regions.
“ The tavern-keeper, under the plausible pretext of
aiding towards the completion of the youth’s wishes, never
fails to inquire whether the gentleman has any friends in
town, or even in the country. If affirmatively answered,
1 mine host’ feels himself tolerably secure of his money;
but will probably assert that the friend in town is out of
the way, and will not be back for some days. Should the
gentleman be totally destitute of friends, then comes the
rich harvest. Imposition following imposition swell the
bill, which, if appearances warrant forbearance, is kept
back as long as possible, under the pleasing assurance of
perfect confidence ; but in the end a catalogue of items is
produced, which never fails to alarm, if not to ruin, the
unsuspecting victim !
“ Ifj unhappily, the guest should so far lower himself as
CALCUTTA.
89
inebriety, must follow, in all probability rend^lnt ’him
subject to the notice of the police. Should his face ever
hf in? thf .0fi\ce! lt would *>e next to impossible that he
should be admitted into any respectable circle. What with
lodgmg, dinners, wines, &c. of the worst description, but
jated at the highest prices, he must be a fortunate
wight who escapes under a gold mohur (i. e. two guineas’)
per day; in general double that sum is charged;8so that
a person starts at the rate of L.1000 per annum at least •
while, in all probability, no established or even apparent
provision exists whereby he may be maintained.
“ io state the evil without pointing out the remedv
would be next to useless; but when I suggest the means
of avoiding those difficulties, or any portion of them, at¬
tendant on arrival in a foreign land, it must be understood
that I consider the stranger to be possessed of pecuniary
means ; that is, that he can pay his way. Without this he
can do nothing, and must undergo all the afflictions and
miseries attendant upon despised poverty in every part of
the globe. It may be proper to point out in this place, that
w tat might here appear to be liberal calculations, would not
suit the East, where every article of European manufac¬
ture bears so enormous a price, where house-rent is so
expensive, and where it is indispensably necessary to
retain so many servants. The first thing to be done (set¬
ting a letter of recommendation out of the question) should
be to report arrival at the secretary’s office, depositing the
ceitificate of the court of directors’ license to proceed to
India; without which the party is considered as an alien,
and scarcely considered as entitled to British protection.
I his does not arise from ill will on the part of government
or of the inhabitants, but from that strict attention the
politics of the country imperiously demand to be paid to
the several characters and descriptions of persons residing
within our territory.
“ The above relates equally to all persons in the civil
or military branches; the certificate granted at the India
House must be produced, in order to identify the party;
but if it should have been lost, he himself, together with
the commander who received the order for taking him on
board, must attend; to make affidavit to that effect, before
the appointment can be admitted upon the registers in
India.
“ Such as appertain to the civil service, being always
strongly recommended, and often finding many old ac¬
quaintances of their families on the spot, require but little
advice ; nor does the cadet stand much in need of instruc¬
tion as to the manner in which he should provide himself
with a home. All he has to do is to wait upon the town-
major, at his office in Fort-William, when he will receive
the necessary order for his admission into the cadet corps
at Baraset, about sixteen miles from Calcutta.
“ He who has not these advantages must do the best
his circumstances may afford; he will find temperance to
be not only cheap, but indispensable; for if he should act
so indiscreetly at the outset as to injure his health, a
thousand privations and a certain increase of difficulties
must follow. The first point must necessarily be to get
under cover. This will not be found so easy as those who
have never quitted England may suppose. It will be
after much research that a small house will be had, and
then only the bare walls; for no such thing is known in
India as a furnished house to be let; and lodgings are, if
possible, still more out of the question. Fortunately there
are among the European shopkeepers in Calcutta some
most respectable characters,—men distinguished for their
urbanity, philanthropy, and generosity. Application should
be instantly made to one of these firms for aid and advice.
.
790
CALCUTTA.
Calcutta. The case should be candidly stated; and, in order to in-
sure confidence, a deposit of money should be made either
with them or at one of the banks. The consequences will
be, that in a few hours some small tenement will be ob¬
tained, either on hire or granted as a temporary accom¬
modation ; and the whole of the articles really necessary
will be provided at some one or other of the auctions
which daily take place \*ithin the central parts of the
town.”
Calcutta is the great emporium of the East. By means
of the Ganges and its tributary streams it has an uninter¬
rupted water communication with the whole of the north of
Hindustan. There are three artificial canals by which the
communication is maintained with the upper country with¬
out passing through the unhealthy and dangerous channel
of the Sunderbunds. But this channel has never yet been
kept permanently open. The discovery of steam navi¬
gation has proved of eminent utility on the Ganges.
Steam packets now proceed up the river with passengers,
and effect a voyage in three weeks that used to occupy
as many months. Government steam vessels, some of
them armed, also ply upon the river. Calcutta, being so
advantageously situated for commerce, trades extensively
with almost every country in the world, and numbers of
vessels of every form and description are constantly ar¬
riving in or departing from the river, which in the vicinity
of the town presents the busiest scene imaginable. Nu¬
merous dock-yards have also been established, in which
are built vessels of great burden and of admirable con¬
struction. Piece goods, shawls, indigo, silk, sugar, opium,
and rum, are the staple commodities of export. Treasure
is imported from all quarters. From London, the imports
consist principally of articles of consumption for the Euro¬
pean inhabitants, consisting of wine, porter, ale, confection¬
aries, and generally of all the finer manufactures.
In 1808 a bank was established at Calcutta, under the
name of the Calcutta Bank. Its capital amounts to fifty
lacs of rupees, of which ten were subscribed by govern¬
ment, and the remainder by individuals. There are be¬
sides three private banks, and it is estimated that the paper
circulation amounts to one crore of rupees, or one million
sterling. There are twelve insurance companies; and in
1825 there were published two daily newspapers, besides
the Government Gazette and the India Gazette twice a
week, and one weekly paper. There were two native week¬
ly newspapers in Persian, and two in Bengalese, to which
in 1826 another was added.
The institutions for education in Calcutta are numerous,
of which the principal are, the Madressa or Mahommedan
college, founded in 1780, for the instruction of the Mus¬
sulman youth in the Arabic and Persian languages, and in
Mahommedan law; the college of Fort William, begun in
1801, for instructing the public servants of the Company
in the native languages of the country, namely, the Hin-
dustanee, Bengalee, Persian, and Arabic, now a flou¬
rishing and well-regulated institution, in which, at the an¬
nual examinations, great proficiency is displayed by the
students; the Sanscrit College, for which a handsome
building has been erected, founded in 1821, for the in¬
struction of the natives in the Sanscrit language and Brah-
minical literature, and also in the English language and
literature; the Anglo-Indian College, established original¬
ly by respectable natives, chiefly for the instruction of
Hindu youths in the English language; Bishop’s College,
for the instruction of missionaries in the languages of the
Sast; and a Medical School for native doctors, established
at Calcutta in 1822. In 1823 a committee of public in¬
struction was formed, who are authorized to exercise a
superintendence over all government seminaries, and to
give an impulse, as well as a judicious direction, to efforts
made for diffusing instruction among the Hindus. There are
numerous missionary societies and institutions, with ex¬
tensive establishments for education,1 as well as various
other schools and institutions, religious and charitable. A
free school has been established, which Bishop Heber
terms a noble institution, at which between 200 and 300
boys and girls are boarded, besides day scholars. They
are taught according to Dr Bell’s system. Some few of
the scholars are Arminian Christians, and there are one
or two Hindus. There is also the Armenian Academy and
a grammar school for the instruction of the Indo-British
youth in classical literature. Under the patronage of a
society of European ladies, native schools were establish¬
ed in 1821, with female teachers. Formerly no instance
was ever known of an Indian female being instructed in
reading, wanting, or sewing. In 1826, 600 female Hindu
pupils were taught in the various schools of Calcutta;2 and
in the indigenous schools, which are taught by native mas¬
ters, and in which the parents of the boys pay for their
education, the number of pupils amounts to nearly 3000.3
There are two schools for the education and maintenance
of the children of Europeans in the military service of
the Company, one for the children of officers, and another
for those of the privates; and there are several literary
and scientific societies. The Asiatic Society still con¬
tinues its sittings, and publishes its Transactions, which
contain much interesting information concerning the his¬
tory, literature, languages, and antiquities of Asia. The
charitable institutions are numerous, namely, the Bethel
Union, the Seaman’s Friend Society, the Military Orphan
Society, the Military Widow’s Fund, Lord Clive’s Fund,
the King’s Military Fund, the Marine Pension Fund, the
Civil Fund, the Mariner’s and General Widow’s Fund, the
Presidency General Hospital, the Native Hospital, the
Hospital for Native Lunatics, the Government Establish¬
ment for Vaccination, the Charitable Fund for Distressed
Europeans, the European Female Orphan Society.
The supreme court consists of a chief justice and two
puisne judges, all nominated by the crown. Its jurisdic¬
tion extends to all British subjects in India, and to all
civil actions between natives, or between natives and Eu¬
ropeans. Criminal cases are tried in this court by a jury
consisting exclusively of British subjects, as also all cri¬
minal charges against the Company’s servants, and all civil
actions in which the Company or any of its servants are
concerned; but it takes no cognizance of the land reve¬
nues. The law practitioners attached to this court are
fourteen attorneys and six barristers.
The population of Calcutta, which is stated by some to
amount to 500,000, by others to 700,000, is composed of
persons from every quarter of the world. British and
other Europeans, Armenians, Persians, Chinese, Hindoos,
and Mahommedans, are all seen mixing in the streets of this
metropolis. The occupations of these various classes are
nearly what might be expected in the luxurious capital
of a great empire, and in so great an emporium of ma¬
ritime commerce. Public officers, lawyers, physicians,
merchants, and their families, make up the bulk of the
British inhabitants. The natives and foreigners of respec¬
tability are mostly engaged in trade, or living upon their
Calcut.
1 These are, the Calcutta Auxiliary Church Missionary Society, the Church Missionary Association, Diocesan Committee for the
Distribution of Docks and the Conversion of the Hindus, the Bengal Missionary Society, the Baptist Missionary Society, an Auxi¬
liary Bible Society, &c.
* See Heber’s Journey through the Upper Provinces of India. * Asiatic Anmial Register, vol. xix.
alcutta. property and the lower classes are principally composed
*~Y~*m* of retail-dealers, mechanics, and servants.
The most various estimates are given of the population
of Calcutta; and it is doubtful if there be any correct
census. In I7o2 the number of houses within ithe Com-
pny s bounds Ms estimated at 51,132, and the constant
inhabitants at 409,056. In 1802 the police magistrates
estimated the population at 600,000. In 1810 the chief
judge Sh Hemy Russel computed the population at be¬
tween 400,000 and 500,000 inhabitants. In 1819 the
School Society’s estimate amounted to 750,000; and in
1822 the following census was returned:
Christians  j3 jgg
Mahommedans  481 fil
Hindus 
Chinese 
CALCUTTA.
791
179 gig
From these different estimates it appeared to the magis¬
trates that the resident population might be estimated at
200,000, and those going and coming at 100,000; and
that the medium estimate of 300,000 would therefore be
not far from the truth.
The British merchants form a most respectable class of
men, and contribute essentially to the prosperity of the set-
tlement; many of them are possessed of large fortunes, and
live in a style of suitable splendour. The Armenians are
the most numerous body of foreign merchants in Calcutta.
They trade extensively to all parts of India and China,
are uncommonly diligent and attentive to business, and
are considered to have the most minute intelligence from
foreign ports of any other body of merchants. The na¬
tive bankers, agents, and money-dealers, are numerous.
4 hough formerly timorous, the Hindu now adventures in
almost every species of mercantile speculation ; and cloths
belonging to the native merchants, to the amount of
L. 1,000,000 sterling, are generally lying for sale in the
warehouses of Calcutta. Ihe native merchants of an in¬
ferior class engross nearly the whole of the retail trade of
Calcutta, under the titles of Banians, Sircars, and Writers ;
and they are generally described as fond of money to ex¬
cess, and most unprincipled in all their dealings.
Ihe English society in Calcutta is of the best descrip¬
tion, and numerous fetes are given during the cold season,
which lasts from September to April, on a splendid scale,
by the governor-general and other public functionaries, as
well as by individuals. There are public subscription as¬
semblies, besides select evening parties under the name
of conversaziones, enlivened by music, dancing, cards, and
other amusements. There is a theatre, supported by ama¬
teur performers; and public concerts are given, which are
also supported by amateur talent. The usual mode of
visiting is in palanquins. But many of the British have
carriages adapted to the climate ; and the breed of horses
having been greatly improved, it is the universal practice
to drive out between sunset and dinner; and as it becomes
dark, servants go out with torches and meet their masters,
and run before their carriages, though going at a rapid
rate, for a very long time. The British inhabitants of
India are distinguished by their hospitable dispositions,
and are most liberal to all who call on them for aid. It is
only during the cold season that it is possible to venture
abroad in the heat of the day, which, in the rest of the
year, is devoted to repose. The hot season begins in
April. Every day the heat increases until the middle of
June, when the periodical rains begin, which last till Au¬
gust. The weather then being extremely close, is more
oppressive and more unhealthy than before. The ther¬
mometer throughout the year generally ranges between
75° and 95°, but frequently rises to 100° and 110°.
winch was then a village, the houses of wl/ch were scat-
Stal'chTefltrT °f r °r tWe'Ve each'
labitants chiefly husbandmen; and in 1696, in conse¬
quence of the disturbed state of Bengal, they were allow¬
ed to raise works of defence. To the southward of Chand-
paul Ghaut extended a forest; and between Kidderpoor
and the forest were two villages, where now stand Fort
Wilham and the esplanade. In 1717 there was a small
nnw^"^ Vu agi’ SU,TTded ^ poddies of water, where
now stand the elegant houses at Chowringhee, and the
town extended to Chitpore Bridge; but the intervening
space consisted of ground covered with jungle. In 1752
a ditch was dug round a considerable part of the town, as
a barrier against the inroads of the Mahrattas. About this
time the town was garrisoned by three hundred Europeans,
who were frequently employed in conveying the Company’s
vessels from Patna, loaded with saltpetre, piece goods,
opium, and raw silk. The trade of Bengal alone supplied
rich cargoes for fifty or sixty ships annually, besides what
was carried on in small vessels to the adjacent countries.
It was this flourishing state of Calcutta which probably
mduced the nabob Surajah Dowlah to attack it in the
year 17o6. Having had the fort of Cossimbazar deliver¬
ed up to him, he marched against Calcutta with all his
forces, amounting to seventy thousand horse and foot,
with four hundred elephants, and invested the place on
the 15th of June. Previous to any hostilities, however,
he wiote a letter to Mr Drake, the governor, offering to
withdraw his troops, on condition that he would pay him
his duty on the trade for fifteen years past, defray the
expense of his army, and deliver up the black merchants
who were in the fort. This being refused, he attacked
one of tlie redoubts at the entrance of the town; but was
repulsed with great slaughter. On the 16th he attacked
another advanced post, but was likewise repulsed with
great loss. Isotwithstanding this disappointment, how¬
ever, the attempt was renewed on the 18th, when the
troops abandoned these posts and retreated into the fort;
on which the nabob’s troops entered the town, and plun¬
dered it for twenty-four hours. An order was then given
for attacking the fort; for which purpose a small breast¬
work was thrown up, and two twelve-pounders mounted
upon it, but without firing oftener than two or three times
an hour. The governor then called a council of war,
when the captain of the train informed them that there
was not ammunition in the fort to serve three days, in
consequence of which the principal ladies were sent on
board the ships lying before the fort. They were follow¬
ed by the governor, who declared himself a quaker, and
left the place to be defended by Mr Holwell, the second
in council. Besides the governor, four of the council,
eight gentlemen of the Company’s service, four officers,
and a hundred soldiers, with fifty-two free merchants, cap¬
tains of ships, and other gentlemen, escaped on board the
ships, where were also fifty-nine ladies, with thirty-three
of their children. The whole number left in the fort was
about two hundred and fifty effective men, with Mr Hol¬
well, four captains, five lieutenants, six ensigns, and five
serjeants; as also fourteen sea-captains, and twenty-nine
gentlemen of the factory. Mr Holwell then having held
a council of war, divided three chests of treasure among
the discontented soldiers, making them large promises
also, if they behaved with courage and fidelity; after
which he boldly stood on the defence of the place, not¬
withstanding the immense force which opposed him. The
attack was very vigorous; the enemy having got posses¬
sion of the houses, galled the English from thence, and
drove them from the bastions; but they themselves were
H
792
CAL
Caldarium several times dislodged by the fire from the fort, which
II killed an incredible number, with the loss of only five
Calderon. English soldiers the first day. The attack, however, was
continued till the afternoon of the 20th, when many of
the garrison being killed and wounded, and their ammu¬
nition almost exhausted, a flag of truce was hung out. Mr
Holwell intended to avail himself of this opportunity to
make his escape on board the ships, but they had fallen
several miles down from the fort, without leaving even a
single boat to facilitate the escape of those who remained.
In the mean time, however, the back gate was betrayed by
the Dutch guard ; and the enemy, entering the fort, killed
all they first met, and took the rest prisoners.
The fort was taken before six in the evening; and, in
an hour after, Mr Holwell had three audiences of the na¬
bob, the last being in the durbar or council. In all these
the governor had the most positive assurances that no
harm should happen to any of the prisoners. As soon as
it was dark they were collected, to the number of a hun¬
dred and forty-six; and the guard, by pressing on them
with presented muskets, and by clubs and simitars, forced
them into the Black Hole prison, a dungeon about eigh¬
teen feet square, in which, out of a hundred and forty-six,
only twenty-three persons came out alive in the morning,
and most of them in a high putrid fever.
The injuries which Calcutta suffered at this time, how¬
ever, were soon repaired. The place was retaken by Ad¬
miral Watson and Colonel Clive early in 1737; Surajah
Dowlah was defeated, deposed, and put to death ; and
Meer Jaffier, who succeeded him in the nabobship, engag¬
ed to pay an immense sum for the indemnification of the
inhabitants. Since that time the immense acquisition of
territory by the British in this part of the world, and the
constant state of security enjoyed by this city, have raised
it to its present prosperity and splendour. Fort William
stands in long. 88. 28. E. lat. 22. 33. N. (f.)
CALDARIUM, in the ancient baths, denoted a brazen
vessel or cistern, placed in the hypocaustum, full of hot
water, to be drawn thence into the piscina or bath, to give
it the necessary degree of heat. In this sense the calda¬
rium stands contradistinguished from the tepedarium and
frigidarium.
Caldarium also denoted the stove or sudatory, being
a close vaulted room, in which, by hot dry fumes, without
water, people were brought to a profuse sweat. In this
sense caldarium was the same with what was otherwise
denominated vaporarium, sudatorium, and laconium ; and
in the Greek baths, hypocaustum, vvexavSTM.
CALDERINUS, Domitius, a learned critic, born at
Calderia, near Verona. He read lectures upon polite lite¬
rature at Rome with great reputation, and was the first
who ventured to write upon the most difficult of the an*
cient poets. He died very young in 1477.
CALDERON DE LA BARCA, Don Pedro, a cele¬
brated Spanish dramatic author, was born in 1600. Flav-
ing early completed his studies, he attached himself to
some patrons about court; but being soon disgusted with
this state of dependence he enlisted as a common soldier,
and made several campaigns in Italy and the Low Coun¬
tries. During this time, however, he cultivated a taste
for dramatic poetry; and Philip IV., who was a passionate
admirer of the drama, hearing people speak highly of the
talents of our author, and thinking that he might confer
eclat on the court theatre, invited Calderon to Madrid in
1636, made him a knight of the order of St Jago, sup¬
plied the expense of the representation of his pieces, and
consulted him as to the arrangement of all public festivals
and solemnities. It is also said that, during the minority
of Louis XIV. Calderon visited Paris, and composed verses
in praise of Anne of Austria. In 1652, he devoted him-
C A L
self to the church, and became a canon at Toledo. From
this period till that of his death, which happened in 1687,
he abandoned dramatic composition, except on sacred sub- 11
jects. His works are very numerous, exceeding, we be¬
lieve, fifteen hundred. No nation, in fact, can boast of so
prolific writers as Spain. Lopez de Vega, for instance, is
said to have composed two thousand comedias ; a fertility
which would be less surprising if the pieces themselves
were of an inferior order, or destitute of merit; but, though
deformed by the most extraordinary faults, they are at the
same time enlivened by brilliant coruscations of genius
and fancy. It must, however, be admitted that Virvez,
and particularly Lopez and Calderon, had begun, even in
the age of Cervantes, to corrupt the Spanish drama. Be¬
fore their time, the productions of Castillejo and of Juan
de la Cueva were more regular, though less forcible, spi¬
rited, and interesting; but after their appearance, the
unities were totally disregarded, and dramatic writers as¬
sumed a degree of license which was pushed to the utmost
height of extravagance. Cervantes opposed himself stre¬
nuously to this innovation, but in vain. Lopez and Cal¬
deron were as well acquainted with the established rules
as Cervantes himself; but they knewr only to despise them.
The judicious author of the Bihliotheque Espagnol places
Calderon on a footing of equality with Lopez de Vega, and
says that this was the general opinion among their con¬
temporaries. But Linguet in his Theatre Espagnol hesi¬
tates not to place Calderon in the first rank; whilst Em¬
manuel de Guerra says that Calderon imitated no one
(a ninguno imito'), and drew from his own imagination alone.
This is indeed evident; for his delineations are deficient in
truth, and his characters are altogether fantastical. The
pieces of Calderon, like those of the Spanish theatre gene¬
rally, are divided into three days or acts, and the scene is
often changed. His comedies almost always exhibit vice
triumphant; and it cannot with any truth be said of him,
castigat ridendo mores. The gracioso or buffoon is, for the
most part, one of his principal characters; and sometimes,
as in Heraclius, a couple of these personages are introdu¬
ced. The piece of Calderon entitled No ai hurlas con el
Amor appears to have suggested to Moliere the idea of
his Femmes Savantes; while the one entitled Nunca la
peor es cierto has been grossly disfigured by Scarron in his
comedy of La Fausse Apparence. Lastly, the infamous
Collot d’FIerbois caused to be represented, with a certain
degree of success, in 1777, on one of the provincial thea¬
tres of France, and again in 1789, in the Theatre Fran^ais
at Paris, the Paysan Magistral, imitated from the piece
of Calderon entitled Alcalde de Zcdamea. Besides his
plays, Calderon composed a considerable number of Autos
Sacramentales, or sacred pieces, analogous to those which
are elsewhere denominated Mysteries, Acts of the Saints,
and Moralities. Calderon is not relished in France, and
but little known in this country. In Germany, however,
he enjoys a great reputation. M. Schlegel has translated
some of his best pieces; while his Constant Prince, and
Life is a Dream, have been repeatedly represented with
success on the boards at Weimar. The former of these
pieces is generally considered as the master-piece of Cal¬
deron. The works of this author were reprinted at Ma¬
drid in 1726 and 1760, in ten volumes 4to; and a collec¬
tion of his Autos Sacramentales appeared at Madrid in 1759,
in six volumes 4to. His manuscript Letters are preserved
among the archives of the house of Calderon.
CALDERWOOD, David, an industrious historian of
the church of Scotland, and a strenuous defender of its
discipline, was born in the year 1575. He was educated
in the university of Edinburgh, where he took the degree
of A. M. in the year 159/jT; and having been early destin¬
ed for the ehurch, he devoted much attention to the re-
Calde
wooc.
M CALDERVYOOD
alder, quisite studies, and acquired a lame fund of i • , ,
,00t, 1 earning. Soon after the commencement of ^ and g00cls of his subjects at pleasure withnnf f
^ century, he became minister of CmS noon T CeT qf the common ^ ^
and he speedily began to take a very conspicuou^mr?^’ • P^d a vi«it to Scotland in the year 1617 D
1 ^ ^clesiastical proceedings of that period. ^ m ^ ^ Sltting the parliament, which assembled on the
The king, who seems to have considered prelacy as a Till CC11"?’ he cler^ held several meetings in the
convenient instrument of arhitmrv . ' 1C^ as a -tjltt'e Church, one or more of tlio Kioi, u • S I.n tae
anxious to assimilate the church of ScotlandWtaoSthXtr?melf pr?sent- Calderwood, whose zeal was never dnIC,
ofEngland. Having succeeded in ^dt^tTct Cr at’0 ^ ^ ^ tole“
oflns solicitude^to enla^lS^U1 SSl' 27 ^ t0 Enl'ish^ntcSi™ t'to.e^ed
of the bishops ; and regarding the end as highly desi aWe nerll s,lou,111 not be acknowledged as a ge-
he was not extremely scrupulous as to the means. Ms anv^ve« °'' m7 0the,r meetin« e‘lu!''al«it to it, ®or
schemes were however opposed by many of the ,1,,; , ; y‘x answerable to the English convocation-house
and were not relished by the great bodyVf the neonhf: t ifh 6 “nve<i”ed in ^ of their parhaments'1
nor was any individual more resolute o/more consistent reoreti*' n° T"*”5, ™Probable tbat such an innovation was
m his opposition than Calderwood, who spent the best to the feC° T1 ? Their chief consultations related
years of his life in contending for purity of doctrine ^ j 1 j the t.emporal emoluments of the clergy, and he attemnt
simplicity of discipline. In the year fe08 when if t0 ?lreCt, their attention to ruatters^f greater impo? '
bishop of Orkney, made his appearance in the clpachy of “ngto whal heT ,°f S,ti|>ends’ evide,,tl3' ab“i:
visitor of the presbytery of .Jedburgh, Calderwood, together from foreinn rerem Ce'Ved ? tle ‘lan*tT of the church
with George Johnston, minister of Ancram, took a Formal ha? no altera? ^ observances- He was assured
protes against h.s authority, and drew up a decllna ?■" bWions hid t "“i ‘0 be a!,Prebended, and that the
divided into various heads. Dr Abernethv min Iter !f bi P s'yen .sucb a P'om.se. Of their fidelity in
Jedburgh professed at first to support them in theil ote hlle'hfd llffi Pr0“,ses’/aid tbe inflexible presbyter! we
position ,■ but his zeal having very speedily abated I,,. 1/ sudlcle.nt P10°fs i°r the last sixteen years ; and
appointed perpetual moderatoro^hepibytery a„dL wherhePr°Ce-e?ng t0 on s™e kindred toplls,
due time became bishop of Caithness.P CaldSnd Id te n interrupted by Dr Whitford and Dr Hamil-
Johnston had been elected members of the general assem “ r.evert<il1 t0 tbe more interesting subject of sti-
bly; but in order to exclude them from fids ' | Imdmg that they were not disposed to listen to
ecclesiastical courts, the visitor ordered them to be “ put oTh^md^0^’ 16 tl?e ™eetlng with this expression
to the horn” the very same night. The registration of silks and 1 a 11 18 absurd to see men sitting in
the writ in the sheriff’s books was with mJw dlffinnU ® k.S..an.d sattins, and to cry povertie in the kirk, when
prevented; but in consequence of Rishrm f ’ d b ^ puiltle is departing. The two archbishops, on beino- jn-
tion, the king directTe privv COuncd tn7 *-fT*' f Wiiat had taken place’ attended the meeting next
in an exemplary manner. By the intercession'of the caH dfclar.ed that no innovations were in-
of Lothian with the chancellor and tli i r u31 tended: but this declaration was so much at variance with
their punishment was restricted ton?onfinement0withinlhe d^erfli faCtS> T clergy fel “^,1
limits of their respective parishes 1 • g ot 5 and a considerable number of them hav-
nadyeco^int^fthebendft ofa’court of Hurl^Co1’0^' ? ',U IvfoftKb^
fh^TS t,,T£lEngliSh mSLg^bf ft tmefoTllf^^ StS/lt
dignit^and peace^offhenchiirclilnbvnndbrmi maint^m .*16 a“ba-ibed in a separate paper, which was delivered io
and correcting the ecclesiastical state and nprlm °U C1]‘n^ J'J111 ctS a vouclier to be used according to circumstances,
manner of enors, heresies Ichisms ah^f nff anC a11 He Fesented a copy to the clerk register, who refused to
tempts, and enormidef but ff d K °T ^ T parIiament 5 aad having been summoned before
mmmnnlxr ^ l V ' b.ut lt: ^ admitted by a writer who the High Commission, he declined to produce the sio-m
under th j shdte? d^spotlsm w,th a ver7 gentle hand, that tures, and was committed as a prisoner to the castle of
were foLd in that and thl%wnnr eXPressi0.n8’ “ means Edinburgh- Thif paper he had entrusted to the master of
in the hhxh n" • • 6 tW° succeeding reigns, to vest the music-school, Patrick Henryson, who delivered it to
and a,m0St d- Calderwood- The minister of Crailing was therefoie
ed much hevonfdfiIhngdand lmpris.onin| ’ wh!ch they exert- cited to appear at St Andrews on the eighth of July, and
ouentlv ™ ^ ffd tbe degree of the offence itself, and fre- there to exhibit the roll of names, and “to answer fbr his
This courtewafpX!Cefb{h0 meanS °^spiritual cognizance.”2 mutinous and seditious assistance to the said assembly.”
but in 1 fii n t ted by y,rtue oF an act of parliament; Hewat and Simson were summoned at the same time, and
under tho 1 soyere]gn authority, issued they all made their appearance ; but their examination was
W a ,Jirat S.eal of Scotland a commission for erect- deferred till the twelfth, in order that it might take place
Andrews n 1 raiifc m Gach t.he two archbishoprics of St in his majesty’s presence. James conducted himself in
CalrlerwL?! Glasgow. It is very justly observed by his usual manner, but the stern and undaunted Calderwood
• . a’ w 10 dld not entirely escape the fangs of this was not to be overawed by any earthly authority which he
new instrument of not-spr-m;™ *w « fu;. ^ ^ i- A . • e
793
npw in f °d’ Wh° f-ld not entl.rely escape the fangs of this was not to be overawed by any earthly authority which he
nut tl nS rUmGnt pcrsecution, that “ this commission conceived to be unjustly exercised. The king having at
hunf 1? flng m po.ssess‘on oF ^iat which he had long time length whispered in the primate’s ear, “ his majesty,” he
e tor; to wit, of absolute power to use the bodies stated, “saith that if ye will not be content to besuspend-
‘ Calderwood’s Hist, of the Church of Scotland, p. 578, 509.
sition Stt<)neS C“1pmentaries,on the Laws of England, vol. iii. p. 68—“ What is this,” says Calderwood, “but the Spanish inqui-
mascus ]) •{</j6 UP t llS t^rone’ Satan shall set up papistry, or any other religion whatsoever, in short processe of time.” (Altar of Da-
3 Calderwood’s Hist. p. 610.
VOL. V. c
on
Calder¬
wood.
794 C A L D E R W O O D.
Calder- ed spiritually, ye shall be suspended corporally.” Undis- the nullity of the assembly itself, and the unlawfulness of Caldt
wood. mayed by this declaration, he replied, “ Sir, my bodie is its five articles, relating to kneeling at the communion, woo.
 ' in your maiesty’s hands to do with it as it pleaseth your the observance of festivals, confirmation, private baptism,
majesty; but as long as my bodie is free, I will teach, and private communion. They who hazarded the peace
notwithstanding of their sentence.” Spotswood describes of the church and kingdom by such innovations as these,
him as “ carryin0, himself unreverently, and breaking forth had not sufficiently icflected on all the consequences
into speeches not becoming a subject j”1 nor is it difficult which ensued; nor are we disposed to blame the faithful
to conceive that the archbishop of St Andrews and the presbyters for their very strenuous opposition to some of
minister of Grading may have formed a very different the articles of Perth. Kneeling at the communion, foi
estimate of the speeches which became a subject placed example, may in itself be a very harmless ceremony: but
in such circumstances. tllis was not tlie position of tho apostles when our Saviour
Hewat, adhering to the protestation, was deprived, and instituted the sacred rite; and such a position was con-
confined in the town of Dundee; but as he had obtained sidered by many of our ancestors as too much connected
a grant of the temporalities of Crossragwell abbey, he was with the adoration of the host, and the doctrine of tran-
not left without a provision. Simson, who had aggravated substantiation. Some of the episcopalians still, indulge in
the original offence by writing a letter in which he dispa- certain obsolete speculations as to the eucharist being a
raged the English bishops, likewise received sentence of feast upon a sacrifice.2 A sacrifice requires a priest, a
deprivation, and was for several months detained in pri- priest can only be ordained by a bishop; and without a
son ; but on making his submission, he was at length re- bishop, a priest, and an altar of sacrifice, they suppose
instated. A similar sentence was pronounced on Calder- that no church can stand on a secure foundation. But
wood, who was committed to prison at St Andrews, and the character and destiny of churches are not to be de-
was afterwards removed to Edinburgh. The privy coun- cided by earthly judges; and we leave them in the quiet
cil, which long exercised an undefined and despotic juris- possession of their mystical reveries, which nevertheless
diction, ordained him to be banished from the kingdom we cannot help suspecting of a very intimate connexion
for refusing to acknowledge the sentence of the High Com- with the spirit of popery.
mission; and the whole proceedings in this case exhibit a While Calderwood was still lurking in Scotland, an at-
curious example of the arbitrary and iniquitous admini- tempt was made to apprehend him at Edinburgh in the
stration of that period. On giving security to banish him- house of James Cathkin, a bookseller; but the officers
self from the kingdom before the ensuing Michaelmas, neither found him nor any copies of his obnoxious publi-
and not to return without the royal license, he was re- cation relative to the Perth Assembly. Cathkin had visit-
leased from prison. He accompanied Lord Cranstoun to ed London in the prosecution of his business ; and being
Carlisle, where that nobleman presented to the king a pe- immediately taken into custody, he underwent two exami-
tition in his favour ; but although the suit appears to have nations, one of them in presence of his majesty, who was
been very zealously urged, it was followed by no benefi- moved with violent indignation.3 His alleged offence was
cial result. The king inveighed against Calderwood, and that of being concerned in printing or publishing the book,
at last repelled the noble baron with his elbow. The ap- and receiving the author into his house. In reference to
plication was however renewed after1 an interval of two the people of Edinburgh, whom he had not found suffi-
hours: his lordship entreated him to permit the petitioner ciently submissive to the royal will, James uttered the
to remain in Scotland till the last day of April, on account following paternal wish : “ The Devill ryve ther, soules
of the danger of a winter voyage, and in order to receive and bodies all in collops, and cast them in hell! Ihe
his stipend for the current year; but his majesty was worthy bookseller, who conducted himself with manly
graciously pleased to declare, that it was no matter if he firmness, was released from prison after having been de-
begged his bread, and “ as for the season of the year, if tained for eight days. Calderwood was in the mean time
he drowned in the seas, he might thank God that he hath concealed at Cranstoun, in a secret apartment allotted to
escaped a worse death a princely answer, and full of him by Lady Cranstoun, who rendered him many services.
Christian comfort! The subsequent application of Lord He afterwards removed from one place to another, till the
Cranstoun to the privy council, and to the bishops, was 27th of August 1619, when he embarked at Newhaven,
attended with no better success; and if they had been and sailed for Holland, “ with his purse well filled by the
more inclined to lenient measures, the unbending spirit of wives of Edinburgh.”4 * 6 W here he chiefly resided in that
Calderwood, who would neither make an unqualified con- country, we are not informed; but Bishop Guthry states,
fession of his supposed errors of conduct, nor promise “ in the time of his exile he had seen the wild follies of
strict obedience to the new regulations in the church, left the English Brownists in Arnheim and Amsterdam,
very little room to hope for the remission of his sentence. His exile may have been attended with some advantages.
He continued for a considerable time to linger in his by enabling him to extend his acquaintance with men of
native country; and during this interval he began the learning, and to collect books in his own department of
publication of his anonymous works in support of the pres- study. His controversial ardour was still unabated: ilu-
byterian cause. In the year 1618 he printed a Latin ring his residence in Holland he published various works,
tract on the polity of the church of Scotland. The gene- and, among the rest, his Altar of Damascus. At one pe-
ral assembly, which met at Perth on the 25th of August, riod, his enemies supposed him to be dead ; and he has
gave a new impulse to his mind ; and in 1619 he produced recorded a very extraordinary attempt to impose upon the
an English work, in which he undertook to demonstrate world a recantation fabricated in his name.0 “ Patrick
1 Spotswood’s Hist, of the Church of Scotland, p. 534. e
2 See Bishop Jolly’s Christian Sacrifice in the Eucharist. Aberdeen, 1831, 12mo. See likewise Dr Geddes’s Modest Apology tor
the Roman Catholics of Great Britain, p. 164. Lond. 1800, 8vo.
3 Of his examination Cathkin has given a curious account, printed in the Bannatyne Miscellany, vol. i. p- 100. Edinb. 1827, 4to.
■* Calderwood’s Hist. p. 750. He imputes this expression to the archbishop of St Andrews.
s Memoirs of Henry Guthry, late Bishop of Dunkeld, p. 78. edit. Glasg. 1748, 12mo. e r
6 Calderwoods Recantation : or, a tripartite Discourse, directed to svch of the Ministerie, and others in Scotland, that refuse (_on-
formitie to the Ordinances of the Church; wherein the Causes and had Effects of such Separation, the legal! Proceedings against t ie
refractarie, and Nullitie of their Cause, are softly launced, and they louingly inuited to the Yniformitie'of the Chvrch. Lorn.
1622, 4to.
kte- Scot, a.landed gentleman beside Falkland, having wasted
TL/ ^s patnmome, had no other meane to recover hfs estate
but by some unlawful shift at court. He set forth a re’
caatat,on under the name of a banished minister, Si
David Calderwood, who, because of his long sickness be¬
fore, was supposed by many to have been dead. The
king, as he alledged himself to some of his friends, furnish¬
ed him the matter, and he set the matter down in forme
CTm -e Went 0Ver t0 Holland, and sought
the said Mr David m sundrie townes, specially in Am-
steidame, in the moneth of November. It appeareth his
purpose was to dispatch the said Mr David. After he
had stayed at Amsterdame 20 dayes, and made diligent
inquine, he was informed that the said Mr David was re¬
turned home privatly to his own native countrey. How
he cusened a distressed Englishman after his returning, I
£fSeMy; f pft7rhe death King Jame^ he set out d
pamphlet full of lies, entituled Vox vera, but as true as
Human s Vera Historia. Notwithstanding of all his god¬
less and unlavvful shifts, he died soon after so poore that
he had not wherwith to bear the charges of his burial ■
but it behoved the bishop of Koss, being then present
where he departed, to bear the charges, for the good ser¬
vice he had done to the king and the bishops.”1
Fiom the date of this narrative, Calderwood appears to
have returned to Scotland in the year 1624. He was still
round to be the most redoubtable champion of presbytery •
and after the abolition of episcopacy, he was appointed
minister of Pencaitland, in the county of Haddington, but
the date of this appointment has not been ascertained.
.e rollowing statement proceeds from an episcopalian
writer: “ David Calderwood, a man of great reading and
study, but very unhappy in his way of expressing himself,
both which appeared in his Altars Damascenum. He was
at first very factious, and banished the kingdom by King
James, yet was afterwards much neglected by that violent
party, who judged him too moderate, though, from his
book, none would imagine him guilty of it.”2 Baillie, in
relating the proceedings of the general assembly in 1641,
lemarks, “ it was regretted by the moderator that Mr
David Catherwood, who deserved so well of our church,
was so long neglected. He was recommended to the first
commodious room. Likely he shall not be in haste pro¬
vided. I he man is sixty-six years old; his utterance is
unpleasant; his carriage about the meetings of this assem-
bly and before, has made him less considerable to divers
of his former benefactors.”3 Though not a member, he
had repeatedly spoken with too much pertinacity. Hen¬
derson the moderator treated him with great forbearance,
but at length the commissioner commanded him to be si¬
lent. In 1643 the assembly appointed Henderson, Cal¬
derwood, and Dickson, to prepare a directory for public
worship. During the remainder of his life, he continued
to take an active part in the affairs of the church; and as
firmness may be nearly allied to obstinacy, he appears to
have maintained his own opinions with habitual keenness.
It was he that introduced the practice, which is now con¬
firmed by long usage, of dissenting from the decision of
the assembly, and requiring the protest to be entered in
the record. In 1649, an act having been introduced re¬
specting the election of ministers, he proposed that the
CALDERWOOD.
795
right of electing should be vested in the presbytery leav Calder
ng to the people the power of declaring their dissent wood
upon reasons of which it should be competent for the pres! W-
bytery to judge; but this suggestion was not adopted -^and
according to Baillie’s statement, “ Calderwood entered a
veiy shaip protestation against our act, which he required
to be registered. This is the first protestation we heard
in oiu time; and had it come from any other, it had
not escaped censure.”4 ^ ’ 1
nf H,! dirte,d y PT l? tI,e preparation of a history
of the church of Scotland. In 1648 the general assembly
urged him complete the design, and voted Um a yeaZ
pension of eight hundred pounds.5 He left behind him
an historical work of great extent, and of great value, not
indeed as a masterly composition, but as a storehouse of
,m7ten S for hist01> laborious author has
ncoiporated many original documents which are not other-
vvise preserved, and has recorded an immense multiplicity
of facts, which illustrate the civil as well as the ecclesias¬
tical annals of the period to which his work relates. An
abridgment, which appears to have been prepared by him¬
self was published after his death; but it is much to be
regretted that his great work still remains in manuscript.
Froposals for printing it were issued many years ago, but
the plan did not meet with adequate encouragement; and
unless a similar plan should be adopted by the Bannatyne
Uub, we despair of seeing it carried into execution. The
authors manuscript, which lately belonged to General
Calderwood Durham, has been presented to the British
Museum. A copy, transcribed under the inspection of
YVodrow, is among the archives of the church ; another
belongs to the library of the university of Glasgow; and,
as Dr M‘Cne has stated, “ in the Advocates Library, be¬
sides a complete copy of that work, there is a folio volume
of it, reaching to the end of the year 1572. It was writ¬
ten in 1634, and has a number of interlineations and mar¬
ginal alterations, differing from the other copies, which, if
not made by the author’s own hand, were most probably
done under his eye.”7 J
Calderwood died at Jedburgh on the 29th of October
1650,8 at the age of seventy-five. He appears to have
been a man of unbending integrity, fearless in maintaining
his opinions, and uniformly consistent in his professions;
but as human virtues are never perfect, his decision of
character had some tendency to deviate into that obstinacy
of humour from which good men are not always exempt¬
ed. With his honesty and piety he united no small por¬
tion of acuteness and learning. He was conversant with
the fathers, schoolmen, and canonists, as well as the more
recent theologians ; and the shrewdness of his understand¬
ing enabled him to apply his learning with due effect.
His works are numerous; and as they were almost all
published without the author’s name, it is not easy to form
a complete and accurate catalogue. The place of print¬
ing is omitted in all the original editions, but several, if
not most of them, appear to have been printed in Holland.
The following is a list of publications which we believe
may be safely ascribed to Calderwood.
1. De Regimine Ecclesiae' Scoticanas brevis Relatio.
1618, 8vo.—To this tract an answer was published by
Archbishop Spotswood, under the title of “ Refutatio Li-
Calderwood’s Hist, of the Church of Scotland, p. 802.
2 Middleton's Appendix to Spotswood’s Hist, of the Church of Scotland, p. 20.
3 ilaillie’s Letters and Journals, vol. i. p. 311.
4 Baillie, vol. ii. p. 340. * Baillie, vol. ii. p. 307.
c See Dr M‘Crie’s Appendix to the Memoirs of Veitch and Brysson, p. 495, 501.
/ _ M'Crie’s Life of Knox, vol. i. p. vi—Some of his papers are preserved among Wodrow’s MSS. in the Advocates Library. Two
original letters from John Paget to Calderwood occur in M. 6. 9. No. 107-8.
8 Bannatyne Miscellany, vol. i. p. 205. Baillie, in a passage already quoted, mentions that Calderwood was sixty-six years old
in 1641.
796
CALDERWOOD.
Calder-
wood.
belli de Regimine Ecclesiae Scoticanae.” Lend. 1620, 8vo.
Calderwood replied in the Vindic'ue subjoined to his Altare
Damascenum.
2. A Solvtion of Doctor Resolvtvs his Resolutions for
Kneeling. 1619, 4to.—This is an answer to a book writ¬
ten by David Lindsay, D.D. who became bishop of Bre¬
chin, and afterwards of Edinburgh: “ The Reasons of a
Pastors Resolution, touching the reuerend Receiuing of
the holy Commvnion.” Lond. 1619, 8vo.
3. Perth Assembly, &c. 1619, 4to.—This publication
et adjecta Epistola Hieronymi Philadelphi de Regimine
Ecclesiae Scoticanae; ejusque Yindiciae contra Calumnias
Johannis Spotsuodi, Fani Andreae Pseudoarchiepiscopi, '
per anonymum. 1623, 4to. Lugd. Bat. 1708, 4to.—The
application of the title may be learned from 2 Kings, xvi.
10. The work itself, which is an enlargement of his Eng¬
lish Altar of Damascus, contains a most formidable attack
on the polity of the church of England; and, as Mr Peirce
remarks, “ the patrons of episcopacy have never yet an¬
swer’d it, how much soever their cause requires it.” 1 A
was’followed by “ A true Narration of all the Passages of late writer, by some unaccountable inadvertency, has sta¬
tic Proceedings in the Generali Assembly of the Church ted that “ this book is a refutation of Linwood’s Descnp-
of Scotland holden at Perth the 25 of August anno Bom. tion of the Policy of the Church of England.” William
1618 • wherein is set downe the copy of his Maiesties Let- Lyndewode, an eminent canonist who became bishop of
ters to the said Assembly; together with a iust Defence of St David’s, could certainly write no book about the pro-
the Articles therein concluded, against a seditious Pamph- testant church of England, inasmuch as he died in 1446,
let. By Dr Lyndesay, Bishop of Brechen.” Lond. 1621, 4to.
4. A Defence of our Arguments against Kneeling in the
act of Receiving the sacramentall Elements of Bread and
W ine, impugned by Mr Michelsone. 1620, 8vo. 1638,
8vo.—This is an answer to a book entitled, “ The Lawfvlnes
of Kneeling in the act of Receiuing the Sacrament of the
Lordes Supper. Written by M. lohn Michaelson, Preacher
of Gods W ord at Bvrnt-Yland.” Sainct Andrewes, 1620,
8vo. In his preface, Calderwood remarks of his antago¬
nist, “ he hath given so notable proofe of profound know¬
ledge in divinitie, and subtilitie in handling this contro-
versie in this worthie work of his, that the bishop ol St
Andros (a man as voyd of learning as of good manners)
hath made him a doctor.” This is not a very decent man¬
ner of treating Spotswood, who was neither destitute of
talents nor of learning.
5. A Dialogve betwixt Cosmophilus and Theophilus
anent the urging of new Ceremonies upon the Kirke of
Scotland. 1620, 8vo.
6. The Speach of the Kirk of Scotland to her beloved
Children. 1620, 8vo.
7. Quaeres concerning the State of the Chvrch of Scot¬
land. 1621, 8vo. 1638, 8vo.
8. The Altar of Damascus; or the Patera of the Eng¬
lish Hierarchie and Church-Policie obtruded upon the
Church of Scotland. 1621, 8vo.
9. The Course of Conformitie, as it hath proceeded, is
concluded, should be refused. 1622, 4to.
10. A Reply to Dr Mortons generall Defence of the
three nocent Ceremonies, &c. 1622, 4to.
11. A Reply to Dr Mortons particular Defence of the
three nocent Ceremonies, &c. 1623,4to.—Dr Morton, who
was successively bishop of Chester, Lichfield, and Durham,
had published “ A Defence of the Innocencie of the three
Ceremonies of the Chvrch of England ; viz. the Surplice,
Crosse after Baptisme, and Kneeling at the Receiuing of
the blessed Sacrament.” Lond. 1619, 4to. This is the se¬
cond impression.
12. Altare Damascenum ; seu Politia Ecclesise Angli¬
can® obtrusa Ecclesise Scotican®, a formalista quodam de-
Calder
wood.
nearly a century before the reformation. He is the com¬
piler of a well-known work, entitled Provinciale, seu Con-
stitutiones Anglice, to which Calderwood frequently refers,
among many other juridical and theological authorities.
One of the books which he undertakes to refute bears the
title of “ Par®nesis ad Scotos, Genevensis Disciplin® Ze-
lotas, autore Dan. Tileno Silesio.” Lond. 1620, 8vo. An¬
other able refutation was written by Sir James Semple:
“ Scot! row rvyovroc, Paraclesis contra Danielis Tileni Silesii
Par®nesin ad Scotos, Genevensis Disciplin® Zelotas, con-
scriptam: cujus prima pars est, de Episcopali Ecclesi®
Regimine.” Anno 1622, 4to.
13. An Exhortation of the particular Kirks of Christ in
Scotland to their sister Kirk in Edinburgh. 1624, 8vo.
14. An Epistle of a Christian Brother, exhorting an
other to keepe himselfe vndefiled from the present Cor¬
ruptions brought in to the Ministration of the Lords Sup¬
per. 1624, 8vo.
15. A Dispvte vpon Commvnicating at ovr confused
Communions. 1624, 8vo.
16. The Pastor and the Prelate; or Reformation ana
Conformitie shortly compared by the Word of God, by
Antiquity and the Proceedings of the ancient Kirk, &c.
1628, 4to.
17. A Re-examination of the five Articles enacted at
Perth anno 1618; to wit, concerning the Communicants
Gesture in the act of Receaving, the Observation of Fes¬
tival! Dayes, episcopall Confirmation or Bishopping, the
Administration of Baptisme and the Supper ol the Lord
in privat Places. 1636, 4to.
18. The Re-examination of two of the Articles abridged;
to wit, of the Communicants Gesture in the act of Re¬
ceaving, Eating, and Drinking; and the Observation o
Festivall Dayes. 1636, 8vo. ,
19. An Answere to M. I. Forbes of Corse his I eace-
able Warning. 1638, 4to.—This is an answer to a tract
written by Dr Forbes, professor of divinity in Kings Co -
lege, Aberdeen: “ A peaceable Warning to the Subjects
in Scotland; given in the yeare of God 1638. Aberdene,
4to.
lineata, illustrata et examinata studio et opera Edwardi 20. The true History of the Church of Scotland, from
Didoclavii. Cui locis suis inserta Confutatio Par®neseos the beginning of the Reformation, unto the end ol tie
Tileni ad Scotos, Genevensis, ut ait, Disciplin® Zelotas : Rekrne of King James VI. &c. 1678, fol. (x^
1 Peirce’s Vindication of the Dissenters, p. 176, second edit. Lond. 1718, 8vo.
END OF VOLUME FIFTH.
Printed and Stereotyped by Thomas Allak, Jun. & Co.
XII.
Calmer-
w«>od.
*0^1-***
C ALP K
1 «;•*>, i‘ Th» is an an r to a book » nt-
•;>( Li,i, !>.D. wh< -« ^ ? isbep «rf Bre-
'
e Narration oi’ all tb< Passages of
, . . f ujrall Assembly ot the Church
i} ih the 83 of August emtio Dim.
iq|. id -mu th<-copy of his Masestics Let-
u' . t •!. -ud embly; t* her with a iuat, Deli ace of
. jjj } , i reiu conclude'!, dust a seditious vot '!»•
., ,, Bishop »•! Brechon.' Land. 1621« 4tCK
4 ,v , iTgumentt against Kaeeliae :rihe
Mr Midieltaiee. 8. x ibW,
' . f ft. i book entitled, ' 1 he ar.''' ses
, Written by M. lain> Mi h..: -ai. Preacher
:: r,Yn '• A.a.u t Andrewes, 1620,
, it-- Caicerwood remarks of his antago-
,» j » notable p*oofeof profound know-
, . - fj.- , , ixini subtilitie ia handling this contro-
i sic work of Uta, that the bis nop ot St
m-au as voyd of learning as oi’ good manners)
t him a doc'tor." I'his i» not a very decent man-
ih Spotswoi d. * in was neither destitute ;
a ) - ms of learning.
i . ,.;;ve betv, r ; - o^hilus a»d Theophilus
■. ths urging oi - t,,antes upon the h*: ke oi
v. »1620, 8v-
Q.yrrt^ meci' ; e th State M the Cbvrch of Scot-
.f. ,* Ch inh-Policie obtruded upon the
y. The Coarse of Conferraitie, as it hath proceeded, is
i tMclU'ied, should bt • ptsed. 162 -, sco.
10. A Reply to Dr roes generall D< -a c of the
three nocent Ceremonies, Ac. 1622, Wo.
11. A H ply to Dr Vh-rte < f u- • ular Defence df t<ie
m in .i . - 1 , A<n»;on(who
'
Svicraiiiv.nl. Lond, : Ao • f'-'- h tsie se-
•e Dams'scennm; ' • • Lcclesue Angli-
c; mi olnrusa Ecclcu-.ise S< m -cn- - n msta quodam de->
Unti H tilu-trata et exan nK ■ et opei;i, Edwartfi
Didodav Cui lor ; su. nstatio 1 uk . escos
""ih; n ad S’oios, G ' . .ec.r «. • Aisctphna: /dotas:
l WOOD.  
et adjecta Epistola Hieronymi Philad^ph' f |
f. sue Seotieanae; ejusjjhe Vindicise com-? -
Johanoi> Spotsuodi, laid A^dre® Psetu- i- #-
per ion’/mu i. I<i23, fto. liiigm Mat. Pi
application of the t.tffc' may be learned fron
•
lish Aifrr of Damascus, contains a most li ¬
on Tic polity of the church of England;
remarks, • the patrons of episcopacy ha
swer’d it, how much soever their cause r. q
late writer, by some unaccountable mauve 1
ted that “ this book is a refutation >f I.inwoot
tion of the Policy of the Church of England.”
Lyndewode, an eminent canonist who heeam
St David’s, could certainly write no book i
U stant church of England, inasmuch as a vO i
- : rly a century before the refom-ation. 1 i
piler of a well-known work, entitled P/or,;.
kitutioncs Anglia, to which Calderwood ♦>.. ;
among many other juridical and theologii .
One of the booki wh;ch he undertakes to reftr -
title of “ Parsenesis r Scotos, Genevensi- ; l-
lotas, autore Dan. TUeno Silesio. Lend. 102
other able refutation was written by Sir J
“ Seoti roy ru^ovroi Paraclesis contra Danielis Tin
Parmnesin ad Scotos, Genevensis Discipline >
seriptant: cujus prima pars est, de Episcopi
Regimine. Ann/) 1622, 4to.
J k Att Exhortation of the particular Kirk -
Scotland to their sister Kirk in Edinburgh. 1
14. An Epistle of a Christian Brother, e - -
other to keepe himselfe vndefiled from the
ruptions brought in to the Ministration of tl *
• m . 162 Sv . JgPF
15. A Dispvte vpon Commvnicatiog at Wt ud
Communions. 1624. 8vo.
10. The Pastor : ;a
Confermitie shortly compared by the Word of < v
Antiquity and the Proceedings of the ancient h 1
} ,. A Re-cxamination of the five Articles t
Perth <mm 1618; to wit, concerning tire Con-
Gesture in the act of Receaving, the Otu er -
tivall Daves, episcopall Confirmation or Bishu;
A dm ustration of Baptisme and the Supper
a privat Places. 1636, 4to.
18. The Re-examination of two of the Articu
to wit, of the Communicants Gesture in tlx
ceaving. Eating, and Drinking; and the O
EestivaU Dayes. 1636, 8vo.
19. An Answere to M. I. Forbes of Cok¬
able Warning. 1638, 4t0.—This is an an
written by Dr Forbes, professor of divinity 2 >' :
lege, Aberdeen: “ A peaceable Warning to
in Scotland; given in the yeart of God If . m
4to.
20. The true History of the- Church o.
the beginning of the Reformation, unto i
Reigne of King James v% &c. 16«8, fob
i j v . of it; Di.- ’ t, p. 176, second edit. Lond. 1718, 8vo.
I rME FIFTH.
.* • -vmityped Fv l’*<- <*-,
/
f/l 1 H ?
TW*
XIII.
f
Edin T
BOTANY.
PLATE CXIII.
64
Eng d by G. A. Ucm an, Edin r.
by Q.AikmasL. Edin.r
£ng‘l by G-ALkmasi.Edin.r
143
14#
144
147
1&4
VLATE CXV1.
B O T A X Y.
botany
PLATE (AM
%
Viola hederacea.
 ——     
 I 5
V/.V.
Enxj * by GJUtbniUL, EJ,< H
-
B O TAN Y.
PI.ATK (XIX.
BOTANY.
Fig. 6
En 4* by G.A ikmaiv, Edin.r
PLATE (XX.
rut
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3
Fig .10
Fig.11.
Fig.l.
# \
PLATE CXXT
B OTAN Y.
Fifl. I.
Anacardium Occidentale.
f Cashew Nut Tree.)
Eru; ^ by GAikman, Edin r
Fig.1?
Andro meda
Fig.3.
B O TA NY.
PLATE fXV/l
Carica Papaya.
(Pap aw i'ree-J
Etig f- by G. Aikman, Edin.
B OTA NY.
PLATE CXX\r.
arp u s incis a
Bmul Nu*')
/>//. 7-
Fig ■ (i
B OT AN Y.
PLATE VTSn.
riq.3
riq
Fig. 1.
Fig. 6.
brass
PLATE r.lAT//
~ BREAKWATER.—•  
A F%A^r of CiMUfRM OtnRG with the Mwm: A.JKfWATEM. and the Wiew' W)m:iK WAm/m
I
.
PLATE I'XXVM—,
I ^
i
ip»'-
-fjijmy
,(1r<viUS
^ ^ Tupinami
ayy---^
*QCvdr.,
JL.Parcrfptfl'
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiht
GO ^,3°° 50 Longitude West 4o from (irc*cnwich 4 0
PLATE (WXVIIl
BR E AKWATER
Skctio.v & Sverx Views of stone vessels .
Fifl. 1. Fig . 2.
 ip AS ?p Feet
breakwater.
’* ''.YMQI'TK SOT 11.
:n; . • .
>'ly mouth
tiL‘ Lines
OXI til
+ ,4 'S’ "J .
'tirtxC
V ft At
. . ...vs SJirTiosr or do SMisus n Paut of th, ».**: w trrs
” ■' V i . '!.r 7Sr>' •»
PLATE CXXIX
BREAKWATER.
Plymouth
Dock
OUtll
' Ores ton
(Quarries
Jfoicnt
Edgcczunbe
S'tsuidon Point
3ov is and
Bay
Kuigsajui
S*. Carlos
Rocks
CawsaruC*
An dam Point
TR.ixsvT.RSE Sec nox of the Fixished Part of the breaewaxer
■ • . •' .
IS E v\ I X (
rxr.
B R E w I x c;.
PLATE (X.w .
Fig. 3.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 4.
Malt rollers
Eng^hy G.JliEm/iTL.EdznX
-——>— 1
i' It li W I \ <;.
' s fc i n jf fc 11 g' j u e.
ST A CJXXI.
PLATE CJXXI
ng-me
\ j
111
lii
•a-n kvJ.Faf
.. Edin 1
PLA CH i XXX n
' 5
r
BRIDGE .
-I
PLATE CXXXII.
Fig . 6.
Fig. 7.
bridge Proposed byMess*.* Telford & Douglass .
Enalbr &Aihruui.Edin!
PLATE ('XXX111
so 100 200 Feet
2
H
9 l6** l-.n^'fby C.iiMi/uiL.f.'diu1.'
elevation of the dea.v bridge, Edinburgh
PLAT*: CJTAXV
177.
Etuj . by G. AiTcrnatL
i.E&mT'
B r IL D I N G.
PLATE CXXXVI.
PLATE CXXXVI1
H
d,-n
l'.ngJ by G ALkmaii.Kdin!'.
I! r I M) I N
PLATE (XXXY1H.
Fin. 20.
Fu,.21.
r Loorirtif
h)</. 20.
B l I L I) [ X (,.
/'/,/. 2/.
PLATE CXXXYIil.
Eng^ by G.Aiiman.Eiimr
PLATE CXXXIX.
t
PLATE (XXXIX
BUILDING.
Fig. 29.
•E-delt
Eng* Jy &. Aikman,F,dirir
building.
Insitit' elevation of a H'ijulon'.
PLATE CXL
Seel ion o fan.
In/ier door.
Eng* iy G.AikniJin.,EcLMI
Fig. 5.
B
A
Enp^by G.Aikrruui Ed in?.
BURNING GLASS
PLATE CXL11.
tiff ■ 6
tiff
Eng'! by O.AUnruLn.EduL^
tiff .4.